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The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 


VOLUME    TWELVE 
Philip— Revalidation 


THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN    INTERNATIONAL    WORK    OF    REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,     DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC    CHURCH 


EDITED    BY 

CHARLES   G.  HERBERMANN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

EDWARD    A.  PACE,  Ph.D.,  D.D.         CONDE    B.  FALLEN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

THOMAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN    J.  WYNNE,  S.J. 

ASSISTED   BY   NUMEROUS   COLLABORATORS 


IN    FIFTEEN    VOLUMES 
VOLUME    XII 


ROBERT  APPLETON  COMPANY 


Nihil  Obstat,  October  1,  1911 
EEMY   LAFORT 

CENSOR 


Imprimatur 


^JOHN  M.   FARLEY 

AECHBISHOP  OP  NEW  YORK 


Copyright,  1911 
By  ROBERT   APPLETON  COMPANY 

The  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  tor  The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  by  copyright.     All  rights,  includ- 
ing the  right  of  translation  and  reproduction,  are  reserved. 


Contributors  to  the  Twelfth  Volume 


AIKEN,  CHARLES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  op 
Apologetics,  Catholic  University  of  Amer- 
ica, Washington:    Religion. 

AIME  DE  MARIE,  SISTER,  Monastery  op  the 
Precious  Blood,  St.  Hyacinthe,  Canada: 
Precious  Blood,  Sisters  Adorers  of  the. 

IlDASY,  ANTAL,  Ph.D.,  Archivist  of  the 
Library  op  the  N.\tional  Museum,  Buda- 
pest: Pray,  George. 

ALMOXD,  JOSEPH  CUTHBERT,  O.S.B.,  Supe- 
rior OP  Parker's  Hall,  Oxford  :  Ramsey  Abbey ; 
Reading  Abbey. 

ALSTON,  G.  CYPRIAN,  O.S.B.,  London:  Re- 
sponsorium. 

AMADO,  RAMON  RUIZ,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  Ph.L., 
College  of  St.  Ignatius,  Sarria,  Barcelona: 
Plasencia,  Diocese  of. 

ANTONIA,  SISTER  M.,  St.  Clare's  Convent, 
Hartwell,  Ohio:  Poor  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters 
of  the. 

ARBOLEDA,  MANUEL  ANTONIO,  CM.,  Arch- 
bishop OP  PoPAYAN,  Republic  op  Colombia: 
Popaydn,  Archdiocese  of. 

ARENDZEN,  J.  P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  M.A.  (Cantab.), 
Professor  of  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Ed- 
mund's College,  Ware,  England:  Pneuma- 
tomachi. 

AVELING,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  London:  Quality; 
Quantity;    Rationalism. 

BACCHUS,  FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  The  Ora- 
tory, Birmingham,  England:  Pionius,  Saint; 
Polycarp,  Saint;  Possidius,  Saint;  Proclus, 
Saint;  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  Tiro;  Rabbulas, 
Bishop  of  Edessa. 

BARNES,  Mge.  ARTHUR  STAPYLTON,  M.A. 
(OxoN  and  Cantab.),  Cambridge,  England: 
Pilate,  Pontius. 

BARRETT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Buckie,  Scotland: 
Pluscarden  Priory. 

BARRO,  FERMIN  FRAGA,  Pinar  del  Rio, 
Cuba:    Pinar  del  Rio,  Diocese  of. 

BARRY,  WILLIAM  CANON,  S.T.D.,  Leaming- 
ton, England:  Poetry,  Hebrew,  of  the  Old 
Testament;  Pusey  and  Puseyism;  Renaissance, 
The. 

BAUMGARTEN,  Mgr.  PAUL  MARIA,  J.U.D., 
S.T.D.,  Rome:    Pontifical  Colleges. 

BECHTEL,  FLORENTINE,  S.J.,  Professor  op 
Hebrew  and  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Louis 
University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri:  Pillar  of 
Cloud;    Plagues  of  Egypt. 


BECK,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Professor  op  Pastoral 
Theology,  Superior  Collegii  Theologici 
Salesiani,  University  of  Fribourg:  Poor, 
Care  of,  by  the  Church. 

BENIGNI,  Mgr.  UMBERTO,  Prothonotary 
Apostolic  Partecipante,  Professor  of  Ec- 
clesiastical History,  Pontificia  Accademia 
DEI  Nobili  Ecclesiastici,  Rome:  Piacenza, 
Diocese  of;  Piatto  Cardinalizio;  Piazza  Armer- 
ina.  Diocese  of;  Piocolomini,  Alessandro;  Pic- 
colomini-Ammannati,  Jacopo;  Pignatelli,  Giu- 
seppe Maria,  Venerable;  Pinerolo,  Diocese  of; 
Pisa,  Archdiocese  of;  Pistoia  and  Prato,  Diocese 
of;  Pius  X,  Pope;  Poggio  Mirteto,  Diocese  of; 
Policastro,  Diocese  of;  Pomponazzi,  Pietro; 
Pontremoli,  Diocese  of;  Porto  and  Santa  Rufina, 
Diocese  of;  Possevinus,  Antonius;  Pozzuoli, 
Diocese  of;  Propaganda,  Sacred  Congregation 
of;  Ravenna,  Archdiocese  of;  Racanti  and 
Loreto,  Diocese  of;  Reggio  dell'  Emilia,  Diocese 
of;    Reggio  di  Calabria,  Archdiocese  of. 

BERTRIN,  GEORGE,  Litt.D.,  Fellow  op  the 
University,  Professor  of  French  Litera- 
ture, Institut  Catholique,  Paris:  Rabelais, 
Frangois. 

BEWERUNGE,  H.,  Professor  of  Church  Music, 
Maynooth  College,  Dublin:   Plain  Chant. 

BIHL,  MICHAEL,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Ecclesias- 
tical History,  Collegio  San  Bonaventura, 
QuARACCHi,  Florence:  Philip  of  Jesus,  Saint; 
Portiuncula. 

BIRKNER,    FERDINAND,    Ph.D.,    Curator   of 

THE      PrE-HiSTORIC      ANTHROPOLOGIC      COLLEC- 
TION OP  Munich:  Race,  Human. 

BLUME,  CLEMENS,  S.J.,  Munich:  Prose  or 
Sequence. 

BOUDINHON,  AUGUSTE-MARIE,  S.T.D.,  D.C.L., 
Director,  "Canoniste  Contemporain",  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law,  Institut  Catho- 
lique, Paris:  Pothier,  Robert  Joseph;  Pre- 
caria;  Presentation,  Right  of;  Priest;  Primate; 
Privilege;  Protocol;  Provincial  Council;  Re- 
demptions, Penitential. 

BRANN,  HENRY  A.,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  Pise, 
Charles  Constantine. 

BRANTS,  VICTOR,  J.U.D.,  Member  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Belgium,  Louvain:  Ram, 
Pierre  Frangois  Xavier  de. 

BRAUN,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  St.  Ignatius  College, 
Valkenburg,  Holland:   Rationale. 

BRfiHIER,  EMILE,  Litt.D.,  Rennes,  France: 
Philo  Judeeus. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO   THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


BRfiHIER,  LOUIS-RENE,  Peofessor  of  Ancient 
AND  Medieval  History,  University  of  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, Puy-de-D6me,  France:  Polo, 
Marco;  Raymond  IV,  of  Saint  Gilles;  Ray- 
mond VI  and  VII,  Counts  of  Toulouse. 

BROWN,  CHARLES  FRANCIS  WEMYSS, 
LocHTON  Castle,  Perthshire,  Scotland: 
Piacenza,  University  of. 

BRUCKER,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Editor  of  "Etudes", 
Paris:  Premare,  Joseph  Henri  Marie  de; 
Protectorate  of  Missions;   Regis,  Jean-Baptiste. 

BURTON,  EDWIN,  S.T.D.,  F.  R.  Hist.  Soc,  Vice- 
President,  St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware, 
England:  Phillip,  Robert;  Pilgrimage  of  Grace; 
Pitts,  John;  Plantagenet,  Henry  Beaufort; 
Plegmund,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  Plowden, 
Edmund;  Plymouth  Brethren;  PuUen,  Robert; 
Puritans;  Quin,  Michael  Joseph;  Rathborne, 
Joseph;  Recusants,  English;   Repington,  Philip. 

BUTSCH,  JOSEPH  S.,  S.J.,  Rector,  St.  Joseph's 

Seminary,     Baltimore,     Maryland:      Race, 

Negro. 
CABOR,    A.,    C.S.Sp.,    Superior    of    the    Petit 

S:fiMiNAiRE-CoLLi;GE,    Port-au-Prince,    Haiti: 

Port-au-Prince,  Archdiocese  of. 

CABROL,  FERNAND,  O.S.B.,  Abbot  of  St. 
Michael's,  Farnborough,  England:  Prime; 
Proprium. 

CALES,  JEAN,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Old  Testa- 
ment Exegesis,  Enqhien,  Belgium  :  Prophecy, 
Prophet,  and  Prophetess. 

CANDIDE,  FATHER,  O.M.Cap.,  Vicar  and 
Professor  of  Theology,  College  of  the  Ca- 
puchin Fathers,  Ottawa,  Canada:  Preacher, 
Apostolic. 

CANEVIN,    J.    F.    REGIS,    S.T.D.,    Bishop    of 

Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania:   Pittsburg,  Diocese 

of. 
CARDAUNS,  HERMANN,  Bonn:  Reichensberger, 

August  and  Peter. 
CATHREIN,  VICTOR,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Moral 

Philosophy,  St.  Ignatius  College,  Valken- 

BURG,  Holland:    Property. 

CERULLI,  VIXCEXZO,  Director  of  the  Col- 
lurania  Astronomical  Observatory,  Teramo, 
Italy:  Respighi,  Lorenzo. 

CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  O.S.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Prior 
OF  St.  Thomas's  Abbey,  Erdington,  Bir- 
mingham, England:   Photinus;   Praxeas. 

CLEARY,  GREGORY,  O.F.M.,  J.C.D.,  J.Civ.D., 
S.T.L.,  sometime  Professor  of  Canon  and 
Moral  Theology,  St.  Isidore's  College, 
Rome:  Ponce,  John;  Pontius,  Carbonell;  Porter, 
Francis. 

COLLARD,  CHARLES,  LL.D.,  Private  Cham- 
berlain TO  His  Holiness  Pope  Pius  X, 
Louvain:  Prisons. 


COYLE,  MO  IRA  K.,  New  York:  Porto  Alegre, 
Archdiocese  of. 

CRIVELLI,  CAMILLUS,  S.J.,  Instituto  Cien- 
tIfico  de  San  Jose,  Guadalajara,  Mexico: 
Pizarro,  Francisco;    Quer^taro,  Diocese  of. 

DEBUCHY,  PAUL,  S.J.,  LiTT.L.,  Enghien,  Bel- 
gium: Retreats. 

DEDIEU,  JOSEPH,  Litt.D.,  Institut  Catho- 
LiQUE,  Toulouse:  Prades,  Jean-Martin  de; 
Remigius,  Saint;  Remiremont;  Remuzat,  Anne- 
Madeleine,  Venerable;    Remy,  Abbey  of  Saint. 

DE  LACY,  WILLIAM  HENRY,  Judge  of  the 
Juvenile  Court,  Associate  Professor  op 
Common  Law,  Catholic  University  of  Amer- 
ica, Washington:    Protectories. 

DELAMARRE,  LOUIS  N.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in 
French,  College  of  the  City  op  New  York: 
Raynouard,  Frangois-Juste-Marie. 

DELANY,  FRANCIS  X.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  Col- 
lege, Maryland:   Raccolta. 

DELANY,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  Prescrip- 
tion; Presumption;  Pride;  Prudence;  Rela- 
tionship; Relatives,  Duties  of;  Religion,  Virtue 
of;    Reputation. 

DE    SALES,    BROTHER,    B.A.,    Presentation 

College,  Kingstown,  Ireland:    Presentation 

Brothers. 
DEVINE,  ARTHUR,  C.P.,  St.  Paul's  Retreat, 

Mount    Argus,    Dublin:     Presence    of    God; 

Prophecy;    Quiet,  Prayer  of;    Recollection. 

DEVITT,  E.  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Psychology, 
Georgetown  University,  Washington:  Plow- 
den, Charles;  Plowden,  Robert;  Plowden, 
Thomas  (alias  Salisbury);  Plowden,  Thomas 
Percy. 

DE  WULF,  MAURICE,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  J.U.D., 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  University  of 
Louvain:  Philosophy. 

DOWLING,  AUSTIN,  Providence,  Rhode  Is- 
land:   Providence,  Diocese  of. 

DRISCOLL,  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  New  Rochelle, 
New  York:  Philistines;  Phylacteries;  Promise, 
Divine,  in  Scripture;  Proselyte;  Publican; 
Rachel;  Raphael  the  Archangel;  Rechab  and 
the  Rechabites;    Refuge,  Cities  of. 

DRUM,  WALTER,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Hebrew 
AND  Sacred  Scripture,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Pineda,  John  de;  Prado,  Jerome 
de;    Psalms. 

DUHEM,  PIERRE,  Professor  op  Theoretical 
Physics,  University  op  Bordeaux:  Physics, 
History  of;    Pierre  de  Maricourt. 

DWYER,  WILLIAM  J.,  New  York:  Randall, 
James  Ryder. 

ENGELHARDT,  ZEPHYRIN,  O.F.M.,  Santa 
Barbara,  California:  Quevedo,  Juan  de. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


EWING,  JOHN  GILLESPIE,  M.A.,  New  York: 
Pugh,   George  Ellis;    Pulaski,   Casimir. 

FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Professor 
OP  Church  History  and  Canon  Law,  St. 
Louis  LTniversity,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
Pichler,  Vitus;  Plenary  Council;  Postulation; 
Prselatus  NuUius;  Precept,  Canonical;  Pre- 
sumption (in  Canon  Law);  Prisons,  Ecclesias- 
tical; Promotor  Fidei;  Property,  Ecclesiastical, 
in  the  United  States;  Renunciation;  Reserved 
Cases. 

FAY,  SIGOURNEY  W.,  B.A.,  Washington:  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America. 

FINEGAN,  PHILIP  M.,  S.J.,  College  op  the 
Atenbo,  Manila:  Philippine  Islands. 

FORD,  JEREMIAH  D.  M.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  THE  French  and  Spanish  Lan- 
guages, Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts:  Pindemonte,  Ippolito;  Porta, 
Carlo;   Pulci,  Luigi;   Redi,  Francesco. 

FORGET,  JACQUES,  Professor  of  Dogmatic 
Theology  and  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  Lan- 
guages, University  of  Louvain:  Precipiano, 
Humbert-Guillaume  de;  Quesnel,  Pasquier; 
Quesnellism;    Ravesteyn,   Josse. 

FORTESCUE,  ADRIAN,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Letch- 
worth,  Hertfordshire,  England:  Photius 
of  Constantinople;  Postcommunion;  Preface; 
Protopope;  Psellus,  Michael. 

FOURNET,  PIERRE  AUGUSTE,  S.S.,  M.A., 
Montreal:    Picquet,  Frangois. 

FOX,  WILLIAM,  B.Sc,  M.E.,  Associate  Pro- 
fessor of  Physics,  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York:  Piazzi,  Giuseppe;  Picard, 
Jean;  Poleni,  Giovanni;  Puiseux,  Victor- 
Alexandre;  Regnault,  Henri- Victor. 

FRERI,  Mgr.  JOSEPH,  D.C.L.,  Director  Gen- 
eral FOR  THE  United  States  of  the  Society 
FOR  THE  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  New 
York:  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  The  Society 
for  the. 

FUENTES,  VENTURA,  B.A.,  M.D.,  Instructor, 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York:  Pinto, 
Fernao  Mendes;    Ponce  de  Le6n,  Juan. 

GANCEVIC,  ANTHONY  LAWRENCE,  Ph.D., 
S.T.D.,  Zaostrog,  Dalmatia:  Pulati,  Diocese  of. 

GEUDENS,  FRANCIS  MARTIN,  C.R.P.,  Abbot 
Titular  op  Barlings,  Tongerloo  Abbey, 
Westerloo,  Belgium:  Premonstratensian 
Canons;  Pr6montr6,  Abbey  of;  Psaume, 
Nicholas. 

GHELLINCK,  JOSEPH  DE,  Professor  of  Pa- 
thology AND  Theological  Literature  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  University  op  Louvain: 
Radulph  of  Rivo. 


GIETMANN,  GERARD,  S.J.,  Teacher  op  Classi- 
cal Languages  and  jEsthetics,  St.  Ignatius 
College,  Valkbnburq,  Holland:  Porta, 
Giacomo  della;  Pozzo,  Andreas;  Pulpit;  Rethel, 
Alfred. 

GIGOT,  FRANCIS  E.,  S.T.D.,  Propessor  op 
Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Joseph's  Seminary, 
DuNwooDiB,  New  York:  Proverbs,  Book  of; 
Redemption  in  the  Old  Testament;   Red  Sea. 

GILBERT,  JOHN  W.,  B.A.  (Univ.  op  Lond.), 
Secretary  op  the  Providence  Night  Refuge 
AND  Home,  London:  Poor,  Care  of,  by  the 
Church  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

GILLET,  LOUIS,  Paris:  Poussin,  Nicolas;  Puvis 
de  Chavannes,  Pierre;    Raphael. 

GOGGIN,  J.  F.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  St.  Bernard's 
Seminary,  Rochester,  New  York:  Pontificale; 
Pontifical  Mass;  Priest,  Assistant. 

GOLUBOVICH,  GIROLAMO,  O.F.M.,  Florence: 
Quaresmius,  Franciscus. 

GOYAU,  GEORGES,  Associate  Editor,  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes",  Paris:  Philip  II  and 
IV,  Kings  of  France;  Pithon,  Pierre;  Play, 
Pierre-Guillaume-Fr^d^ric  Le;  Poitiers,  Dio- 
cese of;  Quimper,  Diocese  of;  Reims,  Arch- 
diocese of;  Renaudot,  Th6ophraste;  Rennes, 
Archdiocese  of;  Retz,  Jean-Frangois-Paul-Gondi, 
Cardinal  de. 

GRAHAM,  CHARLES  MORICE,  Titular  Bishop 
OP  Tiberias,  Plymouth,  England:  Plymouth, 
Diocese  of. 

GRATTAN-FLOOD,  W.  H.,  M.R.I.A.,  Mus.D., 
RosEMOUNT,  Enniscorthy,  Ireland:  Proske, 
Karl;  Purgatory,  St.  Patrick's. 

HANDLEY,  MARIE  LOUISE,  New  York: 
Pichler,  Antonio  Giovanni  Luigi;  Puget,  Pierre; 
Querela,  Jacopo  della. 

HANNA,  EDWARD  J.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  St.  Bernard's  Seminary,  Roches- 
ter, New  York:  Purgatory. 

HARTIG,  OTTO,  Assistant  Librarian  op  the 
Royal  Library,  Munich:  Pordenone,  Odoric  of. 

HARTY,  JOHN  M.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  op  Moral 
Theology  and  Canon  Law,  Maynooth  Col- 
lege, Dublin:  Probabilism. 

HASSETT,  Mgr.  MAURICE  M.,  8.T.D.,  Harris- 
burg,  Pennsylvania:  Portraits  of  the  Apostles; 
Presbytery. 

HEALY,  PATRICK  J.,  S.T.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor OF  Church  History,  Catholic  Uni- 
versity OF  America,  Washington:  Pris- 
cillianism;  Quadratus. 

HEHIR,  MARTIN  A.,  C.SS.R.,  President,  Holy 
Ghost  College,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania: 
Ratisbonne,  Maria  Theodor. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH   VOLUME 


HENRY,  HUGH  T.,  Litt.D.,  Rector  of  Roman 
Catholic  High  School  foe  Boys,  Pkofbssor 
OF  English  Literature  and  of  Gregorian 
Chant,  St.  Charles  Seminary,  Overbrook, 
Pennsylvania:  Precentor;  Quem  terra,  pontus 
sidera;  Quioumque  Christum  Quseritis;  Rector 
Potens,  Verax  Deus;  Regina  Coeli;  Rerum 
Creator  Optima;    Rerum  Deus  Tenax  Vigor. 

HILGENREINER,  KARL,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Im- 
perial Royal  Professor,  University  of 
Prague:    Piusverein;    Prague,  University  of. 

HILGERS,     JOSEPH,     S.J.,     Rome:      Purgatorial 

Societies. 
HOEBER,    KARL,    Ph.D.,    Editor,     "Volkszbi- 

tung"  and  "Akademische  Monatsblatter", 

Cologne:   Philip  the  Arabian;   Placidia,  Galla; 

Probus,  Marcus  Aurelius. 
HOFLER,  WALTER  A.,  Southam,  Warwickshire, 

England:   Poor  Child  Jesus,  Sisters  of  the. 

HOLWECK,  FREDERIC  G.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
Prayer  of  Christ,  Feast  of  the;  Presentation  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Feast  of  the;  Ransom, 
Feast  of  Our  Lady  of. 

HOULIHAN,  JOHN  W.,  Portland,  Maine:  Port- 
land, Diocese  of. 

HUDLESTON,  GILBERT  ROGER,  O.S.B., 
Downside  Abbey,  Bath,  England:  Pickering, 
Thomas,  Venerable;  Placidus,  Saint;  Folding, 
John  Bede;  Pontefract  Priory;  Powel,  PhiUp, 
Venerable;   Reform  of  a  Religious  Order. 

HULL,  ERNEST  R.,  S.J.,  Editor,  "The  Ex- 
aminer", Bombay,  India:  Pondicherry,  Arch- 
diocese of;  Poona,  Diocese  of;  Quilon,  Diocese 
of;    Rajpootana,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 

HUNT,  LEIGH,  Professor  op  Art,  College  of 
THE  City  of  New  York:  Piranesi,  Giam- 
battista;  Raimondi,  Marcantonio. 

HUNTER-BLAIR,  SIR  D.  O.,  Bart.,  O.S.B.,  M.A., 
Fort  Augustus  Abbey,  Scotland:  Preston, 
Thomas. 

HUONDER,  ANTHONY,  S.J.,  St.  Ignatius  Coi^ 
lege,  Valkenburg,  Holland:  Reductions  of 
Paraguay. 

JARRETT,  BEDE,  O.P.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  S.T.L., 
St.  Dominic's  Priory,  London:    Pilgrimages. 

JONES,  W.  A.,  O.S.A.,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Porto 
Rico:  Porto  Rico. 

JOYCE,  GEORGE  HAYWARD,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
St.  Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales: 
Pope,  The. 

KAMPERS,  FRANZ,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Medi- 
eval and  Modern  History,  University  of 
Breslau:    Rainald  of  Dassel. 

KELLY,  BLANCHE  M.,  New  York:  Poor,  Little 
Sisters  of  the;  Poor  Servants  of  the  Mother  of 
God;  Port  Louis,  Diocese  of;  Port  Victoria, 
Diocese  of;   Providence,  Sisters  of,  of  St.  Anne. 


KENNEDY,  D.  J.,  O.P.,  S.T.M.,  Professor  op 
Sacramental  Theology,  Catholic  Univer- 
sity op  America,  Washington:  Politi,  Lancelot; 
Porrecta,  Serafino. 

KENNEDY,  THOMAS,  B.A.  (R.U.I.),  London: 
Pinz6n,  Martin  Alonso;  Proschko,  Franz 
Isidor. 

KENT,  W.  H.,  O.S.C,  Bayswater,  London: 
Rawes,  Henry  Augustus. 

KERRY,  WILLIAM  J.,  S.T.L.,  Ph.D.,  Doctor  op 
Special  and  Political  Sciences,  Professor 
OF  Sociology,  Catholic  University  of  Amer- 
ica, Washington  :  Poor,  Care  of,  by  the  Church, 
in  the  United  States. 

KING,  JOHN  HENRY,  Ph.D.,  S.T.B.,  Ports- 
mouth, England:    Portsmouth,  Diocese  of. 

KING,  THOMAS  GEORGE,  K.S.G.,  Hon.  Secre- 
tary Catholic  Guardians  Association,  Lon- 
don: Poor  Laws. 

KIRSCH,  Mgr.  JOHANN  P.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OF  Pathology  and  Christian  Archaeology, 
University  of  Fribourg:  Phillips,  George; 
Philomena,  Saint;  Piedmont;  Pius  I,  Saint, 
Pope;  Pontian,  Saint;  Porter;  Praxedes  and 
Pudentiana;  Prelate;  Primicerius;  Primus  and 
Fehcian,  Saints;  Prisca,  Saint;  Processus  and 
Martinian,  Saints;  Prothonotary  Apostolic; 
Protus  and  Hyacinth,  Saints;  Province,  Ec- 
clesiastical; Pulcheria,  Saint;  Quinctianus, 
Saints;  Quiricus  and  Julitta,  Saints;  Quirinus, 
Saints;  Ratherius  of  Verona;  Referendarii; 
Reformation,  The;  Regesta,  Papal;  Regino  of 
Prilm;    Regionarii. 

KOTODZIEJCZYK,  EDMUND,  Cracow,  Galicia, 
Austria:  Poland. 

KURTH,  GODEFROID,  Director,  Belgian  His- 
torical Institute,  Rome:  Philip  II,  King  of 
Spain. 

LATASTE,  JOSEPH,  Litt.D.,  Superior  of  the 
Seminary,  Aire-sur-Adour,  Landes,  France: 
Pius  V,  Saint,  Pope;  Polignac,  Melchior; 
Port-Royal. 

LAUCHERT,  FRIEDRICH,  Ph.D.,  Aachen:  Phy- 
siologus;  Pietism;  Pighius,  Albert;  Pistorius, 
Johann;  Raich,  Johann  Michael;  Rass,  Andreas; 
Ratzinger,  Georg. 

LAVELLE,  Mgr.  MICHAEL  J.,  Vicar-General 
OF  THE  Archdiocese  of  New  York:  Preston, 
Thomas  Scott. 

*LE  BARS,  JEAN,  B.A.,  Litt.D.,  Member  of  the 
Asiatic  Society,  Paris:    Racine,   Jean. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  University  of 
France,  Professor,  Institut  Catholique, 
Paris:  Poggio  Bracciolini,  Giovanni  Francisco; 
Politian;  Priscianus;  Proba,  Faltonia;  Pru- 
dentius,  Aurelius  Clemens. 

*  Deceased 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO   THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


LENNOX,  PATRICK  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  Professor 
OP  English  Language  and  Literature, 
Catholic  University  of  America,  Washing- 
ton: Pope,  Alexander;   Proctor,  Adelaide  Anne. 

LETELLIER,  a.,  S.S.S.,  Superior,  Fathers  of 
THE  Blessed  Sacrament,  New  York:  Priests' 
Communion  League. 

LINDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  GEORGE,  B.Sc,  Ph.D., 
Editor-in-Chief,  "La  Nouvelle  France", 
Quebec;  Plessis,  Joseph-Ootave;  Quebec,  Pro^'- 
ince  of;  Raffeix,  Pierre;  Ragueneau,  Paul; 
Raymbault,  Charles. 

LINS,  JOSEPH,  Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  Germany: 
Plock,  Diocese  of;    Ratisbon,  Diocese  of. 

LOFFLER,  KLEMENS,  Ph.D.,  Librarian,  Uni- 
versity of  MtJNSTER:  Pirkheimer,  Charitas; 
Pirkheimer,  Willibald;  Pius  VIII,  Pope;  Pome- 
rania;  Pontus;  Poppo,  Saint;  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion; Priim;  Reifenstein;  Reisoh,  Gregor; 
Reuchlin,  Johannes. 

LORTIE,  STANISLAS  A.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
of  Theology,  University  op  Laval,  Quebec: 
Poor,  Care  of,  by  the  Church,  in  Canada. 

*LOUGHLIN,  Mgr.  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Phila- 
delphia: Pius  III  and  IV,  Popes. 

MAAS,  A.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Preadamites;  Psalms,  Alphabetic; 
Quarantines;  Resurrection. 

McENERNEY,  GARRET  W.,  San  Francisco, 
California:  Pious  Fund  of  the  Calif ornias. 

MacERLEAN,  ANDREW  A.,  New  York:  Quito, 
Archdiocese  of. 

McGAHAN,  FLORENCE  RUDGE,  M.A.,  Youngs- 
town,  Ohio:  Presentation  Order,  Nagle,  Nano 
(Honoria);  Presentation,  Religious  Congrega- 
tions of  the;  Providence,  Daughters  of. 

McGINNIS,  CHARLES  F.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.L.,  St. 
Paul,  Minnesota:   Philip  Benizi,  Saint. 

McHUGH,  JOHN  AMBROSE,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Lector 
of  Philosophy,  Dominican  House  of  Studies, 
Washington:  Presbyterianism;  Raymond  Mar- 
tini; Reginald,  Antonio;  Reginald  of  Piperno. 

McXICHOLAS,  JOHN  T.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  New  York: 
Quam  singulari. 

MAERE,  R.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Christian 
Archaeology,  University  of  Louvain:  Reu- 
sens,  Edmond. 

MAGNIER,  JOHN,  C.SS.R.,  Clapham,  England: 
Redemptoristines. 

MAHER,  MICHAEL,  S.J.,  Litt.D.,  M.A.  (Lond.), 
Director  op  Studies  and  Professor  op  Peda- 
gogics, Stonyhurst  College,  Blackburn, 
England:  Psychology. 

MANDONNET,  PIERRE-FRANCOIS-FELIX, 
O.P.,  S.T.D.,  Rector,  University  op  Fribourg: 
Preachers,  Order  of. 

*  Deceased 


MARCH,  JOSE  MARfA,  S.J.,  Professor  op 
Church  History  and  Patrology,  Jesuit  Col- 
lege, Tortosa,  Spain:  Pilar,  Nuestra  Seiiora  del. 

MARY  OF  PROVIDENCE,  MOTHER,  Provin- 
cial Superior,  Sisters  op  Charity  op  Provi- 
dence, HoLYOKE,  Massachusetts:  Providence, 
Sisters  of,  of  Charity. 

MARY  OF  ST.  DAVID,  SISTER,  Provincial  Su- 
perior, Sisters  of  the  Presentation,  St. 
Hyacinthe,  Canada:  Presentation  of  Mary, 
Congregation  of  the. 

MEEHAN,  ANDREW  B.,  S.T.D.,  J.U.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law  and  Liturgy,  St.  Ber- 
nard's Seminary,  Rochester,  New  York:  Proof; 
Provision,  Canonical;  Provost;  Public  Honesty; 
Putative  Marriage;  Rector;  Registers,  Paro- 
chial; Regulse  Juris;  Repose,  Altar  of;  Re- 
scripts, Papal;  Reservation;  Residence,  Ec- 
clesiastical. 

MEISTERMANN,  BARNABAS,  O.F.M.,  Lector, 
Convent  op  S.  Salvator,  Jerusalem:  Pre- 
torium. 

MERSHMAN,  FRANCIS,  O.S.B.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Moral  Theology,  Canon  Law,  and 
Liturgy,  St.  John's  College,  Collegeville, 
Minnesota:  Piscina;  Plenarium;  Quadrages- 
ima; Quinquagesima;  Raymond  Xonnatus, 
Saint;  Renty,  Gaston- Jean-Baptiste  de. 

MOELLER,  CH.,  Professor  op  General  History, 
University  op  Louvain  :  Redeemer,  Knights  of 
the. 

MOONEY,  JAMES,  United  States  Ethnologist, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Washing- 
ton: Pima  Indians;  Piro  Indians;  Piscataway 
Indians;  Potawatomi  Indians;  Pouget,  Jean- 
Frangois- Albert  du;  Pueblo  Indians;  Puyallup 
Indians;  Quamichan  Indians;  Quapaw  Indians; 
Quiche;  Quichua  Indians;  Quintana,  Augustin; 
Ravalli,  Antonio. 

*M0RAN,  PATRICK  FRANCIS  CARDINAL, 
Archbishop  op  Sydney,  Primate  of  Australia: 
Plunkett,  Oliver,  Venerable. 

MORENO-LACALLE,  JULIAN,  B.A.,  Editor, 
"Pan-American Union",  Washington:  Piauhy, 
Diocese  of;  Porto  Alegre,  Diocese  of ;  Portoviejo, 
Diocese  of;  Puno,  Diocese  of. 

MORICE,  a.  G.,  O.M.I.,  Lecturer  in  Anthro- 
pology, University  of  Saskatchewan,  Win- 
nipeg, Manitoba,  Canada:  Prince  Albert,  Dio- 
cese of;  Regina,  Diocese  of. 

MUELLER,  ULRICH  F.,  Propessob  op  Philos- 
ophy, St.  Charles  Borromeo  Seminary, 
Carthagena,  Ohio:  Precious  Blood,  Feast  of 
the  Most;  Precious  Blood,  Archconfraternity  of 
the  Most;  Precious  Blood,  Congregation  of  the 
Most;  Precious  Blood,  Daughters  of  the;  Pre- 
cious Blood,  Sisters  of  the. 

*  Deceased 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


MURRAY,  Mqr.  JOHN  B.,  Vicab-General  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio:  Purcell 
John  Baptist. 

NEVILS,  WILLIAM  COLEMAN,  S.J.,  Woodstock 
College,  Maryland:   Pioonio,  Bernardine  a. 

NORTON,  JOHN  HENRY,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Port 
Augusta,  Australia:  Port  Augusta,  Diocese  of. 

OBRECHT,  EDMOND  M.,  O.C.R.,  Abbot  op 
Gethsemani,  Kentucky:  Pierre  de  Castelnau, 
Blessed;  Pontigny,  Abbey  of;  Ranc6,  Jean- 
Armand  le  Bouthillier  de. 

O'BYRNE,  MICHAEL,  O.P.,  Vicar-General  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad, 
British  West  Indies:  Port  of  Spain,  Archdio- 
cese of. 

O'DONNELL,  MICHAEL  JOSEPH,  Professor  of 
Moral  Theology,  Maynooth  College,  Dub- 
lin: Possession,  Demoniacal. 

O'DONNELL,  PATRICK,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  op  Ra- 
PHOE,  Ireland  :  Raphoe,  Diocese  of. 

O'HARA,  EDWIN  V.,  Portland,  Oregon:    Poor 

Clares. 

O'HARA,  FRANK,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  Po- 
litical Economy,  Catholic  University  of 
America,  Washington:  Physiocrats;  Pohtical 
Economy,  Science  of. 

O'KANE,  MICHAEL  M.,  O.P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
vincial of  the  Irish  Province  of  the  Do- 
minican Order,  Dublin:  Raymond  of  Pena- 
fort.  Saint. 

OLIGER,  LIVARIUS,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Church 
History,  Collegio  S.  Antonio,  Rome:  Poor 
Brothers  of  Saint  Francis  Seraphicus;  Quinones, 
Francisco. 

OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the 
History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  College, 
Collegeville,  Minnesota:  Pierius;  Pilgrim; 
Pinna  da  Encarnagao,  Mattheus;  Pitra,  Jean- 
Baptiste-Frangois;  Pius  VI  and  IX,  Popes; 
Prior;  Prioress;  Priory;  Prudentius,  Gahndo; 
Rabanus,  Maurus  Magnentius;  Ratisbonne, 
Maria  Alphonse;  Ratramnus;  Reding,  Augus- 
tine; Regale,  Droit  de;  Reims,  Synods  of . 

OTTEN,  JOSEPH,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania: 
Philips,  Peter;  Piel,  Peter. 

OUSSANI,  GABRIEL,  Ph.D.,  Professor,  Ecclesi- 
astical History,  Early  Christian  Litera- 
ture, AND  Biblical  Archeology,  St.  Joseph's 
Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  New  York:  Phoenicia. 

PACE,  EDWARD  A.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Catholic  University  op  America 
Washington:  Quietism. 

PAPI,  HECTOR,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  B.C.L.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Prefect  Apostolic;  Procurator. 


PARKINSON,  HENRY,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Rector, 
Oscott  College,  Birmingham,  England: 
Priests,  Confraternities  of;  Priests'  Eucharistic 
League;  Pugin,  Augustus  Welby  Northmore. 

PETERSON,  JOHN  B.,  Professor  of  Eccelsias- 
TiCAL  History  and  Liturgy,  St.  John's  Sem- 
inary, Brighton,  Massachusetts:  Pistoia, 
Synod  of. 

*PfiTRIDES,  SOPHRONE,  A.A.,  Professor, 
Greek  Catholic  Seminary  op  Kadi-Keui, 
Constantinople:  Philomelium;  Phocaea;  Pi- 
nara;  Pityus;  Pogla;  Polemonium;  Polybotus; 
Polystylum;  Pomaria;  Priene;  Proconnesus; 
Ptolemais;  Ptolemais  (Saint-Jean  d'Acre);  Re- 
mesiana. 

PHILLIMORE,  JOHN  SWINNERTON,  M.A. 
(OxoN.),  Professor  of  Humanities,  Univer- 
sity OP  Glasgow:  Procopius  of  Caesarea. 

PHILLIPS,  EDWARD  C,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Woodstock 
College,  Maryland:  Pianciani,  Giambattista; 
Provancher,  L6on  Abel;  Raynaud,  Th^ophile. 

PIACENZA,  PIETRO,  S.T.D.,  J.U.D.,  Prothono- 
TARY  Apostolic  of  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  Rites,  Professor  op  Liturgy,  Seminary  of 
St.  Apollinaris,  Rome:  Requiem,  Masses  of. 

PIERRON,  JOHN  BAPTIST,  S.T.D.,  Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin:  Poor  Catholics. 

PLASSMAN,  THOMAS,  O.F.M.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  St. 
Bonaventube's  Seminary,  St.  Bonaventure, 
New  York:  Pian6  Carpine,  Giovanni  da. 

PLATER,  CHARLES  D.,  S.J.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  St. 
Bbuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Porter, 
George. 

POHLE,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.C.L.,  Pro- 
fessor OP  Dogmatic  Theology,  University  op 
Breslau:  Predestinarianism;  Predestination; 
Priesthood;  Regeneration. 

POLLARD,   WILLIAM   HENRY,  B.A.  (Univ.  of 

LoND.),    Vice-Rector,    Ratcliffe  College, 

Leicester,    England:     Providence,  Sisters  of, 
of  the  Institute  of  Charity. 

POLLEN,  JOHN  HUNGERFORD,  S.J.,  London: 
Redford,  Sebastian. 

PRESTAGE,  EDGAR,  B.A.  (Balliol  College,  Ox- 
ford), Commendador  Portuguese  Order  op  S. 
Thiaqo;  Corresponding  Member  op  the  Lis- 
bon Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  Lis- 
bon Geographical  Society,  Chiltern,  Bow- 
don,  Cheshire,  England:  Pombal,  Sebastiao 
Jos6  de  Carvalho  e  Mello,  Marquis  de;  Portugal 
and  Portuguese  Literature;  Portuguese  East 
Africa;   Portuguese  West  Africa. 

PUSTET,  FRIEDRICH,  Ratisbon,  Germany: 
Pustet. 

RAHILLY,  ALFRED  J.,  S.J.,  M.A.,  Stonyhurst 
College,  Blackburn,  England:   Reason. 

*  Deceased 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH   VOLUME 


REILLY,  WENDELL  S.,  S.S.,  S.T.D.,  D.S.S.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  John's  Sem- 
inary, Brighton,  Massachusetts:  Polyglot 
Bibles. 

REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct-Pro- 
fessor OF  Germanic  Philosophy,  Columbia 
University,  New  York;  Reinmar  of  Hagenau. 

REVILLE,  JOHN  CLEMENT,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Rhetoric  and  Sacred  Eloquence,  St.  Stanis- 
laus College,  Macon,  Georgia:  Ravignan, 
Gustave-Xavier-Lacroix  de. 

RITCHIE,  C.  SEBASTIAN,  M.A.  (Cantab.),  The 
Oratory,  Birmingham,  England:  Philip  Ro- 
molo  Neri,  Saint. 

ROMPEL,  JOSEF  HEINRICH,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Stella 
Matutina  College,  Feldkirch,  Austria: 
Plumier,  Charles. 

RYAN,  JOHN  A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Moral 
Theology,  St.  Paul  Seminary,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
nesota: Population  Theories;  Poverty  and 
Pauperism;  Rerum  Novarum. 

SACHER,  HERMANN,  Ph.D.,  Editor  of  the 
"Konversationslexikon",  Assistant  Editor, 
"Staatslbxikon",  of  the  Gorrbsgesell- 
scHAFT,  Frbiburg-im-Bheisgau,  Germany: 
Reuss. 

SAGMULLER,  JOHANNES  BAPTIST,  Professor 
of  Theology,  University  op  Tubingen:  Privil- 
eges, Ecclesiastical. 

SALEMBIER,  LOUIS  CANON,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OF  Church  History,  University  of  Lille: 
Pisa,  Council  of. 

SALTET,  LOUIS,  S.T.D.,  Litt.  Lie,  Pkopessok 
OF  Church  History,  Institut  Catholiqub, 
Toulouse:  Reordinations. 

SAUVAGE,  GEORGE  M.,  C.S.C,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology,  Holy 
Cross  College,  Washington:  Positivism; 
R6gis,  Pierre-Sylvain. 

SCHEID,  N.,  S.J.,  Stella  Matutina  College, 
Feldkirch,  Austria:  Pyrker,  Johann  Ladis- 
laus  von  Orberwart. 

SCHLAGER,  HEINRICH  PATRICIUS,  O.F.M., 
St.  Ludwig's  College,  Dalheim,  Germany: 
Reisaoh,  Cari  von;   Reumont,  Alfred  von. 

SCHMID,  ULRICH,  Ph.D.,  Editor,  "Walhalla", 
Munich:  Reichenau. 

SCHUYLER,  HENRY  C,  S.T.L.,  Vice-Rector, 
Catholic  High  School,  Philadelphia,  Penn- 
sylvania: R^le,  Sebastian. 

SCHWEITZER,  JOSEPH,  C.R.,  St.  Jerome's  Col- 
lege, Berlin,  Province  op  Ontario,  Canada: 
Resurrection,  Congregation  of  the. 

SCHWICKERATH,  ROBERT,  S.J.,  Holy  Cross 

College,  Worcester,  Massachusetts:   Ratio 

Studiorum. 
SCOTT,  HENRY  ARTHUR,  S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  Ste. 

FoY,  Province  op  Quebec,  Canada:   Quebec, 

Archdiocese  of. 


SCULLY,  VINCENT  JOSEPH,  C.R.L.,  St.  Ives, 
Cornwall,  England:   Radewyns,  Florens. 

SECUNDA,  MOTHER  M.,  Provincial  Superior, 
Poor  Handmaids  op  Jesus  Christ,  Fort 
Wayne,  Indiana:  Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

SEROCZYNSKI,  FELIX  THOMAS,  B.A.,  Whit- 
ing, Indiana:  Poles  in  the  United  States. 

SHIPMAN,  ANDREW  J.,  M.A.,  LL.M.,  New  York; 
Przemysl,  Sambor,  and  Sanok,  Diocese  of;  Ras- 
kolniks. 

SIMAR,  THfiOPHILE,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D.,  Louvain: 
Puteanus,  Erycius. 

SLATER,  T.,  S.J.,  St.  Francis  Xavier's  College, 
Liverpool,  England:  Reparation;  Restitution. 

SLOANE,  CHARLES  W.,  New  York:  Prescription, 
In  Civil  Jurisprudence;  Provisors,  Statute  of. 

SOLLIER,  JOSEPH  FRANCIS,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
vincial op  the  American  Province  op  the  So- 
ciety OP  Mary,  Boston,  Massachusetts:  Pie, 
Louis-Edouard-D&ir^;  Precious  Blood;  Que- 
len,  Hyacinthe-Louis  de;  Rapin,  Ren6;  Re- 
demption. 

SORTAIS,  GASTON,  S.J.,  Associate  Editor, 
"Etudes",  Paris:  Pinturicchio;  PoUajuolo, 
Antonio  and  Piero  Benci. 

SOUVAY,  CHARLES  L.,  CM.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor, Sacred  Scripture,  Hebritw  and  Lit- 
urgy, Kenrick  Seminary,  St.  Louis,  Missouri  : 
Pisidia;  Plants  in  the  Bible;  Pools  in  Scripture; 
Purim;  Rabbi  and  Rabbinism. 

SPAHN,' MARTIN,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Modern 
History,  University  op  Strasburg:  Prussia; 
Radowitz,  Joseph  Maria  von. 

STANISLAUS,  MOTHER  M.,  St.  Michael's  Pres- 
entation Convent,  New  York:  Presentation 
Order  in  America. 

STEELE,  FRANCESCA  M.,  Stroud,  Gloucester- 
shire, England  :  Refuge,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of 
Charity  of  the;  Retreat  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Congregation  of  the. 

STEIN,  JOHN,  S.J.,  Doctor  in  Mathematics  and 
Astronomy  (Leiden),  Amsterdam,  Holland: 
Pingr6,  Alexandre  Guy;   Platina,  Baitolomeo. 

STOCKMAN,  ALOIS,  S.J.,  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  Germany:  Prester  John. 

TARNOWSKI,  COUNT  STANISLAUS,  President, 
Imperial  Academy  of.  Sciences;  Professor, 
Polish  Literature,  University  op  Cracow: 
Polish  Literature. 

THEODOSIA,  sister  MARY,  St,  Mary-op-the- 
WooDS,  Indiana:  Providence,  Sisters  of. 

THURSTON,  HERBERT,  S.J.,  London:  Pole, 
Reginald;  Pontificalia;  Popular  Devotions; 
Prayer-Books;  Primer,  The;  Processional,  Ro- 
man; Processions;  Processional  Cross;  Prop- 
erty, Ecclesiastical;  Psalterium;  Pyx;  Rambler, 
The;  Regalia;  Relics;  Reliquaries;  Reserva- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 


CONTRIBUTORS   TO   THE   TWELFTH   VOLUME 


TIERNEY,  JOHN  J.,  JNLA.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture  and  Semitic  Studies,  Mt. 
St.  ^LARY's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Maryland: 
Priest,  The  High. 

TURNER,  WILLL\:\I,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Logic  and  the  History  of  Philosophy,  Catho- 
lic University  of  Ajiehica,  Washington: 
Plato  and  Platonism;  Plethon,  Georgius  Gc- 
mistus;  Pragmatism;  Pyrrhonism;  Pythagoras 
and  Pythagoreanism;  Ramus,  Peter;  Raymond 
Lully;  Raymond  of  Sabunde;  Remigius  of 
Auxerre. 

VAILHE,  SIMEON,  A. A.,  Member  of  the  Russian 
aach^ological  institute  of  constantinople, 
Professor  of  Sacred  Scripture  and  History, 
Greek  Catholic  Seminary'  of  Kadi-Keui,  Con- 
stantinople: Philippi;  PhiHppopolis  (Thracia 
Secunda);  PhiUppopolis,  in  Arabia;  Pompeiop- 
olis;  Porphyreon;  Prusias  ad  Hypium;  Ra- 
matha. 

VAN  DER  HEEREN,  ACHILLE,  S.T.L.  (Lou- 
vain),  Professor  op  Moral  Theology  and 
Librarian,  Grande  S^minaire,  Bruges,  Bel- 
gium: Phihppi;  PhiHppians,  Epistle  to  the. 

VAN  HOVE,  A.,  D.C.L.,  Professor  of  Church 
History  and  Canon  Law,  University  of  Lou- 
vain:  Pirhing,  Ernricus;  Poly  carpus;  Prece- 
dence; Preconization;  Promulgation;  Reiffen- 
stuel,  Johann  Georg. 

VASCHALDE,  A.A.,  C.S.B.,  Catholic  University 
OF  America,  Washington:  Philoxenus  of  Mar- 
bogh. 

VERMEERSCH,  ARTHUR,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  Doctor 
OP  Social  and  Political  Sciences,  Professor 
OF  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  Law,  Lou- 
vain:  Postulant;  Poverty;  Profession,  Re- 
ligious;  Provincial;   Regulars;   Religious  Life. 

VICTORIA,  SISTER  M.,  C.PP.S.,  Maria  Stein, 
Ohio  :  Precious  Blood,  Sisters  of  the. 

VOGEL,  JOHN,  Vicar  Provincial  of  the  Pious  So- 
ciety OF  Missions,  Brooklyn,  New  York: 
Pious  Society  of  Missions,  The. 

WAINEWRIGHT,  JOHN  BANNERMAN,  B.A. 
(OxoN.),  London:  Pibush,  John,  Venerable; 
Pike,  William,  Venerable;  Pilchard,  Thomas,  Ven- 
erable; Pormort,  Thomas,  Venerable;  Postgate, 
Nicholas,  Venerable;  Pounde,  Thomas;  Ralph 
Crockett,  Venerable;  Ralph  Sherwin,  Blessed. 

WALKER,  LESLIE  J.,  S.J,,  M.A.  (Lond.),  St. 
Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Provi- 
dence, Divine;  Relativism. 


WALLAU,  HEINRICH  WILHELM,  Mainz,  Ger- 
many:  Plantin,  Christophe. 

WALSH,  JAMES  J.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc, 
Dean  op  the  Medical  School,  Fordham  Uni- 
versity, New  York  :  Psychotherapy. 

WALTER,  ALOYSIUS,  C.SS.R.,  Professor  of 
Dogmatic  Theology,  St.  Mary''s,  Kinnoull, 
Perth,  Scotland:  Pitoni,  Joseph;  Rameau, 
Jean-Philippe. 

WARD,  Mgb.  BERNARD,  Canon  op  Westmin- 
ster, F.R.  Hist.  Soc,  President,  St.  Edmund's 
College,  Ware,  England:  Plowden,  Francis; 
Poynter,  William. 

WARREN,  CORNELIUS,  C.SS.R.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  Redemptorist  House  of 
Studies,  Esopus,  New  York:   Putzer,  Joseph. 

WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  op  Fun- 
damental Theology  and  Church  History, 
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VII,  Popes;  Porphyrius,  Saint;  Ptolemy  the 
Gnostic;  Quierzy,  Councils  of;  Quirini,  Angelo 
Maria;  Rader,  Matthew;  Raynaldi,  Odorich; 
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tation, Cork,  Ireland:  Presentation,  Order  of 
the. 

WILHELM,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Aachen, 
Germany:  Protestantism. 

WILLIAMSON,  GEORGE  CHARLES,  Litt.D., 
London:  Piombo,  Sebastian  del;  Pordenone, 
Giovanni  Antonio;  Reni,  Guido. 

WILLIS,  JOHN  WILEY,  M.A.,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
nesota: Punishment,  Capital. 

WOLFSGRUBER,  COLESTINE,  O.S.B.,  Vienna: 
Prague,  Archdiocese  of;  Przemysl,  Diocese  of; 
Ragusa,  Diocese  of;  Rauscher,  Joseph  Othmar. 

WOODLOCK,  THOMAS  F.,  New  York:  Prout, 
Father. 

WUEST,  JOSEPH,  C.SS.R.,  Ilchestbr,  Maryland: 
Redeemer,  Feast  of  the  Most  Holy;  Redempto- 
rists. 

WYNNE,  JOHN  J.,  S.J.,  New  York:   Prayer. 

ZEVELY,  JULIA,  New  York:  Pierron,  Jean;  Pier- 
son,  Phihppe  Riviere;  Poncet,  Joseph  Anthony  de 
la  Riviere. 

ZIMMERMAN,  BENEDICT,  O.D.C,  St.  Luke's 
Priory,  Wincanton,  Somersetshire,  England: 
Philip  of  the  Blessed  Trinity. 


Tables   of  Abbreviations 

The  following  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readers  of  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  in 
interpreting  those  abbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  of  space,  will  be  most  fre- 
quently used  in  the  work.     For  more  general  information  see  the  article  Abbeeviatigns,  Ecclesiastical. 


I. — General  Abbreviations. 

a article. 

ad  an at  the  year  (Lat.  ad  annum) . 

an.,  ann the  year,  the  years  (Lat.  annus, 

anni). 

ap in  (Lat.  apud). 

art article. 

Assyr Assyrian. 

A.  S Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  V Authorized  Version  (i.e.  tr.  of  the 

Bible  authorized  for  use  in  tlie 
Anglican  Church — the  so-called 
"King  James",  or  "Protestant 
Bible"). 

b bom. 

Bk Book. 

Bl Blessed. 

C,  c about  (Lat.  circa);  canon;  chap- 

ter; compagnie. 

can canon. 

cap chapter  (Lat.  caput — used  only 

in  Latin  context). 

of compare  (Lat.  confer) . 

cod codex. 

col column. 

concl conclusion. 

const.,  constit.  .  .  .Lat.  constitutio. 

curfi, by  the  industry  of. 

d died. 

diet dictionary  (Fr.  dicHonnaire) . 

disp Lat.  disputatio. 

diss Lat.  dissertatio. 

dist Lat.  distinctio. 

D.  V Douay  Version. 

ed.,  edit edited,  edition,  editor. 

Ep.,  Epp letter,  letters  (Lat.  epistola). 

Fr French. 

gen genus. 

Gr Greek. 

H.  E.,  Hist.  Eccl.  .Ecclesiastical  History. 

Heb.,  Hebr Hebrew. 

ib.,  ibid in  the  same  place  (Lat.  ibidem). 

Id the  same  person,  or  author  (Lat. 

idem). 


inf below  (Lat.  infra). 

It Italian. 

1.  c,  loc.  cit at   the  place  quoted   (Lat.   loco 

citato) . 

Lat Latin. 

lat latitude. 

lib book  (Lat.  liber). 

long longitude. 

Mon Lat.  Monumenta. 

MS. ,  MSS manuscript,  manuscripts. 

n.,  no number. 

N.  T New  Testament. 

Nat National. 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr.  .  .  .Old  French. 

op.  cit in  the   work  quoted  (Lat.  opere 

citato) . 

Ord Order. 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp page,  pages,  or  (in  Latin  ref- 
erences) pars  (part). 

par paragraph. 

passim in  various  places. 

pt part. 

Q Quarterly     (a     periodical),     e.g. 

"Church  Quarterly". 

Q.,  QQ.,  quoBst.  ..  .question,  questions  (Lat.  quaestio). 

q.  V which  [title]  see  (Lat.  quod  vide). 

Rev Review  (a  periodical) . 

R.  S Rolls  Series. 

R.  V Revised  Version. 

S.,  SS Lat.    Sanctus,    Sancti,    "Saint", 

"Saints" — used  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia only  in  Latin  context. 

Sept Septuagint. 

Sess Session. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp Spanish. 

sq.,  sqq following   page,    or   pages    (Lat. 

sequens). 

St.,  Sts Saint,  Saints. 

sup Above  (Lat.  supra). 

o.  V Under    the    corresponding    title 

(Lat.  sub  voce). 

torn volume  (Lat.  tomus). 


TABLES  OF  ABBREVIATIONS. 


tr translation  or  translated.  By  it- 
self it  means  "English  transla- 
tion", <yr  "translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  "  Where  a  translation 
is  into  any  other  language,  the 
language  is  stated. 

tr.,  tract tractate. 

V see  (Lat.  vide). 

Ven Venerable. 

Vol Volume. 

II. — Abbreviations  of  Titles. 

Acta  SS Acta  Sanctorum  (Bollandists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier,  A  nnttoire  pontifical 

catholiqve. 

Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.Gillow,  Bibliographical  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet.  Christ.  Antiq. .. Smith  and  Cheetham  (ed.), 
Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities. 


Diet.  Christ.  Biog.  . .  Smith  and  Wace  (ed.),  Diction- 
ary of  Christian  Biography. 

Diet,  d'arch.  chr^t. .  .Cabrol  (ed.),  Dictionnaire  d'ar- 
cheologie  chritienne  et  de  litur- 
gie. 

Diet,  de  thtol.  cath.  .  Vacant  and  Mangenot  (ed.), 
Dictionnaire  de  thiologie 
catholique. 

Diet.  Nat.  Biog Stephen  and  Lee  (ed.).  Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography. 

Hast.,  Diet,   of  the 

Bible Hastings  (ed.),  A  Dictionary  of 

the  Bible. 

Kirchenlex Wetzer  and  Welte,  Kirchenlexi- 

con. 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Patres  Greed. 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  Patres  Latini. 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  Vigouroux  (ed.),  Dictionnaire  de 
la  Bible. 


Note  I. — Large  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  volumes.  Small  Roman  ntimerals  standing  alone  indicate 
chapters.  Arabic  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  pages.  In  other  cases  the  divisions  are  explicitly  stated.  Thus  "  Rashdall, 
Universities  of  Eiu-ope,  I,  ix"  refers  the  reader  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  first  volume  of  that  work;  *'I,  p.  ix."  would  indicate  the 
ninth  page  of  the  preface  of  the  same  volume. 

Note  II. — Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  particular  work  the  reference  is  always  to 
"Summa  Theologica"  (not  to  "Summa  Philosophise").  The  divisions  of  the  "Sxunma  Theol."  are  indicated  by  a  system  which 
may  best  be  understood  by  the  following  example:  *'  I-II,  Q.  vi,  a.  7,  ad  2  um  "  refers  the  reader  to  the  seventh  article  of  the 
sixth  question  in  the  first  part  of  the  second  part,  in  the  response  to  the  second  objection. 

Note  III. — The  abbreviations  employed  for  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Ecclesiasticus  is  indicated  by 
Ecclus.,  to  distinguish  it  from  Ecclesiastes  (Eccles.).  It  should  also  be  noted  that  I  and  II  Kings  in  D.  V.  correspond  to  I  and  11 
Samuel  in  A.  V. ;  and  I  and  II  Par.  to  I  and  II  Chronicles.  Where,  in  the  spelling  of  a  proper  name,  there  is  a  marked  difiference 
between  the  D.  V.  and  the  A.  V.,  the  form  found  in  the  latter  is  added,  in  parentheses. 


Full    Page   Illustrations  in   Volume   XII 


FAOB 


Philip  II— Titian 4 

Compostela — Church  of  Santiago 90 

Pisa — Baptistery,  Cathedral,  and  Bell  Tower 112 

Pius  VII — Jacques-Louis  David 132 

Pius  IX 136 

Pius  X 138 

Basilica  of  S.  Vitale,  with  Mausoleum  of  Galla  Placidia 142 

Reginald  Cardinal  Pole — Sebastiano  del  Piombo 202 

Tobias  and  the  Angel — Pollajuolo 216 

Page  from  the  Hamburg.  Bible  of  Wolder 224 

Portugal — Hieronymite  Monastery,  etc ....  298 

Portugal — The  Hospital,  Braga,  etc 304 

Prague 340 

Facsimile  of  two  pages  in  Livre  d'Heures  printed  by  Kerver 350 

Facsimile  of  a  page  in  Livre  d'Heures  printed  by  Pigouchet 352 

Pretorium — The  Rock  of  Baris  and  the  Turkish  Barracks,  Jerusalem 404 

Psalter  preserved  in  the  University  Library  at  Utrecht 542 

Pueblo  Dance  and  Group  of  Pueblo  Indians 556 

Pulpits 562 

St.  Genevieve — Puvis  de  Chavannes 586 

Quebec 598 

Raphael ; . . .    646 

Ravenna 666 

Cathedral  of  Notre-Dame,  Reims 730 

Reliquary  in  the  form  of  a  Diptych 734 

Reliquaries  in  the  Church  of  S.  Ursula,  Cologne 738 

Reliquaries 762 

Guido  Reni 768 


Coloured   Plates 

A  Knight  of  Malta— Pinturicchio 102 

./Eneas  Sylvius  created  Cardinal  by  Callistus  III 126 

Presentation  in  the  Temple — Cima 400 


Maps 


Philippine  Islands 16 

Poland 194 

The  Jesuit  Reductions  of  Paraguay 696 


XV 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Philip  II  (Augustus),  King  of  France,  b.  22  or  25 
Aug.,  1165;  d.  at  Mantes,  14  July,  1223,  son  of  Louis 
VII  and  Alix  de  Champagne.  He  was  saved  from  a 
serious  illness  after  a  pilgrimage  made  by  his  father  to 
the  tomb  of  Thomas  a  Becket;  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne  18  .Sept.,  1180.  His  marriage  with  Isabella 
of  Hainault,  niece  of  the  Count  of  Flanders,  the  con- 
flicts which  he  afterwards  sustained  against  the  latter, 
and  the  deaths  of  the  Countess  (1182)  and  Count  of 
Flanders  (1185),  increased  the  royal  power  in  the 
north  of  France.  His  strife  with  Henry  II  of  England 
in  concert  with  the  sons  of  that  monarch,  Henry, 
Richard,  and  John,  resulted  in  1189  in  the  Treaty  of 
Azay-sur-Cher,  which  enhanced  the  royal  power  in 
the  centre  of  France.  The  struggle  with  the  Plantag- 
enets  was  the  ruling  idea  of  Philip  II's  whole  policy. 
Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  having  become  King  of  Eng- 
land, 6  July,  1189,  was  at  first  on  amicable  terms  with 
Philip.  Together  they  undertook  the  Third  Crusade, 
but  quarrelled  in  Palestine,  and  on  his  return  Philip 
II  accused  Richard  of  having  attempted  to  poison 
him.  As  Richard  had  supported  in  Sicily  the  claims 
of  Tancred  of  Lecce  against  those  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  VI,  the  latter  resolved  to  be  avenged.  Richard, 
having  been  taken  captive  on  his  return  from  the  Cru- 
sade by  the  Duke  of  Austria,  was  delivered  to  Henry 
VI,  who  held  him  prisoner.  Philip  II  sent  William, 
Archbishop  of  Reims,  to  Henry  VI  to  request  that 
Richard  should  remain  the  captive  of  Germany  or 
that  he  should  be  delivered  to  Philip  as  his  prisoner. 
Without  loss  of  time  Philip  reached  an  agreement  with 
John  Lackland,  Richard's  brother.  Normandy  was 
delivered  up  by  a  secret  treaty  and  John  acknowl- 
edged himself  Philip's  vassal.  But,  when  in  Feb., 
1194,  Richard  was  set  free  by  Henry  VI,  John  Lack- 
land became  reconciled  with  him  and  endless  conflict 
followed  between  Richard  and  Philip.  On  13  Jan., 
1199,  Innocent  III  imposed  on  them  a  truce  of  five 
years.  Shortly  after  this  Richard  died.  Subsequently 
Philip  defended  against  John,  Richard's  successor,  the 
claims  of  the  young  Arthur  of  Brittany,  and  then 
those  of  Hugh  de  Lusignan,  Count  of  La  Marohe, 
whose  betrothed  had  been  abducted  by  John.  The 
war  between  Philip  and  John,  interrupted  by  the 
truces  imposed  by  the  papal  legates,  became  a  na- 
tional war;  and  in  1206  John  lost  his  possessions  in 
central  France.  Philip  was  sometimes  displeased 
with  the  pontifical  intervention  between  France  and 
the  Plantagenets,  but  the  prestige  of  Innocent  III 
forced  him  to  accept  it.  Protracted  difficulties  took 
place  between  him  and  the  pope  owing  to  the  te- 
nacity with  which  Innocent  III  compelled  respect  for 
the  indissolubility  of  even  royal  marriages. 

In  1190  Philip  lost  his  wife,  Isabella  of  Hainault, 

whom  he  had  married  in  order  to  inherit  Artois,  and  in 

1193  he  married  Ingeburga,  sister  of  Canute  VI,  King 

of  Denmark.    As  he  immediately  desired  to  repudiate 

XIL— 1 


her,  an  assembly  of  complaisant  barons  and  bishops 
pronounced  the  divorce,  but  Ingeburga  appealed  to 
Ronie.  Despite  the  remonstrances  of  Celestine  III, 
Philip,  having  imprisoned  Ingeburga,  married  Agnes 
de  M^ran,  daughter  of  a  Bavarian  nobleman.  Inno- 
cent III,  recently  elected,  called  upon  him  to  repudi- 
ate Agnes  and  take  back  Ingeburga,  and  on  the  king's 
refusal  the  legate,  Peter  of  Capua,  placed  the  kingdom 
under  an  interdict  (1198).  Most  of  the  tjishops  re- 
fused to  publish  the  sentence.  The  Bishops  of  Paris 
and  Senlis,  who  published  it,  were  punished  by  having 
their  goods  confiscated.  At  the  end  of  nine  months 
Philip  appeared  to  yield;  he  feigned  reconciliation 
with  Ingeburga,  first  before  the  legate,  Octavian,  and 
then  before  the  Council  of  Soissons  (May,  1201),  but 
he  did  not  dismiss  Agnes  de  M6ran.  She  died  in  Au- 
gust, 1201,  and  Innocent  III  consented  to  legitimize 
the  two  children  she  had  borne  the  king,  but  Phihp 
persisted  that  Rome  should  pronounce  his  divorce 
from  Ingeburga,  whom  he  held  prisoner  at  Etampes. 
Rome  refused  and  Phihp  dismissed  the  papal  legate 
(1209).  In  1210  he  thought  of  marrying  a  princess 
of  Thuringia,  and  in  1212  renewed  his  importunities 
for  the  divorce  with  the  legate,  Robert  de  Courgon. 
Then,  in  1213,  having  need  of  the  aid  of  the  pope  and 
the  King  of  Denmark,  he  suddenly  restored  Ingeburga 
to  her  station  as  queen. 

Another  question  which  at  first  caused  discord  be- 
tween Philip  II  and  Innocent  III,  and  regarding  which 
they  had  later  a  common  policy,  was  the  question  of 
Germany.  Otto  of  Brunswick,  who  was  Innocent 
Ill's  candidate  for  the  dignity  of  emperor,  was  the 
nephew  of  Richard  and  John  Lackland.  This  was  suffi- 
cient to  cause  Philip  to  interfere  in  favour  of  Philip 
of  Suabia.  They  formed  an  alliance  in  June,  1198,  and 
when  Philip  of  Suabia  was  assassinated  in  1208  Philip 
put  forward  the  candidacy  of  Henry  of  Brabant. 
However,  the  whole  of  Germany  rallied  to  Otto  of 
Brunswick,  who  became  emperor  as  Otto  IV,  and  in 
1209  Philip  feared  that  the  new  emperor  would  in- 
vade France.  But  Otto  IV  quarrelled  with  Innocent 
III  and  was  excommunicated,  and  the  pope  by  an  un- 
expected move  called  upon  Philip  for  subsidies  and 
troops  to  aid  him  against  Otto.  They  agreed  to  pro- 
claim as  emperor  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen,  the 
future  Frederick  II,  Philip  giving  Frederick  20,000 
"marcs"  to  defray  the  cost  of  his  election  (Nov.,  1212). 
Thus  was  inaugurated  the  policy  by  which  France 
meddled  in  the  affairs  of  Germany  and  for  the  first 
time  the  French  king  claimed,  like  the  pope,  to  have  a 
voice  in  the  imperial  election. 

The  accord  established  between  Innocent  and  Philip 
with  regard  to  the  affairs  of  Germany  subsequently 
extended  to  those  of  England.  Throughout  his  reign 
Philip  dreamed  of  a  landing  in  England.  As  early  as 
1209  he  had  negotiated  with  the  English  barons  who 
were  hostile  to  John  Lackland,  and  in  1212  with  the 

1 


PHILIP 


PHILIP 


Irish  and  the  Welsh.  \\'Tien  John  Lackland  subjected 
to  cruel  persecution  the  English  bishops  who,  in  spite 
of  him,  recognized  Stephen  Langton  as  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  Innocent  III  in  1212  placed  England 
under  interdict,  and  the  legate,  Pandulphus,  declared 
that  John  Lackland  had  forfeited  his  throne.  Then 
Philip,  who  received  at  his  court  all  the  exiles  from 
England,  consented  to  go  to  England  in  the  name  of 
Innocent  III  to  take  away  the  crown  from  John  Lack- 
land. It  was  to  be  given  to  his  son,  the  future  Louis 
VIII.  On  22  May,  1213,  the  French  expedition  was  to 
embark  at  Gravelines,  when  it  was  learned  that  John 
Lackland  had  become  reconciled  with  Rome,  and  some 
months  later  he  became  a  vassal  of  the  pope.  Thus 
failed,  on  the  eve  of  its  realization,  the  project  of  the 
French  invasion  of  England.  But  the  legate  of  In- 
nocent III  induced  Philip  to  punish  Ferrand,  Count 
of  Flanders,  who  was  the  ally  of  all  the  enemies  of  the 
king.  At  the  battle  of  Bouvines  (27  July,  1214) 
Ferrand,  who  supported  Otto  IV,  was  taken  prisoner. 
This  battle  is  regarded  as  the  first  French  national 
victory.  Philip  II,  asserting  that  he  had  on  both  sides 
two  great  and  terrible  lions.  Otto  and  John,  excused 
himself  from  taking  part  in  the  Crusade  against  the  Al- 
bigenses.  He  permitted  his  son  Louis  to  make  two 
expeditions  into  Languedoc  to  support  Simon  de 
Montfort  in  1215,  and  Amaury  de  Montfort  in  1219, 
and  again  in  1222  he  sent  Amaury  de  Montfort  two 
hundred  knights  and  ten  thousand  foot  soldiers  under 
the  Archbishop  of  Bourges  and  the  Count  of  La 
Marche.  He  foresaw  that  the  French  monarchy 
would  profit  by  the  defeat  of  the  Albigenses. 

Philip's  reign  was  characterized  by  a  gigantic 
advance  of  the  French  monarchy.  Before  his  time 
the  King  of  France  reigned  only  over  the  He  de 
France  and  Berri,  and  had  no  communication  with 
the  sea.  To  this  patrimony  Philip  II  added  Artois, 
Amienois,  Valois,  Vermandois,  a  large  portion  of 
Beauvaisis,  Normandy,  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraine,  and 
a  part  of  Poitou  and  Saintonge.  His  bailiffs  and 
seneschals  established  the  royal  power  firmly  in  these 
countries.  Paris  became  a  fortified  city  and  attracted 
to  its  university  students  from  different  countries. 
Thanks  to  the  possession  of  Dieppe,  Rouen,  and  cer- 
tain parts  of  Saintonge,  the  French  monarchy  became 
a  maritime  and  commercial  power,  and  Philip  in- 
vited foreign  merchants  to  France.  Flanders,  Pon- 
thieu,  and  Auvergne  became  subject  fiefs,  supervised 
by  agents  of  the  king.  He  exercised  a  sort  of  pro- 
tectorate over  Champagne  and  Burgundy.  Brittany 
was  in  the  hands  of  Pierre  de  Dreux,  a  Capetian  of 
the  younger  branch .  ' '  History ' ' ,  writes  M .  Luchaire, 
"does  not  present  so  many,  such  rapid,  and  such  com- 
plete changes  in  the  fortune  of  a  State" 

Philip  Augustus  did  not  interfere  in  episcopal  elec- 
tions. In  Normandy,  where  the  Plautagenets  had 
assumed  the  custom  of  directly  nominating  the  bishops, 
he  did  not  follow  their  example.  Guillaume  Le  Bre- 
ton, in  his  poem  the  "Philippide",  makes  him  say: 
"I  leave  to  the  men  of  God  the  things  that  pertain 
to  the  service  of  God"  He  favoured  the  emancipa- 
tion of  communes,  desiring  to  be  liked  by  the  middle 
classes  of  the  districts  he  annexed.  He  often  exacted 
a  tax  in  exchange  for  the  communal  charter.  But  he 
did  not  allow  the  communes  to  infringe  on  the  prop- 
erty of  clerics  or  the  episcopal  right  of  jurisdiction.  At 
Noyen  he  intervened  formally  in  behalf  of  the  bishop, 
who  was  threatened  by  the  commune.  He  undertook 
a  campaign  in  defence  of  the  bishops  and  abbots 
against  certain  feudal  lords  whom  he  himself  desired 
to  humiliate  or  weaken.  In  1180,  before  he  was  king, 
he  undertook  an  expedition  into  Berri  to  punish  the 
Lord  of  Charenton,  the  enemy  of  the  monks,  and 
into  Burgundy  whore  the  Count  of  Chalon  and  the 
Lord  of  Beaujou  were  persecuting  the  Church.  In 
1186,  on  the  romplaint  of  the  monks,  he  took  posses- 
sion of  Chatillon-sur-Seine,  in  the  Duchy  of  Burgundy, 


and  forced  the  duke  to  repair  the  wrongs  he  had  com- 
mitted against  the  Church.  In  1210  he  sent  troops  to 
protect  the  Bishop  of  Clermont,  who  was  threatened 
by  the  Count  of  Auvergne. 

But  on  the  other  hand,  in  virtue  of  the  preponder- 
ance which  he  wished  royalty  to  have  over  feudalism, 
he  exacted  of  the  bishops  and  abbots  the  performance 
of  all  their  feudal  duties,  including  military  service; 
although  for  certain  territories  he  was  the  vassal  of 
the  bishops  of  Picardy,  he  refused  to  pay  them  homage. 
Moreover,  hedeclared  with  regard  to  Manasses,  Bishop 
of  Orleans,  that  the  royal  court  was  entitled  to  judge 
at  the  trials  of  bishops,  and  he  made  common  cause 
with  lay  feudalism  in  the  endless  discussions  regarding 
the  province  of  ecclesiastical  tribunals,  which  at  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  were  disposed  to 
extend  their  jurisdiction.  An  ordinance  issued  about 
1206  at  the  instance  of  the  king,  executed  in  Nor- 
mandy and  perhaps  elsewhere,  stipulated  that  in  cer- 
tain cases  lay  judges  might  arrest  and  try  guilty 
clerics,  that  the  right  of  asylum  of  religious  buildings 
should  be  limited,  that  the  Church  might  not  excom- 
municate those  who  did  business  on  Sunday  or  held 
intercourse  with  Jews,  atnd  that  a  citizen  having 
several  children  should  not  give  more  than  half  of  his 
estate  to  that  one  of  his  sons  who  was  a  cleric.  Finally 
he  imposed  on  the  clergy  heavy  financial  exactions. 
He  was  the  first  king  who  endeavoured  to  compel 
clerics  to  pay  the  king  a  tenth  of  their  income.  In 
1188  the  archdeacon  Peter  of  Blois  defeated  this  claim, 
but  in  1215  and  1218  Philip  renewed  it,  and  by  de- 
grees the  resistance  of  the  clergy  gave  way.  Philip, 
however,  was  pious  in  his  own  way,  and  in  the  ad- 
vice which  St.  Louis  gave  to  his  son  he  said  that 
Philip,  because  of  "God's  goodness  and  mercy 
would  rather  lose  his  throne  than  dispute  with  the 
servants  of  Holy  Church".  Thus  the  reputation  left 
by  Philip  II  was  quite  different  from  that  of  Philip 
IV,  or  Frederick  II  of  Germany.  He  never  carried 
out  towards  the  Church  a  policy  of  trickery  or  petty 
vexations,  on  the  contrary  he  regarded  it  as  his  collab- 
orator in  the  foundation  of  French  unity. 

Le  Breton,  La  Philippide,  ed.  Delaborde  (Paris,  1883-5) ; 
RiGOHD  AND  Le  Breton,  Chroniques;  Delisle,  Catalogue  des 
actes  de  Philippe- Auguste  (Paris,  1856);  Luchaire,  Philippe- 
Auguste  in  Lavissb,  Hist,  de  France,  III  (Paris,  1901) ;  Lu- 
chaire, Z/'  UnivfTsite  de  Paris  sous  Philippe- Auguste  (Paria, 
1899) ;  Gautier,  La  France  sous  Philippe- Auguste  (Tours,  1899) ; 
Cartellieri,  Philipp  II  August,  Konig  von  Frankreich  (3  vols., 
Leipzig,  1899-1909) ;  Davidsohn,  Philipp  August  von  Frankreich 
und  Ingeborg  (1888) ;  Walker,  On  the  increase  of  royal  power  in 
France  under  Philip  Augustus  (1888) ;  Hutton,  Philip  Augustus 
(London,  1896). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Philip  II,  King  of  Spain,  only  son  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V,  and  Isabella  of  Portugal,  b.  at  Valladolid, 
21  May,  1527;  d.  at  the  Escorial,  13  Sept.,  1598.  He 
was  carefully  educated  in  the  sciences,  learned  French 
and  Latin,  though  he  never  spoke  anything  but  Cas- 
tilian,  and  also  showed  much  interest  in  architecture 
and  music.  In  1543  he  married  his  cousin,  Maria  of 
Portugal,  who  died  at  the  birth  of  Don  Carlos  (1535). 
He  was  appointed  regent  of  Spain  with  a  council  by 
Charles  V.  In  1554  he  married  Mary  Tudor,  Queen  of 
England,  who  was  eleven  years  his  senior.  This  polit- 
ical marriage  gave  Spain  an  indirect  influence  on  the 
affairs  of  England,  recently  restored  to  Catholicism; 
but  in  1555  Philip  was  summoned  to  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, and  Mary's  death  in  the  same  year  severed  the 
connexion  between  the  two  countries.  At  a  solemn 
conference  held  at  Brussels,  22  Oct.,  1555,  Charles  V 
ceded  to  Philip  the  Low  Countries,  the  crowns  of  Cas- 
tille,  Aragon,  and  Sicily,  on  16  Jan.,  1556,  and  the 
countship  of  Burgundy  on  the  tenth  of  June.  He  even 
thought  of  securing  for  him  the  imperial  crown,  but 
the  opposition  of  his  brother  Ferdinand  caused  him  to 
abandon  that  project.  Having  become  king,  Philip, 
devoted  to  Cathohcism,  defended  the  Faith  through- 
out the  world  and  opposed  the  progress  of  heresy,  and 


PHILIP 


PHILIP 


these  two  things  are  the  key  to  his  whole  reign.  He 
did  both  by  means  of  absolutism.  His  reign  began 
unpleasantly  for  a  Catholic  sovereign.  He  had  signed 
with  France  the  Treaty  of  Vaucelles  (5  Feb.,  1556), 
but  it  was  soon  broken  by  France,  which  joined  Paul 
IV  against  him.  Like  Julius  II  this  pope  longed  to 
drive  the  foreigners  out  of  Italy.  Philip  had  two  wars 
on  his  hands  at  the  same  time,  in  Italy  and  in  the  Low 
Countries.  In  Italy  the  Duke  of  Alva,  Viceroy  of 
Naples,  defeated  the  Duke  of  Guise  and  reduced  the 
pope  to  such  distress  that  he  was  forced  to  make  peace. 
Philip  granted  this  on  the  most  favourable  terms  and 
the  Duke  of  Alva  was  even  obliged  to  ask  the  pope's 
pardon  for  having  invaded  the  Pontifical  States.  In 
the  Low  Countries  Philip  defeated  the  French  at  Saint 
Quentin  (1557)  and  Gravelines  (1558)  and  afterwards 
signed  the  Peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis  (3  April,  1559), 
which  was  sealed  by  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth  of 
Valois,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  Peace  concluded,  Philip, 
who  had  been  detained  in  the  Low  Countries,  returned 
to  Spain.  For  more  than  forty  years  he  directed  from 
his  cabinet  the  affairs  of  the  monarchy.  He  resided 
alternately  at  INIadrid  which  he  made  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  and  in  vilUgiaiures,  the  most  famous  of 
which  is  the  Escorial,  which  he  built  in  fulfillment  of  a 
vow  made  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Saint  Quentin. 

In  Spain,  Philip  continued  the  policy  of  the  Catholic 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  He  was  merciless  in  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Lutheran  heresy,  which  had  appeared 
in  various  parts  of  the  country,  notably  at  Valladolid 
and  Seville.  "If  my  own  son  were  guilty  like  you",  he 
replied  to  a  gentleman  condemned  to  death  for  heresy 
who  had  reproached  him  for  his  cruelty, ' '  I  should  lead 
him  with  my  own  hands  to  the  stake"  He  succeeded 
in  exterminating  Protestantism  in  Spain,  but  encoun- 
tered another  enemy  no  less  dangerous.  The  Moris- 
coes  of  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Granada  had  been 
conquered,  but  they  remained  the  implacable  enemies 
of  their  conquerors,  from  whom  they  were  separated 
by  religion,  language,  dress,  and  manners,  and  they 
plotted  incessantly  with  the  Mussulmans  outside  the 
country.  Philip  wished  to  force  them  to  renounce 
their  language  and  dress,  whereupon  they  revolted 
and  engaged  in  a  bloody  struggle  against  Spain  which 
lasted  three  years  (1567-70)  until  ended  by  Don  Juan, 
natural  son  of  Charles  V.  The  defeated  Moriscoes 
were  transplanted  in  great  numbers  to  the  interior  of 
the  country.  Another  event  of  historical  importance 
in  Philip's  reign  was  the  conquest  of  Portugal  in  1580. 
After  the  death  of  the  young  King  Sebastian  at  the 
battle  of  Alcazar  (1578)  and  that  of  his  successor  the 
aged  Cardinal  Henry  (1580),  Philip  II,  who  through 
his  mother  was  a  grandson  of  King  Emmanuel,  pleaded 
his  title  of  heir  and  sent  the  Duke  of  Alva  to  occupy 
the  country.  This  was  the  only  conquest  of  the  reign. 
Iberian  unity,  thus  realized,  lasted  from  1580  to  1640. 
Other  events  were  the  troubles  in  Aragon,  which  were 
fomented  by  Antonio  Perez,  former  secretary  of  the 
king.  Being  pursued  for  high  treason  he  sought  refuge 
in  his  native  country,  and  appealed  for  protection  to 
its /ueros  that  he  might  not  be  delivered  to  the  Castil- 
ian  judges,  nor  to  the  Inquisition.  The  inhabitants  of 
Saragossa  defended  him  by  force  of  arms  and  he  suc- 
ceeded in  escaping  abroad,  but  Philip  sent  an  army  to 
punish  Aragon,  infringed  on  the  fueros  and  established 
absolutism  in  the  Kingdom  of  Aragon,  hitherto  proud 
of  its  freedom  (1592). 

In  the  Low  Countries,  where  Philip  had  committed 
the  government  to  his  aunt,  Margaret  of  Parma,  the 
nobles,  chafed  because  of  their  want  of  influence, 
plotted  and  trumped  up  grievances.  They  protested 
against  the  presence  in  the  country  of  several  thou- 
sands of  Spanish  soldiers,  against  Cardinal  de  Gran- 
velle's  influence  with  the  regent,  and  against  the  sever- 
ity of  Charles  V's  decrees  against  heresy.  Philip 
recalled  the  Spanish  soldiers  and  the  Cardinal  de 
Granvelle,  but  he  refused  to  mitigate  the  decrees  and 


declared  that  he  did  not  wish  1o  reign  over  a  nation  of 
heretics.  The  difficulties  with  the  Iconoclasts  having 
broken  out  he  swore  to  punish  them  and  sent  thither 
the  Duke  of  Alva  with  an  army,  whereupon  Margaret 
of  Parma  resigned.  Alva  behaved  as  though  in  a  con- 
quered country,  caused  the  arrest  and  execution  of 
Count  Egmont  and  de  Homes,  who  were  accused  of 
complicity  with  the  rebels,  created  the  Council  of 
Troubles,  which  was  popularly  styled  the  "Council  of 
Blood",  defeated  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  his  brother 
who  had  invaded  the  country  with  German  mercena- 
ries, but  could  not  prevent  the  "Sea-beggars"  from 
capturing  Brille.  He  followed  up  his  military  suc- 
cesses but  was  recalled  in  1573.  His  successor  Reque- 
sens  could  not  recover  Leyden.  Influenced  by  the 
Prince  of  Orange  the  provinces  concluded  the  "Pacifi- 
cation of  Ghent"  which  regulated  the  religious  situa- 
tion in  the  Low  Countries  without  royal  intervention. 
The  new  governor,  Don  Juan,  upset  the  calculations 
of  Orange  by  accepting  the  "  Pacification  ",  and  finally 
the  Prince  of  Orange  decided  to  proclaim  Philip's 
deposition  by  the  revolted  provinces.  The  king  re- 
plied by  placing  the  prince  under  the  ban;  shortly 
afterwards  he  was  slain  by  an  assassin  (1584) .  Never- 
theless, the  united  provinces  did  not  submit  and  were 
lost  to  Spain.  Those  of  the  South,  however,  were  re- 
covered one  after  another  by  the  new  governor,  Alex- 
ander Farnese,  Prince  of  Parma.  But  he  having  died 
in  1592  and  the  war  becoming  more  difficult  against 
the  rebels,  led  by  the  great  general  INIaurice  of 
Nassau,  son  of  Wilham  of  Orange,  Philip  II  realized 
that  he  must  change  his  policy  and  ceded  the  Low 
Countries  to  his  daughter  Isabella,  whom  he  espoused 
to  the  Archduke  Albert  of  Austria,  with  the  provision 
that  the  provinces  would  be  returned  to  Spain  in  case 
there  were  no  children  by  this  union  (1598).  (See 
Alva;  Egmont;  Granvelle;  Netherlands.)  The 
object  of  Philip's  reign  was  only  partly  realized.  He 
had  safeguarded  the  religious  unity  of  Spain  and  had 
exterminated  heresy  in  the  southern  Low  Countries, 
but  the  northern  Low  Countries  were  lost  to  him  for- 
ever. 

Philip  had  three  enemies  to  contend  with  abroad, 
Islam,  England,  and  France.  Islam  was  master  of  the 
Mediterranean,  being  in  possession  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  all  the  coast  of  north- 
ern Africa  (Tunis,  Algiers,  Morocco) ;  it  had  just  con- 
quered the  Island  of  Cyprus  and  laid  siege  to  the 
Island  of  Malta  (1505),  which  had  valiantly  repulsed 
the  assault.  Dragut,  the  Ottoman  admiral,  was  the 
terror  of  the  Mediterranean.  On  several  occasions 
Philip  had  fought  against  the  Mussulman  peril,  meet- 
ing alternately  with  success  and  defeat.  He  therefore 
eagerly  joined  the  Holy  League  organized  by  Pius  V 
to  resist  Islam,  and  which  Venice  consented  to  join. 
The  fleet  of  the  League,  commanded  by  Don  Juan, 
brother  of  Philip  II,  inflicted  on  the  Turkish  fleet  the 
terrible  defeat  of  Lepanto  (7  Oct.,  1571),  the  results  of 
which  would  have  been  greater  had  Venice  not  proved 
false  and  if  Pius  V  had  not  died  in  1572.  Neverthe- 
less, the  Turkish  domination  of  the  Mediterranean 
was  ended  and  in  1578  Philip  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  Turks  which  lasted  till  the  end  of  his  reign.  Rela- 
tions of  intimacy  with  England  had  ceased  at  the  death 
of  Mary  Tudor.  Philip  attempted  to  renew  them  by 
his  chimerical  project  of  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  who 
had  not  yet  become  the  cruel  persecutor  of  Cathol- 
icism .  When  she  constituted  herself  the  protectress  of 
Protestant  interests  throughout  the  world  and  did  all 
in  her  power  to  encourage  the  revolt  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, Philip  thought  of  contending  with  her  in  her  own 
country  by  espousing  the  cause  of  Mary  Stuart,  but 
Elizabeth  did  away  with  the  latter  in  1587.  and  fur- 
nished relief  to  the  Low  Countries  against  Philip,  who 
thereupon  armed  an  immense  fleet  (the  Invincible 
Armada)  against  England.  But  being  led  by  an  in- 
competent commander  it  accomplished  nothing  and 


PHILIP 


PHILIP 


was  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  storms  (1588).  This 
was  an  irreparable  disaster  which  inaugurated  Spain's 
naval  decline.  The  EngUsh  corsairs  could  with  im- 
punity pillage  her  colonies  and  under  Drake  even  her 
own  coast;  in  1596  the  Duke  of  Essex  pillaged  the 
flourishing  town  of  Cadiz,  and  the  sceptre  of  the  seas 
passed  from  Spain  to  England.  From  1559  Philip  II 
had  been  at  peace  with  France,  and  had  contented  him- 
self with  urging  it  to  crush  out  heresy.  French  interven- 
tion in  favour  of  the  Low  Countries  did  not  cause  him 
to  change  his  attitude,  but  when  at  the  death  of  Henry 
III  in  1589  the  Protestant  Henry  of  Bourbon  became 
heir  to  the  throne  of  France,  Philip  II  allied  himself 
with  the  Guises,  who  were  at  the  head  of  the  League, 
supplied  them  with  money  and  men,  and  on  several 
occasions  sent  to  their  relief  his  great  general  Alexan- 
der Farnese.  He  even  dreamed  of  obtaining  the  crown 
of  France  for  his  daughter  Isabella,  but  this  daring 
project  was  not  realized.  The  conversion  of  Henry  IV 
(1593)  to  Catholicism  removed  the  last  obstacle  to  his 
accession  to  the  French  throne.  Apparently  Philip  II 
failed  to  grasp  the  situation,  since  he  continued  for 
two  years  more  the  war  against  Henry  IV,  but  his 
fruitless  efforts  were  finally  terminated  in  1595  by  the 
absolution  of  Henry  IV  by  Clement  VIII. 

No  sovereign  has  been  the  object  of  such  diverse 
judgments.  While  the  Spaniards  regarded  him  as 
their  Solomon  and  called  him  "the  prudent  king"  (el 
rey  prudente),  to  Protestants  he  was  the  "demon  of  the 
south"  {dcemon  meridiamis)  and  most  cruel  of  tyrants. 
This  was  because,  having  constituted  himself  the  de- 
fender of  Catholicism  throughout  the  world,  he  en- 
countered innumerable  enemies,  not  to  mention  such 
adversaries  as  Antonio  Perez  and  WiUiam  of  Orange 
who  maligned  him  so  as  to  justify  their  treason.  Sub- 
sequently poets  (Schiller  in  his  "Don  Carlos"), 
romance-writers,  and  publicists  repeated  these  calum- 
nies. As  a  matter  of  fact  Phihp  II  joined  great  quali- 
ties to  great  faults.  He  was  industrious,  tenacious, 
devoted  to  study,  serious,  simple-mannered,  generous 
to  those  who  served  him,  the  friend  and  patron  of  arts. 
He  was  a  dutiful  son,  a  loving  husband  and  father, 
whose  family  worshipped  him.  His  piety  was  fervent, 
he  had  a  boundless  devotion  to  the  Catholic  Faith 
and  was,  moreover,  a  zealous  lover  of  justice.  His 
stoical  strength  in  adversity  and  the  courage  with 
which  he  endured  the  sufferings  of  his  last  illness  are 
worthy  of  admiration.  On  the  other  hand  he  was  cold, 
suspicious,  secretive,  scrupulous  to  excess,  indecisive 
and  procrastinating,  little  disposed  to  clemency  or 
forgetfulness  of  wrongs.  His  religion  was  austere  and 
sombre.  He  could  not  understand  opposition  to  her- 
esy except  by  force.  Imbued  with  ideas  of  absolutism, 
as  were  all  the  rulers  of  his  time,  he  was  led  into  acts 
disapproved  by  the  moral  law.  His  cabinet  policy, 
always  behind-hand  with  regard  to  events  and  ill- 
informed  concerning  the  true  situation,  explains  his 
failures  to  a  great  extent.  To  sum  up  we  may  cite  the 
opinion  of  Baumstark :  "  He  was  a  sinner,  as  we  all  are, 
but  he  was  also  a  king  and  a  Christian  king  in  the  full 
sense  of  the  term". 

Gachard,  Correspondanrp  ile  Philippe  II  sur  les  affaires  des 
Pays  Bas  (Brussels  and  Ghent,  1848-18S1);  Idem,  Lettres  de 
Philippe  II  a  sesfilhs  (Paris,  1884) ;  Idem,  Don  Carlos  et  Philippe 
II  (Pans,  1863) ;  Prescott,  History  of  the  reign  of  Philip  II, 
Kino  of  Spain  (London,  18.5.5);  Cordoba,  Felipe  II,  rey  de 
EspaHa  (Madrid,  1876-78);  Baumstark,  Philippe  II.  Kbnig  von 
Spanien  (Freiburg,  187.5),  tr.  into  French,  Kurth  (1877);  Mon- 
tana, Nueva  luz  y  juicio  rerdadero  sobre  Felipe  II  (Madrid,  1882)' 
FoRNERON,  Histoire  de  Philippe  II  (Paris,  1882) :  Hume  Philip 
II  of  Spain  (London,  1897). 

GODBFROID   KuRTH. 

Philip  IV,  surnamed  le  Bel  (the  Fair),  King  of 
France,  b.  at  Fontainebleau,  1268;  d.  there,  29  Nov., 
1314;  son  of  Philip  III  and  Isabel  of  Aragon;  became 
king,  5  Oct.,  1285,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  and  was 
consecrated  at  Reims,  6  Jan.,  1286,  with  his  wife 
Jeanne,  daughter  of  Henry  I,  King  of  Navarre,  Count 
of  Champagne  and  Brie;  this  marriage  united  these 


territories  to  the  royal  domain.  Having  taken  Viviers 
and  Lyons  from  the  empire,  Valenciennes,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  which  united  themselves  voluntarily  with 
France,  La  Marche  and  Angoumois,  which  he  seized 
from  the  lawful  heirs  of  Hugues  de  Lusignan,  Philip 
wished  to  expel  Edward  I  of  England  from  Guienne, 
all  of  which  province,  with  the  exception  of  Bordeaux 
and  Bayonne,  was  occupied  in  1294  and  1296.  By 
the  Treaty  of  Montreuil,  negotiated  by  Boniface  VIII, 
he  gave  Guienne  as  a  gift  to  his  daughter  Isabel,  who 
married  the  son  of  Edward  I,  on  condition  that  this 
young  prince  should  hold  the  province  as  Philip's 
vassal.  Philip  wished  to  punish  Count  Guy  of  Flan- 
ders, an  ally  of  England,  and  caused  Charles  of  Valoia 
to  invade  his  territory,  but  he  was  defeated  at  Coutrai 
by  the  Flemings,  who  were  roused  by  the  heavy  taxes 
imposed  on  them  by  Philip;  he  took  his  revenge  on 
the  Flemings  at  the  naval  victory  of  Zierichzee  and 
the  land  victory  of  Mons  en  Puelle;  then  in  1305  he 
recognized  Robert,  Guy's  son,  as  his  vassal  and  re- 
tained possession  of  Lille,  Douai,  Orohies,  and  Valen- 
ciennes. Having  thus  extended  his  kingdom,  Philip 
endeavoured  energetically  to  centralize  the  govern- 
ment and  impose  a  very  rigorous  fiscal  system. 
Legists  like  Enguerrand,  Philippe  de  Marigny,  Pierre 
de  Latilly,  Pierre  Flotte,  Raoul  de  Presle,  and 
Guillaume  de  Plassan,  helped  him  to  establish  firmly 
this  royal  absolutism  and  set  up  a  tyrannical  power. 

Ihese  legists  were  called  the  chevaliers  de  V hotel, 
the  chevaliers  es  lois,  the  mililes  regis;  they  were  not 
nobles,  neither  did  they  bear  arms,  but  they  ranked 
as  knights.  The  appearance  of  these  legists  in  the 
Government  of  France  is  one  of  the  leading  events  of 
the  reign  of  Philip  IV.  Renan  explains  its  significance 
in  these  words :  "An  entirely  new  class  of  politicians, 
owing  their  fortune  entirely  to  their  own  merit  and 
personal  efi'orts,  unreservedly  devoted  to  the  king  who 
had  made  them,  and  rivals  of  the  Church,  whose  place 
they  hoped  to  fill  in  many  matters,  thus  appeared  in 
the  history  of  France,  and  were  destined  to  work  a 
profound  change  in  the  conduct  of  public  affairs". 

It  was  these  legists  who  incited  and  supported 
Philip  IV  in  his  conflict  with  the  papacy  and  the  trial 
of  the  Templars.  In  the  articles  Boniface  VIII; 
Clement  V;  Molai;  Templars,  will  be  found  an 
account  of  the  relations  of  Phihp  IV  with  the  Holy 
See;  M.  Lizerand,  in  1910,  has  given  us  a  study  on 
Philip  IV  and  Clement  V,  containing  thirty-seven 
unpubhshed  letters  written  by  the  two  sovereigns. 
The  principal  adviser  of  Philip  in  his  hostile  relations 
with  the  Curia  was  the  legist  Guillaume  de  Nogaret 
(q.  v.).  Renan,  who  made  a  close  study  of  Nogaret's 
dealings  with  Boniface  VIII,  Clement  V,  and  the  Tem- 
plars, thinks  that  despite  his  ardent  profession  of 
Catholic  fidelity  he  was  somewhat  hypocritical,  at  all 
events  "he  was  not  an  honest  man",  and  that  "he 
could  not  have  been  deceived  by  the  false  testimony 
which  he  stirred  up  and  the  sophisms  he  provoked'  . 
Nogaret's  methods  of  combating  Boniface  VIII  and 
the  Templars  are  better  understood  when  we  examine, 
in  Gaston  Paris's  work,  the  curious  trial  of  Guichard, 
Bishop  of  Troyes,  for  witchcraft. 

Another  important  personage  whose  curious  writ- 
ings must  be  read  to  understand  the  policy  of  Philip 
correctly  is  Pierre  Dubois.  He  had  been  a  pupil  of 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
was  a  lawyer  at  Coutances.  In  1300  Dubois  wrote  a 
work  on  the  means  of  shortening  the  wars  afid  conflicts 
of  France;  in  1302  he  published  several  virulent 
pamphlets  against  Boniface  VIII;  between  1304  and 
1308,  he  wrote  a  very  important  work  "De  recupera- 
tione  Terra;  Sancts";  in  1309  alone,  he  wrote  on  the 
question  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  on  the  Eastern 
question,  and  against  the  Templars.  Dubois  started 
from  the  idea  that  France  ought  to  subdue  the  papacy, 
after  which  it  would  be  easy  for  the  King  of  France 
to  use  the  papal  influence  for  his  own  advantage.     He 


PHILIP    II 

TITIAN,    THE  PRADO,    MADRID 


PHILIP 


PHILIP 


wished  his  king  to  become  master  of  the  Papal  States, 
to  administer  them,  to  reduce  the  castles  and  cities 
of  this  state  to  his  obedience,  and  to  force  Tuscany, 
Sicily,  England,  and  Aragon,  vassal  countries  of  the 
Holy  See,  to  do  homage  to  the  King  of  France;  in  re- 
turn the  liing  was  to  grant  the  pope  the  revenues  of  the 
Papal  States.  "It  depends  on  the  pope",  wrote 
he  in  his  work  of  1302,  "to  rid  himself  of  his  worldly 
occupations  and  to  preserve  his  revenues  without 
having  any  trouble  about  them;  if  he  does  not  wish  to 
accept  such  an  advantageous  offer,  he  will  incur  uni- 
versal reproach  for  his  cuindity,  pride,  and  rash 
presumption."  "Clement  V",  continued  Dubois  in 
his  treatise  "  De  recuperatione  Terras  Sanctae", 
"after  having  given  up  his  temporal  possessions  to  the 
King  of  France,  would  be  protected  against  the 
miasma  of  Rome,  and  would  live  long  in  good  health, 
in  his  native  land  of  France,  where  he  would  create 
a  sufficient  number  of  French  cardinals  to  preserve  the 
papacy  from  the  rapacious  hands 
of  the  Romans."  Dubois  de- 
sired not  only  that  the  King  of 
France  should  subjugate  the 
papacy,  but  that  the  empire 
should  be  forced  to  cede  to  France 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  Pro- 
vence, Savoy,  and  all  its  rights 
in  Liguria,  Venice,  and  Lombardy 
In  1308,  after  the  death  of  the 
Emperor  Albert  I,  he  even  thought 
of  having  the  pope  confer  the 
imperial  crown  on  the  French 
Capets.  He  also  devised  plans 
for  subjugating  Spain.  Thus  re- 
organized by  France  Christian 
Europe  was  (in  the  mind  of  Pierre 
Dubois)  to  undertake  the  Cru- 
sade; the  Holy  Land  would  be  re- 
conquered, and  on  the  return,  the 
Palaeologi,  who  reigned  at  Con- 
stantinople, would  be  replaced  by 
the  Capetian,  Charles  of  Valois, 
representing  the  rights  of  Cather- 
ine de  Courtenay  to  the  Latin 
Empire  of  Constantinople.  The 
personal  influence  of  Pierre  Du- 


Universelle  ",  1575. 


bois  on  Philip  IV  must  not  be  ex-  Ph""p  'V  as  he  entered  Paris  in   1304  after 

,     J  Alii-  1-       11   u-  -i.         CONQTJEHINQ  THE  FLEMISH  COMMUNES.       STATUE 

aggerated.    Although  all  his  writ-       placed  in  the  Cathedral  of  Notre-Dame 

ings  were  presented  to  the  king,         and  destroyed  in  1772.     Facsimile  of  a 

Dubois  never  had  an  official  place        Woodcut  from  Thevet's  "Cosmographie 

in    Philip's    council.      However, 

there  is   an  indisputable    parallelism    between    his 

ideas  and  certain  political  manoeuvres  of  Philip  IV. 

For  instance  on  9  June,  1308,  Philip  wrote  to  Henry 

of  Carinthia,  King  of  Bohemia,  to  propose  Charles 

of  Valois  as  a  candidate  for  the  crown  of  Germany; 

and  on  11  June  he  sent  three  knights  into  Germany 

to  offer  money  to  the  electors.     This  was  fruitless 

labour,  however,  for  Henry  of  Luxemburg  was  elected 

and  Clement  V,  less  subservient  to  the  King  of  France 

than  certain  enemies  of  the  papacy  have  said,  hastened 

to  confirm  the  election. 

Philip  IV  was  not  really  a  free-thinker;  he  was  re- 
ligious, and  even  made  pilgrimages:  his  attitude  to- 
wards the  inquisition  is  not  that  of  a  free-thinker,  asis 
especially  apparent  in  the  trial  of  the  Franciscan  Ber- 
nard Delicieux.  The  latter  brought  the  deputies  of 
Carcassonne  and  Albi  to  Philip  IV  at  Senlis,  to  com- 
plain of  the  Dominican  inquisitors  of  Languedoc;  the 
result  of  his  action  was  an  ordinance  of  Philip  putting 
the  Dominican  inquisitors  under  the  control  of  the 
bishops.  On  the  receipt  of  this  news  Languedoc  be- 
came inflamed  against  the  Dominicans;  Bernard  Deli- 
cieux in  1303  headed  the  movement  in  Carcassonne, 
and  when  in  1304  Philip  and  the  queen  visited  Tou- 
louse and  Carcassonne,  he  organized  tumultuous  mani- 
festations.    The  king  was  displeased,  and  discontin- 


ued his  proceedings  against  the  Dominicans.  Then 
Bernard  Delicieux  and  some  of  the  people  of  Carcas- 
sonne conspired  to  deliver  the  town  into  the  hands  of 
Prince  Fernand,  Infant  of  Majorca;  Philip  caused  six- 
teen of  the  inhabitants  to  be  hanged,  and  imposed  a 
heavy  fine  on  the  town;  and  this  conspiracy  of  Ber- 
nard Delicieux  against  the  king  and  the  Inquisition 
was  one  of  the  reasons  of  his  condemnation  later  in 
1318  to  perpetual  In  Pace,  or  monastic  imprisonment. 
Phihp  IV  was  not  therefore  in  any  way  a  systematic 
adversary  of  the  inquisition.  On  the  other  hand,  re- 
cently published  documents  show  that  he  was  sin- 
cerely attached  to  the  idea  of  a  Crusade.  From  the 
memoirs  of  Rabban  Cauma,  ambassador  of  Argoun, 
King  of  the  Tatars,  translated  from  the  Syriac  by 
Abb6  Chabot,  we  learn  that  Philip  said  to  Rabban  in 
Sept.,  1287:  "If  the  Mongohans,  who  are  not  Chris- 
tians, fight  to  capture  Jerusalem,  we  have  much  more 
reason  to  fight;  if  it  be  God's  will,  we  will  go  with  an 
army."  And  the  news  of  the  fall 
of  Saint-Jean  d'Acre  (1291),  which 
induced  so  many  provincial  coun- 
cils to  express  a  desire  for  a  new 
crusade  was  certainly  calculated 
to  strengthen  this  resolution  of 
the  king.  We  have  referred  to 
Dubois's  zeal  for  the  conquest  of 
the  Holy  Land;  Nogaret  was  per- 
haps a  still  stronger  advocate  of 
the  project;  but  in  the  plan  which 
he  outlined  about  1310,  the  first 
step,  according  to  him,  was  to 
place  all  the  money  of  the  Church 
of  France  in  the  king's  hands. 

The  French  Church  under  Philip 
IV  displayed  very  little  indepen- 
dence; it  was  in  reality  enslaved  to 
the  royal  will.    Almost  every  year 
it  contributed  to  the  treasury  with 
or  without  the  pope's  approval,  a 
tenth  and  sometimes  a  fifth  of 
its    revenues;  these  pecuniary 
sacrifices  were  consented  to  by 
the    clergy   in   the    provincial 
councils,  which  in  return  asked 
certain  concessions  or  favours  of 
the   king;   but    Philip's   fiscal 
agents,  if  they  met  with  resis- 
tance, laid  down  the  principle 
that  the  king  could  by  his  own 
authority  collect  from  all  his 
subjects,  especially  in  case  of  necessity,  whatever  taxes 
he  wished.    His  officers  frequently  harassed  the  clergy 
in  a  monstrous  manner;  and  the  documents  by  which 
Philip  confirmed  the  immunities  of  the  Church  always 
contained  subtle  restrictions  which  enabled  the  king's 
agents  to  violate  them. 

A  list  of  the  gravamina  of  the  Churches  and  the 
clerics,  discussed  at  the  Council  of  Vienne  (1311), 
contains  ample  proof  of  the  abuse  of  authority  to 
which  the  Church  was  subjected,  and  the  writer  of  the 
poem  "Avisemens  pour  le  roy  Loys",  composed  in 
1315  for  Louis  X,  exhorted  this  new  king  to  live  in 
peace  with  the  Church,  which  Philip  IV  had  not  done. 
To  concentrate  in  his  hands  all  the  wealth  of  the 
French  Church  for  the  Crusade,  and  then  to  en- 
deavour to  make  an  agreement  with  the  papacy  for  the 
control  and  disposition  of  the  income  of  the  Universal 
Church,  was  the  peculiar  policy  of  Philip  IV.  Re- 
cently some  verses  have  been  discovered,  written  by  a 
contemporary  on  a  leaf  of  the  register  of  the  delibera- 
tions of  Notre-Dame  de  Chartres,  which  reveal  the 
impression  produced  by  this  policy  on  the  minds  of 
certain  contemporaries: 

Jam  Petri  navis  titubat,  racio  quia  clavis. 
Errat;  rex,  papa,  facti  sunt  unica  capa. 


Declarant,  do,  des,  Pilatus  et  alter  Herodes. 


PHILIP 


6 


PHILIP 


Philip  IV,  by  his  formal  condemnation  of  the  memory 
of  Boniface  VIII,  appointed  himself  judge  of  the  or- 
thodoxy of  the  popes.  It  was  laid  down  as  a  principle, 
says  Geoffrey  of  Paris,  that  "the  king  is  to  submit  to 
the  spiritual  power  only  if  the  pope  is  in  the  right 
faith".  The  adversaries  of  the  "theocracy"  of  the 
Middle  Ages  hail  PhiUp  IV  as  its  destroyer;  and  in 
their  enthusiasm  for  him,  by  an  extraordinary  error, 
they  proclaim  him  a  precursor  of  modern  liberty.  On 
the  contrary  he  was  an  absolutist  in  the  fullest  sense 
of  the  term.  The  Etats  generaux  of  1302,  in  which  the 
Third  Estate  declared  that  the  king  had  no  superior  on 
earth,  were  the  precursors  of  the  false  Galilean  theo- 
ries of  Divine  right,  so  favourable  to  the  absolutism  of 
sovereigns. 

The  civihzation  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  based  on 
a  great  principle,  an  essentially  hberal  principle,  from 
which  arose  the  political  liberty  of  England;  according 
to  that  principle,  taxes  before  being  raised  by  royal 
authority,  ought  to  be  approved  by  the  tax-payers. 
Boniface  VIII  in  the  conflict  of  1302  was  only  main- 
taining this  principle,  when  he  insisted  on  the  consent 
of  the  clergy  to  the  collection  of  the  tithes.  In  the 
struggle  between  Philip  and  Bos^f  ace,  Philip  represents 
absolutism,  Boniface  the  old  medieval  ideas  of  auton- 
omy. "The  reign  of  Philip  IV " ,  writes  Renan,  ' ' is  the 
reign  which  contributed  most  to  form  the  France  of 
the  five  succeeding  centuries,  with  its  good  and  bad 
qualities.  The  milites  regis,  those  ennobled  plebeians, 
became  the  agents  of  all  important  political  business; 
the  princes  of  the  royal  blood  alone  remained  superior 
to  or  on  an  equality  with  them ;  the  real  nobility,  which 
elsewhere  established  the  parliamentary  governments, 
was  excluded  from  participating  in  the  public  policy. " 
Renan  is  right  in  declaring  that  the  first  act  of  the 
French  magistracy  was  "to  diminish  the  power  of  the 
Church  per  fas  et  nefas"  to  estabhsh  the  absolutism  of 
the  king;  and  that  such  conduct  was  for  this  magis- 
tracy "an  original  sin" 

I-IistorienB  de  la  France,  t.  XX,  XXIII;  Langlois  in  Lavisse, 
Hi^toire  de  France,  III  (Paris,  11103);  Boutahic,  La  France  sous 
Philippe  le  Bel  (Paris,  1861);  Renan,  Eludes  suT  I'hialoire  re- 
ligieuse  du  r'egne  de  Philippe  le  Bel  {Paris,  1899) ;  Wenck,  Philipp 
der  Schone  von  Fraakreich,  seine  Per^oniichkeit  und  das  Urleil  der 
Zeitgenosscn  (Marburg,  1905) ;  Finke,  Zur  Charakleristik  Philipps 
des  Schonen  in  hi itleilungen  des  Instiluts  fur  oslerreichische  Ge~ 
schichte,  XXVI  (1905);  Melanges  sur  le  Regne  de  Philippe  le  Bel: 
recueil  d'articles  extrails  du  Moyen  Age  (Ch41on-sur-Sa6ne,  1906) ; 
Holtzmann,  Wilhelm  von  Nogaret  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1897) ;  Paris,' 
Un  proems  criminel  sous  Philippe  le  Bel  in  Revue  du  Palais  (Aug.. 
1898) ;  Langlois,  Les  papters  de  G,  de  Nogarel  el  de  G.  de  Plaisians 
Tresor  des  Charles  (Nolices  el  extrails  des  manuscrits),  XXXIV; 
Langlois,  Doleances  du  clerg^  de  France  au  temps  de  Philippe  le 
Bel  in  Revue  Bleue  (9  Sept.,  and  14  Oct.,  1905) ;  Lizehand,  CUment 
V  et  Philippe  IV le  Bel  {Paris,  1910);  Ahguillieke,  L'Appel  au 
concile  sous  Philippe  le  Bel  et  la  genese  des  theories  conciliares  in 
Revue  des  Questions  Historiques  (1911). 

Georges  Gotau. 

Philip,  Acts  of  Saint.  See  Apocrypha,  sub- 
title III. 

Philip,  Antipope.    See  Stephen  IV,  Pope. 

Philip  Benizi,  Saint,  propagator  and  fifth  General 
of  the  Servite  Order,  b.  at  Florence,  Italy,  15  Aug 
1233;  d.  at  Todi,  in  Umbria,  23  Aug.,  1285.  His 
parents  were  scions  of  the  renowned  Benizi  and 
Frescobaldi  families.  After  many  years  of  married 
life  had  left  them  childless,  Philip  was  granted  to 
them  in  answer  to  their  prayers.  When  but  five 
months  old,  on  beholding  St.  Alexis  and  St.  Buona- 
giunta  approaching  in  quest  of  alms,  he  exclaimed: 
"Mother,  here  come  our  Lady's  Servants;  give  them 
an  alms  for  the  love  of  God  "  At  thirteen  years  of  age, 
in  view  of  his  precocious  genius,  he  was'sent  to  the 
University  of  Paris.  Here  he  led  a  life  of  study  and 
edification,  and  after  a  brilliant  career,  completed  his 
course  in  medicine  at  the  University  of  Padua.  He 
practised  medicine  at  Florence  for  one  year,  chiefly 
for  the  benefit  of  the  poor.  As  a  layman  he  lived  like 
a  member  of  a  rehgious  community,  entertaining  high 


icieals.  In  a  vision  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  he  was  finally 
directed  to  enter  the  order  of  her  servants,  known  as 
the  Servites.  St.  Philip  was  received  into  the  order 
in  1254  by  St.  Buonfiglio,  its  first  superior.  Because  of 
his  purity  and  deep  humility,  he  asked  to  be  enrolled 
as  a  simple  brother,  and  was  sent  to  Mt.  Senario  near 
Florence,  there  to  continue  his  life  of  penance  and 
sacrifice.  The  miraculous  fountain  that  sprang  forth 
in  his  grotto  is  still  seen  enclosed  in  a  small  Byzantine 
chapel  built  on  the  native  rock.  In  1258  while  on  a 
journey  to  Siena,  his  great  ability  and  learning,  hith- 
erto concealed  from  his  brethren,  was  accidentally  dis- 
covered. He  was  at  once  ordered  to  prepare  for  Holy 
Orders. 

The  following  year  he  was  ordained  to  the  priest- 
hood by  Bishop  John  Mangiadoro  of  Florence.  He 
made  great  progress  in  sanctity,  drawing  his  inspira- 
tion to  holiness  and  virtue  principally  from  the 
Passion  of  Jesus  and  the  Sorrows  of  Mary.  His  abil- 
ity was  so  recognized  that  he  rose  rapidly  from  one 
post  in  the  order  to  another,  until  finally  on  5  June, 
1267,  he  was  unanimously  chosen  Superior  General. 
In  this  position  his  administrative  powers  and  apos- 
tolic zeal  enjoyed  a  broad  field  for  development.  He 
travelled  throughout  Europe  preaching  and  working 
miracles.  Under  his  care  the  order  grew  in  numbers 
and  holiness,  many  of  his  spiritual  children  having 
been  raised  to  the  honours  of  the  altar.  The  greatest 
perhaps  was  St.  Juliana  Falconieri,  foundress  of  the 
Servite  Nuns.  After  the  death  of  Clement  IV  in  1268, 
the  cardinals  were  about  to  choose  St.  Philip  as  his 
successor,  but  the  saint,  learning  of  their  intention, 
fled  secretly  and  remained  in  solitude  until  another 
choice  had  been  made.  In  1274  he  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Lyons,  where  he  possessed  the  rare  and 
apostolic  gift  of  tongues.  When  the  furious  strife 
between  Guelph  and  Ghibelline  was  at  its  height, 
Philip  was  active  everywhere  as  a  peace-maker,  espe- 
cially in  Florence,  Pistoia,  Arezzo,  Forli,  and  Bologna. 
God  having  revealed  to  him  his  approaching  end,  he 
placed  the  government  of  the  order  in  the  hands  of 
Blessed  Lotharingus.  He  then  repaired  to  Todi,  where 
he  selected  the  smallest  and  poorest  convent  for  the 
scene  of  his  death,  which  occurred  after  a  short  illness. 
Many  miracles  were  wrought  at  his  intercession;  even 
the  dead  were  raised  to  life.  He  was  canonized  by 
Clement  IX  in  1671. 

Soulier,  Vie  de  Saint  Philippe  Benizi  (Paris,  1886;  tr.  London, 
1886);  Annates  Ord.  Serv.  B.  M.  V.,  passim;  Life  of  Saint  Philip 
Benizi  (London,  1874)  in  Oratorian  Series,  ed.  Bowden. 

Charles  F.  McGinnis. 

Philip  of  Hesse.     See  Hesse;  Luther,  Martin. 

Philip  of  Jesus,  Saint,  b.  in  Mexico,  date  un- 
known; d.  at  Nagasaki  early  in  February,  1597. 
Though  unusually  frivolous  as  a  boy,  he  joined  the 
Discalced  Franciscans  of  the  Province  of  St.  Didaous, 
founded  by  St.  Peter  Baptista,  with  whom  he  suffered 
martyrdom  later.  After  some  months  in  the  Order, 
Philip  grew  tired  of  monastic  life,  left  the  Franciscans 
in  1589,  took  up  a  mercantile  career,  and  went  to  the 
Philippines,  where  he  led  a  life  of  pleasure.  Later  he 
desired  to  re-enter  the  Franciscans  and  was  again 
admitted  at  Manila  in  1590.  After  some  years  he 
was  to  have  been  ordained  at  the  monastery  in  Mex- 
ico, the  episcopal  See  of  Manila  being  at  'that  time 
vacant.  He  sailed,  12  July,  1596,  but  a  storm  drove 
the  vessel  upon  the  coast  of  Japan.  The  governor 
of  the  province  confiscated  the  ship  and  imprisoned 
its  crew  and  passengers,  among  whom  were  another 
Franciscan,  Juan  de  Zamorra,  two  Augustinians,  and 
a  Dominican.  The  discovery  of  soldiers,  cannon,  and 
amniunition  on  the  ship  led  to  the  suspicion  that  it 
was  intended  for  the  conquest  of  Japan,  and  that  the 
missionaries  were  merely  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
soldiers.    This  was  also  said,  falsely  and  unwarrant- 


PHILIP 


PHILIPPI 


ably,  by  one  of  the  crew  (cf .  Japan,  Christianity  in 
Japan,  Catholicism).  This  enraged  the  Japanese 
Emperor  Hideyoshi,  generally  called  Taiicosama  by 
Europeans.  He  commanded,  8  December,  1596,  the 
arrest  of  the  Franciscans  in  the  monastery  at  Miako, 
now  Kyoto,  whither  St.  Philip  had  gone.  The  reli- 
gious were  kept  prisoners  in  the  monastery  until  30 
December,  when  they  were  transferred  to  the  city 
prison.  There  were  six  Franciscans,  seventeen  Jap- 
anese tertiaries,  and  the  Japanese  Jesuit,  Paul  Miki, 
with  his  two  native  servants.  The  ears  of  the  prison- 
ers were  cropped  on  3  January,  1597,  and  they  were 
paraded  through  the  streets  of  Kyoto;  on  21  January 
they  were  taken  to  Osaka,  and  thence  to  Nagasaki, 
which  they  reached  on  5  February.  They  were  taken 
to  a  mountain  near  the  city,  "Mount  of  the  Mar- 
tyrs", bound  upon  crosses,  after  which  they  were 
pierced  with  spears.  St.  Philip  was  beatified  in  1627 
by  Urban  VIII,  and,  with  his  companions,  canonized 
8  June,  1862,  by  Pius  IX.  He  is  the  patron  saint  of 
the  city  of  Mexico. 

RiBADENEGRA,  Histovia  de  las  Istas  del  Archipi^lago  y  Reynos 
de  la  Gran  China,  Tartaria  .  .  .  ?/ Japon,  V,  VI  (Barcelona,  1601); 
these  are  sometimes  wrongly  cited  as  Adas  del  martirio  de  San 
Pedro  Bautista  y  sus  compafleros  (Barcelona,  1601) ;  Archivum 
franc,  hist.,  I  (Quaracchi,  1908),  536  sqq.;  Francisco  de  S. 
Antonio,  Chron,  de  la  apostol.  prov.  de  S.  Gregorio  ...  in  Las 
Islas  Philipinas,  III  (Manila,  1743),  31  sqq.:  Ada  SS.,  Feb.,  I, 
723  sqq. ;  Gehonimo  de  Jesus,  Hist,  delta  Christandad  del  Japan 
(1601) :  DA  CivEZZA,  Saggio  di  Bibliog.  Sanfrancesc.  (Prato,  1879), 
250,  590  sqq.,  523;  Idem,  Storia  univ.  delle  missioni  franc,  VII, 
ii  (Prato,  1891),  883  sqq.;  da  Orima,  Storia  dei  ventitre  Martiri 
Giapponesi  dell'  Ord.  Min.  Osserv.  (Rome,  1862);  Melchiorri, 
Annal.  Ord.  Min.  (Ancona,  1869),  101  sqq.,  218  sqq.,  260  sqq. 

Michael  Bihl 

Philip  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  (Esprit  Julien;, 
Discalced  Carmelite,  theologian,  b.  at  Malaucene,  near 
Avignon,  1603;  d.  at  Naples,  28  February,  1671.  He 
took  the  habit  at  Lyons  where  he  made  his  profession, 
8  September,  1621.  Choosing  the  missionary  life,  he 
studied  two  years  at  the  seminary  in  Rome  and  pro- 
ceeded in  February,  1629,  to  the  Holy  Land  and  Per- 
sia, and  thence  to  Goa  where  he  became  prior,  and 
teacher  of  philosophy  and  theology.  After  the  martyr- 
dom of  Dionysius  a  Nativitate,  his  pupil,  and  Re- 
demptus  a  Cruce,  29  Nov.,  1638,  Philip  collected  all 
available  evidence  and  set  out  for  Rome  to  introduce 
the  cause  of  their  beatification  which,  however,  only 
terminated  in  1900.  He  did  not  return  to  the  mission, 
but  was  entrusted  with  important  offices  in  France,  in 
1665,  was  elected  general  of  the  order  with  residence 
in  Rome,  and  three  years  later,  re-elected.  While 
visiting  all  the  provinces  of  his  order,  he  was  caught 
in  a  terrific  gale  off  the  coast  of  Calabria,  and  reached 
Naples  in  a  dying  condition.  Besides  the  classical  lan- 
guages he  spoke  fluently  French,  Italian,  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  Persian,  and  Arabic.  Of  his  numerous 
works  the  following  have  lasting  value:  "Summa  phil- 
osophise", 4  vols.,  Lyons,  1648,  in  which  he  follows  not 
only  the  spirit  but  also  the  method  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas;  "Summa  theologiae  thomisticae",  5  vols., 
Lyons,  1653;  "Summa  theologiae  mysticse",  Lyons, 
1656,  reprinted  in  3  vols.,  Paris,  1884;  "Itinerarium 
orientale",  Lyons,  1649,  also  in  Italian  and  French; 
"Decor  Carmeli  religiosi",  the  lives  of  the  saints  and 
saintly  members  of  his  Order,  Lyons,  1665;  "Theolo- 
gia  carmelitana",  Rome,  1665.  The  two  last  named 
and  some  smaller  works  dealing  to  some  extent  with 
historical  matters  of  a  controversial  nature,  called 
forth  a  reply  from  Pierre-Joseph  de  Haitze,  under  the 
titles,  "Des  Moines  empruntSz",  and  "Des  Moines 
travestis". 

Henricus  a  SS.  Sacramento,  Collectio  Scriptorum  Ord.  Car-mel. 
Excalc,  II  (Savona,  1884),  110. 

B.  Zimmerman. 

Philippe  le  Bel.    See  Philip  TV,  King  of  France. 

Philippi  (Gr.  <t>l\tiriroi,  Lat.  Philippi)  was  a  Mace- 
donian town,  on  the  borders  of  Thracia.  Situated  on 
the  summit  of  a  hill,  it  dominated  a  large  and  fertile 


plain,  intersected  by  the  Egnatian  Way.  It  was 
north-west  of  Mount  Pangea,  near  the  River  Gangites, 
and  the  .iEgean  Sea.  In  358  b.  c.  it  was  taken, 
enlarged,  and  fortified  by  the  King  of  Macedonia, 
Philip  II,  hence  its  name  Philippi.  Octavius  Augustus 
(42  B.  c.)  conferred  on  it  the  jus  lialicum  (Acts,  xiv, 
12),  which  made  the  town  a  miniature  Rome,  and 
granted  it  the  institutions  and  privileges  of  the  citi- 
zens of  Rome.  That  is  why  we  find  at  Philippi,  along 
with  a  remnant  of  the  Macedonians,  Roman  colonists 
together  with  some  Jews,  the  latter,  however,  so  few 
that  they  had  no  synagogue,  but  only  a  place  of 
prayer  {irpoffevx^) .  Philippi  was  the  first  European 
town  in  which  St.  Paul  preached  the  Faith.  He  ar- 
rived there  with  Silas,  Timothy,  and  Luke  about  the 
end  of  52  a.  d.,  on  the  occasion  of  his  second  Apostolic 
voyage.  The  Acts  mention  in  particular  a  woman 
called  Lydia  of  Thyatira,  a  seller  of  purple,  in  whose 
house  St.  Paul  probably  dwelt  during  his  stay  at 
Philippi.  His  labours  were  rewarded  by  many  con- 
versions (Acts,  xvi),  the  most  important  taking  place 
among  women  of  rank,  who  seem  to  have  retained 
their  influence  for  a  long  time.  The  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians  deals  in  a  special  manner  with  a  dispute 
that  arose  between  two  of  them,  Evodia  and  Syntyche 
(iv,  2).  In  a  disturbance  of  the  populace,  Paul  and 
Silas  were  beaten  with  rods  and  cast  into  prison,  from 
which  being  miraculously  delivered,  they  set  out  for 
Thessalonica.  Luke,  however,  continued  to  work  for 
five  years. 

The  Philippians  remained  very  attached  and  grate- 
ful to  their  Apostle  and  on  several  occasions  sent  him 
pecuniary  aid  (twice  to  Thessalonica,  Phil.,  iv,  14-16; 
once  to  Corinth,  II  Cor.,  xi,  8-9;  and  once  to  Rome, 
Phil.,  iv,  10-18.  See  Philippians,  Epistle  to  the). 
Paul  returned  there  later;  he  visited  them  on  his 
second  journey,  about  58,  after  leaving  Ephesus  (Acts, 
XX,  1-2).  It  is  believed  that  he  wrote  his  Second 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  at  Philippi,  whither  he 
returned  on  his  way  back  to  Jerusalem,  passing  Easter 
week  there  (Acts,  xx,  5-6).  He  always  kept  in  close 
communication  with  the  inhabitants.  Having  been 
arrested  at  Caesarea  and  brought  to  Rome,  he  wrote 
to  them  the  Epistle  we  have  in  the  New  Testament, 
in  which  he  dwells  at  great  length  on  his  predilection 
for  them  (i,  3,  7;  iv,  1;  etc.).  Paul  probably  wrote 
them  more  letters  than  we  possess;  Polycarp,  in  his 
epistle  to  the  Philippians  (II,  1  sq.),  seems  to  allude  to 
several  letters  (though  the  Greek  word,  ^?ria-ToXa(,  is 
used  also  in  speaking  of  a  single  letter),  and  Paul 
himself  (Phil.,  iii,  1)  seems  to  refer  to  previous  writ- 
ings. He  hoped  (i,  26;  ii,  24)  to  revisit  Philippi  after 
his  captivity,  and  he  may  have  written  there  his  First 
Epistle  to  Timothy  (Tim.,  i,  3).  Little  is  known 
of  the  subsequent  history  of  the  town.  Later  it  was 
destroyed  by  the  Turks;  to-day  nothing  remains  but 
some  ruins. 

For  bibliography  see  Philippians,  Epistle  to  the. 

A.  Vander  Heeren. 

Philippi,  a  titular  metropolitan  see  in  Macedonia. 
As  early  as  the  sixth  century  b.  c.  we  learn  of  a  region 
called  Datos,  overrun  by  the  inhabitants  of  Thasos, 
in  which  there  was  an  outlying  post  called  Crenides 
(the  little  springs),  and  a  seaport,  Neapolis  or  Cavala. 
About  460  B.  c.  Crenides  and  the  country  lying  inland 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Thracians,  who  doubtless 
were  its  original  inhabitants.  In  360  the  Thasians, 
aided  by  CaUistratus  the  Athenian  and  other  exiles, 
re-established  the  town  of  Datos,  just  when  the  dis- 
covery of  auriferous  deposits  was  exciting  the  neigh- 
bouring peoples.  Philip  of  Macedonia  took  possession 
of  it,  and  gave  it  his  name,  Philippi  in  the  plural,  as 
there  were  different  sections  of  the  town  scattered  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Pangaeus.  He  erected  there  a  for- 
tress barring  the  road  between  the  Pangaeus  and  the 
Haemus.    The  gold  mines,  called  Asyla,  which  were 


PHILIPPIANS  8 

energetically  worked,  gave  Philip  an  annual  revenue 
of  more  than  1000  talents.  In  168  b.  c.  the  Romans 
captured  the  place.  In  the  autumn  of  42  b.  c.  the 
celebrated  battle  between  the  triumvirs  and  Brutus 
and  Cassius  was  fought  on  the  neighbouring  marshy 
plain.  In  the  first  conflict  Brutus  triumphed  over 
Octavius,  whilst  Antony  repulsed  Cassius,  who  com- 
mitted suicide.  Unable  to  maintain  discipline  in  his 
army,  and  defeated  twenty  days  later,  Brutus  also 
took  his  life.  The  same  year  a  Roman  colony  was 
established  there,  which  after  the  battle  of  Actium 
took  the  name  of  Colonia  Augusta  Julia  Philippensis. 
When  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch  and  the  martyrs  Zosi- 
mus  and  Rufus  were  passing  through  Philippi,  St. 
Ignatius  told  the  Christians  of  that  town  to  send  a 
letter  of  congratulation  to  the  faithful  of  Antioch. 
They  therefore  wrote  to  Polj'carp  of  Smyrna,  asking 
him  at  the  same  time  for  the  writings  of  St.  Ignatius. 
Polycarp  answered  them  in  a  letter,  still  extant,  which 
was  written  before  the  death  of  St.  Ignatius. 

Although  the  Church  of  Philippi  was  of  Apostolic 
origin,  it  was  never  very  important ;  it  was  a  sufTragan 
bishopric  of  Thessalonica.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century  it  ranked  as  a  metropolitan  see  and  had 
six  suffragan  dioceses;  in  the  fifteenth  century  it  had 
only  one,  the  See  of  Eleutheropolis.  The  Archdiocese 
of  Cavala  was  reunited  to  the  metropolis  in  Decem- 
ber, 1616.  In  1619,  after  a  violent  dispute  with  the 
Metropolitan  of  Drama,  Clement,  the  titular  of 
Philippi,  got  permission  to  assume  the  title  of  Drama 
also,  and  this  was  retained  by  th«  Metropolitan  of 
Phihppi  until  after  1 72 1 ,  when  it  was  suppressed  and  the 
metropolis  of  Drama  alone  continued.  In  the  "Echos 
d;Orient",  III,  262-72,  the  writer  of  this  article  com- 
piled a  critical  hst  of  the  Greek  titulars  of  Philippi, 
containing  sixty-two  names,  whereas  only  eighteen 
are  given  in  Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christianus",  II,  67-70. 
Some  Latin  titulars  are  cited  in  Eubel,  "Hierarchia 
cathohca  medii  x\i",  I,  41S;  II,  238;  III,  291;  Le 
Quien, op. cit., Ill,  1045.  Inthemiddleofthefourteenth 
century,  PhiUppi  is  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the 
wars  between  John  V,  Palaeologus,  and  Cantacuzenus, 
who  ha,s  left  a  description  of  it  (P.  G.,  CLIV,  336). 
The  ruins  of  Philippi  lie  near  the  deserted  hamlet  of 
Filibedjik,  fifteen  kilometres  from  Cavala,  in  the 
vilayet  of  Salonica;  they  contain  the  remains  of  the 
acropolis,  a  theatre  anterior  to  the  Roman  occupa- 
tions, a  temple  of  S^'lvanus,  and  numerous  sculptured 
rocks  bearing  inscriptions. 

Leake,  Northern  Greece,  III,  215-23;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and 
Rom.  Geog.,  s.  v.;  Segnitz,  Be  Philippensibus  tanquam  luminaria 
m  mundo  (Leipzig,  172S);  Hoog,  De  coetus  chrislianorum  Philip- 
pensLi  condilione  prima  (Leyden,  1823);  Heuzet,  Mission  arc/ieoZo- 
gxque  de  Macedoine  (Paris,  1876),  1-124;  MehtzidJis,  Philippes 
(Constantinople,  1.S97),  in  Greek;  Tomaschek,  Zur  Kunde  der 
Hamus-HaUnnsel  (Vienna,  1897),  77;  Fillion  in  Did.  de  la  Bible. 
B.  V. 

S.  Vailhb. 

Philippians,  Epistle  to  the. — I.  Historical 
Circumstances,  Occasion,  and  Character  (see  also 
Philippi). — The  Philippians,  who  were  much  en- 
deared to  St.  Paul  (i,  3,  7;  iv,  1),  had  already  on 
former  occasions  and  under  various  circumstances 
sent  him  pecuniary  aid,  and  now  on  learning  of  his 
imprisonment  at  Rome  (Acts,  xxvii-xxviii)  they  sent 
to  him  Epaphroditus,  one  of  their  number,  to  bear 
him  alms  and  minister  to  his  needs  (ii,  25-29;  iv,  18). 
St.  Paul  received  him  gladly,  rejoicing  in  the  affec- 
tionate and  Christian  sentiments  of  the  Philippians 
(iv,  10-19),  and  in  the  generally  satisfactory  condition 
of  their  Church  as  reported  to  him  by  Epaphroditus. 
It  may  be  that  Epaphroditus  had  been  the  Apostle's 
companion  and  assistant  at  Philippi  (ii,  2.5) ;  at  least 
he  became  such  at  Rome  (ii,  30),  but  he  fell  danger- 
ously ill  and  was  at  the  point  of  death  (ii,  27).  This 
news  was  distressing  to  the  Philippians,  and  as  soon 
as  he  recovered  he  was  eager  to  return  home  (ii,  26). 
Paul  therefore  hastened  to  send  him  (ii,  26-28)  and 


PHILIPPIANS 

profited  by  the  opportunity  to  confide  to  him  a  letter 
to  the  faithful  and  the  heads  of  his  Church.  In  this 
^tter,  probably  written  by  Timothy  at  his  dictation, 
Paul  expresses  the  sentiments  of  joy  and  gratitude 
which  he  cherishes  in  regard  to  the  Philippians.  "TViig 
is  the  keynote  of  the  letter.    It  is  an  outpouring  ; 

heart,  breathing  a  wholly  spontaneous  and  patc^al 
intimacy.  In  it  the  loving  heart  of  the  Apostle  re- 
veals itself  completely,  and  the  affectionate  tone,  sin- 
cerity, and  delicacy  of  the  sentiments  must  have 
charmed  its  readers  and  won  their  admiration  and 
love.  Hence  this  letter  is  much  more  epistolary  in 
style  than  the  other  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  Familiar 
expressions  of  joy  and  gratitude  are  mingled  with 
dogmatic  reflexions  and  moral  exhortation,  and  it  is 
useless  to  seek  for  orderly  arrangement  or  strict 
sequence. 

On  the  other  hand,  although  the  general  condition 
of  the  Church  of  Philippi  was  excellent  and  St.  Paul 
did  not  have  to  deal  with  grave  vices,  there  were 
nevertheless  certain  things  which  were  not  altogether 
satisfactory  or  which  aroused  apprehension.  Paul 
had  heard  that  the  pride  and  vainglory  of  some,  espe- 
cially of  two  women,  E  vodia  and  Sy  ntyche,  had  aroused 
misunderstandings  and  rivalries.  Moreover  a  greater 
and  more  serious  danger  threatened  them,  perhaps 
on  the  part  of  Judaizers,  who,  though  there  is  no  need 
to  assume  their  presence  or  propaganda  at  Philippi 
itself,  had,  it  seems,  disseminated  their  baneful  doc- 
trines throughout  the  neighbouring  regions.  Hence 
the  exhortations  to  fraternal  charity  and  concord  as 
well  as  to  disinterestedness;  these  exhortations  (i,  8, 
27;  ii,  2,  3,  14,  16;  iv,  2  sq.)  Paul  bases  on  exalted 
dogmatic  considerations  taken  from  the  example  of 
Christ,  and  he  also  proposes  to  them  the  example  of 
his  own  way  of  thinking  and  acting,  which  had  but  a 
single  object,  the  glory  of  God  and  Christ.  But  when 
he  warns  the  Philippians  against  the  Judaizers  he 
returns  to  the  tone  of  deep  sorrow  and  unmitigated 
indignation  which  characterizes  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians. 

II.  Analysis. — For  the  reasons  stated  above  a  defi- 
nite plan  or  clear  division  must  not  be  sought  in  this 
Epistle.  The  Letter  is  a  succession  of  exhortations  and 
effusions  which  may  be  collected  under  the  following 
heads: — 

A.  Introduction. — After  the  superscription,  in  which 
he  addresses  himself  to  bishops,  deacons,  and  faithful 
(i,  1-2),  St.  Paul  rejoices  in  the  excellent  condition  of 
the  Church  of  the  Philippians  and  gives  thanks  that 
by  their  alms  they  have  shared  in  the  merits  of  his 
captivity  and  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  (3-8) ;  he  loves 
them  all  with  an  intense  love,  ardently  desiring  and 
urgently  entreating  that  God  would  deign  to  complete 
in  them  the  work  of  perfection  (9-11). 

B.  Body  of  the  Epistle. — (1)  Paul  begins  by  giving 
news,  as  a  whole  very  satisfactory — with  regard  to  his 
own  situation  and  that  of  the  Church  in  Rome.  But 
what  he  relates  concerning  himself  must  have  been 
meant  for  a  tacit  but  no  less  eloquent  appeal  to  abne- 
gation a,nd  detachment,  for  Paul  depicts  himself  as 
seeking  in  all  things  not  his  own  glory  or  personal  ad- 
vantage, but  solely  the  glory  of  Christ.  His  captivity 
becomes  to  him  a  cause  of  joy,  since  it  avails  for  the 
propagation  of  the  Gospel  (i,'  12-14) ;  what  does  it  mat- 
ter to  him  that  some  preach  the  Gospel  out  of  un- 
worthy zealotry,  provided  Christ  be  preached?  (IS- 
IS); given  a  choice  of  life  and  death  he  knows  not 
which  he  prefers,  life  which  permits  him  to  do  good  for 
souls,  or  death,  which  shall  be  a  testimony  for  Christ 
and  shall  unite  him  to  Him  (19-25).  He  thinks,  how- 
ever, that  he  will  be  set  free  and  may  still  labour  for  the 
spiritual  progress  of  the  Philippians. 

(2)  He  exhorts  them  more  directly  to  lead  a  life 
worthy  of  the  Gospel  (i,  27a),  and  especially  to  con- 
''?^,  ^P*^  a-bnegation  (i,  27b-ii,  4)  (i)  by  the  example 
ot  Christ  V\  ho  being  in  the  Divine  form  and  possessing 


PHILIPPIANS 


9 


PHILIPPIANS 


supreme  independence  nevertheless,  for  our  good,  anni- 
hilated himself  and  assumed  the  condition  of  a  slave, 
even  undergoing  death ;  (ii)  by  the  desire  for  a  heavenly 
reward,  such  as  Christ  received  (ii,  5-1 1 ) .  He  concludes 
■'^y  repeating  his  general  exhortation  to  Christian  per- 
tion  and  by  affirming  that  to  procure  them  this  per- 
lection  he  would  gladly  sacrifice  his  life. 

(3)  The  Apostle  tells  the  Philippians  that  as  soon  as 
he  knows  the  outcome  of  his  affairs  he  will  send  to 
them  Timothy,  his  devoted  companion,  who  is  so  well- 
disposed  towards  the  Philippians  (ii,  19-24);  in  the 
meantime  he  sends  them  Epaphroditus,  his  fellow- 
labourer  and  their  delegate  to  him  (see  above);  he 
asks  them  to  receive  him  with  joy  and  to  honour  him 
greatly,  because  of  the  love  which  he  bears  them  and 
the  danger  of  death  to  which  he  was  exposed  while  ful- 
filling his  mission  (25-30). 

(4)  Desiring  to  end  or  abbreviate  his  Epistle  Paul 
begins  the  conclusion  (iii,  la,  the  T6  XoiTriK),  but  sud- 
denly interrupts  it  in  order  again  to  put  the  Philip- 
pians on  their  guard  against  the  Judaizing  teachers, 
which  he  does  by  once  more  presenting  to  them  his 
own  example :  Has  he  not  all  the  benefits  and  titles  in 
which  the  Judaizers  are  accustomed  to  glory  and  much 
more?  But  all  this  he  has  despised  and  rejected  and 
counted  as  dung  that  he  might  gain  true  justice  and 
perfection,  which  are  secured,  not  by  the  works  of  the 
law,  but  by  faith  (iii,  1-1 1 ) .  This  perfection,  it  is  true, 
he  had  not  yet  attained,  but  he  never  ceased  to  press 
towards  the  mark  and  the  prize  to  which  God  had 
called  him,  thus  refuting  by  his  own  example  those 
who  in  their  pride  call  themselves  perfect  (12-16);  he 
incites  his  readers  to  imitate  him  (17)  and  not  to  fol- 
low those  who,  loving  the  things  of  this  world,  have 
depraved  habits  (18-iv,  1). 

(5)  To  this  general  exhortation  Paul  adds  a  special 
admonition.  He  binds  two  women,  Evodia  and  Syn- 
tyche,  to  concord  (iv,  2-3),  and  exhorts  all  to  spiritual 
joy,  urging  the  observance  of  goodness  and  gentleness 
among  them  (5),  bidding  them  be  disturbed  by  noth- 
ing, but  have  recourse  to  God  in  all  their  anxieties 
(6-7),  and  endeavour  to  attain  to  Christian  perfection 
in  all  things  (8-9). 

C.  Epilogue. — Paul  concludes  his  Epistle  by  a  more 
explicit  renewal  of  thanks  to  the  Philippians  for  their 
alms,  using  the  most  delicate  expressions  and  making 
his  manner  of  acceptance  a  final  exhortation  to  detach- 
ment and  abnegation  (11-19).  This  is  followed  by  the 
Doxology  and  salutations.  Especially  noteworthy  are 
his  salutations  to  those  of  the  household  of  the  em- 
peror (20-23). 

III.  Authenticity,  Unity,  and  Integrity. — The 
authenticity  of  the  Epistle  as  a  whole,  which  was  gen- 
erally accepted  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, was  first  denied  by  the  Tubingen  School  (Baur, 
1845;  Zeller;  Volckmar).  Their  arguments,  namely 
lack  of  originality,  the  evidence  of  a  semi-Gnostic  idea, 
a  doctrine  of  justification  which  could  not  be  that  of 
St.  Paul  etc.,  were  triumphantly  refuted  by  Liine- 
mann,  Bruckner,  Schenkel  etc.  But  other  contra- 
dictors subsequently  arose,  such  as  van  Manen  and 
especially  Holsten  (for  their  chief  arguments  see 
below) .  At  present  the  authenticity  may  be  said  to 
be  universally  admitted  not  only  by  Catholic  exegetes 
but  also  by  most  Protestants  and  Rationalists  (Hilgen- 
feld,  Harnack,  Zahn,  Jiilicher,  Pfleiderer,  Lightfoot, 
Gibb,  Holtzmann). 

(1)  Arguments  from  external  criticism  permit  no 
doubt  on  the  subject.  We  will  not  deal  with  the  quo- 
tations from  or  reminiscences  of  the  Epistle  which 
some  authors  profess  to  find  in  early  ecclesiastical 
writers,  such  as  Clement  of  Rome,  Ignatius  of  Antioch, 
the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  the  Epistle  to  Diognetus  etc. 
(see  Cornely,  "Introductio",  IV,  491;  Jacquier,  p. 
347;  Toussaint  in  "Diet,  de  la  Bible",  =.  v.  Philip- 
piens).  About  120  St.  Polycarp  speaks  explicitly  to 
the  Philippians  of  the  letters  (or  the  letter,  iTurroXal) 


which  Paul  had  written  to  them,  and  some  passages  of 
his  letter  prove  that  he  had  read  this  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians.  Subsequently  the  Muratorian  Canon, 
St.  Irenaeus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  and 
the  Apostolicon  of  Marcion  attribute  it  expressly  to 
St.  Paul.  After  Tertullian  the  testimonies  become 
numerous  and  incontestable  and  the  unanimity  was 
maintained  without  the  slightest  exception  until  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

(2)  Internal  Criticism. — The  difficulties  drawn  from 
the  Epistle  itself,  which  some  authors  have  urged 
against  tradition,  are  misleading,  as  is  now  admitted 
by  the  most  prominent  Rationalists  and  Protestants. 

(a)  Language  and  style:  the  fiTra^  Xe-yd/ieva  (which 
occur  about  forty  times)  prove  nothing  against  the 
Pauline  origin  of  the  Epistle,  since  they  are  met  with 
in  almost  the  same  proportion  in  the  certainly  authen- 
tic Epistles.  Moreover,  certain  words  (about  twenty) 
quite  peculiar  to  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  certain  forms 
of  expression,  figures,  methods  of  style  (i,  22,  27,  29; 
iii,  8,  14),  and  repetitions  of  words  demonstrate  the 
Pauline  character  of  the  Epistle. 

(b)  Doctrine:  the  two  chief  objections  brought  for- 
ward by  Holsten  (Jahrb.  ftlr  Prot.  theol.,  I,  125;  II, 
58,  282)  have  found  little  credit  among  exegetes,  while 
Holsten  himself  in  a  more  recent  work  ("Das  Evan- 
gelium  des  Paulus",  Berlin,  1898,  II,  4)  concedes  that 
the  theology  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  is  thor- 
oughly Pauline.  In  fact  (a)  the  Christology  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  which  portrays  Christ  pre- 
existing in  the  form  of  God  and  made  man  through  the 
Incarnation,  does  not  contradict  that  of  the  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (xv,  45),  which  depicts  the 
Risen  Christ  as  a  heavenly  Man,  clothed  with  His 
glorified  body,  or  that  of  the  other  Epistles  which,  in  a 
simpler  form,  also  show  us  Christ  pre-existing  as  a 
Divine  Being  and  made  man  through  the  Incarnation 
(Gal.,  iv,  4;  Rom.,  viii,  3;  II  Cor.,  viii,  9).  (b)  The 
doctrine  on  justification  by  faith  and  not  by  works  set 
forth  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the  Galatians, 
is  not  contradicted  here  (iii,  6);  if  indeed  St.  Paul 
speaks  here  of  legal  justice  it  is  obviously  to  show  its 
powerlessness  and  nothingness  (7-9) . 

The  unity  and  integrity  of  the  Epistle  have  also 
been  denied  or  doubted  by  some  authors.  Volter  and 
Spitta  maintained  that  this  Epistle  is  a  compilation  of 
another  authentic  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  and  an 
apocryphal  one  written  about  A.  d.  120.  Clemen  saw 
in  it  a  compilation  of  two  authentic  Epistles.  These 
theories  met  with  little  success,  while  the  arguments 
which  have  been  brought  forward  in  their  behalf,  viz. 
the  double  conclusion  (iii,  1,  and  iv,  4)  mingled  with 
personal  details,  moral  counsels,  doctrinal  instructions 
etc.,  are  sufficiently  explained  by  the  familiar  and 
consequently  free  and  unrestrained  character  of  the 
Epistle. 

Place  and  Date. — There  is  not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt 
that  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  was  written  during 
the  Apostle's  captivity  (i,  7,  13,  14,  17;  ii,  24).  More- 
over, it  is  certain  that  it  was  written  not  at  Caesarea,  as 
some  havemaintained,  but  at  Rome  (a.  D.  62-64).  Such 
is  the  nearly  unanimous  opinion  even  of  thosewho  claim 
that  the  three  other  Epistles  of  the  Captivity  were 
written  at  Caesarea  [see  i,  13  (the  praetorium) ;  iv,  22 
(the  house  of  Caesar) ;  i,  17  sqq.  (this  supposes  a  more 
important  Church  than  that  of  Caesarea)].  Critics  do 
not  agree  as  to  whether  the  Epistle  was  written  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sojourn  at  Rome  or  at  the  end,  before 
or  after  the  other  three  Epistles  of  the  captivity. 
Most  of  them  incline  towards  the  second  view  (Meyer, 
Weiss,  Holtzmann,  Zahn,  Jiilicher  etc.).  For  the 
arguments  pro  and  con  see  the  works  of  the  various 
critics.  The  present  author,  however,  is  of  the  opinion 
that  it  was  written  towards  the  end  of  the  captivity. 

The  following  are  general  works  and  commentaries,  in  which 
the  reader  will  find  a  more  extensive  bibliography,  and  informa- 
tion concerning  earlier  works  and  commentaries. 

Beelen,  ComTnentariuB  in  Epistolam  S.  Pauli  ad  Philippensea 


PHILIPPINE 


10 


PHILIPPINE 


(2nd  ed.,  Louvain,  1852);  Idem,  Het  nieuwe  Testament  (Bruges, 
1892);  BispiNG,  ErklHrung  der  Briefe  an  die  Epheser,  Philipper 
und  Kolosser  (Munster,  1866);  Lipsius,  Brief  an  die  Galater, 
Rdmer,  Philipper  (Handcommentar  zum  N.  T.),  adapted  by 
HOLTZMAXN  (2iid  ed.,  Freiburg,  1892);  Moule,  The  Epistle 
to  the  Philippians  (Cambridge,  1895)  ;  Cornely,  Introduclio 
spccialis  in  singulos  N.  T.  libros  (Paris,  1897)  ;  Mullek,  Der 
Ap.  Paulus  Brief  an  die  Philipper  (Freiburg,  1899);  van  Steen- 
KisTE,  Commentarius  in  omnes  S.  Pauli  Epistolas  (Bruges, 
1899)  ;  FuxK,  Patres  Apostolici  (Tabingen,  1901)  ;  Vincent, 
The  Epistles  to  the  Philippians  and  to  Philemon  (2nd  ed., 
Edinburgh,  1902);  Hacpt,  Die  Gefangenschaftsbriefe  (8th  ed., 
Gottingen,  1902);  Jacquiek,  Histoire  des  litres  du  Nomeau 
Testament,  I  (Paris,  1904);  Shaw,  The  Pauline  Epistles  (2nd  ed., 
Edinburgh,  1904);  Clemen,  Paulus,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken 
(Giessen,  1904) ;  Belser,  Einleitung  in  das  neue  Testament  (2nd 
ed.,  Freiburg,  1905);  Le  C.imus,  L'osuvre  des  Apdtres  (Paris, 
1905) ;  PoLZL,  Der  Weltapostel  Paulus  (Ratisbon,  1905) ;  Light- 
foot,  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  (16th  ed.,  London, 
1908)  ;  FiLLiON  in  Vigoohoux,  Did.  de  la,  Bible,  a.  v.  Phi- 
lippes ;  TousSAiNT,  ibid.,  s.  v.  Philippicns;  Idem,  Epitres  de  S. 
Paul  (Paris,  1910);  Phat,  La  Iheologie  de  S.  Paul  (Paris,  1909); 
FoDARD,  Saint  Paul,  ses  dernitires  annees  (Paris,  1910) ;  VlGOTJ- 
roux-Bachez-Brassac,  Manuel  Bihligue,  IV  (Paris,  1911). 

A.  Vandbr  Heerbn. 

Philippine  Islands. — Situation  and  Area. — The 
Philippine  Islands  lie  between  116°  40'  and  126°  34' 
E.  long.,  and  4°  40'  and  21°  10'  N.  lat.  The  islands 
are  washed  by  the  China  Sea  on  the  north  and  west, 
the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  east,  and  the  Sea  of  Celebes 
on  the  south.  They  are  nearly  south  of  Japan,  and 
north  of  Borneo  and  the  Celebes,  with  which  they  are 
connected  by  three  partly-submerged  isthmuses.  The 
archipelago  belongs  to  the  same  geographic  region  as 
Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  Java,  and  therefore  to  Asia 
rather  than  to  Oceanica.  In  all  there  are  3141  islands; 
1668  of  them  are  listed  by  name.  Luzon  has  an  area 
of  40,969  sq.  miles;  Mindanao,  36,292  sq.  m.  Nine 
islands  have  an  area  between  1000-10,000  sq.  m.; 
20  between  100  and  1000  sq.  m.;  73  between  10  and 
100  sq.  m.;  and  262  between  1  and  10  sq.  m.  The  re- 
maining 2775  islands  are  each  less  than  1  sq.  m.  The 
total  area  of  the  islands  is  11.5,026  sq.  m.  The  ex- 
tent of  the  Earth's  surface  included  by  the  boundaries 
of  the  treaty  lines  is  about  800,000  sq.  m. 

Physical  Geography — Fauna  and  Flora. — The  sce- 
nery of  the  islands,  especially  Luzon,  is  very  beautiful. 
The  greatest  known  elevation,  Mt.  Apo,  in  Mindanao, 
is  over  10,000  ft.;  it  was  ascended  for  the  first  time 
by  Father  Mateo  Gisbert,  S.J.,  accompanied  by  two 
laymen,  in  1880.  There  are  twenty  well-known  and 
recent  volcanic  cones,  twelve  of  them  more  or  less 
active.  Mayon  Volcano,  about  8000  ft.,  is  probably 
the  most  beautiful  symmetrical  volcanic  cone  in  the 
world.  There  are  no  very  large  rivers;  the  Cagaydn 
of  northern  Luzon  and  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Agusan, 
both  in  Mindanao,  are  more  than  200  miles  in  length. 
The  largest  lakes  are  Laguna  de  Bay,  near  Manila, 
and  Laguna  de  Lanao,  in  Mindanao;  the  surface  of 
the  latter  is  2200  ft.  above  sea-level.  Laguna  de 
Bombon,  in  Batangas  Province,  Luzon,  is  the  crater 
of  an  immense  volcano,  of  roughly  elliptical  shape, 
seventeen  by  tweh-e  miles.  On  an  island  in  the  lake 
is  the  active  volcano  of  Taal.  The  fauna  of  the  Phil- 
ippines resembles  that  of  the  neighbouring  Malayan 
Islands  to  a  certain  extent.  Two-thirds  of  the  lairds 
of  the  PhiUppines  are  peculiar  to  them ;  what  is  more 
strange  is  that  of  286  species  of  birds  found  in  Luzon, 
at  least  fifty-one  are  not  to  be  met  with  in  any  other 
part  of  the  archipelago.  The  flora  of  the  islands  is 
similar  to  that  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  but 
with  differences  sufficiently  numerous  to  give  it  a 
marked  individuality.  Forests  form  seven-tenths  of 
the  area  of  the  archipelago;  they  embrace  a  great 
variety  of  woods,  many  of  them  highly  valuable. 

Mineral  Resources. — Coal  is  found  in  many  parts  of 
the  islands.  Two  mines  are  now  in  operation  on  the 
small  island  of  Batan,  Albay  Province,  Southern 
Luzon.  The  total  output  in  the  Philippines  during 
1909  was  valued  at  nearly  .$100,000.  About  $250,000 
worth  of  gold  was  mined  the  same  year.    Iron  is  also 


found,  the  product  in  1909  being  worth  a  little  more 
than  $15,000. 

Climate. — The  climate  is,  generally  speaking,  trop- 
ical, although  there  are  points  in  the  islands  where  it 
cannot  strictly  be  so  termed.  The  mean  temperature 
in  Manila  during  the  period  1883-1902  was  80°  F. ; 
the  average  maximum  during  the  same  time  was  97° 
and  minimum  63°.  The  average  rainfall  in  Manila 
is  something  more  than  75  inches.  Baguio,  Province 
of  Benguet,  has  been  called  the  Simla  of  the  Philip- 
pines. Climatic  conditions  are  so  favourable  that  the 
commission  and  assembly  held  their  sessions  there 
this  year  (1910)  during  the  warm  months.  The  mean 
minimum  temperatures  for  four  months  of  the  year 
are  lower  in  Baguio  than  at  Simla,  and  almost  equal 
for  two  other  months.  The  monthly  means  are  nearly 
equal  for  the  two  places  during  five  months. 

Railways. — Railway  lines  are  in  operation  in  Luzon, 
Panay,  Cebu,  and  Negros,  about  four  hundred  miles 
in  all. 

Population. — A  census  of  the  islands  taken  in  1903 
estimates  the  population  at  7,635,426,  of  whom 
6,987,686  are  classed  as  civilized  and  647,740  as  wild. 

There  was  no  question  in  Spanish  times  about  the 
number  of  Christians;  but  a  difference  of  opinion  pre- 
vails about  the  number  of  the  wild  people.  An  esti- 
mate published  in  Madrid  in  1891  puts  down  the 
non-civilized  tribes  (Moros  included)  at  1,400,000. 
According  to  the  Director  of  the  Census  of  1903,  there 
has  been  tendency  to  exaggerate;  he  admits  that  the 
number,  647,740,  is  possibly  too  small,  but  that  it  is 
probably  within  ten  per  cent,  of  the  true  number. 

Wild  Tribes. — The  Negritos  are  believed  to  have 
been  the  aborigines  of  the  islands.  There  remain 
about  23,000  of  these,  leading  to-day  a  primitive  life, 
nomadic  within  a  certain  district,  living  in  groups  of 
twenty  or  thirty  under  a  chief.  They  are  a  race  of 
dwarfs,  four  feet  eight  inches  in  height.  They  are  of 
a  sooty  black  colour,  their  hair  woolly,  their  toes 
almost  as  prehensile  as  fingers.  The  Negritos,  it  is 
thought,  once  occupied  the  entire  archipelago,  but 
were  driven  back  into  the  mountains  by  the  Malays. 

Among  other  wild  tribes  may  be  mentioned  the 
Igorottes  in  Northern  Luzon,  some  of  whom  are  head- 
hunters.  They  are  an  industrious  and  warlike  race. 
Belgian  missionaries  have  been  working  among  them 
the  past  few  years  with  considerable  fruit.  'The 
Ibilao  or  Ilongot  is  noted  for  his  bloodthirsty  propen- 
sities; the  Ifugaos  are  said  to  resemble  the  Japanese 
in  appearance.  They  use  the  lasso  with  great  dex- 
terity, and  with  it  capture  the  luckless  traveller,  de- 
capitate him,  and  add  the  head  to  their  collection. 
They  wear  as  many  rings  in  their  ears  as  they  have 
taken  heads.  In  Palawan  (Paragua)  the  most  numer- 
ous tribe  is  that  of  the  Tagbanuas,  many  of  whom 
have  been  Christianized.  The  Manguianes  occupy 
the  interior  of  Mindoro ;  they  are  a  docile  race  and  do 
not  flee  from  civilized  man.  Among  the  wild  tribes  of 
Mindanao  may  be  mentioned  the  Manobos,  Bagobos, 
Bukidnons,  Tirurays,  and  Subanos.  They  are  classed 
as  Indonesians  by  some  ethnologists.  Slavery  is 
practised,  and  human  sacrifices  are  known  to  have 
taken  place  within  the  past  few  years. 

The  Moros  or  Mohammedan  Malays  chiefly  in- 
habit Mindanao  and  the  Sulu  archipelago,  though 
they  are  found  also  in  Basilan  and  Palawan.  They 
were  professional  pirates,  and  advanced  as  far  as 
Manila  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards. 
They  killed  large  numbers  of  Filipinos,  and  carried 
others  into  slavery.  Until  within  about  sixty  years 
ago,  when  Spanish  gunboats  of  light  draught  were 
introduced,  they  made  marauding  excursions  into  the 
Visayan  islands  (Panay,  Negros,  Cebu,  Bohol,  Leyte, 
Samar  etc.),  carrying  off  a  thousand  captives  as  slaves 
annually.  They  were  the  great  obstacle  to  the  civ- 
ilization of  Mindanao.  The  Moro  is  possessed  of 
much  physical  strength,  is  indifferent  to  bloodshed, 


PHILIPPINE 


11 


PHILIPPINE 


too  proud  to  work,  and  extremely  fanatical.  Many  of 
them  build  their  towns  in  the  water,  with  movable 
bamboo  bridges  connected  with  the  shore.  Flanking 
their  settlements  they  built  coltas  or  forts.  The  walls 
of  some  of  these  were  twenty-four  feet  thick  and  thirty 
feet  high.  The  United  States  Government  respects 
the  Moro  custom  of  discarding  the  hat,  by  permitting 
the  Moro  Constabulary  (military  police)  to  wear  a 
Turkish  fez  and  to  go  barefoot. 

Extensive  missionary  work  has  been  done  by  the 
Jesuits  in  Mindanao.  Previous  to  the  American  oc- 
cupation, they  ministered  to  200,000  Christians  in 
various  parts  of  the  islands.  Even  among  the  Moros 
their  efforts  were  successful  and  in  one  year  (1892) 


blance,  mentally,  morally,  and  physically,  between 
individuals  of  the  Visayas,  but  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  their  languages,  a  Visayan  of  Cebii,  for  instance, 
will  not  understand  a  Visayan  of  Panay.  For  all  that, 
it  is  said  that  the  Filipinos  had  a  common  racial  origin 
and  at  one  time  a  common  language.  Physically,  the 
Filipinos  are  of  medium  height,  although  tall  men  are 
to  be  found  among  them,  especially  in  the  mountain 
districts.  Generally  speaking,  they  are  of  a  brownish 
colour,  with  black  eyes,  prominent  cheek  bones,  the 
nose  flat  rather  than  arched  or  straight,  nostrils  wide 
and  full,  mouth  inclined  to  be  large,  lips  full,  good 
teeth,  and  round  chin. 
The  following  estimates  of  the  Filipinos  are  selected 


Archbishop's     San  Carlos     Jesuit  Church 
Palace  Seminary        San  Ignacio 


Atenes  Augustinian  Monastery 

rented  by  government 
Manila.     The  Walled  City,  from  the  Sea 


Augustiniau 

Monastery 


they  baptized  3000  Moros  in  the  district  of  Ddvao. 
They  established  two  large  orphan  asylums,  one  for 
boys  and  the  other  for  girls,  at  Tamontaca,  where 
liberated  slave-children  were  trained  to  a  useful  life, 
and  which  later  formed  the  basis  of  new  Christian 
villages.  For  lack  of  support  a  great  deal  of  this  work 
had  to  be  abandoned  with  the  withdrawal  of  Spanish 
sovereignty  from  the  islands. 

Christian  Tribes. — The  inhabitants  of  Luzon  and 
adjacent  islands  are  the  Tagalogs,  Pampangans, 
Bicols,  Pangasinans,  Ilocanos,  Ibanags  or  Cagaydnes, 
and  Zambales.  The  most  important  of  these  are  the 
Tagalogs,  who  number  about  a  million  and  a  half; 
the  Pampangans,  about  400,000,  e.xcel  in  agriculture; 
the  Bicols  in  South-eastern  Luzon  were,  according  to 
Blumentritt,  the  first  Malays  in  the  Philippines;  the 
Pangasinans,  in  the  province  of  that  name,  number 
about  300,000;  the  Ilocanos,  an  industrious  race, 
occupy  the  north-western  coast  of  Luzon;  the 
Ibanags,  said  to  be  the  finest  race  and  the  most  valiant 
men  in  the  islands  (Sawyer),  dwell  in  Northern  and 
Eastern  Luzon.  The  Zambales  were  famous  head- 
hunters  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  and  made 
drinking-cups  out  of  their  enemies'  skulls.  They 
number  about  100,000.  The  Visayan  Islands  are  in- 
habited by  the  Visayas,  the  most  numerous  tribe  of  the 
Philippines.  Fewer  wild  people  are  found  among  them 
than  in  other  portions  of  the  archipelago.  The  popu- 
lation is  about  3,000,000.  There  is  a  strong  resem- 


from  the  United  States  Census  Report  of  1903.  The 
first  gives  an  appreciation  of  the  people  shortly  after 
the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  and  before  they  were 
Christianized.  The  second  and  third  are  the  views 
of  an  American  and  an  Englishman,  respectively,  of 
the  Christianized  Filipino  before  and  at  the  time  of 
the  American  occupation. 

(1)  Legaspi,  after  four  years'  residence,  writes  thus 
of  the  natives  of  Cebii:  "They  are  a  crafty  and 
treacherous  race.  .  .  .  They  are  a  people  extremely 
vicious,  fickle,  untruthful,  and  full  of  other  supersti- 
tions. No  law  binds  relative  to  relative,  parents  to 
children,  or  brother  to  brother.  If  a  man  in  soine 
time  of  need  shelters  a  relative  or  a,  brother  in  his 
house,  supports  him,  and  provides  him  with  food  for  a 
few  days,  he  will  consider  that  relative  as  his  slave 
from  that  time  on.  At  times  they  sell  their  own 
children.  .  .  .  Privateering  and  robbery  have  a  natu- 
ral attraction  for  them.  ...  I  believe  that  these 
natives  could  be  easily  subdued  by  good  treatment 
and  the  display  of  kindness". 

(2)  Hon.  Dean  C.  Worcester  was  in  the  Phihp- 
pines  in  1887-88  and  1890-93.  He  says:  "The  trav- 
eller cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  by  his  [the  Filipino's] 
open-handed  and  cheerful  hospitality.  He  will  go  to 
any  amount  of  trouble,  and  often  to  no  little  expense, 
in  order  to  accommodate  some  perfect  stranger.  If 
cleanliness  be  next  to  godliness,  he  has  much  to  recom- 
mend him.     Hardly  less  noticeable  than  the  almost 


PHILIPPINE 


12 


PHILIPPINE 


universal  hospitality  are  the  well-regulated  homes  and 
the  hapijy  family  Ufe  which  one  soon  finds  to  be  the 
rule.  Children  are  orderly,  respectful,  and  obedient 
to  their  parents.  The  native  is  self-respecting  and 
self-restrained  to  a  remarkable  degree.  .  He  is 
patient  under  misfortune  and  forbearing  under  provo- 
cation. .  .  He  is  a  kind  father  and  a  dutiful  son. 
His  aged  relatives  are  never  left  in  want,  but  are 
brought  to  his  home  and  are  welcome  to  share  the 
best  that  it  affords  to  the  end  of  their  days". 

(3)  Frederick  H.  Sawyer  lived  for  fourteen  years  in 
the  Philippines;  he  writes:  "The  Filipino  possesses 
a  great  deal  of  self-respect,  and  his  demeanour  is  quiet 
and  decorous.  He  is  polite  to  others  and  expects  to  be 
treated  politely  himself.  He  is  averse  to  rowdyism  or 
horseplay  of  any  kind,  and  avoids  giving  offence.  For 
an  inhabitant  of  the  tropics  he  is  fairly  industrious, 
sometimes  even  very  hard-working.  Those  who  have 
seen  him  poling  cascos  against  the  stream  of  the  Pasig 
will  admit  this.  He  is  akeen  sportsman,  and  will  readily 
put  his  money  on  his  favourite  horse  or  gamecock; 
he  is  also  addicted  to  other  forms  of  gambling.  The 
position  taken  by  women  in  a  community  is  often 
considered  as  a  test  of  the  degree  of  civilization  it  has 
attained.  Measured  by  this  standard,  the  Filipinos 
come  out  well,  for  among  them  the  wife  exerts  great 
influence  in  the  family  and  the  husband  rarely  com- 
pletes any  important  business  without  her  concur- 
rence. 

"The  Filipinos  treat  their  children  with  great  kind- 
ness and  forbearance.  Those  who  are  well-off  show 
much  anxiety  to  secure  a  good  education  for  their 
sons  and  even  for  their  daughters.  Parental  authority 
extends  to  the  latest  period  in  life.  I  have  seen  a  man 
of  fifty  years  come  as  respectfully  as  a  child  to  kiss 
the  hands  of  his  aged  parents  when  the  vesper  bell 
sounded,  and  this  notwithstanding  the  presence  of 
several  European  visitors  in  the  house.  Children,  in 
return,  show  great  respect  to  both  parents,  and  come 
morning  and  evening  to  kiss  their  hands.  They  are 
trained  in  good  manners  from  their  earliest  youth, 
both  by  precept  and  example". 

History. — The  islands  were  discovered  16  March, 
1.521,  by  Ferdinand  Magellan.  Several  other  ex- 
peditions followed,  but  they  were  fruitless.  In  1564 
Legaspi  sailed  from  Mexico  for  the  Philippines.  He 
was  accompanied  by  the  Augustinian  friar  Urdaneta. 
As  a  laynaan  this  celebrated  priest  had  accompanied 
the  expedition  of  Loaisa  in  1524,  which  visited  Min- 
danao and  the  ^Moluccas.  Legaspi  landed  in  Cebu  in 
1565.  The  islands  had  been  called  San  Lazaro  by 
Magellan ;  Villalobos,  who  commanded  an  expedition 
from  Mexico,  called  the  island  at  which  he  touched 
Filipina,  in  honour  of  Prince  Philip.  This  name  was 
extended  to  the  whole  archipelago  by  Legaspi,  who 
was  sent  out  by  the  former  prince  then  ruling  as 
Philip  II. 

Though  there  were  not  wanting  indications  of  hos- 
tility and  distrust  towards  the  Spaniards  from  the 
inhabitants  of  Cebii,  Legaspi  succeeded  in  winning 
their  friendship  after  a  few  months.  Later,  in  1569, 
he  removed  the  seat  of  government  to  Iloilo.  He  sent 
his  nephew  Juan  Sakedo  to  explore  the  islands  to  the 
north.  Salcfdo's  report  to  his  uncle  was  favourable 
and  in  1571  Legaspi,  leaving  the  affairs  of  government 
in  the  hands  of  natives,  proceeded  north  and  founded 
the  city  of  Maynila,  later  Manila.  Legaspi  imme- 
diately set  about  the  organization  of  the  new  colony- 
he  appointed  rulers  of  provinces,  arranged  for  yearly 
voyages  to  New  Spain,  and  other  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  welfare  of  the  country.  In  his  work  of 
pacification  he  was  greatly  aided  by  the  friars 
who  were  then  beginning  the  work  of  Christian  civ- 
ihzation  in  the  Philippines  which  was  to  go  on  for 
several  centuries.  Legaspi  died  in  1574.  To  him 
belongs  the  glory  of  founding  the  Spanish  sovereignty 
in  the  islands.     He  was  succeeded  by  Lavezares. 


About  this  time  the  Chinese  pirate  Li-ma-hon  invaded 
Luzon,  with  a  fleet  of  over  sixty  vessels  and  about  6000 
people.  A  storm  that  met  the  fleet  as  it  neared  Manila 
wrecked  some  of  his  boats,  but  Li-ma-hon  proceeded 
on  his  journey  and  landed  1500  men.  Repulsed  in 
two  attacks  by  the  Spaniards,  Li-ma-hon  went  north 
and  settled  in  Pangasinan  province.  The  following 
year  (1575)  Salcedo  was  sent  against  them;  he  de- 
feated them  and  drove  the  fleeing  Chinese  into  the 
mountains. 

A  few  years  later  the  arrival  of  the  first  bishop  is 
chronicled,  the  Dominican  Salazar,  one  of  the  greatest 
figures  in  the  history  of  the  Philippines;  he  was  ac- 
companied by  a  few  Jesuits  (1581).  The  Augustin- 
ians  had  come  with  Legaspi,  the  Franciscans  arrived 
in  1577,  and  the  Dominicans  in  1587.  By  unanimous 
vote  of  the  entire  colony  the  Jesuit  Sanchez  was  sent 
to  Spain  to  explain  to  Philip  II  the  true  state  of  affairs 
in  the  islands.  His  mission  was  entirely  successful; 
Philip  was  persuaded  to  retain  his  new  possessions, 
which  many  of  his  advisers  were  counselling  him  to 
relinquish.  In  1591  an  ambassador  came  from  Japan 
demanding  that  tribute  be  paid  that  country.  This 
the  new  governor  Dasmariiias  refused,  but  he  drew 
up  a  treaty  instead  that  was  satisfactory  to  both 
parties.  An  expedition  that  started  out  against  the 
Moluccas  in  1593  ended  disastrously.  On  the  voyage 
some  of  the  Chinese  crew  mutinied,  killed  Dasmariiias 
and  took  the  ship  to  China.  Dasmarinas  built  the 
fortress  of  Santiago,  Manila,  and  fortified  the  city 
with  stone  walls.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Luis. 
During  his  governorship  the  convent  of  Santa  Isabel, 
a  school  and  home  for  children  of  Spanish  soldiers, 
was  founded  (1594).  It  exists  to  this  day.  The 
Audiencia  or  Supreme  Court  was  re-established  about 
this  time.  As  it  was  appointed  from  Mexico  and  sup- 
ported from  the  islands  it  had  proved  too  great  a  drain 
on  the  resources  of  the  colony,  and  so  had  been  sup- 
pressed after  the  visit  of  the  Jesuit  Sanchez  to  Philip 
II.  The  last  years  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  centuries  were  marked  by  the 
seizure,  by  the  Japanese,  of  a  richly-laden  Spanish 
vessel  from  the  islands.  It  had  sought  shelter  in  a 
storm  in  a  port  of  that  country.  The  crew  were  put 
to  death.  Then  there  was  a  fruitless  expedition 
against  Cambodia;  a  naval  fight  against  two  Dutch 
pirate-ships,  one  of  which  was  captured;  and  a  con- 
spiracy of  the  .Chinese  against  the  Spaniards.  The 
force  of  the  latter,  130  in  number,  was  defeated,  and 
every  man  of  them  decapitated.  The  Chinese  were 
repulsed  later,  and  it  is  said  that  23,000  of  them  were 
killed.  The  Recollect  Fathers  arrived  in  Manila  in 
1606. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
colony  had  to  struggle  against  internal  and  external 
foes;  the  Dutch  in  particular,  the  Japanese,  the  Chi- 
nese, the  Moros,  the  natives  of  Bohol,  Leyte,  and 
Cagayan.  A  severe  earthquake  destroyed  Manila  in 
1645.  In  spite  of  the  difficulties  against  which  the 
islands  had  to  struggle,  the  work  of  evangelization 
went  rapidly  forward.  The  members  of  the  various 
religious  orders,  with  a  heroism  rarely  paralleled  even 
in  the  annals  of  Christian  missions,  penetrated  farther 
a,nd  farther  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  and  estab- 
lished their  missions  in  what  had  been  centres  of 
Paganism.  The  natives  were  won  by  the  self-sacri- 
ficing^ lives  of  the  missionaries,  and  accepted  the 
teachings  of  Christianity  in  great  numbers.  Books 
were  written  in  the  native  dialects,  schools  were  every- 
where_  established,  and  every  effort  employed  for  the 
material  and  moral  improvement  of  the  people.  From 
the  time  of  the  fearless  Salazar,  the  missionaries  had 
always  espoused  the  cause  of  the  natives  against  the 
injustices  and  exactions  of  indi\'idual  rulers.  It  is  not 
strange,  therefore,  that  trouble  arose  at  times  between 
the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities.  As  these  mis- 
understandings grew  from  the  mistakes  of  individuals, 


PHILIPPINE 


13 


PHILIPPINE 


they  were  not  of  long  duration,  and  they  did  not  in 
any  way  interfere  with  the  firmer  control  of  the  islands 
which  Spain  was  year  by  year  obtaining,  or  with  the 
healthy  growth  of  the  Church  throughout  the  archi- 
pelago. 

Spanish  sovereignty  in  the  Philippines  was  threat- 
ened by  the  capture  of  Manila  by  the  British  under 
Draper  in  1762.  There  were  only  600  Spanish  soldiers 
to  resist  a  force  of  6000  British  with  their  Indian 
allies.  Their  depredations  were  so  dreadful  that 
Draper  put  a  stop  to  them  after  three  days.  The  city 
remained  under  British  sovereignty  until  1764. 

There  were  several  uprisings  by  the  natives  during 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  One  of  the 
most  serious  of  these  was  that  headed  by  Apolinario 
de  La  Cruz,  who  called  himself  King  of  the  Tagalogs. 
By  attributing  to  himself  supernatural  power,  he 
gathered  about  himalarge  number  of  deluded  fanatics, 
men,  women,  and  children.  He  was  apprehended  and 
put  to  death.  An  event  of  great  importance  was  the 
introduction  in  1860 
of  shallow-draught 
steel  gunboats  to  be 
used  against  the 
piratical  Moros  of 
Mindanao .  For  cen- 
turies they  had  rav- 
aged the  Visayan 
islands,  carrying  off 
annually  about  a 
thousand  prisoners. 
A  severe  earthquake 
in  Manila  in  1863 
destroyed  the  chief 
public  buildings,  the 
cathedral,  and  other 
churches,  except  that 
of  San  Agustln. 

Some  native  clergv 
participated  in  a  seri- 
ous revolt  against 
Spanish  authority 
which  occurred  at 
Cavite  in  1872. 
ThreeFihpino  priests 
who  were  implicated  in  the  uprising,  Gomez,  Zamora, 
and  Burgos,  were  executed.  It  is  said  that  the  spirit  of 
insurrection  which  manifested  itself  so  strongly  during 
the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  the  result 
of  the  establishment  of  certain  secret  societies.  The 
first  Masonic  lodge  of  the  Phihppines  was  founded 
at  Cavite  in  1860.  Lodges  were  later  formed  at 
Zamboanga  (in  Mindanao),  Manila,  and  Cebu.  Euro- 
peans only  were  admitted  at  first,  but  afterwards  na- 
tives were  received.  The  lodges  were  founded  by  anti- 
clericals,  and  naturally  anti-clericals  flocked  largely 
to  the  standard.  There  was  no  idea  then  of  separation 
from  the  mother  country,  but  only  of  a  more  liberal 
form  of  government.  After  the  insurrection  at  Cavite 
in  1872,  the  Spanish  Masons  separated  themselves 
from  the  revolutionary  ones.  New  societies  were  grad- 
ually formed,  the  most  celebrated  being  the  Liga 
Filipina,  founded  by  the  popular  hero  Dr.  Rizal. 
Practically  all  the  members  were  Masons,  and  men  of 
means  and  education. 

A  more  powerful  society  and  a  powerful  factor  in 
the  insurrection  of  1896,  recalling  the  American  Ku- 
Klux  Klan,  was  the  Katipunan.  Its  symbol  KKK  was 
literally  anti-Spanish,  for  there  is  no  K  in  Spanish. 
The  full  title  of  the  society  was  "The  Sovereign  Wor- 
shipful Association  of  the  Sons  of  the  Country"  The 
members  (from  10,000  to  50,000)  were  poor  people 
who  subscribed  little  sums  monthly  for  the  purchase 
of  arms,  etc.  Later  a  woman's  lodge  was  organized. 
According  to  Sawyer  "the  Katipunan  adopted  some 
of  the  Masonic  paraphernalia,  and  some  of  its  initia- 
tory   ceremonies,    but   were   in   no    sense    Masonic 


Negritos  of  Mindanao. 


lodges"  (p.  83).  In  1896  another  insurrection  broke 
out  near  Manila,  in  Cavite  province.  Aguinaldo,  a 
young  school  teacher,  became  prominent  about  this 
time.  The  spirit  of  revolt  spread  through  the  neigh- 
bouring provinces;  there  were  several  engagements, 
until  finally,  Aguinaldo,  at  the  head  of  the  remnant 
of  rebels,  left  Cavite  and  took  refuge  near  Angat  in 
the  Province  of  Bulacdn.  As  it  would  have  taken  a 
long  time  to  dislodge  them,  a  method  of  conciliation 
was  adopted.  The  result  was  the  pact  of  Biak- 
nabato,  .signed  14  Dec.,  1897.  By  the  terms  of  this 
agreement  the  Filipinos  were  not  to  plot  against  Span- 
ish sovereignty  for  a  period  of  three  years;  Aguinaldo 
and  other  followers  were  to  be  deported,  for  a  period 
to  be  fixed  by  Spain.  In  return  they  were  to  receive 
the  sum  of  $500,000  as  indemnity;  and  those  who  had 
not  taken  up  arms  were  to  be  given  $350,000  as  reim- 
bursement for  the  losses  they  had  incurred.  The  lead- 
ers of  the  insurrection  of  1896  exercised  despotic 
power,  and  ill-treated  and  robbed  those  of  their  coun- 
trymen who  would 
not  join  them.  An- 
dri5s  Bonifacio,  the 
terrible  president  of 
the  Katipunan,  ulti- 
mately became  a  vic- 
tim of  these  despots. 
30,000  Filipinos  are 
reported  to  have  lost 
their  lives  in  the  re- 
belUon  of  1896. 

In  1898  hostilities 
broke  out  between 
Spain  and  the  United 
States.  On  24  April, 
1898,  Aguinaldo  met 
the  American  Consul 
at  Singapore,  Mr. 
Pratt;  two  days  later 
he  proceeded  to  Hong 
Kong.  The  Amer- 
ican squadron  under 
Commodore  (now 
Admiral)  Dewey 
destroyed  the  Span- 
Aguinaldo  and  seven- 
from  the  United 


ish  ships  in  Manila  Bay. 
teen  followers  landed  at  Cavite 
States  vessel  Hugh  McCuUough  and  were  furnished 
arms  by  Dewey.  Aguinaldo  proclaimed  dictator- 
ial government,  and  asked  recognition  from  foreign 
powers.  The  American  troops  took  Manila  on  13 
August.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Paris  by 
the  terms  of  which  the  Philippines  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States,  and  the  latter  paid  Spain  the  sum  of 
$20,000,000.  It  was  later  discovered  that  certain 
islands  near  Borneo  were  not  included  in  the  boun- 
daries fixed  by  the  peace  commission.  These  were 
also  ceded  to  the  United  States,  which  paid  an  addi- 
tional $100,000.  The  Filipinos  had  organized  a  gov- 
ernment of  their  own,  the  capital  being  at  Malolos, 
in  the  Province  of  Bulacdn.  Fighting  between  them 
and  the  Americans  began  on  4  Feb.,  1899;  but  by 
the  end  of  the  year,  all  organized  opposition  was  prac- 
tically at  an  end.  Aguinaldo  was  captured  in  April, 
1901,  and  on  1  July  of  the  same  year  the  insurrection 
was  declared  to  be  extinct,  the  administration  was 
turned  over  to  the  civil  Government,  and  Judge  Taf^ 
(now  President)  was  appointed  governor. 

Americaii  Govcnnnettt:  General. — The  Spanish  laws 
remain  in  force  to-day,  except  as  changed  by  military 
order.  Act  of  Congress,  or  Act  of  the  Philippine  Com- 
mission. The  first  Philippine  Commission  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  McKinley  Jan.,  1899.  The  sec- 
ond Philippine  Commission  was  sent  to  the  islands 
in  1900.  Its  object  was  to  establish  a  civil  go\prnrnent 
based  on  the  recommendations  of  the  first  commission. 
The  principles  that  were  to  guide  this  commission  are 


PHILIPPINE 


14 


PHILIPPINE 


thus  expressed  in  the  following  instructions  given  them : 
"The  Commission  should  bear  in  mind  that  the 
government  that  they  are  establishing  is  designed  not 
for  our  satisfaction  or  for  the  expression  of  our  theo- 
retical views,  but  for  the  happiness,  peace,  and  pros- 
perity of  the  people  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  the 
measures  adopted  should  be  made  to  conform  to  their 
customs,  their  habits,  and  even  their  prejudices,  to 
the  fullest  extent  consistent  with  the  indispensable 
requisites  of  just  and  effective  government."  "No 
laws  shall  be  made  respecting  an  establishment  of 
religion  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof,  and 
that  the  free  exercise  and  enjoyment  of  religious  pro- 
fession and  worship  without  discrimination  or  prefer- 
ence shall  for  ever  be  allowed."  This  was  confirmed 
by  Act  of  Congress  1  July,  1902,  in  almost  identical 
words  (section  5).  The  members  of  the  commission 
are  appointed  by  the  president,  with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate;  their  tenure  of  office  is  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  president.  There  are  nine  commissioners,  one  of 
whom  is  the  governor-general  (the  chief  executive  of 
the  Philippine  Islands),  and  four  are  secretaries  of  the 
departments  of  the  Interior,  of  Commerce  and  Police, 
of  Finance  and  Justice,  and  of  Public  Instruction. 
Each  of  these  departments  is  divided  into  bureaus  of 
which  there  are  twenty-three  in  all.  Through  these 
the  actual  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  Govern- 
ment is  carried  on. 

On  16  Oct.,  1907,  the  Philippine  Assembly  was  in- 
augurated. The  assembly  shares  legislative  power 
with  the  commission  over  all  parts  of  the  islands  "not 
inhabited  by  Moros  or  other  non-Christian  tribes" 
Over  the  Moros  and  the  non-Christian  tribes  the  com- 
mission alone  has  power.  The  legislative  power  of  the 
commission  and  assembly  over  the  Christian  tribes  is 
equal.  No  law  may  be  made  without  the  approval  of 
both  houses.  If  at  any  session  the  annual  appropria- 
tion for  the  support  of  the  Government  shall  not  have 
been  made,  an  amount  equal  to  the  last  annual  appro- 
priation is  considered  thereby  appropriated  for  the  en- 
suing year.  The  members  of  the  assembly  are  elected 
by  popular  vote.  The  right  to  this  suffrage  is  extended 
to  all  male  citizens  of  the  Philippine  Islands  or  of  the 
United  States,  over  twenty -three  years  of  age,  who 
possess  at  least  one  of  the  following  qualifications: 
(1)  ability  to  speak,  read,  and  write  English  or  Span- 
ish; (2)  ownership  of  real  property  to  the  value  of 
$250  or  the  payment  of  $15  annually  of  the  estab- 
lished taxes;  (.3)  holding  of  municipal  office  under  the 
Spanish  Government  in  the  Philippines.  All  acts 
passed  by  the  commission  and  by  the  assembly  are 
enacted  by  authority  of  the  United  States  Congress, 
which  reserves  the  power  and  authority  to  annul  them. 
The  assembly  may  consist  of  not  less  than  fifty  nor 
more  than  a  hundred  members.  Each  province  is  en- 
titled to  one  delegate;  and  if  its  population  is  more 
than  90,000,  to  an  additional  member  for  every  extra 
90,000  and  major  fraction  thereof.  There  are  at 
present  eighty  delegates.  Manila  is  counted  as  a 
province.  Thirty-one  delegates  are  from  the  Visayan 
Islands,  and  forty-four  from  Luzon.  The  commission 
and  assembly  are  authorized  to  send  two  commis- 
sioners to  the  United  States  to  represent  the  interests 
of  the  Philippines  at  Washington. 

American  Government:  Provincial. — According  to 
their  form  of  government,  the  islands  are  divided  into 
three  classes:  the  Christian  provinces,  the  non- 
Christian  provinces,  and  the  Moro  provinces.  The 
officers  of  the  Christian  province  are  the  governor, 
the  treasurer,  the  third  member  of  the  provincial 
board,  and  the  fiscal  or  district  attorney.  The  gover- 
nor and  third  member  are  elected  to  office;  the  treas- 
urer and  fiscal  are  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  with  the  consent  of  the  Commis- 
sion; the  tenure  of  their  office  depends  upon  the 
governor-general.  Any  provincial  officer  may  be  sus- 
pended or  removed  from  office  by  the  governor- 


general  for  sufficient  cause.  The  provincial  governor, 
the  treasurer,  and  the  third  member  form  the  pro- 
vincial board,  which  legislates  in  a  limited  way  for  the 
province.  The  non-Christian  tribes  are  under  a 
governor,  secretary,  treasurer,  super\isor  and  'fiscal. 
In  some  provinces  there  is  also  a  lieutenant-governor. 
These  officers  are  appointed  by  the  governor-general 
with  the  consent  of  the  commission.  The  Moro 
province  includes  the  greater  part  of  Mindanao,  the 
whole  of  the  Sulu  Archipelago,  and  smaller  groups  of 
islands.  The  inhabitants  number  500,000,  half  of 
them  Moros;  the  remainder,  with  the  exception  of 
some  thousand  Christians,  are  wild  tribes.  The  Gov- 
ernment of  the  Moro  province  is  civil-military.  It  is 
divided  into  five  districts,  each  with  its  governor  and 
secretary,  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  province. 
On  the  legislative  council  of  the  entire  province  there 
is,  besides  the  governor,  a  secretary,  treasurer,  and 
attorney.  While  the  governor-general  appoints  these 
officers,  the  two  first  named  are  usually  officers  of  the 
United  States  army  detailed  for  this  purpose.  The 
district  officers  are  also  usually  detailed  from  the 
army. 

Courts  of  Justice. — There  is  no  trial  by  jury  in  the 
Phifippine  Islands.  There  are  three  classes  of  courts 
of  justice:  justice-of-the-peace  courts,  courts  of  first 
instance,  and  the  supreme  court ;  a  justice  of  the  peace 
must  be  at  least  twenty-three  years  of  age.  He  is 
appointed  by  the  governor  from  a  number  of  individ- 
uals whose  names  are  presented  by  a  judge  of  the  court 
of  first  instance,  and  by  the  director  of  education. 
Among  his  powers  is  that  of  performing  marriage  cere- 
monies. The  courts  of  first  instance  try  appeals  from 
the  lower  court  and  cases  in  which  they  have  original 
jurisdiction.  These  judges  are  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor with  the  approval  of  the  commission. 

Supreme  Court. — This  court  is  composed  of  one 
chief  justice  and  six  associates.  Important  cases  may 
be  appealed  from  it  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States.  The  supreme  court  rarely  hears  wit- 
nesses, but  examines  the  written  testimony  made  be- 
fore the  lower  court,  and  listens  to  arguments  of  the 
opposing  lawyers.  The  supreme  court  may  not 
merely  reverse  or  affirm  the  decision  of  the  lower  court, 
but  it  may  even  change  the  degree  and  kind  of  pun- 
ishment. A  defendant,  for  instance,  sentenced  to 
imprisonment  for  life  or  for  twenty  years  may,  and 
sometimes  does,  have  his  sentence  changed  on  appeal 
to  the  supreme  court  to  the  death  penalty. 

Religion. — Before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  the 
religion  of  the  islands  was  similar  to  that  of  the 
majority  of  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Malayans. 
They  were  worshippers  of  the  souls  of  their  ancestors, 
of  the  sun,  the  moon,  the  stars,  plants,  birds,  and 
animals.  Among  the  deities  of  the  Tagalogs  were :  a 
blue  bird,  called  Bathala  (divinity) ;  the  crow,  called 
Maylupa  (lord  of  the  earth);  the  alligator,  called 
Nono  (grandfather).  They  adored  in  common  with 
other  Malayans  the  tree  Balete,  which  they  did  not 
dare  cut.  They  had  idols  in  their  houses,  called  anito, 
and  by  the  Visayans,  diuata.  There  were  anitos  of  the 
country  who  permitted  them  to  pass  over  it;  anitos 
of  the  fields  who  gave  fertility  to  the  soil;  anitos  of 
the  sea  who  fed  the  fishes  and  guarded  boats;  and 
anitos  to  look  after  the  house  and  newly-born  infants. 
The  anitos  were  supposed  to  be  the  souls  of  their  an- 
cestors. Their  story  of  the  origin  of  the  world  was 
that  the  sky  and  the  water  were  walking  together; 
a  kite  came  between  them,  and  in  order  to  keep  the 
waters  from  rising  to  the  sky,  placed  upon  them  the 
islands,  the  Filipinos'  idea  of  the  world.  The  origin 
of  man  came  about  in  the  following  manner:  a  piece 
of  bamboo  was  floating  on  the  water;  the  water  cast 
it  at  the  feet  of  a  kite;  the  kite  in  anger  broke  the 
bamboo  with  its  beak;  out  of  one  piece  came  man, 
and  out  of  the  other,  woman.  The  souls  of  the  dead 
were  supposed  to  feed  on  rice  and  tuba  (a  native 


PHILIPPINE 


15 


PHILIPPINE 


liquor),  thus  food  was  placed  at  the  graves  of  the 
dead,  a  custom  which  still  survives  among  some  of  the 
uncivilized  tribes  of  Mindanao. 

The  ministers  of  religion  were  priestesses — crafty 
and  diabolical  old  women,  who  offered  sacrifices  of 
animals  and  even  of  human  beings.  Sacrifices  of  ani- 
mals still  occur  among  the  tribes;  and  accounts  of 
recent  human  sacrifice  will  be  found  in  the  reports  of 
the  Philippine  Commission.  The  superstitions  of  the 
Filipinos  were  numerous.  In  Supreme  Case  no.  5381 
there  is  given  the  testimony  of  Igorrotes,  who  before 
starting  to  murder  a  man,  a  couple  of  years  ago, 
killed  some  chickens  and  examined  their  entrails  to 
discover  if  the  time  was  favourable  for  the  slaying  of 
a  man.  The  hooting  of  owls,  the  hissing  of  lizards, 
and  the  sight  of  a  serpent  had  a  supernatural  sig- 
nification. One  of  the  most  feared  of  the  evil  spirits 
was  the  asuang,  which  was  supposed  to  capture  chil- 
dren or  lonely  travellers.  A  fuller  description  of  these 
superstitions  is  given  in  Delgado,  "Historia  General 
de  las  Islas  Filipinas"  (Manila,  1894),  bk.  Ill,  xvi, 
xvii,  and  in  Blumentritt,  "Mythological  Dictionary". 
As  might  be  expected 
from  idolatrous  tribes 
in  a  tropical  climate, 
the  state  of  morality 
was  low ;  wives  were 
bought  and  sold,  and 
children  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  enslave  their 
own  parents.  It  was 
on  material  such  as 
this  that  the  Spanish 
missioners  had  to 
work.  A  Christian 
Malay  race,  a  people 
that  from  the  lowest 
grade  of  savagery  had 
advanced  to  the  high- 
est form  of  civili- 
zation, was  the  result 
of  their  efforts. 

Up  to  the  year 
1896  the  Augustin- 
ians  had  founded 
242  towns,  with  a  population  of  more  than  2,000,000. 
There  were  310  religious  of  the  order;  this  includes 
(and  the  same  applies  to  the  following  figures)  lay 
brothers,  students,  and  invalids.  The  Franciscans 
numbered  455  in  153  towns,  with  a  population  of  a 
httle  more  than  a  million;  there  were  206  Dominicans 
in  69  towns,  with  about  700,000  inhabitants;  192 
Recollects  in  194  towns,  with  a  population  of  1,175,- 
000;  167  Jesuits  who  ministered  to  about  200,000 
Christians  in  the  missions  of  Mindanao.  The  total 
religious  therefore  in  1906  was  1330  to  look  after  a 
Catholic  population  of  more  than  5,000,000,  while 
secular  clergy  were  in  charge  of  nearly  a  million  more. 
The  members  of  religious  orders  in  the  Philippines  in 
1906  did  not  amount  to  500.  The  condition  of  the 
Filipino  people,  as  they  were  prior  to  the  revolution 
of  1896,  forms  the  best  argument  in  favour  of  the 
labours  of  the  religious  orders.  The  islands  were  not 
conquered  by  force;  the  greater  part  of  the  fighting 
was  to  protect  the  natives  from  enemies  from  without. 
It  was  not  until  1822  that  there  was  a  garrison  of 
Spanish  troops  in  the  archipelago.  And,  as  all  im- 
partial historians  admit,  the  small  number  of  troops 
needed  was  due  solely  to  the  religious  influence  of  the 
priests  over  the  people.  The  total  strength  of  Amer- 
ican regiments  in  the  Philippines  in  1910,  including 
the  Philippine  Scouts,  was  17,102.  To  this  should  be 
added  more  than  4000  members  of  the  Philippine 
Constabulary,  a  military  police  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  order. 

Besides  their  far-reaching  influence  for  peace,  the 
religious  orders  did  notable  work  in  literature  and 


A  Village  Mission  Church,  Mindanao 


science.  Father  Manuel  Blance,  an  Augustinian,  was 
the  author  of  "Flora  Filipina",  a  monumental  work 
in  four  folio  volumes,  illustrated  with  hundreds  of 
coloured  plates  reproduced  from  water-colour  paint- 
ings of  the  plants  of  the  Philippines.  Father  Rodrigo 
Aganduru  Moriz,  a  Recollect  (Augustinian  Discalced), 
(1584-1626),  after  evangelizing  the  natives  of  Bataan, 
and  founding  houses  of  his  order  in  Manila  and  Cebii, 
and  missions  in  Mindanao,  set  sail  from  the  Phil- 
ippines. He  spent  some  time  in  Persia,  where  he 
brought  back  numerous  schismatics  to  the  Faith  and 
converted  many  infidels.  Arriving  in  Rome,  Urban 
VIII  wished  to  send  him  back  to  Persia  as  Apostolic 
delegate  with  some  religious  of  his  order,  but  he  died 
a  few  months  later  at  the  age  of  forty-two.  Among 
his  works  are :  "  A  General  History  of  the  Phihppines  ", 
in  two  volumes;  "The  Persecution  in  Japan";  a 
book  of  sermons;  a  grammar  and  dictionary  of  a 
native  dialect;  "Origin  of  the  Oriental  Empires"; 
"Chronology  of  Oriental  Kings  and  Kingdoms";  a 
narrative  of  his  travels  written  for  Urban  VIII;  a 
collection  of  maps  of  various  islands,  seas,  and  prov- 
inces; the  work  of 
the  Augustinians 
(Discalced)  in  the 
conversion  of  the 
Philippines  and  of 
Japan ;  a  family  book 
of  medicine  for  the 
use  of  Filipinos. 

The  number  of 
Augustinian  authors 
alone,  until  1780  was 
131,  and  the  books 
published  by  them 
more  than  200  in  nine 
native  dialects,  more 
than  100  in  Spanish, 
besides  a  number  of 
volumes  in  the  Chi- 
nese and  Japanese 
languages.  How  ex- 
tensive  and  how 
varied  were  the  mis- 
sionary, literary,  and 
scientific  works  of  the  members  of  the  religious  orders 
may  be  gathered  from  their  chronicles.  The  Philip- 
pines constitute  an  ecclesiastical  province,  of  which 
the  Archbishop  of  Manila  is  the  metropolitan.  The 
suffragan  sees  are:  Jaro;  Nueva  Cdoeres;  Nueva 
Segovia;  Cebii;  Calbayog;  Lipa;  Tuguegarao;  Zam- 
boanga;  and  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Palawan. 
There  are  over  a  thousand  priests,  and  a  Catholic 
population  of  6,000,000.  (See  Cebu;  Jaro;  Manila, 
Archdiocese  of;  Manila  Observatory;  Nueva 
Caceres;  Nueva  Segovia;  Palawan;  Samae  and 
Leyte;  Tuguegarao;  Zamboanga.) 

Diocese  of  Lipa  (Lipensis),  erected  10  April,  1910, 
comprises  the  Provinces  of  Batangas,  La  Luguna, 
Tayabas  (with  the  Districts  of  Infanta  and  Prin- 
cipe), Mindoro,  and  the  sub-Province  of  Marinduque, 
formerly  parts  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Manila.  Rt. 
Rev.  Joseph  Petrelli,  D.D.,  the  first  bishop,  was  ap- 
pointed 12  April,  1910,  and  consecrated  at  Manila,  12 
June,  1910.  There  are  95  parishes;  the  Discalced 
Augustinians  have  charge  of  14,  and  the  Capuchins 
of  6.  The  diocese  comprises  12,208  sq.  m.;  about 
640,000  Christians;  and  9000  non-Christians. 

Aglipayanism. — The  Aglipayano  sect  caused  more 
annoyance  than  damage  to  the  Church  in  the  Phil- 
ippines. The  originator  of  the  schism  was  a  native 
priest,  Gregorio  Aglipay.  He  was  employed  as  a 
servant  in  the  Augustinian  house,  Manila,  and  being 
of  ingratiating  manners  was  educated  and  ordained 
priest.  Later  he  took  the  field  as  an  insurgent  general. 
Being  hard  pressed  by  the  American  troops  he  sur- 
rendered and  was  paroled  in  1901.    In  1902  he  arro- 


PHILIPPINE 


16 


PHILIPPINE 


gated  to  himself  the  title  of "  Pontifex  Maximus  ",  and 
through  friendship  or  fear  drew  to  his  allegiance  some 
native  priests.  Those  of  the  latter  who  were  his 
friends  he  nominated  "bishops"  Simeon  Mandac,  one 
of  the  two  lay  pillars  of  the  movement,  is  now  serving 
a  term  of  twenty  years  in  the  penitentiary  for  murder 
and  rebeUion.  At  first  the  schism  seemed  to  make 
headway  in  the  north,  chiefly  for  political  reasons. 
With  the  restoration  of  the  churches  under  order  of 
the  Supreme  Com-t  in  1906-07  the  schism  began  to 
dwindle,  and  its  adherents  are  now  inconsiderable. 

Religious  Policy  of  the  Governmenl.— Freedom  oi 
worship  and  separation  of  Church  and  State  is  a  prin- 
ciple of  the  American  Government.  In  a  country 
where  there  was  the  strictest  union  of  Church  and 


Pateros  Church,  Destroyed  during  a  Filipino 
Insurrection 

State  for  more  than  three  centuries,  this  policy  is  not 
without  serious  difficulties.  At  times  ignorant  offi- 
cials may  act  as  if  the  Church  must  be  separated  from 
her  rights  as  a  lawful  corporation  existing  in  the  State. 
In  some  such  way  as  this  several  Catholic  churches 
were  seized,  with  the  conni\-ance  or  the  open  consent 
of  municipal  officers,  by  adherents  of  the  Aglipayano 
sect.  It  required  time  and  considerable  outlay  of 
money  for  the  Church  to  regain  possession  of  her 
property  through  the  courts.  And  even  then  the 
aggressors  often  succeeded  in  damaging  as  much  as 
possible  the  church  buildings  or  its  belongings  before 
surrendering  them.  There  is  no  distinction  or  privilege 
accorded  clergymen,  except  that  they  are  precluded 
from  being  municipal  councillors.  However:  "there 
shall  be  exempt  from  taxation  burying  grounds, 
churches  and  their  adjacent  parsonages  or  convents, 
and  lands  and  buildings  used  exclusively  for  religious, 
charitable,  scientific,  or  educational  purposes  and  not 
for  private  profit".  This  does  not  apply  to  land  or 
buildings  owned  by  the  Church  to  procure  revenue  for 
religious  purposes,  e.  g.  the  support  of  a  hospital, 
orphan  asylum,  etc.,  so  that  glebe  land  is  taxable. 
The  only  exception  made  in  the  matter  of  free  imports 
for  church  purposes  is  that  Bibles  and  hymn  books 
are  admitted  free  of  duty.     Practically  everything 


needed  in  the  services  of  the  Catholic  Church,  vest- 
ments, sacred  vessels,  altars,  statues,  pictures,  etc. 
pay  duty,  if  such  goods  are  not  purchased  from  or 
manufactured  in  the  United  States.  Religious  cor- 
porations or  associations,  of  whate\er  sect  or  denom- 
ination, were  authorized  to  hold  land  by  an  act  of  the 
commission  passed  in  October,  1901. 

In  April,  1906,  the  law  of  corporations  came  into 
force.  Under  this  Act  (no.  1459)  a  bishop,  chief 
priest,  or  presiding  elder  of  any  religious  denomination, 
can  become  a  corporation  sole  by  filing  articles  of  in- 
corporation holding  property  in  trust  for  the  denom- 
ination. Authority  is  also  given  to  any  religious 
society  or  order,  or  any  diocese,  synod,  or  organization 
to  incorporate  under  specified  conditions  to  administer 
its  temporalities.  The  same  act  empowers  colleges 
and  institutes  of  learning  to  incorporate.  All  ceme- 
teries are  under  the  control  of  the  Bureau  of  Health. 
By  an  Act  passed  in  Feb.,  1906,  existing  cemeteries 
and  burial  grounds  were  to  be  closed  unless  authorized 
by  the  director  of  health;  municipalities  were  em- 
powered, subject  to  the  same  authority,  to  set  apart 
land  for  a  municipal  burial  ground,  and  to  rnake  by- 
laws without  discriminating  against  race,  nationality, 
or  religion.  The  church  burial  grounds  had  generally 
to  be  enlarged  or  new  ones  consecrated,  and  indi^-id- 
ual  graves  indicated  and  allotted.  The  right  to  hold 
public  funerals  and  to  take  the  remains  into  church 
was  not  to  be  abridged  or  interfered  with,  except  in 
times  of  epidemics  or  in  case  of  contagious  or  infec- 
tious diseases,  when  a  pubUc  funeral  might  be  held  at 
the  grave  after  an  hour  had  elapsed  from  the  actual 
interment.  The  right  of  civil  marriage  was  estab- 
lished in  1898,  by  order  of  General  Otis.  The  cer- 
tificate of  marriage,  by  whomsoever  celebrated,  must 
be  filed  with  the  civil  authorities.  The  forbidden  de- 
grees extend  to  half-blood  and  step-parents.  A  sub- 
sequent marriage  while  husband  or  wife  is  alive  is 
illegal  and  void,  unless  the  former  marriage  has  been 
annulled  or  dissolved,  or  by  presumption  of  death 
after  seven  years'  absence.  There  is  no  express  pro- 
vision for  divorce;  but  marriages  may  be  annulled 
by  order  of  judges  of  the  court  of  first  instance  for 
impediments  existing  at  the  time  of  marriage,  such  as 
being  under  the  age  of  consent  (fourteen  years  for 
boys,  twelve  years  for  girls),  insanity,  etc. 

The  local  health  officer  shall  report  to  the  municipal 
president  "all  births  that  may  come  to  his  knowl- 
edge ",  the  date,  and  names  of  parents.  The  parochial 
clergy  have  generally  complete  and  carefully-kept 
registers  of  baptisms,  and  furnish  certified  copies  to 
those  who  need  them.  The  property  of  deceased  per- 
sons was  in  general  formerly  distributed  at  a  family 
council,  with  the  approval  of  the  courts.  But  it 
appears  that  at  the  present  time  the  estates  of  de- 
ceased persons  must  be  administered  under  direction 
of  the  courts  of  first  instance.  Testaments  are  made 
and  property  devolves  in  accordance  with  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Spanish  civil  code. 

Education. — The  Spanish  missionaries  established 
schools  immediately  on  reaching  the  islands.  Wher- 
e\er  they  penetrated,  church  and  school  went  to- 
gether. The  Jesuits  had  two  universities  in  Manila, 
besides  colleges  at  Cavite,  Marinduque,  Arevalo, 
Cebii,  and  Zamboanga.  The  Dominicans  had  their 
flourishing  University  of  S.  Tomds,  Manila,  existing 
to  this  day,  and  their  colleges  in  other  large  towns. 
There  was  no  Christian  village  without  its  school ;  all 
the  young  people  attended.  On  the  Jesuits'  return 
to  the  islands  in  1859,  the  cause  of  higher  education 
received  a  new  impetus.  They  estabhshed  the  college 
of  the  Ateneo  de  Manila,  where  nearly  all  those  who 
have  been  prominent  in  the  history  of  their  country 
during  the  last  half-century  were  educated.  They 
opened  a  normal  school  which  sent  its  trained  Filipino 
teachers  over  all  parts  of  the  islands.  The  normal 
school  graduated  during  the  thirty  years  of  its  exis- 


C) 


PHILIPPOPOLIS 


17 


PHILIPPOPOLIS 


tence  1948  teachers.  After  the  American  occupation 
a  pubhc-school  system,  modelled  on  that  of  the  United 
States,  was  established  by  the  Government.  The  total 
number  of  schools  in  operation  for  1909-10  was  4531, 
an  increase  of  107  over  the  preceding  year.  The  total 
annual  enrolment  was  587,317,  plus  4946  in  the  schools 
of  the  Moro  Province.  The  average  monthly  en- 
rolment however  was  427,165,  and  the  average 
monthly  attendance  only  337,307;  of  these,  2300 
were  pupils  of  secondary  schools,  15,487  of  inter- 
mediate schools  and  319,520  pf  primary  schools. 
There  were  732  American  teachers,  8130  Filipino 
teachers,  and  145  Filipino  apprentices — teachers  who 
serve  without  pay. 

Act  74,  sec.  16,  provides:  "No  teacher  or  other 
person  shall  teach  or  criticize  the  doctrines  of  any 
church,  religious  sect,  or  denomination,  or  shall  at- 
tempt to  influence  pupils  for  or  against  any  church  or 
religious  sect  in  any  public  school.  If  any  teacher 
shall  intentionally  violate  this  section  he  or  she  shall, 
after  due  hearing,  be  dismissed  from  the  public  serv- 
ice; provided :  however,  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the 
priest  or  minister  of  any  church  established  in  the 
town  wherein  a  public  school  is  situated,  either  in 
person  or  by  a  designated  teacher  of  religion,  to  teach 
for  one-half  hour  three  times  a  week,  in  the  school 
building,  to  those  public-school  pupils  whose  parents 
or  guardians  desire  it  and  express  their  desire  therefor 
in  writing  filed  with  the  principal  teacher  of  the 
school,  to  be  forwarded  to  the  division  superintendent, 
who  shall  fix  the  hours  and  rooms  for  such  teaching. 
But  no  public-school  teachers  shall  either  conduct 
religious  exercises,  or  teach  religion,  or  act  as  a  desig- 
nated religious  teacher  in  the  school  building  under 
the  foregoing  authority,  and  no  pupil  shall  be  re- 
quired by  any  public-school  teacher  to  attend  and 
receive  the  religious  instruction  herein  permitted. 
Should  the  opportunity  thus  given  to  teach  religion 
be  used  by  the  priest,  minister,  or  religious  teacher 
for  the  purpose  of  arousing  disloyalty  to  the  United 
States,  or  of  discouraging  the  attendance  of  pupils 
at  any  such  public  school,  or  creating  a  disturbance 
of  public  order,  or  of  interfering  with  the  discipline  of 
the  school,  the  division  superintendent,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  director  of  education,  may,  after  due 
investigation  and  hearing,  forbid  such  offending 
priest,  minister,  or  religious  teacher  from  entering  the 
public-school  building  thereafter." 

That  the  religion  of  the  Filipino  people  must  in- 
evitably suffer  from  the  present  system  of  education 
is  evident  to  anyone  conversant  with  existing  condi- 
tions. To  the  rehgious  disadvantages  common  to 
the  public  school  of  the  United  States  must  be  added 
the  imitative  habit  characteristic  of  the  Filipino,  and 
the  proselytizing  efforts  of  American  Protestant 
missionaries.  The  place  in  which  the  greatest  amount 
of  harm  can  be  done  to  the  religion  of  the  Filipino  is 
the  secondary  school.  Despite  the  best  intentions 
on  the  part  of  the  Government,  the  very  fact  that  the 
vast  majority  of  the  American  teachers  in  these 
schools  are  not  Catholics  incapacitates  a  great  num- 
ber of  them  from  giving  the  Catholic  interpretation 
of  points  of  history  connected  with  the  Reformation, 
the  preaching  of  indulgences,  the  reading  of  the  Bible, 
etc.  Accustomed  to  identify  his  religion  and  his 
Government,  the  step  towards  concluding  that  the 
American  Government  must  be  a  Protestant  Govern- 
ment is  an  easy  one  for  the  young  Filipino.  Further, 
as  the  secondary  schools  are  only  situated  in  the  pro- 
vincial capitals,  the  students  leave  home  to  live  in  the 
capital  of  their  province.  It  is  among  these  young 
people  particularly  that  the  American  Protestant 
missionary  works.  Even  though  he  does  not  make 
the  student  a  member  of  this  or  that  particular  sect, 
a  spirit  of  indifferentism  is  generated  which  does  not 
bode  well  for  the  future  of  the  country,  temporally 
or  spiritually.  A  nation  that  is  only  three  centuries 
XII.— 2 


distant  from  habits  of  idolatry  and  savagery  cannot 
be  removed  from  daily  religious  education  and  still 
be  expected  to  prosper.  That  the  majority  of  the 
FiUpino  people  desires  a  Christian  education  for  their 
children  may  be  seen  from  this,  that  the  Cathohc 
colleges,  academies,  and  schools  established  in  all  the 
dioceses  are  overcrowded.  For  the  present,  and  for 
many  years  to  come,  the  majority  of  Filipinos  cannot 
afford  to  pay  a  double  school  tax,  and  hence  must 
accept  the  educational  system  imposed  upon  them  by 
the  United  States. 

El  ArchipUlago  Filipino,  par  algunos  padres  de  la  misidn  de  la 
CompaHia  de  Jesus  (Government  Printing  Office,  Washington, 
1900) ;  Report  of  the  Philippine  Commission,  1900,  and  following 
years  (Washington,  1901 — ) ;  Census  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
(Washington,  1905);  Atkinson,  The  Philippine  Islands  (Boston, 
1905) ;  Sawyer,  The  Inhabitants  of  the  Philippines  (London, 
1900):  MacMicking,  Recollections  of  Manila  and  the  Philippines 
(London,  1851) ;  Comyn,  Memoria  sobre  el  estado  de  las  Filipinos 
(Madrid,  1820),  tr.  Walton,  State  of  the  Philippine  Islands  (Lon- 
don, 1821);  Jehnegan,  The  Philippine  Citizen  (Manila,  1907); 
Algu^,  Mirador  Observatory  (Manila,  1909) ;  Idem,  The  Clirmite 
of  the  Philippines  (Census  Bureau,  Washington,  1904) ;  The  Min~ 
eral  Resources  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  ed.  Smith  (Manila,  1910) ; 
Reed,  Negritos  of  Zambales  (Manila,  1904);  Jenks,  The  Bontoc 
Igorot  (Manila,  1905) ;  Geiffin,  Phillips,  and  Pardo  de 
Tavera,  Bibliography  of  the  Philippine  Islands  (Washington, 
1903),  gives  a  list  of  2850  books  on  the  Philippines;  White,  Tenth 
Annual  Report  of  the  Director  of  Education  for  the  Philippine 
Islands  (Manila,  1910);  Saderra  Maso,  Volcanoes  and  Seismic 
Centres  of  the  Philippine  Archipelago  (Census  Bureau,  Washing- 
ton, 1904) ;  Martinez,  Apuntes  hist&ricos  de  la  Provincia  Agus- 
iiniana  de  Filipinas  (Madrid,  1909) ;  De  Huerta,  Estado  de 
religiosos  menores  de  S.  Francisco  en  las  Islas  Filipinas  (Manila, 
1865) ;  Mozo,  Missiones  de  Filipinas  de  hi  orden  de  San  Agustin 
(Madrid,  1763) ;  Gomez  Platero,  Catdlogo  biogrdfico  de  los 
Religiosos  Franciscanos  de  Filipinas  (Manila,  1880) ;  Sadaba 
DEL  Carmen,  Catdlogo  de  los  Religiosos  Agustinos  Recoleios  de 
Filipinas  (Madrid,  1906);  Ferrando-Fonseca,  Historia  de  los 
PP.  Dominicos  en  las  Islas  Filipinas  (Madrid,  1870) ;  de  San 
Antonio,  Cronicas  de  In  Provincia  de  Religiosos  Descalzos  de  S, 
Francisco  en  las  Islas  Filipinas  (Manila,  1738) ;  Provincia  de  San 
Nicolas  de  Tolentino  de  Agustinos  descalzos  de  la  Con^regacion  de 
EspaHa  e  Indias  (Manila,  1879) ;  Pastells,  Labor  EvangSlica 
de  los  obreros  de  la  CompaHia  de  JestXs  en  las  Islas  Filipinas: 
Por  el  Padre  Francisco  Colin  (Barcelona,  1900);  Combes,  His- 
toria de  Mindanao  y  Jold  (Madrid,  1897) ;  Murillo  Velarde, 
Historia  de  la  Provincia  de  Filipinas  de  la  Compafiia  de  Jestls 
(Press  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  Manila,  1742) ;  de  San  AgustIn, 
Conguista  de  las  Islas  Filipinas  (Madrid,  1698) ;  Herrero  y 
Sampedro,  Nuestra  Prisidn  en  poder  de  los  revolucionarios  fili~ 
pinos  (Press  of  the  College  of  S.  Tom^s,  Manila,  1900) ;  Mar- 
tinez, Memorias  del  Cautiverio  (Manila,  1900) ;  Retana,  Ar- 
chivo  del  Bibliofilo  Filipino  (Madrid,  1905) ;  Cartas  de  los  PP. 
de  la  CompaHia  de  Jesus  de  la  misidn  de  Filipinas  (Manila, 
1896-97). 

Philip  M.  Finegan. 

Philippopolis,  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Thracia 
Secunda.  The  city  was  founded  by  Philip  of  Mace- 
don  in  342  B.  c.  on  the  site  of  the  legendary  Eumol- 
pias.  As  he  sent  thither  2000  culprits  in  addition  to 
the  colony  of  veterans,  the  town  was  for  some  time 
known  as  Poniropolis  as  well  as  by  its  official  designa- 
tion. During  Alexander's  expedition,  the  entire 
country  fell  again  under  the  sway  of  Seuthes  III, 
King  of  the  Odrysians,  and  it  was  only  in  313  that  the 
Hellenic  supremacy  was  re-established  by  Lysim- 
achus.  In  200  b.  c.  the  Thracians,  for  a  brief  interval 
it  is  true,  drove  back  the  Macedonian  garrisons ;  later 
they  passed  under  the  protectorate  and  afterwards  the 
domination  of  Rome  in  the  time  of  Tiberius.  The 
city  was  now  called  Trimontium,  but  only  for  a  verj' 
short  time  (Pliny,  "Hist.  Nat.",  IV,  xviii).  From  the 
reign  of  Septimius  Severus,  Philippopolis  bears  the 
title  of  metropolis  on  coins  and  in  inscriptions.  It 
was  there  that  the  conventu,s  of  Thrace  assembled. 
In  172  Marcus  Aurelius  fortified  the  city  with  walls; 
in  248  Philip  granted  it  the  title  of  colony,  two  years 
before  its  destruction  by  the  Goths,  who  slaughtered 
100,000  men  there  (Ammianus  Marcellinus,  XXVI, 
x).  Restored  again,  it  became  the  metropolis  of 
Thracia  Secunda. 

The  exact  date  of  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity in  this  town  is  unknown;  the  oldest  testi- 
mony, quite  open  to  criticism,  however,  is  in 
connexion  with  thirty-seven  martyrs,  whose  feast 
is  celebrated  on  20  August,  and  who  are  said  to  have 


PHILIPPOPOLIS 


18 


PHILIP 


been  natives  of  Philippopolis,  though  other  towns  of 
Thrace  are  frequently  given  as  their  native  place.    In 
3-14  was  held  at  Philippopolis  the  conciliabulum  of  the 
Eusebians,  which  brought  together  76  bishops  sep- 
aratnl  from  their  colleagues  of  Sardica,  or  Sofia,  and 
adversaries  of  St.  Athanasius  and  his  friends.    Among 
its  most  celebrated  ancient  metropolitans  is  Silvanus, 
who  asked  the  Patriarch  Proclus  to  transfer  him  to 
Troas  on  account  of  the  severity  of  the  climate,  and 
whose  name  was  inserted  by  Baronius  in  the  Roman 
Martyrology  for  2  December.     Philippopolis,  which 
from  the  fifth  century  at  the  latest  was  the  ecclesias- 
tical metropolis  of  Thracia  Secunda  and  dependent 
on  the   Patriarchate  of  Constantinople,   had  three 
suffragan  bishoprics  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury (Gelzer,  "Ungedruckte  .      .  Texte  der  Notitise 
episcopatuum",  542);  in  the  tenth  century  it  had  ten 
(ibid.,  577) ;  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
it  had  none  (ibid.).    The  Greek  metropolitan  see  has 
continued  to  exist,  in  spite  of  the  occupation  of  the 
Bulgarians.    The  latter,  however,  have  erected  there 
an  orthodox  metropolitan  see  of  their  own.    Though 
generally  held  by  the  Byzantines  Philippopolis  was 
often  captured  by  other  peoples— Huns,  Avars,  Slavs, 
Bulgarians,  and  the  Franks  who  retained  it  from  1204 
till  1235.  It  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1370  and  finally 
came  under  the  sway  of  the  Bulgarians  in  1885.    By 
transporting  thither  on  several  occasions  Armenian 
and  Syrian  colonists,  the  Byzantines  made  it  an  ad- 
vanced fortress  to  oppose  the  Bulgarians;    unfortu- 
nately these  colonists  were  nearly  all  Monophysites 
and  especially  Pauhcians,  so  the  city  became  the  great 
centre  of  Manicha'ism  in  the  Middle  Ages.     These 
heretics  converted  by  the  Capuchins  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  have  become  fervent  Catholics  of  the 
Latin  rite.    The  city  called  Plovdif  in  Bulgarian  con- 
tains at  present  47,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  about 
4000  are  Catholics.    The  Greeks  and  Turks  are  fairly 
numerous ;  the  Catholic  parish  is  in  charge  of  secular 
priests;  there  is  a  seminary,  which  however  has  only 
from  20  to  25  students.     The  Assumptionists,  who 
number  about  30,  have  had  since  1884  a  college  with  a 
commercial  department,  attended  by  250  pupils;  the 
primary  school  for  boys  was  established  in  1863  by  the 
Assumptionist  Sisters;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  have 
a  boarding-school  and  a  primary  school  for  girls;  the 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  Agram  have  an  hospital. 

Le  QniEN,  Orienx.  cdrisf.,  I,  11.55-62;  TsouKALAS,  Description 
historico-gioQTa phique  de  Veparchie  de  Philippopolis  (Vienna, 
1S51),  in  Greek;  Mi^LLEK,  Ptolemai  Geographia,  I  (Paris),  483; 
JlRECEK,  Das  Fvrsienthum  Bulgarien  (Prague,  1891),  378-87; 
Dupuy-P6tou.  La  Bulgarie  aux  Bulgares  (Paris,  189G),  142-8, 
291-8;  Revue  franco-bulgare  (1910),  10-18. 

S.  Vailhe. 

Philippopolis,  titular  see  in  Arabia,  suffragan  of 
Bostra.  Its  bishop,  Hormisdas,  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Chalccdon  in  451  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens  chris- 
tianus",  II,  861).  An  inscription  makes  known  an- 
other bishop,  Basil,  in  553  ("Echos  d'Orient",  XII, 
1909,  103).  Philippopolis  figures  as  a  see  in  the  "No- 
titiae  Episcopatuum"  in  the  sixth  century  (op.  cit.,  X, 
1907,  145).  There  were  also  several  titular  bishops.in 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  (Eubel,  "Hier- 
archia  oatholica  medii  aevi",  II,  238;  III,  291).  The 
ancient  name  of  this  place  is  unknown.  The  Emperor 
Philip  (244-9)  founded  this  town  and  gave  it  his  name 
(Aurelius  Victor,  "De  Ca;sar.",  28).  Thenceforth  it 
grew  very  rapidly  as  evidenced  by  the  fine  ruins,  re- 
mains of  the  colonnades  of  a  temple  and  colossal  baths, 
discovered  on  its  site  at  Shohba  in  the  Hauran. 

Waddington,  Inscriptions  grecques  et  latines  recueillies  en 
Grhce  et  en  Asie  Mineure,  490-3;  Gelzer,  Georgii  Cyprii  Descriptio 
orbis  romani,  204 ;  Revue  biblique,  VII  (1898) ,  601-3 ;  Echos  d'Orient, 
II  (1899),  175. 

S.  Vailh^. 

Philip  Romolo  Neri,  Saint,  Apostle  op  Rome,  b. 
at  Florence,  Italy,  22  July,  1515;  d.  27  May,  1595. 


Philip's  family  originally  came  from  Castelfranco  but 
had  lived  for  many  generations  in  Florence,  where  not 
a  few  of  its  members  had  practised  the  learned  profes- 
sions, and  therefore  took  rank  with  the  Tuscan  nobil- 
ity. Among  these  was  Philip's  own  father,  Francesco 
Neri,  who  eked  out  an  insufficient  private  fortune 
with  what  he  earned  as  a  notary.  A  circumstance 
which  had  no  small  influence  on  the  life  of  the  saint 
was  Francesco's  friendship  with  the  Dominicans;  for 
it  was  from  the  friars  of  S.  Marco,  amid  the  memories 
of  Savonarola,  that  Philip  received  many  of  his  early 
religious  impressions.  Besides  a  younger  brother, 
who  died  in  early  childhood,  Philip  had  two  younger 
sisters,  Caterina  and  Elisabetta.  It  was  with  them 
that  "the  good  Pippo",  as  he  soon  began  to  be  called, 
committed  his  only  known  fault.  He  gave  a  slight 
push  to  Caterina,  because  she  kept  interrupting  him 
and  Elisabetta,  while  they  were  reciting  psalms  to- 
gether, a  practice  of  which,  as  a  boy,  he  was  remarkably 
fond.  One  incident  of  his  childhood  is  dear  to  his  early 
biographers  as  the  first  visible  intervention  of  Provi- 
dence on  his  behalf,  and  perhaps  dearer  still  to  his 
modern  disciples,  because  it  reveals  the  human  charac- 
teristics of  a  boy  amid  the  supernatural  graces  of  a 
saint.  When  about  eight  years  old  he  was  left  alone 
in  a  courtyard  to  amuse  himself;  seeing  a  donkey 
laden  with  fruit,  he  jumped  on  its  back;  the  beast 
bolted,  and  both  tumbled  into  a  deep  cellar.  His 
parents  hastened  to  the  spot  and  extricated  the 
child,  not  dead,  as  they  feared,  but  entirely  un- 
injured. 

From  the  first  it  was  evident  that  Philip's  career 
would  run  on  no  conventional  lines;  when  shown  his 
family  pedigree  he  tore  it  up,  and  the  burning  of  his 
father's  house  left  him  unconcerned.  Having  studied 
the  humanities  under  the  best  scholars  of  a  scholarly 
generation,  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  sent  to  help 
his  father's  cousin  in  business  at  S.  Germano,  near 
Monte  Cassino.  He  applied  himself  with  diligence, 
and  his  kinsman  soon  determined  to  make  him  his 
heir.  But  he  would  often  withdraw  for  prayer  to  a 
little  mountain  chapel  belonging  to  the  Benedictines 
of  Monte  Cassino,  built  above  the  harbour  of  Gaeta 
in  a  cleft  of  rock  which  tradition  says  was  among 
those  rent  at  the  hour  of  Our  Lord's  death.  It  was 
here  that  his  vocation  became  definite:  he  was  called 
to  be  the  Apostle  of  Rome.  In  1533  he  arrived  in 
Rome  without  any  money.  He  had  not  informed  his 
father  of  the  step  he  was  taking,  and  he  had  deliberately 
cut  himself  off  from  his  kinsman's  patronage.  He 
was,  however,  at  once  befriended  by  Galeotto  Caccia, 
a  Florentine  resident,  who  gave  him  a  room  in  his 
house  and  an  allowance  of  flour,  in  return  for 
which  he  undertook  the  education  of  his  two  sons. 
For  seventeen  years  Philip  lived  as  a  layman  in 
Rome,  probably  without  thinking  of  becoming  a 
priest.  It  was  perhaps  while  tutor  to  the  boys,  that 
he  wrote  most  of  the  poetry  which  he  composed  both 
in  Latin  and  in  Italian.  Before  his  death  he  burned 
all  his  writings,  and  only  a  few  of  his  sonnets  have 
come  down  to  us.  He  spent  some  three  years, 
beginning  about  1535,  in  the  study  of  philosophy 
at  the  Sapienza,  and  of  theology  in  the  school  of 
the  Augustinians.  When  he  considered  that  he  had 
learnt  enough,  he  sold  his  books,  and  gave  the  price  to 
the  poor.  Though  he  never  again  made  study  his 
regular  occupation,  whenever  he  was  called  upon  to 
cast  aside  his  habitual  reticence,  he  would  surprise  the 
most  learned  with  the  depth  and  clearness  of  his  the- 
ological knowledge. 

He  now  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  sanctifica- 
tion  of  his  own  soul  and  the  good  of  his  neighbour. 
His  active  apostolate  began  with  solitary  and  unob- 
trusive visits  to  the  hospitals.  Next  he  induced  others 
to  accompany  him.  Then  he  began  to  frequent  the 
shops,  warehouses,  banks,  and  public  places  of  Rome, 
melting  the  hearts  of  those  whom  he  chanced  to  meet, 


PHILIP 


19 


PHILIP 


and  exhorting  them  to  serve  God.  In  1544,  or  later, 
he  became  the  friend  of  St.  Ignatius.  Many  of  his 
disciples  tried  and  found  their  vocations  in  the  in- 
fant Society  of  Jesus;  but  the  majority  remained  in 
the  world,  and  formed  the  nucleus  of  what  afterwards 
became  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Little  Oratory. 
Though  he  " appeared  not  fasting  to  men",  his  pri- 
vate life  was  that  of  a  hermit.  His  single  daily  meal 
was  of  bread  and  water,  to  which  a  few  herbs  were 
sometimes  added,  the  furniture  of  his  room  consisted 
of  a  bed,  to  which  he  usually  preferrred  the  floor,  a 
table,  a  few  chairs,  and  a  rope  to  hang  his  clothes  on; 
and  he  disciplined  himself  frequently  with  small 
chain.'^.  Tried  by  fierce  temptations,  diabolical  as 
well  as  human,  he  passed  through  them  all  unscathed, 
and  the  purity  of  his  soul  manifested  itself  in  certain 
striking  physical  traits.  He  prayed  at  first  mostly 
in  the  church  of  S.  Eustachio,  hard  by  Caccia's  house. 
Next  he  took  to  visiting  the 
Seven  Churches.  But  it  was 
in  the  catacomb  of  S.  Sebas- 
tiano — confounded  by  early 
biographers  with  that  of  S. 
Callisto — that  he  kept  the 
longest  vigils  and  received 
the  most  abundant  consola- 
tions. In  this  catacomb,  a 
few  days  before  Pentecost  in 
1544,  the  well-known  mir- 
acle of  his  heart  took  place. 
Bacci  describes  it  thus: 
"While  he  was  with  the 
greatest  earnestness  asking 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  His  gifts, 
there  appeared  to  him  a 
globe  of  fire,  which  entered 
into  his  mouth  and  lodged  in 
his  breast ;  and  thereupon  he 
was  suddenly  surprised  with 
such  a  fire  of  love,  that,  un- 
able to  bear  it,  he  threw  him- 
self on  the  ground,  and,  like 
one  trying  to  cool  himself, 
bared  his  breast  to  temper  in 
some  measure  the  flame 
which  he  felt.  When  he  had 
remained  so  for  some  time, 
and  was  a  little  recovered, 
he  rose  up  full  of  unwonted 
joy,  and  immediately  all  his 
body  began  to  shake  with  a 
violent  tremour;  and  put- 
ting his  hand  to  his  bosom, 
he  felt  by  the  side  of  his 
heart,   a  swelling   about   as 

big  as  a  man's  fist,  but  neither  then  nor  afterwards 
was  it  attended  with  the  slightest  pain  or  wound." 
The  cause  of  this  swelling  was  discovered  by  the 
doctors  who  examined  his  body  after  death.  The 
saint's  heart  had  been  dilated  under  the  sudden  im- 
pulse of  love,  and  in  order  that  it  might  have  suffi- 
cient room  to  move,  two  ribs  had  been  broken,  and 
curved  in  the  form  of  an  arch.  From  the  time  of  the 
miracle  till  his  death,  his  heart  would  palpitate  vio- 
lently whenever  he  performed  any  spiritual  action. 

During  his  last  years  as  a  layman,  Philip's  aposto- 
late  spread  rapidly.  In  1548,  together  with  his  con- 
fessor, Persiano  Rosa,  he  founded  the  Confraternity 
of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity  for  looking  after  pilgrims 
and  convalescents.  Its  members  met  for  Communion, 
prayer,  and  other  spiritual  exercises  in  the  church  of 
S.  Salvatore,  and  the  saint  himself  introduced  exposi- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  once  a  month  (see 
Forty  Hodhs'  Devotion).  At  these  devotions 
Philip  preached,  though  still  a  layman,  and  we  learn 
that  on  one  occasion  alone  he  converted  no  less  than 
thirty  dissolute  youths.    In  1550  a  doubt  occurred  to 


him  as  to  whether  he  should  not  discontinue  his  active 
work  and  retire  into  absolute  solitude.  His  perplexity 
was  set  at  rest  by  a  vision  of  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
and  by  another  vision  of  two  souls  in  glory,  one  of 
whom  was  eating  a  roll  of  bread,  signifying  God's 
will  that  he  should  live  in  Rome  for  the  good  of  souls 
as  though  he  were  in  a  desert,  abstaining  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  use  of  meat. 

In  1551,  however,  he  received  a  true  vocation  from 
God.  At  the  bidding  of  his  confessor — nothing  short 
of  this  would  overcome  his  humility — he  entered  the 
priesthood,  and  went  to  live  at  S.  Girolamo,  where  a 
staff  of  chaplains  was  supported  by  the  Confraternity 
of  Charity.  Each  priest  had  two  rooms  assigned  to 
him,  in  which  he  lived,  slept,  and  ate,  under  no  rule 
save  that  of  living  in  charity  with  his  brethren. 
Among  Philip's  new  companions,  besides  Persiano 
Rosa,  was  Buonsignore  Cacciaguerra  (see  "A  Pre- 
cursor of  St.  Philip  "  by  Lady 
Amabel  Kerr,  London),  a 
remarkable  penitent,  who 
was  at  that  time  carrying 
on  a  vigorous  propaganda 
in  favour  of  frequent  Com- 
munion. Philip,  who  as  a 
layman  had  been  quietly 
encouraging  the  frequent 
reception  of  the  sacraments, 
expended  the  whole  of  his 
priestly  energy  in  promoting 
the  same  cause;  but  unlike 
his  precursor,  he  recom- 
mended the  young  especially 
to  confess  more  often  than 
they  communicated.  The 
church  of  S.  Girolamo  was 
much  frequented  even  be- 
fore the  coming  of  Philip, 
and  his  confessional  there 
soon  became  the  centre  of 
a  mighty  apostolate.  He 
stayed  in  church,  hearing 
confessions  or  ready  to  hear 
them,  from  daybreak  till 
nearly  midday,  and  not  con- 
tent with  this,  he  usually 
confessed  some  forty  per- 
sons in  his  room  before  dawn. 
Thus  he  laboured  untiringly 
throughout  his  long  priest- 
hood. As  a  physician  of  souls 
he  received  marvellous  gifts 
from  God.  He  would  some- 
times tell  a  penitent  his  most 
secret  sins  without  his  con- 
fessing them;  and  once  he  converted  a  young  noble- 
man by  showing  him  a  vision  of  hell.  Shortly 
before  noon  he  would  leave  his  confessional  to 
say  Mass.  His  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
like  the  miracle  of  his  heart,  is  one  of  those  mani- 
festations of  sanctity  which  are  peculiarly  his  own. 
So  great  was  the  fervour  of  his  charity,  that,  instead  of 
recollecting  himself  before  Mass,  he  had  to  use  de- 
liberate means  of  distraction  in  order  to  attend  to  the 
external  rite.  During  the  last  five  years  of  his  life 
he  had  permission  to  celebrate  privately  in  a  little 
chapel  close  to  his  room.  At  the  "Agnus  Dei"  the 
server  went  out,  locked  the  doors,  and  hung  up  a 
notice:  "Silence,  the  Father  is  saying  Mass".  When 
he  returned  in  two  hours  or  more,  the  saint  was  so 
absorbed  in  God  that  he  seemed  to  be  at  the  point  of 
death. 

Philip  devoted  his  afternoons  to  men  and  boys,  in- 
viting them  to  informal  meetings  in  his  room,  taking 
them  to  visit  churches,  interesting  himself  in  their 
amusements,  hallowing  with  his  sweet  influence  every 
department  of  their  Uves.     At  one  time  he  had  a  long- 


PHILIP 


20 


PHILIP 


ing  desire  to  follow  the  example  of  St.  Francis  Xavier, 
and  go  to  India.  With  this  end  in  view,  he  hastened 
the  ordination  of  some  of  his  companions.  But  in 
1557  he  sought  the  counsel  of  a  Cistercian  at  Tre 
Fontanel  and  as  on  a  former  occasion  he  had  been  told 
to  make  Rome  his  desert,  so  now  the  monk  communi- 
cated to  him  a  revelation  he  had  had  from  St.  John 
the  Evangelist,  that  Rome  was  to  be  his  India.  Philip 
at  once  abandoned  the  idea  of  going  abroad,  and  in  the 
following  year  the  informal  meetings  in  his  room  de- 
veloped into  regular  spiritual  exercises  in  an  oratory, 
which  he  built  over  the  church.  At  these  exercises 
laymen  preached  and  the  excellence  of  the  discourses, 
the  high  quality  of  the  music,  and  the  charm  of 
Philip's  personality  attracted  not  only  the  humble 
and  lowly,  but  men  of  the  highest  rank  and  distinction 
in  Church  and  State.  Of  these,  in  1590,  Cardinal 
Nicol6  Sfondrato,  became  Pope  Gregory  XIV,  and  the 
extreme  reluctance  of  the  saint  alone  prevented  the 
pontiff  from  forcing  him  to  accept  the  cardinalate.  In 
1559,  Philip  began  to  organize  regular  visits  to  the 
Seven  Churches,  in  company  with  crowds  of  men, 
priests  and  religious,  and  laymen  of  every  rank  and 
condition.  These  visits  were  the  occasion  of  a  short 
but  sharp  persecution  on  the  part  of  a  certain  malicious 
faction,  who  denounced  him  as  "a  setter-up  of  new 
sects".  The  cardinal  vicar  himself  summoned  him, 
and  without  listening  to  his  defence,  rebuked  him  in  the 
harshest  terms.  For  a  fortnight  the  saint  was  sus- 
pended from  hearing  confessions ;  but  at  the  end  of  that 
time  he  made  his  defence,  and  cleared  himself  before 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  In  1562,  the  Florentines 
in  Rome  begged  him  to  accept  the  office  of  rector  of 
their  church,  S.  Giovanni  del  Fiorentini,  but  he  was 
reluctant  to  leave  S.  Girolamo.  At  length  the  matter 
was  brought  before  Pius  IV,  and  a  compromise  was 
arrived  at  (1564).  While  remaining  himself  at  S. 
Girolamo,  Philip  became  rector  of  S.  Giovanni,  and 
Bent  five  priests,  one  of  whom  was  Baronius,  to  rep- 
resent him  there.  They  lived  in  community  under 
Philip  as  their  superior,  taking  their  meals  together, 
and  regularly  attending  the  exercises  at  S.  Girolamo. 
In  1574,  however,  the  exercises  began  to  be  held  in  an 
oratory  at  S.  Giovanni.  Meanwhile  the  community 
was  increasing  in  size,  and  in  1575  it  was  formally 
recognised  by  Gregory  XIII  as  the  Congregation  of 
the  Oratory,  and  given  the  church  of  S.  Maria  in 
Vallicella.  (See  Oratory.)  The  fathers  came  to  live 
there  in  1577,  in  which  year  they  opened  the  Chiesa 
Nuova,  built  on  the  site  of  the  olri  S.  Maria,  and  trans- 
ferred the  exercises  to  a  new  oratory.  Philip  him- 
self remained  at  S.  Girolamo  till  l.'JS.'?,  and  it  was  only 
in  obedience  to  Gregory  XIII  that  he  then  left  his  old 
home  and  came  to  live  at  the  Vallicella. 

The  last  years  of  his  life  were  marked  by  alternate 
sickness  and  recovery.  In  159.3,  he  showed  the  true 
greatness  of  one  wlio  knows  the  limits  of  his  own  en- 
durance, and  resigned  the  office  of  superior  which  had 
been  conferred  on  him  for  life.  In  1594,  when  he  was 
in  an  agony  of  pain,  the  Blessed  Virgin  appeared  to 
him,  and  cured  him.  At  the  end  of  March,  1595,  he 
had  a  severe  attack  of  fe\'er,  which  lasted  throughout 
April;  but  in  answer  to  his  special  prayer  God  gave 
him  strength  to  say  Mass  on  1  May  in  honour  of  SS. 
Philip  and  James.  On  the  following  12  May  he  was 
seized  ^  with  a  violent  haemorrhage,  and  "Cardinal 
Baronius,  who  had  succeeded  him  as  superior,  gave 
him  Extreme  Unction.  After  that  he  seemed  to  re- 
vive a  little  and  his  friend  Cardinal  Frederick  Bor- 
romeo  brought  him  the  \'iaticum,  which  he  received 
with  loud  protestations  of  his  own  unworthiness.  On 
the  next  day  he  was  perfectly  well,  and  till  the  actual 
day  of  his  death  went  about  his  usual  duties,  even  re- 
citing the  Di^^ne  Office,  from  which  he  was  dispensed. 
But  on  15  May  he  predicted  that  he  had  only  ten  more 
days  to  live.  On  25  May,  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi,  he 
went  to  say  Mass  in  his  Uttle  chapel,  two  hours  earlier 


than  usual.  "At  the  beginning  of  his  Mass",  writes 
Bacci,  "he  remained  for  some  time  looking  fixedly  at 
the  hill  of  S.  Onf orio,  which  was  visible  from  the  chapel, 
just  as  if  he  saw  some  great  vision.  On  coming  to  the 
Gloria  in  Excehis  he  began  to  sing,  which  was  an  un- 
usual thing  for  him,  and  sang  the  whole  of  it  with  the 
greatest  joy  and  devotion,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  Mass 
he  said  with  extraordinary  exultation,  and  as  if  sing- 
ing." He  was  in  perfect  health  for  the  rest  of  that 
day,  and  made  his  usual  night  prayer;  but  when  in  bed, 
he  predicted  the  hour  of  the  night  at  which  he  would 
die.  About  an  hour  after  midnight  Father  Antonio 
Gallonio,  who  slept  under  him,  heard  him  walking  up 
and  down,  and  went  to  his  room.  He  found  him  lying 
on  the  bed,  suffering  from  another  haemorrhage.  "An- 
tonio, I  am  going",  he  said;  Gallonio  thereupon 
fetched  the  medical  men  and  the  fathers  of  the  con- 
gregation. Cardinal  Baronius  made  the  commenda- 
tion of  his  soul,  and  asked  him  to  give  the  fathers 
his  final  blessing.  The  saint  raised  his  hand  slightly, 
and  looked  up  to  heaven.  Then  inclining  his  head 
towards  the  fathers,  he  breathed  his  last.  Philip  was 
beatified  by  Paul  V  in  1615,  and  canonized  by  Gregory 
XV  in  1622. 

It  is  perhaps  by  the  method  of  contrast  that  the  dis- 
tinctive characteristics  of  St.  Philip  and  his  work  are 
brought  home  to  us  most  forcibly  (see  Newman; 
"Sermons  on  Various  Occasions",  n.  xii;  "Historical 
Sketches",  III,  end  of  ch.  vii).  We  hail  him  as  the 
patient  reformer,  who  leaves  outward  things  alone 
and  works  from  within,  depending  rather  on  the  hid- 
den might  of  sacrament  and  prayer  than  on  drastic 
policies  of  external  improvement;  the  director  of  souls 
who  attaches  more  ^-alue  to  the  mortification  of  the 
reason  than  to  bodily  austerities,  protests  that  men 
may  become  saints  in  the  world  no  less  than  in  the 
cloister,  dwells  on  the  importance  of  serving  God  in  a 
cheerful  spirit,  and  gives  a  quaintly  humourous  turn 
to  the  maxims  of  ascetical  theology;  the  silent  watcher 
of  the  times,  who  takes  no  active  part  in  ecclesiastical 
controversies  and  is  yet  a  moti^-e  force  in  their  devel- 
opment, now  encouraging  the  use  of  ecclesiastical 
history  as  a  bulwark  against  Protestantism,  now  in- 
sisting on  the  absolution  of  a  monarch,  whom  other 
counsellors  would  fain  exclude  from  the  sacraments 
(see  Baronius),  now  praying  that  God  may  avert 
a  threatened  condemnation  (see  Savonarola)  and 
receiving  a  miraculous  assurance  that  his  prayer  is 
heard  (see  Letter  of  Ercolani  referred  to  by  Capece- 
latro) ;  the  founder  of  a  Congregation,  which  relies 
more  on  personal  influence  than  on  disciplinary  or- 
ganization, and  prefers  the  spontaneous  practice  of 
counsels  of  perfection  to  their  enforcement  by  means 
of  vows;  above  all,  the  saint  of  God,  who  is  so  irresis- 
tibly attractive,  so  eminently  lovable  in  himself,  as  to 
win  the  title  of  the  "Amabile  santo". 

Gallonio,  companion  of  the  saint,  was  the  first  to  produce  a 
Life  of  St.  Philip,  published  in  Latin  (1600)  and  in  Italian  (1601), 
written  with  great  precision,  and  following  a  .strictly  chronologi- 
cal order.  Several  medical  treatises  were  written  on  tlie  saint's 
palpitation  and  fractured  ribs,  e.  g.  Angelo  da  Bagnarea's 
Medica  dis-pittatio  de  palpitalianc  corditi,  fractura  costarum,  aliisque 
affeclionibus  B.  Philippi  Nerii  .  .  qua  ostenditur  prwdictas 
affediones  fuis.ic  supra  naturam,  dedicated  to  Card.  Frederick 
Borromeo  (Ttomp,  1613).  Bacci  wrote  an  Italian  Life  and  dedi- 
cated it  to  Greffory  XV  (1022).  His  work  is  the  outcome  of  a 
minute  examination  of  the  processes  of  canonization,  and  con- 
tains important  matter  not  found  in  Gallonio.  Brocchi's 
Life  of  St.  Philip,  contained  in  his  Vite  de'  sanii  e  beaii  Fio- 
'Z"'m^  (Florence,  1742),  includes  the  saint's  pedigree,  and  gives 
the  Florentine  tradition  of  his  early  years;  for  certain  chronologi- 
cal discrepancies  between  Gallonio,  Bacci,  and  Brocchi,  see 
notes  on  the  chronology  in  Antrobus'  ed.  of  Bacci.  Other 
Lu-es  are  by  Ricci  (Rome,  1670),  whose  work  is  an  enlargement 
ot  Bacci,  and  includes  his  own  Lives  of  the  Companions  of  St, 
Phili/j;  Maeciano  (1693) ;  Sonzonio  (1727) ;  Behnabei  (d.  1662), 
whose  work  was  published  for  the  first  time  by  the  Bollandists 
(Acta  SS.,  May,  VII);  Ramirez,  who  adapts  the  language  of 
boripture  to  St.  Philip  in  a  Latin  work  called  the  Via  lactea,  dedi- 
cated to  Innocent  XI  (Valencia,  1682);  and  Bayle  (1859). 
Goethe  at  the  end  of  his  Il.Uien.  Rci^e  (Italian  .Journey)  gives  a 
sketch  of  the  saint,  entitled  Filippo  Neri,  der  humori^lische 
"«'"ff«;  The  most  important  modern  Life  is  that  of  Capecela- 
THO  (1879),  treating  fully  of  the  saint's  relations  with  the  persons 


PHILIPS 


21 


PHILISTINES 


and  events  of  his  time.  There  ia  an  English  Life  by  Hope  (Lon- 
don, New  York,  Cincinnati,  Chicago).  An  abridged  English 
translation  of  Bacci  appeared  in  penal  times  (Paris,  1656),  a  fact 
which  shows  our  Catholic  forefathers'  continued  remembrance  of 
the  saint,  who  used  to  greet  the  English  College  students  with  the 
words,  "Salvete,  flores  martyrum."  Faber's  Modern  SninLs 
(1847)  includes  translations  of  an  enlarged  ed.  of  Bacci,  and  of 
Ricci's  Lives  of  the  Companions.  Of  the  former  there  is  a  new  and 
revised  edition  by  Antrobus  (London,  1902).  Capecelatro's 
work  has  been  translated  by  Pope  (London,  1882).  English  ren- 
derings of  two  of  St.  Philip's  sonnets  by  Ryder  are  published  at 
the  end  of  the  recent  English  editions  of  Bacci  and  Capecelatro, 
together  with  translations  of  St.  Philip's  letters.  These  were 
originally  published  in  Bisconi's  RaccoUa  di  lettere  di  santi  e 
beati  Fiorentini  (Florence,  1737) ;  but  since  that  time  twelve  other 
letters  have  come  to  light. 

C.  Sebastian  Ritchie. 

Philips,  Peter  (also  known  as  Petrus  Philippus, 
PiETRO  Phillipo),  b.  in  England  about  1.560;  date 
and  place  of  death  unknown.  It  is  generally  accepted 
that  Philips,  remaining  faithful  to  the  Church,  left 
England  for  the  Netherlands,  whence  he  went  to 
Rome,  and  afterwards,  returning  to  Antwerp,  became 
organist  at  the  Court  of  the  governor,  Duke  Albert. 
Having  entered  Holy  orders,  he  held  a  canonry  at 
Bethune,  in  Flanders,  which  he  exchanged  for  a  similar 
honour  at  Soignes  in  1612.  It  has  been  pointed  out 
that  the  title-pages  of  his  published  works  are  the  best 
inde.x  to  his  movements  and  abiding  places,  and  they 
are  various.  Philips  ranks  in  importance  as  a  musi- 
cian with  Tallys,  Byrd,  Morley,  and  Orlando  Gibbons, 
and  is  considered  one  of  the  great  masters  of  his  time. 
Besides  canzoni  and  madrigals  for  six  and  eight  voices, 
he  left  innumerable  instrumental  works  which  have 
been  preserved  in  the  libraries  of  Antwerp,  Leyden, 
Strasburg,  and  London.  Nineteen  of  these  are  con- 
tained in  "The  Fitz-William  Virginal  Book"  by  J.  A. 
Fuller-Maitland  and  W.  B.  Squire.  To  the  Church, 
however,  Philips  devoted  his  best  efforts.  Besides 
single  numbers  found  in  various  collections  of  his 
period,  a  volume  of  five-part  motets;  another  of  sim- 
ilar works  for  eight  voices;  "Gemmulaj  sacrae"  for  two 
and  three  voices  and  figured  bass;  "Les  rossignols 
spirituels",  a  collection  of  two-  and  four-part  pieces, 
some  to  Latin  words,  but  most  of  them  to  French; 
"Deliciae  sacrse",  forty-one  compositions  for  two  and 
three  parts,  are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  library  of  John  IV  of  Portugal  contains  Philips's 
posthumous  works — masses  for  six,  eight,  and  nine 
voices,  and  motets  for  eight  voices.  His  "Cantiones 
sacrae"  have  recently  been  made  available  for  modern 
use,  and  have  been  added  to  the  repertoire  of  the  choir 
of  Westminster  Cathedral. 

Bergmans,  L'Organiste  des  archiducs  Albert  et  Isabelle  (Ghent, 
1903):  Squire  in  Grove,  Dictionary  of  Mu.'.ic.  s.  v. 

Joseph  Otten. 

Philip  the  Arabian  (Philippus),  Emperor  of 
Rome  (244-249),  the  son  of  an  Arab  sheik,  b.  in 
Bosra.  He  rose  to  be  an  influential  officer  of  the 
Roman  army.  In  243  the  Emperor  Gordianus  III 
was  at  war  with  Persia;  the  administration  of  the 
army  and  the  empire  were  directed  with  great  success 
by  his  father-in-law  Timesitheus.  Timesitheus,  how- 
ever, died  in  243  and  the  helpless  Gordianus,  a  minor, 
appointed  Marcus  Julius  Philippus  as  his  successor. 
By  causing  a  scarcity  of  provisions  Philip  increased 
the  exasperation  of  the  soldiers  against  the  emperor 
and  they  proclaimed  Philip  emperor.  Phihp  now  had 
Gordianus  secretly  executed.  However,  as  he  erected 
a  monument  to  Gordianus  on  the  Euphrates  and 
deified  him,  he  deceived  the  Senate  and  obtained 
recognition  as  emperor.  He  abandoned  the  advan- 
tages Timesitheus  had  won  from  the  Persian  King 
Sapor.  He  withdrew  from  Asia,  and  recalled  a  large 
number  of  divisions  of  the  army  from  Daoia,  Rhaetia, 
and  Britain  to  northern  Italy  to  protect  it  against 
incursions  from  the  East.  On  account  of  invasions 
by  the  Capri  he  hastened  to  the  lower  Danube,  where 
he  was  successful  in  two  battles.  Consequently  on 
coins  he  bears  the  surname  of  Carpious  Maximus. 


Philip  gave  high  offices  of  State  to  his  relations  who 
misused  these  positions.  He  also  made  his  son  Philip, 
when  seven  years  of  age,  co-ruler.  The  most  impor- 
tant event  of  his  reign  was  the  celebration  of  the 
thousandth  year  of  the  existence  of  Rome  in  April, 
248. 

The  insecurity  of  his  authority  in  the  outlying  dis- 
tricts showed  itself  in  the  appearance  of  rival  em- 
perors proclaimed  by  the  legions  stationed  there.  The 
Goths  sought  to  settle  permanently  in  Roman  terri- 
tory ;  and  as  the  army  of  the  Danube  could  not  defend 
itself  without  a  centralized  control,  the  soldiers,  at 
the  close  of  248,  forced  Deoius,  sent  to  suppress  the 
mutinies,  to  accept  the  position  of  emperor.  Decius 
advanced  into  Italy,  where  he  defeated  Philip  near 
Verona.  Philip  and  his  son  were  killed.  During 
Philip's  reign  Christians  were  not  disturbed.  The 
emperor  also  issued  police  regulations  for  the  main- 
tenance of  public  morality.  A  statement  of  St.  Je- 
rome's caused  Philip  to  be  regarded  in  the  Middle 
Ages  as  the  first  Christian  Emperor  of  Rome. 

MoMMSEN,  Ri)m.  Gesch.  V  (Berlin,  1885) ;  for  further  bibli- 
ography, see  Pektinax.  KarL  HoeBER. 

Philistines  (D^r'ubc;  LXX  ipvXurTidfi  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch and  Josue,  elsewhere  dXX60uXoi,  "foreign- 
ers"). In  the  Biblical  account  the  Philistines  come 
into  prominence  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  maritime 
plain  of  Palestine  from  the  time  of  the  Judges  onward. 
They  are  mentioned  in  the  genealogy  of  the  nations 
(Gen.,  X,  14;  cf.  I  Par.,  i,  11,  12),  where  together  with 
the  Caphtorim  they  are  set  down  as  descendants  of 
Mesraim.  It  is  conjectured  with  probability  that 
they  came  originally  from  Crete,  sometimes  identified 
with  Caphtor,  and  that  they  belonged  to  a  piratical, 
seafaring  people.  They  make  their  first  appearance 
in  Biblical  history  late  in  the  period  of  the  Judges  in 
connexion  with  the  prophesied  birth  of  the  hero 
Samson.  The  angel  appearing  to  Saraa,  wife  of  Manue 
of  the  race  of  Dan,  tells  her  that,  though  barren,  she 
shall  bear  a  son  who  "shall  begin  to  deliver  Israel 
from  the  hands  of  the  Philistines"  (Judges,  xiii,  1-5); 
and  we  are  informed  in  the  same  passage  that  the 
domination  of  the  Philistines  over  Israel  had  lasted 
forty  years.  In  the  subsequent  chapters  graphic 
accounts  are  given  of  the  encounters  between  Samson 
and  these  enemies  of  his  nation  who  were  encroaching 
upon  Israel's  western  border.  In  the  early  days  of 
Samuel  we  find  the  Philistines  trying  to  make  them- 
selves masters  of  the  interior  of  Palestine,  and  in  one 
of  the  ensuing  battles  they  succeeded  in  capturing 
the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  (I  Kings,  iv).  The  coming 
of  a  pestilence  upon  them,  however,  induced  them  to 
return  it,  and  it  remained  for  many  years  in  the  house 
of  Abinadab  in  Cariathiarim  (I  Kings,  v;  vi;  vii). 
After  Saul  became  king  the  Philistines  tried  to  break 
his  power,  but  were  unsuccessful,  chiefly  owing  to  the 
bravery  of  Jonathan  (I  Kings,  xiii;  xiv).  Their 
progress  was  not,  however,  permanently  checked,  for 
we  are  told  (I  Kings,  xiv,  52)  that  there  was  a  "great 
war  against  the  Phihstines  all  the  days  of  Saul",  and 
at  the  end  of  the  latter's  reign  we  find  their  army  still 
in  possession  of  the  rich  plain  of  Jezrael  including  the 
city  of  Bethsan  on  its  eastern  border  (I  Kings,  xxxi, 
10).  They  met  with  a  severe  defeat,  however,  early 
in  the  reign  of  David  (II  Kings,  v,  20-25),  who  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  them  to  a  state  of  vassalage  (II 
Kings,  viii,  1).  Prior  to  this  date  the  power  of  the 
Philistines  seems  to  have  been  concentrated  in  the 
hands  of  the  rulers  of  the  cities  of  Gaza,  Ascalon, 
Azotus  (Ashdod),  Accaron,  and  Geth,  and  a  peculiar 
title  signifying  "Lord  of  the  Philistines"  was  borne 
by  each  of  these  petty  kings.  The  Philistines  re- 
gained their  independence  at  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
David,  probably  about  the  time  of  the  schism,  for 
we  find  the  Kings  of  Israel  in  the  ninth  century  en- 
deavouring to  wrest  from  them  Gebbethon,  a  city 


PHILLIP 


22 


PHILLIPS 


on  the  border  of  the  maratime  plain  (III  Kings,  xv, 
27;  xvi,  15).  Towards  the  close  of  the  same  century 
the  Assyrian  ruler,  King  Adad-Nirari,  placed  them 
under  tribute  and  began  the  long  series  of  Assyrian 
interference  in  Phihstine  affairs.  In  Amos  (i,  6,  8) 
we  find  a  denunciation  of  the  Phihstine  monarchies 
as  among  the  independent  kingdoms  of  the  time. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century  and 
during  the  whole  of  the  seventh  the  history  of  the  Phil- 
istines is  made  up  of  a  continual  series  of  conspiracies, 
conquests,  and  rebellions.  Their  principal  foes  were 
the  Assyrians  on  the  one  side  and  the  Egyptians  on 
the  other.  In  the  year  of  the  fall  of  Samaria  (721 
B.  c.)  they  became  vassals  of  Sargon.  They  rebelled, 
however,  ten  years  later  under  the  leadership  of 
Ashdod,  but  without  permanent  success.  Another 
attempt  was  made  to  shake  off  the  Assyrian  yoke 
at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Sennacherib.  In  this  con- 
flict the  Philistine  King  of  Accaron,  who  remained 
faithful  to  Sennacherib,  was  cast  into  prison  by  King 
Ezechias  of  Juda.  The  allies  who  were  thus  brought 
together  were  defeated  at  Eltekeh  and  the  result  was 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Sennacherib  (IV  Kings, 
xviii-xix).  Esarhaddon  and  Asurbanipal  in  their 
western  campaigns  crossed  the  territory  of  the  Phil- 
istines and  held  it  in  subjection,  and  after  the  decline 
of  Assyria  the  encroachments  of  the  Assyrians  gave 
place  to  those  of  the  Egyptians  under  the  Twenty- 
sixth  Dynasty.  It  is  probable  that  the  Philistines 
Buffered  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Nabuchodonosor, 
though  no  record  of  his  conquest  of  them  has  been  pre- 
served. The  old  title  "Lords  of  the  Philistines"  has 
now  disappeared,  and  the  title  "King"  is  bestowed  by 
the  Assyrians  on  the  Philistine  rulers.  The  siege  of  Gaza, 
which  held  out  against  Alexander  the  Great,  is  famous, 
and  we  find  the  Ptolemies  and  Seleucids  frequently 
fighting  over  Philistine  territory.  The  land  finally 
passed  under  Roman  rule,  and  its  cities  had  subse- 
quently an  important  history.  After  the  time  of  the 
Assyrians  the  Philistines  cease  to  be  mentioned  by 
this  name.  Thus  Herodotus  speaks  of  the  "Ara- 
bians" as  being  in  possession  of  the  lower  Mediter- 
ranean coast  in  the  time  of  Cambyses.  From  this 
it  is  inferred  by  some  that  at  that  time  the  Philistines 
had  been  supplanted.  In  the  ebb  and  flow  of  warring 
nations  over  this  land  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
they  were  gradually  absorbed  and  lost  their  identity. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  PhiUstines  adopted 
in  the  main  the  religion  and  civilization  of  the  Cha- 
naanites.  In  I  Kings,  v,  2,  we  read:  "And  the  Phil- 
istines took  the  ark  of  God,  and  brought  it  into  the 
temple  of  Dagon,  and  set  it  by  Dagon",  from  which 
we  infer  that  their  chief  god  was  this  Semitic  deity. 
The  latter  appears  in  the  Tel  el-Amarna  Letters  and 
also  in  the  Babylonian  inscriptions.  At  Ascalon 
likewise  there  was  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  Semitic 
goddess  Ishtar,  and  as  the  religion  of  the  PhiUstines 
was  thus  evidently  Semitic,  so  also  were  probably 
the  other  features  of  their  civilization. 

Besides  the  standard  Commentaries  see  Maspeho,  Hisioire 
ancienne  den  peuples  de  I'Orient  (6th  ed.,  Paris,  1904),  tr.,  The 
Davn  of  Cirilimtion  (4th  ed.,  London,  1901);  Bhogsch,  Egypt 
under  the  Pharaohs  (tr.,  London,  1880),  ix-xiv. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Phillip,  Robert,  priest,  d.  at  Paris,  4  Jan.,  1647. 
He  was  descended  from  the  Scottish  family  of  Phillip 
of  Sanquhar,  but  nothing  is  known  of  his  early  life. 
Ordained  in  Rome,  he  returned  in  1612  to  Scotland 
where  he  was  betrayed  by  his  father,  seized  while 
saying  Mass,  and  tried  at  Edinburgh  as  a  seminary 
pnest,  14  Sept.,  1(113.  The  sentence  of  death  was 
commutcil  to  banishment,  and  he  withdrew  to  France, 
where  he  joined  tlie  French  Oratory  recently  founded 
by  Cardirial  de  Beiulle.  In  162S  he  went  to  England 
as  confessor  to  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  and  at  her  re- 
quest he  besought  the  pope  for  financial  aid  against 
the  king's  enemies.    The  subsequent  negotiations  were 


discovered,  and  Phillip  was  impeached  on  the  charge 
of  being  a  papal  spy  and  of  having  endeavoured  to  per- 
vert Prince  Charles,  but  proceedings  dropped  owing  to 
the  displeasure  of  Richelieu  at  the  introduction  of  his 
own  name  into  the  matter.  Later  he  was  committed 
to  the  Tower  for  refusing  to  be  sworn  on  the  Anglican 
Bible  on  2  Nov.,  1641,  when  he  had  been  summoned 
by  the  Lords'  committee  to  be  examined  touching 
State  matters.  Released  through  the  queen's  influ- 
ence, he  accompanied  her  to  The  Hague  in  March, 
1642,  and  remained  with  her  in  Paris  till  his  death. 

Nalson,  Collection  of  Affairs  of  State,  II  (London,  1682-3); 
Berington,  Memoirs  of  Panzani  (Birmingham,  1793) ;  Stothert, 
Catholic  Church  in  Scotland,  ed.  Gordon  (Glasgow,  1869) ; 
Foley,  Records  of  Eng.  Jesuits,  V  (London,  1879);  vSeccombe  in 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v.  Philips,  Robert;  Gillow.  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng. 
Cath.,  a.  V.  EdWIN    BuBTON. 

Phillips,  George,  canonist,  b.  at  Konigsberg,  6 
Sept.,  1804;  d.  at  Vienna,  6  September,  1S72,  was  the 
son  of  James  Phillips,  an  Englishman  who  had 
acquired  wealth  as  a  merchant  in  Konigsberg,  and 
of  a  Scotchwoman  ne'e  Hay.  On  completing  his  course 
at  the  gymnasium,  George  studied  law  at  the  Univer- 
sities of  Berlin  and  Gottingen  (1822-24) ;  his  principal 
teachers  were  von  Savigny  and  Eichhorn,  and,  under 
the  influence  of  the  latter,  he  devoted  himself  mainly 
to  the  study  of  Germanic  law.  After  obtaining  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Law  at  Gottingen  in  1824,  he  paid 
a  long  visit  to  England.  In  1826  he  qualified  at  Berlin 
as  Privaidozent  (tutor)  for  German  law,  and  in  1827 
was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  in  this  faculty. 
In  the  same  year  he  married  Charlotte  Housselle,  who 
belonged  to  a  French  Protestant  family  settled  in 
Berlin.  Phillips  formed  a  close  friendship  with  his 
colleague  K.  E.  Jarcke,  professor  at  Berlin  since  1825, 
who  had  entered  the  Catholic  Church  in  1824. 
Jarcke's  influence  and  his  own  searching  studies  into 
medieval  Germany  led  to  the  conversion  of  Phillips 
and  his  wife  in  1828  (14  May).  Jarcke  having  re- 
moved to  Vienna  in  1832,  Phillips  accepted  in  1833 
a  call  to  Munich  as  counsel  in  the  Bavarian  Ministry 
of  the  Interior.  In  1834  he  was  named  professor  of 
history,  and  a  few  months  later  professor  of  law  at  the 
University  of  Munich.  He  now  joined  that  circle  of 
illustrious  men  including  the  two  Gorres,  Mohler, 
DoUinger,  and  Ringseis,  who,  filled  with  enthusiasm 
for  the  Church,  laboured  for  the  renewal  of  the  reli- 
gious life,  the  defence  of  Catholic  rights  and  religious 
freedom,  and  the  revival  of  Catholic  scholarship. 
In  1S3S  he  founded  with  Guido  Gorres  the  still 
flourishing  militant  "Historischpohtische  Blatter" 
His  lectures,  notable  for  their  excellence  and  form, 
treated  with  unusual  fullness  subjects  connected  with 
ecclesiastical  interests.  In  consequence  of  the  Lola 
Montez  affair,  in  connexion  with  which  Phillips 
signed,  with  six  other  Munich  professors,  an  address 
of  sympathy  with  the  dismissed  minister  Abel,  he 
was  relieved  of  his  chair  in  1847.  In  1848  he  was 
elected  deputy  of  a  Mtinster  district  for  the  National 
Assembly  of  Frankfort,  at  which  he  energetically 
upheld  the  Catholic  interests.  In  18.50,  after  declining 
a  caU  as  professor  to  Wtirzburg,  he  accepted  the  chair 
of  German  law  at  Innsbruck,  and  there  resumed  his 
academic  activity.  Invited  to  fill  the  same  chair  in 
"S'ienna  in  1851,  he  removed  to  the  Austrian  capital, 
and  remained  there  until  his  death.  Once  (1862-7) 
he  accepted  a  long  leave  of  absence  to  complete  his 
Kirchenrecht " .  He  always  maintained  his  relations 
with  his  friends  in  Munich  and  other  cities  of  Germany, 
and  never  relaxed  his  activity  in  furthering  Catholic 
interests.  As  a  writer,  his  labours  lay  in  the  domain 
of  German  law,  canon  law,  and  their  respective  his- 
tories. At  first  his  activity  was  directed  mainly  to  the 
first-mentioned,  his  principal  contributions  on  the 
subject  being:  "Versuch  einer  Darstellung  des  angel- 
sachsischen  Rechtes"  (Gottingen,  1825);  "Englisohe 
Reichs-  und  Rechtsgeschichte",  of  which  two  volumes 


PHILOCALIAN 


23 


PHILO 


(dealing  with  the  period  1066-1189)  appeared  (Ber- 
lin, 1827-8);  "Deutsche  Geschichte  mit  besonderer 
Rilcksicht  auf  Religion,  Recht  und  Verfassung",  of 
which  two  volumes  alone  were  issued  (Berlin,  1832-4), 
deals  with  Mero\'ingian  and  Carlovingian  times; 
"Grundsatze  des  gemeinen  deutschen  Privatrechts 
mit  Einschluss  des  Lehnrechts"  (Berlin,  1838); 
"Deutsche  Reiohs-  und  Rechtsgeschichte"  (Munich, 
1845).  After  his  call  to  Munich,  however,  Phillips 
recognized  his  chief  task  in  the  treatment  of  canon 
law  from  the  strictly  Catholic  standpoint.  In  addi- 
tion to  numerous  smaller  treatises,  he  published  in 
this  domain:  "Die  Diozesansynode"  (Freiburg, 
1849),  and  especially  his  great  "Kirchenrecht",  which 
appeared  in  seven  volumes  (Ratisbon,  1845-72),  and 
was  continued  by  Vering  (vol.  VIII,  i,  Ratisbon, 
1889).  This  comprehensive  and  important  work  exer- 
cised a  great  influence  on  the  study  of  canon  law  and 
its  principles.  Phillips  also  published  a  "Lehrbuch 
des  Kirchenrechts"  (Ratisbon,  1859-62;  3rd  ed.  by 
Moufang,  1881)  and  "Vermischte  Schriften"  (3  vols., 
Ratisbon,  1856-60). 

Rosenthal,  Konvertitenbilder,  I  {2nd  ed.),  478  aqq.,  Schulte 
in  Allg.  deutsche  Biogr.,  XXVI  (Leipzig,  1888),  80  sqq.;  Wtjrz- 
BACH,  Biogr.  Lex.  d.  Kaisertums  Oesterreich,  XXII,  211  sqq. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Fhilocalian  Calendar.  See  Calendar,  Chris- 
tian. 

Philo  JudsBUS,  b.  about  25  b.  c.  His  family,  of  a 
sacerdotal  line,  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the 
populous  Jewish  colony  of  Alexandria.  His  brother 
Alexander  Lysimachus  was  steward  to  Anthony's 
second  daughter,  and  married  one  of  his  sons  to 
the  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa,  whom  he  had  put 
under  financial  obligations.  Alexander's  son,  Tiberius 
Alexander,  apostatized  and  became  procurator  of 
Judea  and  Prefect  of  Egypt.  Philo  must  have  re- 
ceived a  Jewish  education,  studying  the  laws  and 
national  traditions,  but  he  followed  also  the  Greek 
plan  of  studies  (grammar  with  reading  of  the  poets, 
geometry,  rhetoric,  dialectics)  which  he  regarded  as  a 
preparation  for  philosophy.  Notwithstanding  the 
lack  of  direct  information  about  his  philosophical 
training,  his  works  show  that  he  had  a  first  hand 
knowledge  of  the  stoical  theories  then  prevailing, 
Plato's  dialogues,  the  neo-Pythagorean  works,  and  the 
moral  popular  literature,  the  outcome  of  Cynicism. 
He  remained,  however,  profoundly  attached  to  the 
Jewish  religion  with  all  the  practices  which  it  implied 
among  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion  and  of  which  the 
basis  was  the  unity  of  worship  at  the  Temple  in  Jeru- 
salem. Toward  the  Alexandrine  community  and  the 
duties  which  it  required  of  him,  his  attitude  was  per- 
haps changeable;  he  possessed  in  his  youth  a  taste 
for  an  exclusively  contemplative  life  and  solitary  re- 
treats; and  he  complains  of  an  official  function  which 
forced  him  to  abandon  his  studies.  Later  he  became 
engrossed  with  the  material  and  moral  interests  of  the 
community.  His  "Allegorical  Commentary  "  often  al- 
ludes to  the  vexations  to  which  the  Alexandrine  Jews 
were  subjected;  a  special  treatise  is  devoted  to  the 
persecution  of  Flaccus,  Prefect  of  Egypt.  The  best- 
known  episode  of  his  life  is  the  voyage  he  made  to 
Rome  in  39;  he  had  been  chosen  as  head  of  the  em- 
bassy which  was  to  lay  before  Emperor  Caius  Caligula 
the  complaints  of  the  Jews  regarding  the  introduction 
of  statues  of  the  emperor  in  the  synagogues.  This 
hardship,  due  to  the  Alexandrians,  was  all  the  more 
grievous  to  the  Jews,  as  they  had  long  been  known  for 
their  loyalty,  and  their  attachment  to  the  empire  was 
doubtless  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  anti-Semitism  at 
Alexandria.  The  drawing  up  of  the  account  of  the 
embassy  shortly  after  the  death  of  Caius  (41)  is  the 
latest  known  fact  in  the  life  of  Philo. 

Writings. — These  contain  most  valuable  informa- 
tion, not  only  on  the  intellectual  and  moral  situation 
of  the  Jewish  community  at  Alexandria,  but  still 


more  on  the  philosophical  and  religious  syncretism 
prevaihng  in  Greek  civilization.  They  may  be  divided: 
(1)  exposition  of  the  Jewish  Law;  (2)  apologetical 
works;  (3)  philosophical  treatises. 

(1)  The  expositions  of  the  Law  are  in  three  works  of 
varied  character:  (a)  "The  Exposition  of  the  Law", 
which  begins  by  a  treatise  on  the  creation  of  the  world 
(Commentaries  on  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis)  and 
continues  with  treatises  on  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
and  Joseph  (those  on  Isaac  and  Jacob  are  lost).  Each 
of  the  patriarchs  is  considered  as  a  type  of  a  virtue 
and  his  life  as  a  natural  or  unwritten  law.  Then 
follows  a  series  of  treatises  on  the  laws  written  by 
Moses,  grouped  in  order  according  to  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments. The  Exposition  closes  with  the  laws 
referring  to  general  virtues  (On  Justice  and  Courage), 
and  a  treatise  on  the  reward  reserved  to  those  who 
obey  the  Law.  (See  "De  Praimiis  et  Pcenis",  §§  1, 
2.)  (b)  The  great  "Allegorical  Commentary  on 
Genesis"  is  the  chief  source  of  information  regarding 
Philo's  ideas;  in  it  he  applies  systematically  the 
method  of  allegorical  interpretation.  The  com- 
mentary follows  the  order  of  verses  from  Gen.,  ii,  1, 
to  iv,  17,  with  some  more  or  less  important  lacunae. 
It  is  not  known  whether  the  work  began  by  a  treatise 
on  chapter  1,  concerning  creation;  in  any  case,  it 
can  be  seen  from  the  allusions  to  this  chapter  that 
Philo  had  a  system  of  interpretation  on  this  point. 
Notwithstanding  its  form,  this  work  is  not  a  series  of 
interpretations  strung  together  verse  by  verse;  the 
author  considers  Genesis  in  its  entirety  as  a  history 
of  the  soul  from  its  formation  in  the  intelligible  world 
to  the  complete  development  of  wisdom  after  its  fall 
and  its  restoration  by  repentance  (see  ed.  Mangey, 
"De  Posteritate  Caini",  p.  259).  The  object  of  the 
allegorical  method  is  to  discern  in  each  person  and  in 
his  actions  the  Symbol  of  some  phase  either  in  the  fall 
or  in  the  restoration  of  the  soul,  (c)  "Questions  and 
Solutions"  are  a  series  of  questions  set  down  at  each 
verse  of  the  Mosaic  books.  An  Armenian  transla- 
tion has  preserved  the  questions  on  Genesis  (Gen., 
ii,  4-xxiii,  8,  with  lacunae)  and  the  questions  on 
Exodus  (Ex.,  xii,  2-xxviii,  38),  some  Greek  frag- 
ments of  these  works  and  of  the  questions  on  Le- 
viticus, a  very  mediocre  Latin  translation  of  the  last 
part  of  the  questions  on  Genesis  (iv,  154  sq.).  In 
these  treatises  as  well  as  in  the  short  discourses  on 
Samson  and  Jonas,  there  is  much  less  unity  than  in 
the  preceding  ones.  This  first  group  of  works  is 
addressed  to  readers  already  initiated  in  the  Mosaic 
Law,  i.  e.  to  the  author's  coreligionists. 

(2)  It  is  quite  different  with  his  apologetical  writ- 
ings. The  "Life  of  Moses"  is  a  resume  of  the  Jewish 
Law,  intended  for  a  larger  public.  The  treatise  "  On 
Repentance"  was  written  for  the  edification  of  the 
newly  converted.  The  treatise  "On  Humanity" 
which  followed  that  "On  Piety"  seems  from  its 
introduction  to  pertain  to  the  "Life  of  Moses"  and 
not  to  the  "Exposition  of  the  Law"  as  tradition  and 
some  contemporaneous  scholars  maintain.  The 
'TTToBeripd  (fragments  in  Eusebius,  "  Evangelical 
Preparation",  VIII,  v,  vi)  as  well  as  the  "Apology 
for  the  Jews"  (ibid.,  VIII,  x)  were  written  to  defend 
his  coreligionists  against  calumnies,  while  the  "Con- 
templative Life"  was  to  cultivate  the  best  fruits  of 
the  Mosaic  worship.  The  "Against  Flaccus"  and  the 
"Embassy  to  Caius'',  with  another  work  lost  in  the 
persecution  of  Sejanus,  were  intended  to  establish 
the  truth  about  the  pretended  impiety  of  the  Jews. 

(3)  Finally,  we  have  purely  philosophical  treat- 
ises: "On  the  Liberty  of  the  Wise",  "On  the  Incor- 
ruptibility of  the  World"  (authenticity  contested  by 
Bernays,  but  generally  admitted  now),  "On  Provi- 
dence", "On  Animals"  (these  last  two  in  the  Arme- 
nian translations).  The  small  treatise  "DeMundo" 
is  merely  a  compilation  of  passages  from  other  works. 
The  question  of  chronology  is  more  difficult  than  that 


PHILO 


24 


PHILO 


of  classification.  The  solution  of  the  difficulty  would 
be  of  great  value  especially  for  the  subdivisions  of  the 
first  group  of  writings,  in  order  to  understand  the 
development  of  Philo's  doctrines;  but  on  this  point 
there  is  a  wide  divergence  of  opinion.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  "Exposition  of  the  Law"  with  its 
frequent  appeals  to  the  authority  of  the  masters  and 
its  cautious  way  of  introducing  the  allegorical  inter- 
pretation is  anterior  to  the  "Allegorical  Commen- 
tary" which  shows  more  assurance  and  independence 
of  thought. 

/j,(r/i-//(('.— Philo's  work  belongs  for  the  most  part 
to  the  immense  literature  of  commentaries  on  the 
Law,  and  it  is  especially  as  a  commentator  that  he 
must  be  considered.     But  in  this  regard  he  holds  a 
unique  place.    First  of  all,  he  uses  the  Greek  transla- 
tion of  the  Septuagint.     The  variations  that  have 
been  pointed  out  between  his  text  and  that  which  we 
now  possess  of  the  Septuagint  may  be  explained  to 
our  satisfaction,  not  by  the  reading  of  the  Hebrew 
text  (Ritter),  but  by  the  fact  that  our  recension  is 
of  a  later  date  than  the  one  he  used.     Furthermore, 
his  method  of  interpretation  appears  as  something 
new  and  original  among  the  juridical  commentaries 
of  the  Palestinian  rabbis.    Eliminating  what  formed 
tlic  common  basis  of  all  commentaries  of  this  kind^ 
the  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew  proper  names  (Philo 
gives  them  at  times  a  Cireek  etymology),  the  particular 
rules  for  the  signs  which  indicate  that  Moses  intended 
us  to  look  beyond  the  literal  sense  (Siegfried),  the  oral 
traditions  added  to  the  account  of  the  Pentateuch 
(and  again,  at  the  beginning  of  the  "Life  of  Moses" 
these  traditions  are  clearly  of  Alexandrine  origin), 
and  the  prescriptions  of  the  worship  in  Jerusalern — 
two  essential  features  remain:    first,  the  conviction 
tliat  the  Jewish  law  is  identical  with  the  natural; 
and  then  the  allegorical  interpretation.     The  first, 
according  to  which  the  acts  of  the  prophets  and  the 
prescriptions  of  Moses  are  regarded  as  ideals  con- 
formable to  nature  (in  the  Stoic  sense),  gives  to  the 
Jewish  religion  a  universality  incompatible  with  the 
narrow  national   Messianism  of  the  Jewish  sibyls. 
Philo  thus  abandons  entirely  the  Messianic  promises; 
there  is  no  national  tradition  to  exclude  the  Gentile 
from  Judaism.     To  find  his  precursors  one  must  go 
back  to  the  Prophets;  tradition  he  revives,  but  only 
with  s(>rious  modifications.    To  the  idea  of  moral  uni- 
\-ersality  he  adds  the  idea  of  nature  which  he  received 
from  the  Stoics.     His  interpretation  is  wholly  bent 
on  identifying  the  Mosaic  prescription  with  natural 
law. 

The  second  feature  is  the  allegorical  interpretation. 
A\ithout  doubt  Philo  had  his  predecessors  among  the 
Alexandrines.  The  proof  of  this  is  found  not  in  the 
fragments  of  Aristobulus  (which  are  grossly  false  and 
later  than  Philo) ,  but  in  the  work  of  Philo  himself, 
whirh  is  based  snnietimcs  on  the  authority  of  his  pre- 
decessors, in  the  "Wisdom  of  Solomon"  (an  Alex- 
andrine work  of  the  first  century  B.  c,  which  contains 
some  traces  of  this  method) ,  and  finally  in  the  descrip- 
tion Philo  has  given  us  of  the  occupations  of  the 
TherapcutEE  and  the  Essenes.  The  tradition,  how- 
ever, thus  formed  cannot  have  amounted  to  much,  for 
it  does  not  prevail  against  personal  inspiration  and  it 
lacks  unity.  This  interpretation  appears  to  us  rather 
as  a  day-liy-day  creation  of  that  age,  and  in  Philo's 
works  we  can  follow  an  allegory  in  process  of  forma- 
tion, e.  g.  the  interpretation  of  man  "after  the  image 
of  God"  The  development  of  the  interior  moral  life 
as  Philo  concei\'ed  it  is  always  bound  up  with  his 
allegorical  method.  This  method  differs  from  that  of 
most  of  his  Greek  predecessors  who  sought  an  arti- 
ficial means  to  bring  out  the  philosophical  conceptions 
in  time-honoured  texts,  such  as  that  of  Homer.  As 
a  rule  he  does  not  search  in  the  sacred  text  for  any 
strictly  philosophical  theory;  more  often  he  puts 
forth  these  theories  directly  on  their  own  merits. 


Though  at  times  enthusiastic  in  his  admiration  of 
Greek  philosophers,  he  does  not  try  to  represent  them 
as  unavowed  disciples  of  Moses.  What  he  seeks  m 
Genesis  is  not  this  or  that  truth,  but  the  description 
of  the  attitudes  of  the  soul  towards  God,  such  as  inno- 
cence, sin,  repentance.  The  allegorical  method  of 
Philo  neither  proves  nor  attempts  to  prove  anjthing. 
It  is  not  a  mode  of  apologetic;  in  the  "Life  of  Moses" 
e.  g.  this  method  is  seldom  employed;  the  only 
apologetic  feature  is  the  presentation  of  the  high 
moral  import  of  the  Jewish  laws  taken  in  their  literal 
sense.  But  the  method  is  indispensable  for  the  in- 
terior life;  it  gives  the  concrete  image  which  the 
mystic  needs  to  explain  his  effusions,  and  it  makes 
the  Jewish  books  profitable  in  the  spiritual  life.  The 
spiritual  life  consists  in  the  feeling  of  confidence  which 
gives  us  faith  in  God,  a  feeling  which  coincides  with 
that  of  the  nothingness  of  man  left  to  his  own  strength. 
Faith  in  God  is  not  in  itself  the  condition  but  the  end 
or  crowning  of  this  life,  and  human  life  oscillates 
between  confidence  in  self  and  confidence  in  God. 
This  God  conceived  in  His  relations  with  the  moral 
needs  of  man  has  the  omnipotence  and  infinite  good- 
ness of  the  God  of  the  prophets;  it  is  by  no  means 
the  God  of  the  Stoics,  in  direct  relation  with  the 
cosmos  rather  than  with  man. 

Under  this  influence  the  Philonian  cult  became  an 
eminently  moral  one:  the  originality  of  Philonism 
consists  in  its  moral  interpretation  of  the  actions  of 
the  divinity  upon  the  world,  which  till  then  had  been 
regarded  rnore  in  their  physical  aspect.  The  funda- 
mental idea  is  here  that  of  Divine  power  conceived 
according  to  the  manner  of  the  Jews  as  goodness  and 
sovereignty  in  relation  to  man.  It  is  remarkable  that 
with  this  idea  the  cosmic  power  of  philosophy  or  of 
Greek  religion  is  transformed  by  Philo  intc)  moral 
power.  Divine  wisdom  is  without  doubt  like  the 
Isis  in  Plutarch's  treatise,  mother  of  the  world,  but 
above  all  mother  of  goodness  in  the  virtuous  soul. 
The  "Man  of  God"  is  the  moral  consciousness  of  man 
rather  than  the  prototype  or  ideal.  The  Divine  spirit 
is  transformed  from  the  material  ether  into  the  prin- 
ciple of  moral  inspiration.  We  recognize,  it  is  true, 
the  traces  of  the  cosmic  origin  of  the  Divine  inter- 
mediaries; the  angels  are  material  intermediaries  as 
well  as  spiritual,  and  Philo  accepts  the  belief  in  the 
power  of  the  heavenly  bodies  as  an  inferior  degree  of 
wisdom.  Nevertheless  he  did  his  best  to  suppress 
every  material  intermediary  between  man  and  God. 
This  is  quite  evident  in  the  celebrated  theory  of  the 
Logos  of  God.  This  Logos,  which  according  to  the 
Stoics  is  the  bond  between  the  different  parts  of  the 
world,  and  according  to  the  Heracliteans  the  source 
of  the  cosmic  oppositions,  is  regarded  by  Philo  as  the 
Divine  word  which  reveals  God  to  the  soul  and  calms 
the  passions  (see  Logos).  It  is  finally  from  this  point 
of  view  of  the  interior  life  that  Philo  transforms  the 
moral  conception  of  the  Greeks  which  he  knew  mainly 
in  the  most  popular  forms  (cynical  diatribes) ;  he 
discovers  in  them  the  idea  of  the  moral  conscience 
accepted  though  but  slightly  dc^•eloped  by  phi- 
losophers up  to  that  time.  A  very  interesting  point 
of  view  is  the  consideration  of  the  various  moral 
systems  of  the  Greeks,  not  simply  as  true  or  false,  but 
as  so  many  indications  of  the  soul's  progress  or  recoil 
at  different  stages. 

Consult  various  editions  of  Philo's  works:  IMangey  (2  vols., 
London,  1742);  Cohn  and  Wendland,  I-V  (Berlin,  1896-1906); 
C'tmont,  £>e  JUternitate  Munili  (Berlin,  1891);  C'unybeaee, 
Philo  about  Contempla'ive  Life  (f)xford,  1895);  Hauhls,  Frag- 
ments of  Philo  JudfEus  (Cambridt^r,  1886);  Wendland,  Neu- 
enldeckle  FTagmente  Phih'y,  (Berlin,  1891).  Writings:  Grossmann, 
De  PInlonis  o-perum  coiitiima  serit,  I  (Leipzig,  1841),  II  (1842); 
Massebieau,  Le  Cln^^imeiU  des  CEutres  de  Pinion  in  Biblitilli. 
de  VEcole  des  hautes  etudes,  I  (1889),  1-91;  Ma.ssebieau  and 
Br^hier,  Chronologie  de  la  Vie  et  des  (Euvres  de  Philon  in  Revue 
d'hist.  des  relig.  (1906),  1-3.  Doctrine:  Drummond,  Philo 
JudcEus  (2  vols.,  London,  18S8) ;  Herriot,  Philon  le  Jiiif;  Essai 
sur  VEcole  Juive  d^Alexandrie  (Paris,  1898) ;  Martin,  Philon 
(Paris,  1907) ;    Bb^hier,  Les  Id^es  Philo so-phiques  et  Religieusea 


PHILOMELIUM 


25 


PHILOSOPHY 


de  Philon  d'Alexandrie  (Paris,  1908);  ScHtyRER,  Gesch.  des 
JUdischen  Volkes  im  Zeitaltcr  Jesu  Christi  (3rd  ed.,  Berlin,  1909) ; 
Siegfried,  Pkilo  v.  Alexandria  als  Ausleger  d.  A,  T.  (Jena,  1875). 

EmILB    BBfiHIEB. 

Philomelium,  titular  see  in  Pisidia,  suffragan  of 
Antioch.  According  to  ancient  writers  Philomelium 
was  situated  in  the  south-west  of  Phrygia  near  the 
frontier  of  Lycaonia,  on  the  road  from  Synnada  to 
Iconium.  It  formed  part  of  the  "conventus"  of  Syn- 
nada. Its  coins  show  that  it  was  allied  with  the  neigh- 
bouring city  of  Mandropolis  (now  Mandra).  In  the 
sixth  century  it  formed  part  of  Pisidia,  the  inhabitants 
of  which  pronounced  its  name  Philomede  or  Philo- 
mene.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  is  often  mentioned  by 
Byzantine  historians  in  connexion  with  the  wars  with 
the  St'ljukian  sultans  of  Iconium.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury it  was  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  sultanate ;  from 
this  time  it  bore  the  Turkish  name  of  Ak-Sheher 
(white  city),  and  to-day  is  the  chief  town  of  the  caza 
of  the  vilayet  of  Konieh,  numbering  4000  inhabitants, 
nearly  all  Mussulmans,  and  is  a  station  on  the  railway 
from  Eski-Shehr  to  Konieh.  The  ancient  ruins  are  un- 
important; they  include  a  few  inscriptions,  some  of 
them  Christian.  In  a  suburb  is  the  tomb  of  Nasr  Ed- 
din  Hodja,  famous  for  his  sanctity  among  the  Turks. 
Christianity  was  introduced  into  Philomelium  at  an 
early  date.  In  196  the  Church  of  Smyrna  wrote  to  the 
Church  of  Philomelium  announcing  the  martyrdom  of 
St.  Polycarp  (Eusebius  "Hist.  EccL",  IV,  xix).  Seven 
of  its  bishops  are  known:  Theosebius,  present  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  (381);  Paul,  at  Chaloedon 
(451);  Marcianus,  who  signed  the  letter  to  Emperor 
Leo  from  the  bishops  of  Pisidia  (458);  Aristodemus, 
present  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (553) ;  Mari- 
nus,  at  Constantinople  (680  and  692);  Sisinnius,  at 
Nicaja  (787) ;  Euthymius  at  the  Photian  Council  of 
Constantinople  (879).  In  the  Greek  "Notitite  epis- 
copatuum"  Philomelium  is  first  mentioned  among  the 
suffragan  sees  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  and  in  the  ninth 
century  among  those  of  Amorium  in  Phrygia.  It  re- 
ceives mention  until  the  thirteenth  century. 

Acta  SS.,  Jan..  Ill,  317;  Le  Qhien,  Oriens  christ.,  I,  1059; 
Hamilton,  Kesearc/ies,  I,  472;  11,184;  Arundell, /)iscot)ertes,  I, 
282  sq. ;  Texier,  Asie  Mineure,  435;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Geogr.,  s.  v.,  contains  bibliography  of  ancient  authors;  see 
also  the  notes  of  Muller  in  Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot,  I,  831. 

S.  PethidIis 

Philomena,  Saint. — On  25  May,  1802,  during  the 
quest  for  the  graves  of  Roman  martyrs  in  the  Cata- 
comb of  Priscilla,  a  tomb  was  discovered  and  opened; 
as  it  contained  a  glass  vessel  it  was  assumed  to  be  the 
grave  of  a  martyr.  The  view,  then  erroneously  enter- 
tained in  Rome,  that  the  presence  of  such  vessels  (sup- 
posed to  have  contained  the  martyr's  blood)  in  a 
grave  was  a  s}anbol  of  martyrdom,  has  been  rejected 
in  practice  since  the  investigations  of  De  Rossi  (cf. 
Leclercq  in  "Diet.  d'arch(5ol.  chret.  et  de  liturg.",  s.  v. 
Ampoules  de  sang) .  The  remains  found  in  the  above- 
mentioned  tomb  were  shown  to  be  those  of  a  young 
maiden,  and,  as  the  name  Filumena  was  discovered  on 
the  earthenware  slabs  closing  the  grave,  it  was  as- 
sumed that  they  were  those  of  a  virgin  martyr  named 
Philumena.  On  8  June,  1805,  the  relics  were  trans- 
lated to  the  church  of  Mugnano,  Diocese  of  Nola  (near 
Naples), andenshrinedunderoneofitsaltars.  In  1827 
Leo  XII  presented  the  church  with  the  three  earthen- 
ware tiles  with  the  inscription,  which  may  be  seen  in 
the  church  even  to-day.  On  the  basis  of  alleged  reve- 
lations to  a  nun  in  Naples,  and  of  an  entirely  fanciful 
and  indefensible  explanation  of  the  allegorical  paint- 
ings, which  were  found  on  the  slabs  beside  the  inscrip- 
tion, a  canon  of  the  church  in  Mugnano,  named  Di 
Lucia,  composed  a  purely  fictitious  and  romantic 
account  of  the  supposed  martyrdom  of  St.  Philomena, 
who  is  not  mentioned  in  any  of  the  ancient  sources. 
In  consequence  of  the  wonderful  favours  received  in 
answer  to  prayer  before  the  relics  of  the  saint  at  Mu- 


gnano, devotion  to  them  spread  rapidly,  and,  after  in- 
stituting investigations  into  the  question,GregoryXVI 
appointed  a  special  feast  to  be  held  on  9  September, 
"in  honorem  s.  Philumenae  virginis  et  martyris"  (cf. 
the  lessons  of  this  feast  in  the  Roman  Breviary).  The 
earthenware  plates  were  fixed  in  front  of  the  grave  as 
follows  :  LuMENA  Pax  tecum  Vi.  The  plates  were 
evidently  inserted  in  the  wrong  order,  and  the  inscrip- 
tion should  doubtless  read  Pax  tecum  Filumena.  The 
letters  are  painted  on  the  plates  with  red  paint,  and 
the  inscription  belongs  to  the  primitive  class  of  epi- 
graphical  memorials  in  the  Catacomb  of  Priscilla,  thus 
dating  from  about  the  middle  or  second  half  of  the 
second  century.  The  disarrangement  of  the  inscrip- 
tion proves  that  it  must  have  been  completed  before 
the  plates  were  put  in  position,  although  in  the  numer- 
ous other  examples  of  this  kind  in  the  same  catacomb 
the  inscription  was  added  only  after  the  grave  had 
been  closed.  Consequently,  since  the  disarrangement 
of  the  plates  can  scarcely  be  explained  as  arising  from 
an  error,  Marucchi  seems  justified  in  concluding  that 
the  inscription  and  plates  originally  belonged  to  an 
earlier  grave,  and  were  later  employed  (now  in  the 
wrong  order)  to  close  another.  Apart  from  the  letters, 
the  plates  contain  three  arrows,  either  as  a  decoration 
or  as  punctuation,  a  leaf  as  decoration,  two  anchors, 
and  a  palm  as  the  well-known  Christian  symbols. 
Neither  these  signs  nor  the  glass  vessel  discovered  in 
the  grave  can  be  regarded  as  a  proof  of  martyrdom. 

De  Waal,  D,  Grabschrift  d.  Philumena  aus  d.  Comeierium  d. 
Priscilla  in  ROm.  Quartalschr,,  XII  (1898),  42  sqq.,  with  illustra- 
tion after  an  original  photograph;  Cascioli,  S.  Filumena,  vergine 
e  martire  (Rome,  1904) ;  Bonavenia,  Controversia  sul  celebre 
epitoffio  di  S.  Filumena  vergine  e  martire  (Rome,  1906);  Idem,  La 
Quesiione  puramente  archeologica  e  storico-archeologica  nella  coniro~ 
versia  Filumeniana  (Rome,  1907) ;  Marucchi,  Studio  archeologico 
sulla  celebre  iscrizione  di  Filumena  scoperta  nel  cimitero  di  Priscilla 
in  Nuovo  Bullettino  di  archeol.  crist.,  XII  (1906),  253  sqq. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Philoponus,  John.   SeeEuTYCHiANisM;  Monoph- 

YSITES. 

Philosophumena.     See  Hippolyttjs. 

Philosophy. — I.  Definition  of  Philosophy.  II. 
Division  of  Philosophy.  III.  The  Principal  System- 
atic Solutions.  IV.  Philosophical  Methods.  V. 
The  Great  Historical  Currents  of  Thought.  VI. 
Contemporary  Orientations.  VII.  Is  Progress  in 
Philosophy  Indefinite,  or  Is  there  a  Philosophia 
Perennis?  VIII.  Philosophy  and  the  Sciences.  IX. 
Philosophy  and  Rehgion.  X.  The  Catholic  Church 
and  Philosophy.  XI.  The  Teaching  of  Philosophy. 
XII.  Bibliography. 

I.  Definition  op  Philosophy. — According  to  its 
etymology,  the  word  "philosophy"  (0iXoo-o0fa,  from 
ipiXeiv,  to  love,  and  a-ocpla,  wisdom)  means  "the  love 
of  wisdom".  This  sense  appears  again  in  sapien- 
lia,  the  word  used  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  designate 
philosophy.  In  the  early  stages  of  Greek,  as  of  every 
other,  civilization,  the  boundary  fine  between  phi- 
losophy and  other  departments  of  human  knowledge 
was  not  sharply  defined,  and  philosophy  was  under- 
stood to  mean  "every  striving  towards  knowledge". 
This  sense  of  the  word  survives  in  Herodotus  (I,  xxx) 
and  Thucydides  (II,  xl).  In  the  ninth  century  of 
our  era,  Alcuin,  employing  it  in  the  same  sense,  says 
that  philosophy  is  "naturarum  inquisitio,  rerum 
humanarum  divinarumque  cognitio  quantum  homini 
possibile  est  asstimare" — investigation  of  nature,  and 
such  knowledge  of  things  human  and  Divine  as  is 
possible  for  man  (P.  L.,  CI,  952). 

In  its  proper  acceptation,  philosophy  does  not 
mean  the  aggregate  of  the  human  sciences,  but  "the 
general  science  of  things  in  the  universe  by  their 
ultimate  determinations  and  reasons";  or  again,  "the 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  causes  and  reasons  of 
things",  the  profound  knowledge  of  the  universal 
order.     Without  here  enumerating  all  the  historic 


PHILOSOPHY 


26 


PHILOSOPHY 


definitionB  of  philosophy,  some  of  the  most  signifi- 
cant may  be  given.  Plato  calls  it  "the  acquisition 
of  knowledge",  /cr^ffis  ^Trio-Tij/iTjs  (Euthydemus,  288 
d).  Aristotle,  mightier  than  his  master  at  com- 
pressing ideas,  writes:  tt)v  dvoiia^oniv-qv  aoiplav  irepl 
T&,  TTpCiTa  atria  Kal  ras  apx^s  i/iroXa/i/Sdi/ouiri  irdi'TC! — 
"All  men  consider  philosophy  as  concerned  with 
first  causes  and  principles"  (Motaph.,  I,  i).  These 
notions  were  perpetuated  in  the  post-Aristotelean 
schools  (Stoicism,  Epicureanism,  neo-Platonism), 
with  this  difference,  that  the  Stoics  and  Epicureans 
accentuated  the  moral  bearing  of  philosophy  ("Phi- 
losophia  studium  summae  virtutis",  says  Seneca  in 
"Epist.",  Ixxxix,  7),  and  the  neo-Platonists  its  mysti- 
cal bearing  (see  section  V  below).  The  Fathers  of  the 
Church  and  the  first  philosophers  of  the  Middle 
Ages  seem  not  to  have  had  a  very  clear  idea  of  philoso- 
phy for  reasons  which  we  will  develop  later  on  (section 
IX),  but  its  conception  emerges  once  more  in  all  its 
purity  among  the  Arabic  philosophers  at  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century  and  the  masters  of  Scholasticism 
in  the  thirteenth.  St.  Thomas,  adopting  the  Aristote- 
lean  idea,  writes:  "Sapientia  est  scientia  quae  con- 
siderat  causas  primas  et  universales  causas ;  sapientia 
causas  primas  omnium  causarum  considerat" — 
"Wisdom  [i.  e.  philosophy]  is  the  science  which 
considers  first  and  universal  causes;  wisdom  con- 
siders the  first  causes  of  all  causes"  (In  metaph.,  I, 
lect.  ii). 

In  general,  modern  philosophers  may  be  said  to 
have  adopted  this  way  of  looking  at  it.  Descartes 
regards  philosophy  as  wisdom:  "Philosophise  voce 
sapientia;  studium  denotamus" — "By  the  term  phi- 
losophy we  denote  the  pursuit  of  wisdom"  (Princ. 
philos.,  preface);  and  he  understands  by  it  "cognitio 
veritatis  per  primas  suas  causas" — "knowledge  of 
truth  by  its  first  causes"  (ibid.).  For  Locke,  philos- 
ophy is  the  true  knowledge  of  things;  for  Berkeley, 
"the  study  of  wisdom  and  truth"  (Princ).  The 
many  conceptions  of  philosophy  given  by  Kant 
reduce  it  to  that  of  a  science  of  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  knowledge  and  of  the  ultimate  objects 
attainable  by  knowledge — "  Wissensohaft  von  den 
letztcn  Zwecken  der  menschlichen  Vernunft".  For 
the^  numerous  German  philosophers  who  derive 
their  inspiration  from  his  criticism — Fichte,  Hegel, 
Sohelling,  Schleiermacher,  Schopenhauer,  and  the 
rest — it  is  the  general  teaching  of  science  {Wis- 
senschaflslehrc).  Many  contemporary  authors  regard 
it  as  the  synthetic  theory  of  the  particular  sciences: 
"Philosophy",  says  Herbert  Spencer,  "is  completely 
unified  knowledge"  (First  Principles,  §  37).  Ostwald 
has  the  same  idea.  For  Wundt,  the  object  of  philos- 
ophy is  "the  acquisition  of  such  a  general  conception 
of  the  world  and  of  life  as  will  satisfy  the  exigencies 
of  the  reason  and  the  needs  of  the  heart" — "Gewin- 
nung  eincr  allgemeinen  'Welt-  und  Lebensanschauung, 
welche  die  Forderungen  unserer  Vernunft  und  die 
Bedurfnisse  unseres  Gemilths  befriedigen  soil" 
(Einleit.  in  d.  Philos.,  1901,  p.  5).  This  idea  of  phi- 
losopliy  as  the  ultimate  science  of  values  (Wert- 
khre)  is  emphasized  by  \A'indelband,  Doring,  and 
others. 

The  list  of  conceptions  and  defmitions  might  be 
indefinitely  prolonged.  All  of  them  affirm  the  emi- 
nently synthetic  character  of  philosophy.  In  the 
opinion  of  the  present  writer,  the  most  exact  and  com- 
prehensuc  definition  is  that  of  Aristotle.  Face  to 
face  with  nature  and  with  himself,  man  reflects  and 
endea\-ours  to  discover  what  the  world  is,  and  what 
he  is  himself.  Having  made  the  real  the  object  of 
studies  m  detail,  each  of  which  constitutes  science  (see 
section  Villi,  he  is  led  to  a  study  of  the  whole,  to 
mquire  into  the  jKinciples  or  reasons  of  the  totality  of 
things,  a  stuch'  which  supplies  the  answers  to  the  last 
ir/ij/'s.  The  last  Why  of  all  rests  upon  all  that  is  and 
all  that  becomes:   it  does  not  apply,  as  in  any  one 


particular  science  (e.  g.  chemistry),  to  this  or  that 
process  of  becoming,  or  to  this  or  that  being  (e.  g. 
the  combination  of  two  bodies),  but  to  all  being  and  all 
becoming.  All  being  has  within  it  its  constituent 
principles,  which  account  for  its  substance  (consti- 
tutive material  and  formal  causes);  all  becoming, 
or  change,  whether  superficial  or  profound,  is  brought 
about  by  an  efficient  cause  other  than  its  subject; 
and  lastly  things  and  events  have  their  bearings  from 
a  finality,  or  final  cause.  The  harmony  of  princi- 
ples, or  causes,  produces  the  universal  order.  And 
thus  philosophy  is  the  profound  knowledge  of  the 
universal  order,  in  the  sense  of  having  for  its  object 
the  simplest  and  most  general  principles,  by  means  of 
which  all  other  objects  of  thought  are,  in  the  last 
resort,  explained.  By  these  principles,  says  Aristotle, 
we  know  other  things,  but  other  things  do  not  suffice 
to  make  us  know  these  principles  {Sia  yap  ravra  Kal 
iK  Toinav  r'dXXa  yviopi^eratj  dXX'  ou  ravra  di&  tQv 
viroKei.pAvuv — Metaph.,  I).  The  expression  univer- 
sal order  should  be  understood  in  the  widest  sense. 
Man  is  one  part  of  it:  hence  the  relations  of  man 
with  the  world  of  sense  and  with  its  Author  be- 
long to  the  domain  of  philosophy.  Now  man,  on 
the  one  hand,  is  the  responsible  author  of  these  rela- 
tions, because  he  is  free,  but  he  is  obliged  by  nature  it- 
self to  reach  an  aim,  which  is  his  moral  end.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  has  the  power  of  reflecting  upon  the 
knowledge  which  he  acquires  of  all  things,  and  this 
leads  him  to  study  the  logical  structure  of  science. 
Thus  philosophical  knowledge  leads  to  philosophical 
acquaintance  with  morality  and  logic.  And  hence 
we  have  this  more  comprehensive  definition  of  phi- 
losophy: "The  profound  knowledge  of  the  universal 
order,  of  the  duties  which  that  order  imposes  upon 
man,  and  of  the  knowledge  which  man  acquires  from 
reaUty" — "La  connaissance  approfondie  de  I'ordre 
universel,  des  devoirs  qui  en  rdsultent  pour  I'homme  et 
de  la  science  que  I'homme  acquiert  de  la  realitiS" 
(Mercier,  "Logique'|,  1904,  p.  23).— The  develop- 
ment of  these  same  ideas  under  another  aspect  will 
be  found  in  section  VIII  of  this  article. 

II.  Division  of  Philosophy. — Since  the  universal 
order  falls  within  the  scope  of  philosophy  (which 
studies  only  its  first  principles,  not  its  reasons  in 
detail),  philosophy  is  led  to  the  consideration  of 
all  that  is:  the  world,  God  (or  its  cause),  and  man 
himself  (his  nature,  origin,  operations,  moral  end, 
and  scientific  activities). 

It  would  be  out  of  the  question  to  enumerate  here 
all  the  methods  of  dividing  philosophy  that  have 
been  given:  we  confine  ourselves  to  those  which  have 
played  a  part  in  history  and  possess  the  deepest 
significance. 

A.  In  Oreek  Philosophy. — Two  historical  divisions 
dominate  Greek  philosophy:  the  Platonic  and  the 
Aristotelean. 

(1)  Plato  divides  philosophy  into  dialectic,  phys- 
ics, and  ethics.  This  division  is  not  found  in  Plato's 
own  writings,  and  it  would  be  impossible  to  fit  his 
dialogues  into  the  triple  frame,  but  it  corresponds  to 
the  spirit  of  the  Platonic  philosophy.  According  to 
Zeller,  Xenocrates  (314  b.c.)  his  disciple,  and  the 
leading  represeiitative  of  the  Old  Academy,  was  the 
first  to  adopt  this  triadic  division,  which  was  destined 
to  go  down  through  the  ages  (Grundriss  d.  Geschichte 
d.  griechischen  Philosophic,  144),  and  Aristotle 
follows  it  in  dividing  his  master's  philosophy.  Dia- 
lectic is  the  science  of  objective  reality,  i.  e.,  of  the 
Idea  (IS^a,  e(5os),  so  that  by  Platonic  dialectic  we 
must  understand  metaphysics.  Physics  is  concerned 
with  the  manifestations  of  the  Idea,  or  with  the  Real, 
in  the  sensible  universe,  to  which  Plato  attributes  no 
real  value  independent  of  that  of  the  Idea.  Ethics 
has  for  its  object  human  acts.  Plato  deals  with  logic, 
but  has  no  system  of  logic;  this  was  a  product  of 
Aristotle's  genius. 


PHILOSOPHY 


27 


PHILOSOPHY 


Plato's  classification  was  taken  up  by  his  school 
(the  Academy),  but  it  was  not  long  in  yielding  to  the 
influence  of  Aristotle's  more  complete  division  and  ac- 
cording a  place  to  logic.  Following  the  inspirations  of 
the  old  Academics,  the  Stoics  divided  philosophy  into 
physics  (the  study  of  the  real),  logic  (the  study  of 
the  structure  of  science),  and  morals  (the  study  of 
moral  acts).  This  classification  was  perpetuated  by 
the  neo-Platonists,  who  transmitted  it  to  the  Fathers 
of  the  Church,  and  through  them  to  the  Middle  Ages. 

(2)  Aristotle,  Plato's  illustrious  disciple,  the  most 
didactic,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  synthetic, 
mind  of  the  Greek  world,  drew  up  a  remarkable 
scheme  of  the  divisions  of  philosophy.  The  philo- 
sophical sciences  are  divided  into  theoretic,  practical, 
and  poetic,  according  as  their  scope  is  pure  speculative 
knowledge,  or  conduct  (tt/jS^is),  or  external  produc- 
tion (TToiijiris) .  Theoretic  philosophy  comprises:  (a) 
physics,  or  the  study  of  corporeal  things  which  are 
subject  to  change  {ix^P'-'^Ta  ixiv  dXX'  oi>k  dx/i'ijTa); 
(b)  mathematics,  or  the  study  of  extension,  i.  e.,  of 
a  corporeal  property  not  subject  to  change  and  con- 
sidered, by  abstraction,  apart  from  matter  (ddfriTa. 
niv  oi  x'ip'i''Ta  S'  tffws,  dXX'  us  kv  CXtj)  ;  (c)  metaphysics, 
called  theology,  or  first  philosophy,  i.  e.  the  study  of 
being  in  its  unchangeable  and  (whether  naturally  or 
by  abstraction)  incorporeal  determinations  [xiiipmro. 
Kal  aKhriTa).  Practical  philosophy  comprises  ethics, 
economics,  and  politics,  the  second  of  these  three 
often  merging  into  the  last.  Poetic  philosophy  is 
concerned  in  general  with  the  external  works  con- 
ceived by  human  intelligence.  To  these  may  conve- 
niently be  added  logic,  the  vestibule  of  philosophy, 
which  Aristotle  studied  at  length,  and  of  which  he 
may  be  called  the  creator. 

To  metaphysics  Aristotle  rightly  accords  the  place 
of  honour  in  the  grouping  of  philosophical  studies. 
He  calls  it  "first  philosophy".  His  classification 
was  taken  up  by  the  Peripatetic  School  and  was 
famous  throughout  antiquity;  it  was  eclipsed  by 
the  Platonic  classification  during  the  Alexandrine 
period,  but  it  reappeared  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

B.  In  the  Middle  Ages. — Though  the  division 
of  philosophy  into  its  branches  is  not  uniform  in  the 
first  period  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  West,  i.  e.  down 
to  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  classifications 
of  this  period  are  mostly  akin  to  the  Platonic  division 
into  logic,  ethics,  and  physics.  Aristotle's  classifica- 
tion of  the  theoretic  sciences,  though  made  known  by 
Boethius,  exerted  no  influence  for  the  reason  that 
in  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  West  knew  nothing 
of  Aristotle  except  his  works  on  logic  and  some 
fragments  of  his  speculative  philosophy  (see 
section  V  below).  It  should  be  added  here  that 
philosophy,  reduced  at  first  to  dialectic,  or  logic, 
and  placed  as  such  in  the  Trivium,  was  not  long  in 
setting  itself  above  the  liberal  arts. 

The  Arab  philosophers  of  the  twelfth  century 
(Avicenna,  Averroes)  accepted  the  Aristotelean 
classification,  and  when  their  works — particularly 
their  translations  of  Aristotle's  great  original  treatises 
— penetrated  into  the  West,  the  Aristotelean  division 
definitively  took  its  place  there.  Its  coming  is 
heralded  by  Gundissalinus  (see  section  XII),  one 
of  the  Toletan  translators  of  Aristotle,  and 
author  of  a  treatise,  "De  divisione  philosophise", 
which  was  imitated  by  Michael  Scott  and  Robert 
Kilwardby.  St.  Thomas  did  no  more  than  adopt  it 
and  give  it  a  precise  scientific  form.  Later  on  we 
shall  see  that,  conformably  with  the  medieval  notion 
of  sapientia,  to  each  part  of  philosophy  corresponds 
the  preliminary  study  of  a  group  of  special  sciences. 
The  general  scheme  of  the  division  of  philosophy 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  with  St.  Thomas's  com- 
mentary on  it,  is  as  follows: 

There  are  as  many  parts  of  philosophy  as  there  are 
distinct    domains   in    the    order    submitted    to    the 


philosopher's  reflection.  Now  there  is  an  order 
which  the  intelligence  does  not  form  but  only 
considers;  such  is  the  order  realized  in  nature. 
Another  order,  the  practical,  is  formed  either  by  the 
acts  of  our  intelligence,  or  by  the  acts  of  our  will, 
or  by  the  application  of  those  acts  to  external  things 
in  the  arts :  hence  the  division  of  practical  philosophy 
into  logic,  moral  philosophy,  and  Eesthetics,  or  the 
philosophy  of  the  arts  ("Ad  philosophiam  naturalem 
pertinet  considerare  ordinem  rerum  quern  ratio 
humana  considerat  sed  non  facit;  ita  quod  sub 
natural!  philosophia  comprehendamus  et  metaphy- 
sicam.  Ordo  autem  quem  ratio  considerando  facit 
in  proprio  actu,  pertinet  ad  rationalem  philosophiam, 
cujus  est  considerare  ordinem  partium  orationis  ad 
invicem  et  ordinem  principiorum  ad  invicem  et  ad 
conelusiones.  Ordo  autem  actionum  voluntariarum 
pertinet  ad  considerationem  moralis  philosophic. 
Ordo  autem  quem  ratio  considerando  facit  in  rebus 
exterioribus  per  rationem  humanam  pertinet  ad 
artes  mechanicas."  To  natural  philosophy  pertains 
the  consideration  of  the  order  of  things  which  human 
reason  considers  but  does  not  create — just  as  we  in- 
clude metaphysics  also  under  natural  philosophy. 
But  the  order  which  reason  creates  of  its  own  act  by 
consideration  pertains  to  rational  philosophy,  the 
office  of  which  is  to  consider  the  order  of  the  parts  of 
a  speech  with  reference  to  one  another  and  the  order 
of  the  principles  with  reference  to  one  another  and  to 
the  conclusions.  The  order  of  voluntary  actions  per- 
tains to  the  consideration  of  moral  philosophy,  while 
the  order  which  the  reason  creates  in  external  things 
through  the  human  reason  pertains  to  the  mechani- 
cal arts.— "In  X  Ethic,  ad  Nic",  I,  lect.  i).  The 
philosophy  of  nature,  or  speculative  philosophy,  is 
divided  into  metaphysics,  mathematics,  and  phys- 
ics, according  to  the  three  stages  traversed  by  the 
intelligence  in  its  effort  to  attain  a  synthetic  com- 
prehension of  the  universal  order,  by  abstracting  from 
movement  (physics),  inteUigible  quantity  (mathe- 
matics), being  (metaphysics)  (In  lib.  Booth,  de  Trini- 
tate,  Q.  v.,  a.  1).  In  this  classification  it  is  to  be  noted 
that,  man  being  one  element  of  the  world  of  sense, 
psychology  ranks  as  a  part  of  physics. 

C.  In  Modem  Philosophy. — The  Scholastic  classi- 
fication may  be  said,  generally  speaking,  to  have 
lasted,  with  some  exceptions,  until  the  seventeenth 
century.  Beginning  with  Descartes,  we  find  a  mul- 
titude of  classifications  arising,  differing  in  the 
principles  which  inspire  them.  Kant,  for  instance, 
distinguishes  metaphysics,  moral  philosophy,  reli- 
gion, and  anthropology.  The  most  widely  accepted 
scheme,  that  which  still  governs  the  division  of  the 
branches  of  philosophy  in  teaching,  is  due  to  Wolff 
(1679-1755),  a  disciple  of  Leibniz,  who  has  been  called 
the  educator  of  Germany  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
This  scheme  is  as  follows: 


(1)  Logic. 


rOntoIogy,   or   General  Meta- 
physics. 


(2)  Speculative  Philosophy-J 


t^ Special  Meta-_ 
physics 


fEthios 
(3)  Practical  Philosophy"^  Politics 

I  Economics 


Theodicy  (the 
study  of  God). 

Cosmology  (the 
study  of  the 
World). 

Psychology  (the 
study  of  Man). 


Wolff  broke  the  ties  binding  the  particular  sciences 
to  philosophy,  and  placed  them  by  themselves;  in 
his  view  philosophy  must  remain  purely  rational. 
It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  members  of  Wolff's  scheme 
are  found  in  the  Aristotelean  classification,  wherein 
theodicy  is  a  chapter  of  metaphysics  and  psychology 
a  chapter  of  physics.  It  may  even  be  said  that  the 
Greek  classification  is  better  than  Wolff's  in  regard 
to  speculative  philosophy,  where  the  ancients  were 
guided  by  the  formal  object  of  the  study — i.  e.  by 


PHILOSOPHY 


28 


PHILOSOPHY 


the  degree  of  abstraction  to  which  the  whole  universe 
is  subjected,  while  the  moderns  always  look  at  the 
matfrial  object — i.  e.,  the  three  categories  of  beings 
which  it  is  possible  to  study,  God,  the  world  of  sense, 
and  man. 

D.  In  Ccmlnnporanj  Philosophy. — The  impulse 
rocfived  by  philosophy  during  the  last  half-century 
gave  rise  to  new  philosophical  sciences,  in  the  sense 
that  various  branches  have  been  detached  from 
the  main  stems.  In  psychology  this  phenomenon 
has  been  remarkable:  criteriology,  or  epistemol- 
ogy  (the  study  of  the  certitude  of  knowledge) 
has  din-eloped  into  a  special  study.  Other  branches 
which  ha\e  formed  themselves  into  new  psycho- 
lofiical  sciences  are:  physiological  psychology, 
or  the  study  of  the  physiological  concomitants 
of  p.sychic  activities;  didactics,  or  the  science  of 
teaching;  pedagogy,  or  the  science  of  education; 
(•()llf'cti\-e  psychology  and  the  psychology  of  peoples 
{V olkvr pxiichologie),  studying  the  psychic  phenomena 
obs(T\-al)lc>  in  human  groups  as  such,  and  in  the  dif- 
ferent races.  An  important  section  of  logic  (called 
also  noetic,  or  canonic)  is  tending  to  sever  itself  from 
the  main  body,  viz.,  methodology,  which  studies 
the  special  logical  formation  of  various  sciences. 
On  moral  philosophy,  in  the  wide  sense,  have  been 
grafted  the  philosophy  of  law,  the  philosophy  of 
society,  or  social  philosophy  (which  is  much  the  same 
as  sociology),  and  the  philosophies  of  religion  and 
of  history. 

III.  The  Principal  Systematic  Solutions. — 
From  what  has  been  said  above  it  is  evident  that 
philosophy  is  beset  by  a  great  number  of  questions. 
It  would  not  be  possible  here  to  enumerate  all  those 
questions,  much  less  to  detail  the  divers  solutions 
which  have  been  given  to  them.  The  solution  of 
a  philosophic  question  is  called  a  philosophic  doctrine, 
or  theory.  A  philosophic  system  (from  <rvpl(rTT!/M, 
put  together)  is  a  complete  and  organized  group  of 
solutions.  It  is  not  an  incoherent  assemblage  or  an 
encyclopedic  amalgamation  of  such  solutions;  it  is 
dominated  by  an  organic  unity.  Only  those  phil- 
osophic systems  which  arc  constructed  conformably 
witli  the  exigencies  of  organic  unity  are  really  power- 
ful :  such  are  the  systems  of  the  F])anishads,  of  Aristotle, 
of  neo-Platonism,  of  Scholasticism,  of  Leibniz,  Kant, 
and  Hume.  So  that  one  or  several  theories  do  not 
constitute  a  system;  but  some  theories,  i.  e.  answers 
to  a  philosophic  question,  are  important  enough  to 
determine  the  solution  of  other  important  problems 
of  a  system.  The  scope  of  this  section  is  to  indicate 
some  of  these  theories. 

A.  Monism,  or  Pantheism,  and  Pluralism,  Indi- 
vidualism, or  Theism. — Are  there  many  beings  dis- 
tinct in  their  reality,  with  one  Supreme  Being,  God, 
at  the  summit  of  the  hierarchy;  or  is  there  but  one 
reality  {ixo^ds,  hence  monism),  one  All-God  (irap-ee6s), 
of  whom  each  individual  is  but  a  member  or  fragment 
(Substantialistic  Pantheism),  or  else  a  force,  or  energy 
(DyuuTaic  Pantheism)?  Here  we  have  an  important 
question  of  metaphysics  the  solution  of  which  reacts 
upon  all  other  domains  of  philosophy.  The  systems 
of  .Vristotle,  of  the  Scholastics,  and  of  Leibniz  are 
Pluralistic  and  Thcistic;  the  Indian,  neo-Platonic, 
and  Hegelian  are  Monistic.  Monism  is  a  fascinating 
explanation  of  the  real,  but  it  only  postpones  the 
difficulties  which  it  imagines  itself  to  be  solving  (e.  g. 
the  difficulty  of  the  interaction  of  things),  to  say 
nothing  of  the  objection,  from  the  human  point  of 
view,  that  it  runs  counter  to  our  most  deeply-rooted 
sentiments. 

B.  Objectivism  and  Subjectivism.  —  Does  being, 
whether  one  or  many,  possess  its  own  Ufe,  independent 
of  our  mind ,  so  that  to  be  known  by  us  is  only  accidental 
to  being,  as  in  the  objective  system  of  metaphysics 
(e.  g.  Aristotle,  the  Scholastics,  Spinoza)?  Or  has 
being  no  other  reality  than  the  mental  and  subjective 


presence  which  it  acquires  in  our  representation  of 
it  as  in  the  Subjective  system  (e.  g.  Hume)?  It  is 
in  this  sense  that  the  "Revue  de  m^taphysique  et 
de  morale"  (see  bibliography)  uses  the  term  meta- 
physics in  its  title.  Subjectivism  cannot  explain 
the  passivity  of  our  mental  representations,  which 
we  do  not  draw  out  of  ourselves,  and  which  therefore 
oblige  us  to  infer  the  reality  of  a  non-ego. 

C.  Subslantialism  and  Phenomenism. — Is  all  reality 
a  flux  of  phenomena  (Heraclitus,  Berkeley,  Hume, 
Taine),  or  does  the  manifestation  appear  upon  a 
basis,  or  substance,  which  manifests  itself,  and  does 
the  phenomenon  demand  a  noumenon  (the  Scholas- 
tics)? Without  an  underlying  substance,  which 
we  only  know  through  the  medium  of  the  phenomenon, 
certain  realities,  as  walking,  talking,  are  inexplicable, 
and  such  facts  as  memory  become  absurd. 

D.  Mechanism  and  Dynamism  {Pure  and  Modified). 
— Natural  bodies  are  considered  by  some  to  be  aggre- 
gations of  homogeneous  particles  of  matter  (atoms) 
receiving  a  movement  which  is  extrinsic  to  them,  so 
that  these  bodies  differ  only  in  the  number  and 
arrangement  of  their  atoms  (the  Atomism,  or  Mechan- 
ism, of  Democritus,  Descartes,  and  Hobbes).  Others 
reduce  them  to  specific,  unextended,  immaterial 
forces,  of  which  extension  is  only  the  superficial 
manifestation  (Leibniz).  Between  the  two  is  Modi- 
fied Dynamism  (Aristotle),  which  distinguishes  in 
bodies  an  immanent  specific  principle  (form)  and  an 
indeterminate  element  (matter)  which  is  the  source  of 
limitation  and  extension.  This  theory  accounts  for 
the  specific  characters  of  the  entities  in  question  as 
well  as  for  the  reality  of  their  extension  in  space. 

E.  Materialism,  Agnosticism,  and  Spiritualism. — 
That  everything  real  is  material,  that  whatever 
might  be  immaterial  would  be  unreal,  such  is  the 
cardinal  doctrine  of  Materialism  (the  Stoics,  Hobbes, 
De  Lamettrie).  Contemporary  Materialism  is  less 
outspoken:  it  is  inspired  by  a  Positivist  ideology 
(see  section  VI),  and  asserts  that,  if  anything  supra- 
material  exists,  it  is  unknowable  (Agnosticism,  from 
i  and  7'"2ffis,  knowledge.  Spencer,  Huxley).  Spirit- 
ualism teaches  that  incorporeal,  or  immaterial, 
beings  exist  or  that  they  are  possible  (Plato, 
Aristotle,  St.  Augustine,  the  Scholastics,  Des- 
cartes, Leibniz).  Some  have  even  asserted  that 
only  spirits  exist:  Berkeley,  Fichte,  and  Hegel  are 
exaggera,ted  SpirituaKsts.  The  truth  is  that  there 
are  bodies  and  spirits;  among  the  latter  we  are 
acquainted  (though  less  well  than  with  bodies)  with 
the  nature  of  our  soul,  which  is  revealed  by  the  nature 
of  our  inimaterial  acts,  and  with  the  nature  of  God, 
the  infinite  intelligence,  whose  existence  is  demon- 
strated by  the  very  existence  of  finite  things.  Side 
by  side  with  these  solutions  relating  to  the  problems 
of  the  real,  there  is  another  group  of  solutions,  not 
less  influential  in  the  orientation  of  a  system,  and 
relating  to  psychical  problems  or  those  of  the  human 
ego. 

F.  Sensualism  and  Rationalism,  or  Spiriliialism. — 
These  are  the  opposite  poles  of  the  ideogenetic  ques- 
tion, the  question  of  the  origin  of  our  knowledge. 
For  Sensualism  the  only  source  of  human  knowledge 
is  sensation:  everything  reduces  to  transformed 
sensations.  This  theory,  long  ago  put  forward  in 
Greek  philosophy  (Stoicism,  Epicureanism),  was 
developed  to  the  full  by  the  English  Sensualists 
(Locke,  Berkeley,  Hume)  and  the  English  Associa- 
tionists  (Brown,  Hartley,  Priestley);  its  modern 
form  is  Positivism  (John  Stuart  Mill,  Huxley,  Spen- 
cer, Comte,  Taine,  Littr6  etc.).  Were  this  theory  true, 
it  would  follow  that  we  can  know  only  what  falls 
under  our  senses,  and  therefore  cannot  pronounce 
upon  the  existence  or  non-existence,  the  reality  or 
unreality,  of  the  super-sensible.  Positivism  is  more 
logical  than  Materialism.  In  the  New  World,  the 
term  Agnosticism  has  been  very  happily  employed 


PHILOSOPHY 


29 


PHILOSOPHY 


to  indicate  this  attitude  of  reserve  towards  the  super- 
sensible. Rationalism  (from  ratio,  reason),  or  Spirit- 
uaUsm,  establishes  the  existence  in  us  of  concepts 
higher  than  sensations,  i.  e.  of  abstract  and  general 
concepts  (Plato,  Aristotle,  St.  Augustine,  the  Scholas- 
tics, Descartes,  Leibniz,  Kant,  Cousin  etc.).  Ideo- 
logic Spiritualism  has  won  the  adherence  of  human- 
ity's greatest  thinkers.  Upon  the  spirituality,  or 
immateriality,  of  our  higher  mental  operations  is  based 
the  proof  of  the  spirituality  of  the  principle  from 
which  they  proceed  and,  hence,  of  the  immortality 
of  the  soul. 

G.  Scepticism,  Dogmatism,  and  Criticism. — So 
many  answers  have  been  given  to  the  question: 
whether  man  can  attain  truth,  and  what  is  the 
foundation  of  certitude,  that  we  will  not  attempt 
to  enumerate  them  all.  Scepticism  declares  reason 
incapable  of  arriving  at  the  truth,  and  holds  certitude 
to  be  a  purely  subjective  affair  (Scxtus  Empiri- 
cus,  iEnesidemus).  Dogmatism  asserts  that  man  can 
attain  to  truth,  and  that,  in  measure  to  be  further 
determined,  our  cognitions  are  certain.  The  motive 
of  certitude  is,  for  the  Traditionalists,  a  Divine  rev- 
elation, for  the  Scotch  School  (Reid)  it  is  an  in- 
clination of  nature  to  affirm  the  principles  of  com- 
mon sense;  it  is  an  irrational,  but  social,  necessity 
of  admitting  certain  principles  for  practical  dogma- 
tism (Balfour  in  his  "Foundations  of  Belief"  speaks 
of  "non-rational  impulse",  while  Mallock  holds  that 
"certitude  is  found  to  be  the  child,  not  of  reason  but 
of  custom"  and  Brunetiere  writes  about  "the  bank- 
ruptcy of  science  and  the  need  of  belief");  it  is  an 
affective  sentiment,  a  necessity  of  wishing  that  cer- 
tain things  may  be  verities  (Voluntarism;  Kant's 
Moral  Dogmatism),  or  the  fact  of  living  certain 
verities  (contemporary  Pragmatism  and  Humanism; 
William  James,  Schiller).  But  for  others — and 
this  is  the  theory  which  we  accept — the  motive  of 
certitude  is  the  very  evidence  of  the  connexion 
which  appears  between  the  predicate  and  the  sub- 
ject of  a  proposition,  an  evidence  which  the  mind 
perceives,  but  which  it  does  not  create  (Moderate 
Dogmatism).  Lastly  for  Criticism,  which  is  the 
Kantian  solution  of  the  problem  of  knowledge, 
evidence  is  created  by  the  mind  by  means  of  the 
structural  functions  with  which  every  human  in- 
tellect is  furnished  (the  categories  of  the  understand- 
ing). In  conformity  with  these  functions  we  con- 
nect the  impressions  of  the  senses  and  construct  the 
world.  Knowledge,  therefore,  is  valid  only  for  the 
world  as  represented  to  the  mind.  Kantian  Crit- 
icism ends  in  excessive  Idealism,  which  is  also 
called  Subjectivism,  or  Phenomenalism,  and  accord- 
ing to  which  the  mind  draws  all  its  representations 
out  of  itself,  both  the  sensory  impressions  and  the 
categories  which  connect  them:  the  world  becomes  a 
mental  poem,  the  object  is  created  by  the  subject 
as  representation  (Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel). 

H.  Nominalism,  Realism,  and  Conceptualism  are 
various  answers  to  the  question  of  the  real  objectiv- 
ity of  our  predications,  or  of  the  relation  of  fidelity 
existing  between  our  general  representations  and  the 
external  world  (see  Nominalism,  Realism,  Con- 
ceptualism). 

I.  Determinism  and  Indelerminism. — Has  every 
phenomenon  or  fact  its  adequate  cause  in  an  ante- 
cedent phenomenon  or  fact  (Cosmic  Determinism)? 
And,  in  respect  to  acts  of  the  will,  are  they  likewise 
determined  in  all  their  constituent  elements  (Moral 
Determinism,  Stoicism,  Spinoza)?  If  so,  then  liberty 
disappears,  and  with  it  human  responsibility,  merit, 
and  demerit.  Or,  on  the  contrary,  is  there  a  cate- 
gory of  volitions  which  are  not  necessitated,  and 
which  depend  upon  the  discretionary  power  of  the 
will  to  act  or  not  to  act  and  in  acting  to  follow  a 
freely  chosen  direction?  Does  liberty  exist?  Most 
Spiritualists   of   all   schools   have   adopted   a   liber- 


tarian philosophy,  holding  that  liberty  alone 
gives  the  moral  life  an  acceptable  meaning;  by 
various  arguments  they  have  confirmed  the  testimony 
of  conscience  and  the  data  of  common  consent.  In 
physical  nature  causation  and  determinism  rule; 
in  the  moral  life,  liberty.  Others,  by  no  means 
numerous,  have  even  pretended  to  discover  cases  of 
indeterminism  in  physical  nature  (the  so-called 
Contingentist  theories,  e.  g.  Boutroux). 

J.  Utilitarianism  and  the  Morality  of  Obligation. — 
What  constitutes  the  foundation  of  morality  in  our 
actions?  Pleasure  or  utility  say  some,  personal 
or  egoistic  pleasure  (Egoism — Hobbes,  Bentham,  and 
"the  arithmetic  of  pleasure");  or  again,  in  the 
pleasure  and  utility  of  all  (Altruism  —  John  Stuart 
Mill).  Others  hold  that  morality  consists  in  the 
performance  of  duty  for  duty's  sake,  the  observance 
of  law  because  it  is  law,  independently  of  personal 
profit  (the  Formalism  of  the  Stoics  and  of  Kant). 
According  to  another  doctrine,  which  in  our  opinion 
is  more  correct,  utility,  or  personal  advantage,  is 
not  incompatible  with  duty,  but  the  source  of  the 
obligation  to  act  is  in  the  last  analysis,  as  the  very 
exigencies  of  our  nature  tell  us,  the  ordinance  of 
God. 

IV.  Philosophical  Methods. — Method  (/neS'  oSbi) 
means  a  path  taken  to  reach  some  objective  point. 
By  philosophical  method  is  understood  the  path 
leading  to  philosophy,  which,  again,  may  mean 
either  the  process  employed  in  the  construction  of 
a  philosophy  (constructive  method,  method  of  in- 
vention), or  the  way  of  teaching  philosophy  (method 
of  teaching,  didactic  method).  We  will  deal  here 
with  the  former  of  these  two  senses;  the  latter  will 
be  treated  in  section  XI.  Three  methods  can  be, 
and  have  been,  applied  to  the  construction  of 
philosophy. 

A.  Experimental  {Empiric,  or  Analytic)  Method. — 
The  method  of  all  Empiric  philosophers  is  to  observe 
facts,  accumulate  them,  and  co-ordinate  them. 
Pushed  to  its  ultimate  consequences,  the  empirical 
method  refuses  to  rise  beyond  observed  and  observ- 
able fact;  it  abstains  from  investigating  anything 
that  is  absolute.  It  is  found  among  the  Materialists, 
ancient  and  modern,  and  is  most  unreservedly  appfied 
in  contemporary  Positivism.  Comte  opposes  the 
"positive  mode  of  thinking'',  based  solely  upon 
observation,  to  the  theological  and  metaphysical 
modes.  For  Mill,  Huxley,  Bain,  Spencer,  there  is 
not  one  philosophical  proposition  but  is  the  product, 
pure  and  simple,  of  experience:  what  we  take  for  a 
general  idea  is  an  aggregate  of  sensations;  a  judgment 
is  the  union  of  two  sensations;  a  syllogism,  the 
passage  from  particular  to  particular  (Mill,  "A 
System  of  Logic,  Rational  and  Inductive",  ed. 
Lubbock,  1892;  Bain,  "Logic",  New  York,  1874). 
Mathematical  propositions,  fundamental  axioms 
such  as  a=a,  the  principle  of  contradiction,  the  prin- 
ciple of  causality  are  only  "generalizations  from  facts 
of  experience"  (Mill,  op.  cit.,  vii,  §5).  According 
to  this  author,  what  we  believe  to  be  superior  to  ex- 
perience in  the  enunciation  of  scientific  laws  is  derived 
from  our  subjective  incapacity  to  conceive  its  con- 
tradictory; according  to  Spencer,  this  inconceivabil- 
ity of  the  negation  is  developed  by  heredity. 

Applied  in  an  exaggerated  and  exclusive  fashion, 
the  experimental  method  mutilates  facts,  since  it  is 
powerless  to  ascend  to  the  causes  and  the  laws  which 
govern  facts.  It  suppresses  the  character  of  objective 
necessity  which  is  inherent  in  scientific  judgments, 
and  reduces  them  to  collective  formulae  of  facts 
observed  in  the  past.  It  forbids  our  asserting,  e.  g., 
that  the  men  who  will  be  born  after  us  will  be  subject 
to  death,  seeing  that  all  certitude  rests  on  experience, 
and  that  by  mere  observation  we  cannot  reach  the 
unchangeable  nature  of  things.  The  empirical 
method,  left  to  its  own  resources,  checks  the  upward 


PHILOSOPHY 


30 


PHILOSOPHY 


movement  of  the  mind  towards  the  causes  or  objects 
of  the  phenomena  which  confront  it. 

B.  Deductive,  or  Synthetic  u  Priori,  Method. — At 
the  opposite  pole  to  the  preceding,  the  deductive 
method  starts  from  very  general  principles,  from 
higher  causes,  to  descend  (Lat.  deducere,  to  lead  down) 
to  more  and  more  complex  relations  and  to  facts. 
The  dream  of  the  Deductionist  is  to  take  as  the 
point  of  departure  an  intuition  of  the  Absolute,  of 
the  Supreme  Reahty — for  the  Theists,  God;  for  the 
Monists,  the  Universal  Being — and  to  draw  from  this 
intuition  the  synthetic  knowledge  of  all  that  depends 
upon  it  in  the  universe,  in  conformity  with  the 
metaphysical  scale  of  the  real.  Plato  is  the  father  of 
deductive  philosophy:  he  starts  from  the  world  of 
Ideas,  and  from  the  Idea  of  the  Sovereign  Good,  and 
he  would  know  the  reality  of  the  world  of  sense 
only  in  the  Ideas  of  which  it  is  the  reflection. 
St.  Augustine,  too,  finds  his  satisfaction  in  studying 
the  universe,  and  the  least  of  the  beings  which  com- 
pose it,  only  in  a  synthetic  contemplation  of  God,  the 
exemplary,  creative,  and  final  cause  of  all  things. 
So,  too,  the  Middle  Ages  attached  great  importance 
to  the  deductive  method.  "I  propose",  writes 
Boethius,  "to  build  science  by  means  of  concepts 
and  maxims,  as  is  done  in  mathematics."  Anselm 
of  Canterbury  draws  from  the  idea  of  God,  not 
only  the  proof  of  the  real  existence  of  an  infinite 
being,  but  also  a  group  of  theorems  on  His  attributes 
and  His  relations  with  the  world.  Two  centuries 
before  Anselm,  Scotus  Eriugena,  the  father  of  anti- 
Scholasticism,  is  the  completest  type  of  the  Deduc- 
tionist; his  metaphysics  is  one  long  description  of  the 
Divine  Odyssey,  inspired  by  the  nco-Platonic,  monistic 
conception  of  the  descent  of  the  One  in  its  successive 
generations.  And,  on  the  very  threshold  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  Alain  de  Lille  would  apply  to  phi- 
losophy a  mathematical  methodology.  In  the  thir- 
teenth century  Raymond  Lully  believed  that  he  had 
found  the  secret  of  "the  Great  Art"  (ars  magna), 
a  sort  of  syllogism-machine,  built  of  general  tabu- 
lations of  ideas,  the  combination  of  which  would  give 
the  solution  of  any  question  whatsoever.  Des- 
cartes, Spinoza,  and  Leibniz  are  Deductionists:  they 
would  construct  philosophy  after  the  manner  of 
geometry  (more  geometrico),  linking  the  most  special 
and  complicated  theorems  to  some  very  simple 
axioms.  The  same  tendency  appears  among  the 
Ontologists  and  the  post-Kantian  Pantheists  in  Ger- 
many (Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel),  who  base  their 
philosophy  upon  an  intuition  of  the  Absolute  Being. 

The  deducti\-e  philosophers  generally  profess  to 
disdain  the  sciences  of  observation.  Their  great 
fault  is  the  compromising  of  fact,  bending  it  to  a 
preconceived  explanation  or  theory  assumed  a  priori, 
whereas  the  observation  of  the  fact  ought  to  precede 
the  assignment  of  its  cause  or  of  its  adequate  reason. 
This  defect  in  the  deductive  method  appears  glaringly 
in  a  youthful  work  of  Leibniz's,  "Specimen  demon- 
strationum  politicarum  pro  rege  Polonorum  eli- 
gendo",  published  anonymously  in  1669,  where  he 
demonstrates  by  geometrical  methods  (more  geo- 
metrico), in  sixty  propositions,  that  the  Count  Pala- 
tine of  Neuburg  ought  to  be  elected  to  the  Polish 
Throne. 

C.  Analylico-Synlhdic  Method. — This  combination 
of  analysis  and  synthesis,  of  observation  and  deduc- 
tion, is  the  only  method  appropriate  to  philosophy. 
Indeed,  since  it  undertakes  to  furnish  a  general 
explanation  of  the  universal  order  (see  section  I), 
philosophy  ought  to  begin  with  complex  efifects| 
facts  known  by  observation,  before  attempting  to 
include  them  in  one  comprehensive  explanation  of 
the  uni-\'erse.  This  is  manifest  in  psychology,  where 
we  begin  with  a  careful  examination  of  acti\'ities, 
notably  nf  the  phenomena  of  sense,  of  intelligence, 
and  of  appetite;  in  cosmology,  where  we  observe  the 


series  of  changes,  superficial  and  profound,  of  bodies; 
in  moral  philosophy,  which  sets  out  from  the  observa- 
tion of  moral  facts;  in  theodicy,  where  we  interrogate 
religious  behefs  and  feelings;  even  in  metaphysics, 
the  starting-point  of  which  is  really  existing  being. 
But  observation  and  analysis  once  completed,  the 
work  of  synthesis  begins.  We  must  pass  onward 
to  a  synthetic  psychology  that  shall  enable  us  to 
comprehend  the  destinies  of  man's  vital  principle; 
to  a  cosmology  that  shall  explain  the  constitution 
of  bodies,  their  changes,  and  the  stability  of  the  laws 
which  govern  them;  to  a  synthetic  moral  philosophy 
establishing  the  end  of  man  and  the  ultimate  ground 
of  duty;  to  a  theodicy  and  deductive  metaphysics 
that  shall  examine  the  attributes  of  God  and  the 
fundamental  conceptions  of  all  being.  As  a  whole 
and  in  each  of  its  divisions,  philosophy  applies  the 
analytic-synthetic  method.  Its  ideal  would  be  to 
give  an  account  of  the  universe  and  of  man  by  a 
synthetic  knowledge  of  God,  upon  whom  all  reality 
depends.  This  panoramic  view — the  eagle's  view 
of  things — has  allured  all  the  great  geniuses.  St. 
Thomas  expresses  himself  admirably  on  this  synthetic 
knowledge  of  the  universe  and  its  first  cause. 

The  analytico-synthetic  process  is  the  method,  not 
only  of  philosophy,  but  of  every  science,  for  it  is  the 
natural  law  of  thought,  the  proper  function  of  which 
is  unified  and  orderly  knowledge.  "Sapientis  est 
ordinare."  Aristotle,  St.  Thomas,  Pascal,  Newton, 
Pasteur,  thus  understood  the  method  of  the  sciences. 
Men  like  Helmholtz  and  A\'undt  adopted  synthetic 
views  after  doing  analytical  work.  Even  the  Posi- 
tivists  are  metaphysicians,  though  they  do  not  know 
it  or  wish  it.  Does  not  Herbert  S])encer  call  his 
philosophy  synthetic?  and  does  he  not,  by  reasoning, 
pass  beyond  that  domain  of  the  "observable"  within 
which  he  professes  to  confine  himself? 

V.  The  Great  Historical  Currents. — Among 
the  many  peoples  who  have  covered  the  globe  phil- 
osophic culture  appears  in  two  groups:  the  Semitic 
and  the  Indo-European,  to  which  may  be  added  the 
Egyptians  and  the  Chinese.  In  the  Semitic  group 
(Arabs,  Babylonians,  Assyrians,  Aramaeans,  Chal- 
deans) the  Arabs  are  the  most  important;  neverthe- 
less, their  part  becomes  insignificant  when  compared 
with  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Indo-Europeans. 
Among  the  latter,  philosophic  life  appears  succes- 
sively in  various  ethnic  divisions,  and  the  succession 
forms  the  great  periods  into  which  the  history  of 
philosophy  is  divided;  first,  among  the  people  of 
India  (since  1500  B.  c);  then  among  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans  (sixth  century  b.  c.  to  sixth  century  of 
our  era);  again,  much  later,  among  the  peoples  of 
Central  and  Northern  Europe. 

A.  Indian  Philosophy. — The  philosophy  of  India 
is  recorded  principally  in  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Veda,  for  it  has  always  been  closely  united  with 
religion.  Its  numerous  poetic  and  religious  produc- 
tions carry  within  themselves  a  chronology  which 
enables  us  to  assign  them  to  three  periods.  (1)  The 
Period  of  the  Hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda  (1500-1000 
B.  c).  This  is  the  most  ancient  monument  of  Indo- 
Germanio  civilization;  in  it  may  be  seen  the  progres- 
sive appearance  of  the  fundamental  theory  that 
a  single  Being  exists  under  a  thousand  forms  in  the 
multiplied  phenomena  of  the  universe  (Monism). 
(2)  The  Period  of  the  Brahmanas  (1000-500  b.  c). 
This  is  the  age  of  Brahminical  civilization.  The 
theory  of  the  one  Being  remains,  but  little  by  little 
the  concrete  and  anthropomorphic  ideas  of  the  one 
Being  are  replaced  by  the  doctrine  that  the  basis  of 
all  things  is  in  oneself  (dtman).  Psychological 
Monism  appears  in  its  entirety  in  the  Upanishads: 
the  absolute  and  adequate  identity  of  the  Ego — 
which  is  the  constitutive  basis  of  our  individuality 
(dtman) — and  of  all  things,  with  Brahman,  the 
eternal  being  exalted  above   time,   space,   number, 


PHILOSOPHY 


31 


PHILOSOPHY 


and  change,  the  generating  principle  of  all  things, 
in  which  all  things  are  finally  reabsorbed — such  is 
the  fundamental  theme  to  be  found  in  the  Upanishads 
under  a  thousand  variations  of  form.  To  arrive  at 
the  Atman,  we  must  not  stop  at  empirical  reality, 
which  is  multiple  and  cognizable;  we  must  pierce 
this  husk,  penetrate  to  the  unknowable  and  in- 
effable superessenoe,  and  identify  ourselves  with 
it  in  an  unconscious  unity.  (3)  The  Post-Vedic, 
or  Sanskrit,  Period  (since  500  B.  c).  From  the 
germs  of  theories  contained  in  the  Upanishads, 
a  series  of  systems  spring  up,  orthodox  or  heterodox. 
Of  the  orthodox  systems,  Vedanta  is  the  most  inter- 
esting; in  it  we  find  the  principles  of  the  Upanishads 
developed  in  an  integral  philosophy  which  comprises 
metaphysics,  cosmology,  psychology,  and  ethics 
(transmigration,  metempsychosis).  Among  the  sys- 
tems not  in  harmony  with  the  Vedic  dogmas,  the 
most  celebrated  is  Buddhism,  a  kind  of  Pessimism 
which  teaches  liberation  from  pain  in  a  state  of 
unconscious  repose,  or  an  extinction  of  person- 
ality (Nirvdna).  Buddhism  spread  in  China,  where 
it  lives  side  by  side  with  the  doctrines  of  Lao  Tsee 
and  that  of  Confucius.  It  is  evident  that  even  the 
systems  which  are  not  in  harmony  with  the  Veda 
are  permeated  with  religious  ideas. 

B.  Greek  Philosophy. — This  philosophy,  which 
occupied  six  centuries  before,  and  six  after,  Christ, 
may  be  divided  into  four  periods,  corresponding  with 
the   succession   of   the   principal   lines   of   research: 

(1)  From  Thales  of  Miletus  to  Socrates  (seventh  to 
fifth  centuries  b.  c. — preoccupied  with  cosmology); 

(2)  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle  (fifth  to  fourth 
centuries  B.  c. — psychology) ;  (3)  From  the  death  of 
Aristotle  to  the  rise  of  neo-Platonism  (end  of  the 
fourth  century  B.  c.  to  third  century  after  Christ 
— moral  philosophy);  (4)  neo-Platonic  School  (from 
the  third  century  after  Christ,  or,  including  the  sys- 
tems of  the  forerunners  of  neo-Platonism,  from  the 
first  century  after  Christ,  to  the  end  of  Greek  philos- 
ophy in  the  seventh  century — mysticism). 

(1)  The  pre-Socratic  philosophers  either  seek  for 
the  stable  basis  of  things — which  is  water,  for  Thales 
of  Miletus;  air,  for  Anaximenes  of  Miletus;  air 
endowed  with  intelligence,  for  Diogenes  of  ApoUonia; 
number,  for  Pythagoras  (sixth  century  B.  c);  ab- 
stract and  immovable  being,  for  the  Eleatics — or 
they  study  that  which  changes:  while  Parmenides 
and  the  Eleatics  assert  that  everything  is,  and  noth- 
ing changes  or  becomes.  Herachtus  (about  535^75) 
holds  that  everything  becomes,  and  nothing  is 
unchangeable.  Democritus  (fifth  century)  reduces 
all  beings  to  groups  of  atoms  in  motion,  and  this 
movement,  according  to  Anaxagoras,  has  for  its  cause 
an  intelligent  being.  (2)  The  Period  of  Apogee: 
Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle.  When  the  Sophists 
(Protagoras,  Gorgias)  had  demonstrated  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  these  cosmologies,  Socrates  (470-399) 
brought  philosophical  investigation  to  bear  on  man 
himself,  studying  man  chiefly  from  the  moral  point 
of  view.  From  the  presence  in  us  of  abstract  ideas 
Plato  (427-347)  deduced  the  existence  of  a  world 
of  supersensible  realities  or  ideas,  of  which  the 
visible  world  is  but  a  pale  reflection.  These  ideas, 
which  the  soul  in  an  earlier  life  contemplated,  are 
now,  because  of  its  union  with  the  body,  but  faintly 
perceived.  Aristotle  (384^322),  on  the  contrary, 
shows  that  the  real  dwells  in  the  objects  of  sense. 
The  theory  of  act  and  potentiality,  of  form  and  matter, 
is  a  new  solution  of  the  relations  between  the  per- 
manent and  the  changing.  His  psychology,  founded 
upon  the  principle  of  the  'unity  of  man  and  the 
substantial  union  of  soul  and  body,  is  a  creation  of 
genius.  And  as  much  may  be  said  of  his  logic.  (3) 
The  Moral  Period.  After  Aristotle  (end  of  the  fourth 
century  b.  c.)  four  schools  are  in  evidence:  Stoic, 
Epicurean,  Platonic,  and  Aristotelean.     The  Stoics 


(Zeno  of  Citium,  Clean thes,  Chrysippus),  like  the 
Epicureans,  make  speculation  subordinate  to  the 
quest  of  happiness,  and  the  two  schools,  in  spite  of 
their  divergencies,  both  consider  happiness  to  be  an 
drapa^la  or  absence  of  sorrow  and  preoccupation. 
The  teachings  of  both  on  nature  (Dynamistic  Monism 
with  the  Stoics,  and  Pluralistic  Mechanism  with  the 
Epicureans)  are  only  a  prologue  to  their  moral  phi- 
losophy. After  the  latter  half  of  the  second  century 
B.  c.  we  perceive  reciprocal  infiltrations  between  the 
various  schools.  This  issues  in  Eclecticism.  Seneca 
(first  century  B.  c.)  and  Cicero  (106-43  b.  c.)  are  at- 
tached to  Eclecticism  with  a  Stoic  basis;  two  great 
commentators  of  Aristotle,  Andronicus  of  Rhodes 
(first  century  b.  c.)  and  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias 
(about  200),  affect  a  Peripatetic  Eclecticism.  Paral- 
lel with  Eclecticism  runs  a  current  of  Scepticism 
(^nesidemus,  end  of  first  century  b.  c,  and  Sextus 
Empiricus,  second  century  a.  d.).  (4)  The  Mystical 
Period.  In  the  first  century  b.  c.  Alexandria  had  be- 
come the  capital  of  Greek  intellectual  life.  Mystical 
and  theurgic  tendencies,  born  of  a  longing  tor  the  ideal 
and  the  beyond,  began  to  appear  in  a  current  of  Greek 
philosophy  which  originated  in  a  restoration  of 
Pythagorism  and  its  alliance  with  Platonism  (Plutarch 
of  Chseronea,  first  century  b.  c.  ;  Apuleiusof  Madaura; 
Numenius,  about  160  and  others),  and  still  more  in  the 
Greeco-Judaic  philosophy  of  Philo  the  Jew  (30  b.  c. 
to  A.  D.  50).  But  the  dominance  of  these  tendencies  is 
more  apparent  in  neo-Platonism.  The  most  brilliant 
thinker  of  the  neo-Platonic  series  is  Plotinus  (a.  d. 
204-70) .  In  his  ' '  Enneads ' '  he  traces  the  paths  which 
lead  the  soul  to  the  One,  and  establishes,  in  keeping 
with  his  mysticism,  an  emanationist  metaphysical 
system.  Porphyry  of  Tjrre  (232-304),  a  disciple 
of  Plotinus,  popularizes  his  teaching,  emphasizes 
its  religious  bearing,  and  makes  Aristotle's  "Organon" 
the  introduction  to  neo-Platonic  philosophy.  Later 
on,  neo-Platonism,  emphasizing  its  religious  features, 
placed  itself,  with  Jamblichus,  at  the  service 
of  the  pagan  pantheon  which  growing  Chris- 
tianity was  ruining  on  all  sides,  or  again,  as  with 
Themistius  at  Constantinople  (fourth  century), 
Proclus  and  Simplicius  at  Athens  (fifth  century),  and 
Ammonius  at  Alexandria,  it  took  an  Encyclopedic 
turn.  With  Ammonius  and  John  Philoponus  (sixth 
century)  the  neo-Platonic  School  of  Alexandria 
developed  in  the  direction  of  Christianity. 

C.  Patristic  Philosophy. — In  the  closing  years  of 
the  second  century  and,  still  more,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, the  philosophy  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church 
was  developed.  It  was  born  in  a  civilization  domi- 
nated by  Greek  ideas,  chiefly  neo-Platonic,  and  on  this 
side  its  mode  of  thought  is  still  the  ancient.  Still, 
if  some,  like  St.  Augustine,  attach  the  greatest  value 
to  the  neo-Platonic  teachings,  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  Monist  or  Pantheistic  and  Emanationist  ideas, 
which  have  been  accentuated  by  the  successors  of 
Plotinus,  are  carefully  replaced  by  the  theory  of 
creation  and  the  substantial  distinction  of  beings; 
in  this  respect  a  new  spirit  animates  Patristic  phi- 
losophy. It  was  developed,  too,  as  an  auxiliary  of  the 
dogmatic  system  which  the  Fathers  were  to  establish. 
In  the  third  century  the  great  representatives  of  the 
Christian  School  of  Alexandria  are  Clement  of 
Alexandria  and  Origen.  After  them  Gregory  of 
Nyssa,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  St.  Ambrose,  and, 
above  all,  St.  Augustine  (354-430)  appear.  St. 
Augustine  gathers  up  the  intellectual  treasures  of  the 
ancient  world,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  interme- 
diaries for  their  transmission  to  the  modern  world. 
In  its  definitive  form  Augustinism  is  a  fusion  of  in- 
tellectualism  and  mysticism,  with  a  study  of  God 
as  the  centre  of  interest.  In  the  fifth  century, 
pseudo-Dionysius  perpetuates  many  a  neo-Platonic 
doctrine  adapted  to  Christianity,  and  his  writings 
exercise  a  powerful  influence  in  the  Middle  Ages. 


PHILOSOPHY 


32 


PHILOSOPHY 


D.  Medieval  Philosophy.— The  philosophy  of  the 
Middle  Ages  developed  simultaneously  in  the  West, 
at  Pjyzantium,  and  in  divers  Eastern  centres;  but 
the  \\Cst(jrn  philosophy  is  the  most  important.  It 
built  itKclf  up  with  great  effort  on  the  ruins  of  bar- 
barism :  \mtil  the  twelfth  century,  nothing  was  known 
of  Aristotle,  except  some  treatises  on  logic,  or  of 
Plato,  except  a  few  dialogues.  Gradually,  problems 
arose,  and,  foremost,  in  importance,  the  question  of 
universals  in  the  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  centuries 
(sec  Nominalism).  St.  Anselm  (1033-1109)  made  a 
first  attempt  at  systematizing  Scholastic  philosophy, 
and  developed  a  theodicy.  But  as  early  as  the 
ninth  century  an  anti-Scholastic  philosophy  had 
arisen  with  Eriugena  who  revived  the  neo-Platonic 
Monism.  In  the  twelfth  century  Scholasticism  formu- 
lated new  anti-Reahst  doctrines  with  Adelard  of 
Bath,  Gauthicr  de  Mortagne,  and,  above  all,  Abelard 
and  Gilbert  de  la  Porree,  whilst  extreme  Realism 
took  shape  in  the  schools  of  Chartres.  John  of 
Salisbury  and  Alain  de  Lille,  in  the  twelfth 
century,  are  the  co-ordinating  minds  that  in- 
dicatie  the  maturity  of  Scholastic  thought.  The 
latter  of  these  waged  a  campaign  against  the  Pan- 
theism of  David  of  Dinant  and  the  Epicureanism  of 
the  Albigenses — the  two  most  important  forms  of 
anti-Sehcilastio  philosophy.  At  Byzantium,  Greek 
philosophy  held  its  ground  throughout  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  kept  apart  from  the  movement  of  Western 
ideas.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Syrians  and  Arabs. 
But  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  Arabic 
and  Byzantine  movement  entered  into  relation  with 
Western  thought,  and  effected,  to  the  profit  of  the 
latter,  the  brilliant  philosophical  revival  of  the  thir- 
teenlh  century.  Tliis  was  due,  in  the  first  place, 
to  the  creation  of  the  University  of  Paris;  next,  to 
the  foundation  of  the  Dominican  and  Franciscan 
orders;  lastly,  to  the  introduction  of  Arabic  and 
Latin  translations  of  Aristotle  and  the  ancient  au- 
thors. At  the  same  period  the  works  of  Avicenna  and 
.V\'erroes  became  known  at  Paris.  A  pleiad  of  bril- 
liant names  fills  the  thirteenth  century — Alexander 
of  Hales,  St.  Bonaventure,  Bl.  Albertus  Magnus,  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  Godfrey  of  Fontaines,  Heniy  of 
Ghent,  Giles  of  Rome,  and  Duns  Scotus  bring  Scho- 
lastic synthesis  to  jierfection.  They  all  wage  war  on 
Latin  Averroism  and  anti-Scholasticism,  defended  in 
the  schools  of  Paris  by  Siger  of  Brabant.  Roger 
Hac(jn,  LuUy,  and  a  group  of  neo-Platonists  occupy 
a  place  ajiart  in  this  century,  which  is  completely 
filled  by  remarkable  figures.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury Seliolastic  philosophy  betrays  the  first  symptoms 
of  decadence.  In  place  of  individualities  we  have 
sch(jols,  the  chief  being  the  Thomist,  the  Scotist, 
and  the  Terminist  School  of  William  of  Occam, 
wliich  soon  attracted  numerous  partisans.  With 
John  of  Jandun,  Averroism  perpetuates  its  most 
audacious  propositions;  Eckhart  and  Nicholas 
of  Cusa  formulate  philosophies  which  are  sympto- 
matic of  the  approaching  revolution.  The  Renais- 
sance was  a  troublous  period  for  philosophy.  Ancient 
systems  were  revived :  the  Dialectic  of  the  Humanistic 
philologists  (Laurentius  Valla,  ^'ives),  Platonism, 
.Vristoteleanism,  Stoicism.  Telesius,  Campanella,  and 
Giordano  Bruno  follow  a  naturaUstic  philosophy. 
Xatural  and  social  law  are  renewed  with  Thomas 
More  and  Grotius.  All  these  philosophies  were 
leagued  tdKcther  against  Scholasticism,  and  very  often 
against  Catholicism.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Seliolastic  philosophers  grew  weaker  and  weaker, 
and,  excepting  for  the  brilliant  Spanish  Scholasticism 
of  tlie  sixteenth  century  (Banez,  Suarez,  Vasquez, 
and  so  on),  it  may  be  said  that  ignorance  of  the  fun- 
damental doctrine  became  general.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  there  was  no  one  to  support  Scholas- 
ticism: it  fell,  not  for  lack  of  ideas,  but  for  lack  of 
defenders. 


E.  Modern  Philosophy. — The  philosophies  of  the 
Renaissance  are  mainly  negative:  modern  philosophy 
is,  first  and  foremost,  constructive.  The  latter  is 
emancipated  from  all  dogma;  many  of  its  syntheses 
are  powerful;  the  definitive  formation  of  the  various 
nationalities  and  the  diversity  of  languages  favour 
the  tendency  to  individualism.  The  two  great  initia- 
tors of  modern  philosophy  are  Descartes  and  Francis 
Bacon.  The  former  inaugurates  a  spiritualistic 
philosophy  based  on  the  data  of  consciousness,  and 
his  influence  may  be  traced  in  Malebranche,  Spinoza, 
and  Leibniz.  Bacon  heads  a  line-of  Empiricists,  who 
regarded  sensation  as  the  only  source  of  knowledge. 
In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  a 
SensuaUst  philosophy  grew  up  in  England,  based  on 
Baconian  Empiricism,  and  soon  to  de\elop  in  the 
direction  of  Subjectivism.  Hobbes,  Locke,  Berkeley, 
and  David  Hume  mark  the  stages  of  this  logical 
evolution.  Simultaneously  an  Associationist  psy- 
chology appeared  also  inspired  by  Sensualism,  and, 
before  long,  it  formed  a,  special  field  of  research. 
Brown,  David  Hartley,  and  Priestley  developed  the 
theory  of  association  of  ideas  in  various  directions. 
At  the  outset  Sensualism  encountered  vigorous  opposi- 
tion, even  in  England,  from  the  Mystics  and  Plato- 
nists  of  the  Cambridge  School  (Samuel  Parker  and, 
especially,  Ralph  Cudworth) .  The  reaction  was  still 
more  lively  in  the  Scotch  School,  founded  and  chiefly 
represented  by  Thomas  Reid,  to  which  Adam  Fer- 
guson, Oswald,  and  Dugald  Stewart  belonged  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  which 
had  great  influence  over  Eclectic  Spiritualism,  chiefly 
in  America  and  France.  Hobbes's  "selfish"  systein 
was  developed  into  a  morality  by  Bentham,  a  parti- 
san of  Egoistic  Utilitarianism,  and  by  Adam  Smith, 
a  defender  of  Altruism,  but  provoked  a  reaction 
among  the  advocates  of  the  moral  sentiment  theory 
(Shaftesbury,  Hutcheson,  Samuel  Clarke).  In 
England,  also,  Theism  or  Deism  was  chiefly 
developed,  instituting  a  criticism  of  all  positive 
religion,  which  it  sought  to  supplant  with  a 
philosophical  religion.  English  Sensualism  spread 
in  France  during  the  eighteenth  century:  its  influence 
is  traceable  in  de  Condillac,  de  la  Mettrie,  and  the 
Encyclopedists;  Voltaire  popularized  it  in  France 
and  with  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau  it  made  its  way 
among  the  masses,  undermining  their  Christianity 
and  preparing  the  Revolution  of  17S0.  In  Germany, 
the  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century  is,  directly 
or  indirectly,  connected  with  Leibniz — the  School  of 
Wolff,  the  jEsthetio  School  (Baumgarten),  the  philoso- 
phy of  sentiment.  But  all  the  German  philosophers 
of  the  eighteenth  century  were  eclipsed  by  the  great 
figure  of  Kant. 

With  Kant  (1724-1804)  modern  philosophy  enters  its 
second  period  and  takes  a  critical  orientation.  Kant 
bases  his  theory  of  knowledge,  his  moral  and  aesthetic 
system,  and  his  judgments  of  finality  on  the  structure 
of  the  mind.  In  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, German  philosophy  is  replete  with  great  names 
connected  with  Kantianism — after  it  had  been  put 
through  a  Monistic  evolution,  however — Fichte, 
Schelling,  and  Hegel  have  been  called  the  triumvirate 
of  Pantheism;  then  again,  Schopenhauer,  while 
Herbart  returned  to  individualism.  French  philos- 
ophy in  the  nineteenth  century  is  at  first  dominated 
by  an  eclectic  Spiritualistic  movement  with  which 
the  names  of  Maine  de  Biran  and,  especially,  Victor 
Cousin  are  associated.  Cousin  had  disciples  in 
America  (C.  Henry),  and  in  France  he  gained  favour 
with  those  whom  the  excesses  of  the  Revolu- 
tion had  alarmed.  In  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  French  Catholics  approved 
the  Traditionalism  inaugurated  by  de  Bonald 
and  de  Lamennais,  while  another  group  took 
refuge  in  Ontologism.  In  the  same  period  Auguste 
Comte  founded  Positivism,  to  which  Littre  and  Taine 


PHILOSOPHY 


33 


PHILOSOPHY 


adhered,  though  it  rose  to  its  greatest  height  in  the 
English-speaking  countries.  In  fact,  England  may 
be  said  to  have  been  the  second  fatherland  of  Posi- 
tivism; John  Stuart  Mill,  Huxley,  Alexander  Bain, 
and  Herbert  Spencer  expanded  its  doctrines,  com- 
bined them  with  Assooiationism  and  emphasized  its 
criteriological  aspect,  or  attempted  (Spencer)  to 
construct  a  vast  synthesis  of  human  sciences.  The 
Associationist  philosophy  at  this  time  was  con- 
fronted by  the  Scotch  philosophy  which,  in  Hamil- 
ton, combined  the  teachings  of  Reid  and  of  Kant, 
and  found  an  American  champion  in  Noah  Porter. 
Mansel  spread  the  doctrines  of  Hamilton.  As- 
sociationism  regained  favour  with  Thomas  Brown 
and  James  iXIill,  but  was  soon  enveloped  in  the  larger 
conception  of  Positivism,  the  dominant  philosophy  in 
England.  Lastly,  in  Italy,  Hegel  was  for  a  long  time 
the  leader  of  nineteenth-century  philosophical  thought 
(\'era  and  d'Ercole),  whilst  Gioberti,  the  ontologist, 
and  Rosmini  occupy  a  distinct  position.  More 
recently,  Positivism  has  gained  numerous  adherents 
in  Italy.  In  the  middle  of  the  century,  a  large  Krau- 
sist  School  existed  in  Spain,  represented  chiefly  by 
Sanz  del  Rio  (d.  1S69)  and  N.  Salmeron.  Balmes 
(1810-4S),  the  author  of  "  Fundamental  Philosophy", 
is  an  original  thinker  whose  doctrines  have  many 
points  of  contact  with  Scholasticism. 

VI.  Contemporary  Orientations. — A.  Favourite 
Problems. — Leaving  aside  social  questions,  the  study 
of  which  belongs  to  philosophy  in  only  some  of 
their  aspects,  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  philosophic 
interest  of  the  present  day  psychological  questions 
hold  the  first  place,  and  that  chief  among  them  is  the 
problem  of  certitude.  Kant,  indeed,  is  so  important 
a  factor  in  the  destinies  of  contemporary  philosophy, 
not  only  because  he  is  the  initiator  of  critical  formal- 
ism, but  still  more  because  he  obliges  his  successors 
to  deal  with  the  preliminary  and  fundamental  ques- 
tion of  the  limits  of  knowledge.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  experimental  investigation  of  mental  processes 
has  become  the  object  of  a  new  study,  psycho- 
physiology,  in  which  men  of  science  co-operate  with 
philosophers,  and  which  meets  with  increasing  suc- 
cess. This  study  figures  in  the  programme  of  most 
modern  universities.  Originating  at  Leipzig  (the 
School  of  Wundt)  and  Wiirzburg,  it  has  quickly  be- 
come naturalized  in  Europe  and  America.  In 
America,  "The  Psychological  Review"  has  devoted 
many  articles  to  this  branch  of  philosophy.  Psycho- 
logical studies  are  the  chosen  field  of  the  Americans 
(Ladd,  William  James,  Hall). 

The  great  success  of  psychology  has  emphasized 
the  subjective  character  of  esthetics,  in  which  hardly 
anyone  now  recognizes  the  objective  and  metaphysi- 
cal element.  The  solutions  in  vogue  are  the  Kantian, 
which  represents  the  sesthetic  judgment  as  formed  in 
accordance  with  the  subjective,  structural  functions 
of  the  mind,  or  other  psychologic  solutions  which 
reduce  the  beautiful  to  a  psychic  impression  (the 
"sympathy",  or  Einfiihlung,  of  Lipps;  the  "con- 
crete intuition ' '  of  Benedetto  Croce) .  These  explana- 
tions are  insufficient,  as  they  neglect  the  objective 
aspect  of  the  beautiful — those  elements  which,  on 
the  part  of  the  object,  are  the  cause  of  the  aesthetic 
impression  and  enjoyment.  It  may  be  said  that  the 
neo-Scholastic  philosophy  alone  takes  into  account 
the  objective  aesthetic  factor. 

The  absorbing  influence  of  psychology  also  mani- 
fests itself  to  the  detriment  of  other  branches  of 
philosophy;  first  of  all,  to  the  detriment  of  meta- 
physics, which  our  contemporaries  have  unjustly 
ostracized — unjustly,  since,  if  the  existence  or  pos- 
sibility of  a  thing-in-itself  is  considered  of  importance, 
it  behooves  us  to  inquire  under  what  aspects  of  reality 
it  reveals  itself.  This  ostracism  of  metaphysics, 
moreover,  is  largely  due  to  misconception  and  to  a 
wrong  understanding  of  the  theories  of  substance, 
XII— 3 


of  faculties,  of  causes  etc.,  which  belong  to  the  tra^ 
ditional  metaphysics.  Then  again,  the  invasion  of 
psychology  is  manifest  in  logic :  side  by  side  with  the 
ancient  logic  or  dialectic,  a  mathematical  or  symbolic 
logic  has  developed  (Peano,  Russell,  Peirce,  Mitchell, 
and  others)  and,  more  recently,  a  genetic  logic  which 
would  study,  not  the  fixed  laws  of  thought,  but  the 
changing  process  of  mental  life  and  its  genesis 
(Baldwin) . 

We  have  seen  above  (section  II,  D)  how  the  increasing 
cultivation  of  psychology  has  produced  other  scientific 
ramifications  which  find  favour  with  the  learned  world. 

Moral  philosophy,  long  neglected,  enjoys  a  renewed 
vogue  notably  in  America,  where  ethnography  is 
devoted  to  its  service  (see,  e.  g.,  the  publications  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution).  "The  International 
Journal  of  Ethics"  is  a  review  especially  devoted 
to  this  line  of  work.  In  some  quarters,  where  the 
atmosphere  is  Positivist,  there  is  a  desire  to  get  rid  of 
the  old  morality,  with  its  notions  of  value  and  of  duty, 
and  to  replace  it  with  a  collection  of  empiric  rules 
subject  to  evolution  (Sidgwick,  Huxley,  Leslie 
Stephen,  Durkheim,  Levy-Bruhl). 

As  to  the  history  of  philosophy,  not  only  are  very 
extended  special  studies  devoted  to  it,  but  more  and 
more  room  is  given  it  in  the  study  of  every  philosophic 
question.  Among  the  causes  of  this  exaggerated 
vogue  are  the  impulse  given  by  the  Schools  of  Cousin 
and  of  Hegel,  the  progress  of  historical  studies  in 
general,  the  confusion  arising  from  the  clash  of  rival 
doctrines,  and  the  distrust  engendered  by  that  con- 
fusion. Remarkable  works  have  been  produced  by 
Deussen,  on  Indian  and  Oriental  philosophy ;  by  Zeller, 
on  Greek  antiquity;  by  Denifle,  Haurlau,  Baumker, 
and  Mandonnet,  on  the  Middle  Ages;  by  Windelband, 
Kuno  Fischer,  Boutroux  and  Hoffding,  on  the  modern 
period;  and  the  list  might  easily  be  considerably 
prolonged. 

B.  The  Opposing  Systems. — The  rival  systems  of 
philosophy  of  the  present  time  may  be  reduced  to 
various  groups:  Positivism,  neo-Kantianism,  Mon- 
ism, neo-Scholastioism.  Contemporary  philosophy 
lives  in  an  atmosphere  of  Phenomenism,  since  Posi- 
tivism and  neo-Kantianism  are  at  one  on  this  impor- 
tant doctrine:  that  science  and  certitude  are  possible 
only  within  the  limits  of  the  world  of  phenomena, 
which  is  the  immediate  object  of  experience.  Posi- 
tivism, insisting  on  the  exclusive  rights  of  sensory 
experience,  and  Kantian  criticism,  reasoning  from 
the  structure  of  our  cognitive  faculties,  hold  that 
knowledge  extends  only  as  far  as  appearances;  that 
beyond  this  is  the  absolute,  the  dark  depths,  the 
existence  of  which  there  is  less  and  less  disposition  to 
deny,  but  which  no  human  mind  can  fathom.  On  the 
contrary,  this  element  of  the  absolute  forms  an 
integral  constituent  in  neo-Scholasticism,  which  has 
revived,  with  sobriety  and  moderation,  the  funda- 
mental notions  of  Aristotelean  and  Medieval  meta- 
physics, and  has  succeeded  in  vindicating  them  against 
attack  and  objection. 

(1)  Positivism,  under  various  forms,  is  defended  in 
England  by  the  followers  of  Spencer,  by  Huxley, 
Lewes,  Tyndall,  F.  Harrison,  Congreve,  Beesby,  J. 
Bridges,  Grant  Allen  (James  Martineau  is  a  reaction- 
ary against  Positivism) ;  by  Balfour,  who  at  the  same 
time  propounds  a  characteristic  theory  of  belief, 
and  falls  back  on  Fideism.  From  England  Posi- 
tivism passed  over  to  America,  where  it  soon 
dethroned  the  Scottish  doctrines  (Cams) .  De  Roberty, 
in  Russia,  and  Ribot,  in  France,  are  among  its  most 
distinguished  disciples.  In  Italy  it  is  found  in  the 
writings  of  Ferrari,  Ardigo,  and  Morselli;  in  C!er- 
many,  in  those  of  Laas,  Riehl,  Guyau,  and  Durkheim. 
Less  brutal  than  Materialism,  the  radical  vice  of 
Positivism  is  its  identification  of  the  knowable  with 
the  sensible.  It  seeks  in  vain  to  reduce  general  ideas 
to    collective    images,    and    to  deny    the    abstract 


PHILOSOPHY 


34 


PHILOSOPHY 


and  universal  character  of  the  mind's  concepts.  It 
vainly  denies  the  super-experiential  value  of  the  first 
logical  principles  in  which  the  scientific  life  of  the 
mind  is  rooted;  nor  will  it  ever  succeed  in  showing 
that  the  certitude  of  such  a  judgment  as  2+2=4 
increases  with  our  repeated  additions  of  numbers  of 
oxen  or  of  coins.  In  morals,  where  it  would  reduce 
precepts  and  judgments  to  soeiological  data  formed 
in  the  colle('ti\'e  conscience  and  varying  with  the 
period  and  the  en\ironmcnt,  Positi\'ism  stumbles 
against  the  judgments  of  value,  and  the  supersensible 
ideas  of  obligation,  moral  good,  and  law,  recorded 
in  every  human  conscience  and  unvarjdng  in  their 
essential  data. 

(2)  Kantianism  had  been  forgotten  in  Germany 
for  some  thirty  years  (1830-60);  Vogt,  Bilohner,  and 
Moleschott  had  won  for  Materialism  an  ephemeral 
vogue;  but  Materialism  was  swept  away  by  a  strong 
Kantian  reaction.  This  reversion  towards  Kant 
(Ruckkchr  zu  Kant)  begins  to  be  traceable  in  1S60 
(notably  as  a  result  of  Lange's  "History  of  Mate- 
rialism"), and  the  influence  of  Kantian  doctrines 
may  be  said  to  permeate  the  whole  contemporary 
German  philosophy  (Otto  Liebmann,  von  Hartmann, 
Paulsen,  Rehmke,  Dilthey,  Natorp,  _  Eucken,  the 
Immanentists,  and  the  Empirico-criticists) .  French 
neo-Criticism,  represented  by  Renouvier,  was  con- 
nected chiefly  with  Kant's  second  "Critique"  and 
introduced  a  specific  Voluntarism.  Vacherot,  Secr6- 
tan,  LacheUer,  Boutroux,  Fouill^e,  and  Bergson  are 
all  more  or  less  under  tribute  to  Kantianism.  Ra- 
vaisson  proclaims  himself  a  follower  of  Maine  de 
Biran.  Kantianism  has  taken  its  place  in  the  state 
programme  of  education  and  Paul  Janet,  who,  with 
F.  Bouillier  and  Caro,  was  among  the  last  legatees  of 
Cousin's  Spiritualism,  appears,  in  his  "Testament 
philosophique",  affecting  a  Monism  with  a  Kantian 
inspiration.  All  those  who,  with  Kant  and  the  Posi- 
tivists,  proclaim  the  "bankruptcy  of  science"  look 
for  the  basis  of  our  certitude  in  an  imperative  demand 
of  the  will.  This  Voluntarism,  also  called  Pragmatism 
(William  James),  and,  quite  recently.  Humanism 
(Schiller  at  Oxford),  is  inadequate  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  theoretic  moral  and  social  sciences  upon 
an  imshakable  base:  sooner  or  later,  reflection  will 
ask  what  this  need  of  Uving  and  of  wilUng  is  worth, 
and  then  the  intelligence  will  return  to  its  position  as 
the  supreme  arbiter  of  certitude. 

From  Germany  and  France  Kantianism  has  spread 
everywhere.  In  England  it  has  called  into  activity 
the  Critical  Idealism  associated  with  T.  H.  Green  and 
Bradley.  Hodgson,  on  the  contrary,  returns  to  Real- 
ism. iS.  Laurie  may  be  placed  between  Green  and 
Martineau.  Emerson,  Harris,  Everett,  and  Royce 
spread  Idealistic  Criticism  in  America;  Shad- 
worth  Hodgson,  on  the  other  hand,  and  Adamson  tend 
to  return  to  Realism,  whilst  James  Ward  emphasizes 
the  function  of  the  will. 

(3)  Monism. — With  a,  great  many  Kantians,  a 
stratum  of  Monistic  ideas  is  superimposed  on  Criti- 
cism, the  thing  in  itself  being  considered  numerically 
one.  The  same  tendencies  are  observable  among 
Positivist  Evolutionists  hke  CUfford  and  Romanes, 
or  G.  T.  Ladd. 

(4)  Neo-Scholasticism,  the  revival  of  which  dates 
from  the  last  third  of  the  nineteenth  century  (Libera- 
tore,  Taparelli,  Comoldi,  and  others),  and  which 
received  a  powerful  impulse  under  Leo  XIII,  is  tending 
more  and  more  to  become  the  philosophy  of  Catholics. 
It  replaces  Ontologism,  Traditionalism,  Giinther's 
Dualism,  and  Cartesian  Spiritualism,  which  had 
manifestly  become  insufficient.  Its  syntheses,  re- 
newed and  completed,  can  be  set  up  in  opposition  to 
Positivism  and  Kantianism,  and  even  its  adversaries 
no  longer  dream  of  denying  the  worth  of  its  doctrines. 
The  bearings  of  neo-Scholasticism  have  been  treated 
elsewhere  (see  Neo-Scholasticism). 


VII.  Is  Progress  in  Philosophy  Indefinite  or  is 
THERE  A  Philosophia  Perennis? — Considering  the 
historic  succession  of  systems  and  the  evolution  of 
doctrines  from  the  remotest  ages  of  India  down  to  our 
own  times,  and  standing  face  to  face  with  the  progress 
achieved  by  contemporary  scientific  philosophy,  must 
we  not  infer  the  indefinite  progress  of  philosophic 
thought?     Many  have  allowed  themsehes  to  be  led 
away  by  this  ideal  dream.     Historic  Idealism  (Karl 
Marx)  regards  philosophy  as  a  product  fatally  en- 
gendered by  pre-existing  causes  in  our  physical  and 
social  environment.     Auguste  Comte's  "law  of  the 
three    states",     Herbert     Spencer's     Evolutionism, 
Hegel's   "indefinite  becoming   of  the  soul",   sweep 
philosophy  along  in  an  ascending  current  toward  an 
ideal  perfection,  the  realization  of  which  no  one  can 
foresee.     For  all  these  thinkers,  philosophy  is  vari- 
able  and   relative:   therein   lies   their  serious  error. 
Indefinite  progress,  condemned  by  history  in  many 
fields,   is   untenable   in   the   history   of   philosophy. 
Such  a  notion  is  evidently  refuted  by  the  appearance 
of  thinkers  like  Aristotle  and  Plato  three  centuries 
before  Christ,  for  these  men,  who  for  ages  have  domi- 
nated,  and  still   dominate,   human   thought,   would 
be   anachronisms,   since  they   would   be   inferior  to 
the  thinkers  of  our  own  time.     And  no  one  would 
venture  to  assert  this.     History  shows,  indeed,  that 
there  are  adaptations  of  a  synthesis  to  its  environ- 
ment, and  that  every  age  has  its  owm  aspirations  and 
its  special   way   of  looking   at   problems   and   their 
solutions;  but  it  also  presents  unmistakable  evidence 
of  incessant  new  beginnings,  of  rhythmic  oscillations 
from  one  pole  of  thought  to  the  other.     If  Kant  found 
an  original  formula  of  Subjectivism  and  the  reine 
Innerlichkeit,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  think  that  Kant 
had   no  intellectual  ancestors:    he  had  them  in  the 
earliest  historic  ages  of  philosophy:  M.  Deussen  has 
found  in  the  Vedic  hymn  of  the  tjpanishads  the  dis- 
tinction  between   noumenon  and  phenomenon,  and 
writes,  on  the  theory  of  May^,  "Kants  Grunddogma, 
so  alt  wie  die  Philosophie"  ("Die  Philos.  desUpani- 
shad's",  Leipzig,  1899,  p.  204). 

It  is  false  to  say  that  all  truth  is  relative  to  a  given 
time  and  latitude,  and  that  philosophy  is  the  product 
of  economic  conditions  in  a  ceaseless  course  of  evo- 
lution, as  historical  Materialism  holds.  Side  by  side 
with  these  things,  which  are  subject  to  change  and 
belong  to  one  particular  condition  of  the  life  of  man- 
kind, there  is  a  soul  of  truth  circulating  in  every  sys- 
tem, a  mere  fragment  of  that  complete  and  unchange- 
able truth  which  haunts  the  human  mind  in  its  most 
disinterested  investigations.  Amid  the  oscillations 
of  historic  systems  there  is  room  for  a  philosophia 
perennis — as  it  were  a  purest  atmosphere  of  truth, 
enveloping  the  ages,  its  clearness  somehow  felt  in 
spite  of  cloud  and  mist.  "The  truth  Pythagoras 
sought  after,  and  Plato,  and  Aristotle,  is  the  same  that 
Augustine  and  Aquinas  pursued.  So  far  as  it  is 
developed  in  history,  truth  is  the  daughter  of  i,ime; 
so  far  as  it  bears  within  itself  a  content  in- 
dependent of  time,  and  therefore  of  history,  it  is 
the  daughter  of  eternity"  [Willmann,  "Gesch.  d. 
Idealismus",  II  (Brunswick,  1896),  550;  cf.  Commer, 
"Die  immerwahrende  Philosophie"  (Vienna,  1899)]. 
This  does  not  mean  that  essential  and  permanent 
verities  do  not  adapt  themselves  to  the  intellectual 
life  of  each  epoch.  Absolute  immobility  in  philos- 
ophy, no  less  than  absolute  relativity,  is  contrary 
to  nature  and  to  history.  It  leads  to  decadence  and 
death.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  we  must  interpret 
the  adage:    Vita  in  motu. 

VIII.  Philosophy  and  the  Sciences. — Aristotle 
of  old  laid  the  foundation  of  a  philosophy  supported 
by  observation  and  experience.  We  need  only  glance 
through  the  list  of  his  works  to  see  that  astronomy, 
mineralogy,  physics  and  chemistry,  biology,  zoology, 
furnished  him  with  examples  and  bases  for  his  theories 


PHILOSOPHY 


35 


PHILOSOPHY 


on  the  constitution,  of  the  heavenly  and  terrestrial 
bodies,  the  nature  of  the  vital  principle,  etc.  Be- 
sides, the  whole  Aristotelean  classification  of  the 
branches  of  philosophy  (see  section  II)  is  inspired 
by  the  same  idea  of  making  philosophy — general 
science — rest  upon  the  particular  sciences.  The 
early  Middle  Ages,  with  a  rudimentary  scientific 
culture,  regarded  all  its  learning,  built  up  on  the  Tri- 
vium  (grammar,  rhetoric,  dialectic)  and  Quadrivium 
(arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  music),  as  a 
preparation  for  philosophy.  In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, when  Scholasticism  came  vmder  Aristotelean 
influences,  it  incorporated  the  sciences  in  the  pro- 
gramme of  philosophy  itself.  This  may  be  seen  in  a 
regulation  issued  by  the  Faculty  of  Arts  of  Paris, 
19  March,  1255,  "De  libris  qui  legendi  essent". 
This  order  prescribes  the  study  of  commentaries  on 
various  scientific  treatises  of  Aristotle,  notably  those 
on  the  first  book  of  the  "Meteorologica",  on  the 
treatises  on  Heaven  and  Earth,  Generation,  the 
Senses  and  Sensations,  Sleeping  and  Waking,  Mem- 
ory, Plants,  and  Animals.  Here  are  amply  sufficient 
means  for  the  magistri  to  familiarize  the  "artists" 
with  astronomy,  botany,  physiology,  and  zoology, 
to  say  nothing  of  Aristotle's  "Physios",  which  was 
also  prescribed  as  a  classical  text,  and  which  afforded 
opportunities  for  numerous  observations  in  chemistry 
and  physios  as  then  understood.  Grammar  and 
rhetoric  served  as  preliminary  studies  to  logic; 
Bible  history,  social  science,  and  politics  were  intro- 
ductory to  moral  philosophy.  Such  men  as  Albertus 
Magnus  and  Roger  Bacon  expressed  their  views  on 
the  necessity  of  linking  the  sciences  with  philosophy, 
and  preached  it  by  example.  So  that  both  antiquity 
and  the  Middle  Ages  knew  and  appreciated  scientific 
philosophy. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  question  of  the 
relation  between  the  two  enters  upon  a  new  phase: 
from  this  period  modern  science  takes  shape  and 
begins  that  triumphal  march  which  it  is  destined  to 
continue  through  the  twentieth  century,  and  of  which 
the  human  mind  is  justly  proud.  Modern  scientific 
knowledge  differs  from  that  of  antiquity  and  the 
Middle  Ages  in  three  important  respects:  the  multi- 
plication of  sciences;  their  independent  value;  the 
divergence  between  common  knowledge  and  scien- 
tific knowledge.  In  the  Middle  Ages  astronomy  was 
closely  akin  to  astrology,  chemistry  to  alchemy, 
physios  to  divination;  modern  science  has  severely 
excluded  all  these  fantastic  connexions.  Considered 
now  from  one  side  and  again  from  another,  the 
physical  world  has  revealed  continually  new  aspects, 
and  each  specific  point  of  view  has  become  the  focus 
of  a  new  study.  On  the  other  hand,  by  defining 
their  respective  limits,  the  sciences  have  acquired 
autonomy;  useful  in  the  Middle  Ages  only  as  a  prep- 
aration for  rational  physics  and  for  metaphysics, 
they  are  nowadays  of  value  for  themselves,  and  no 
longer  play  the  part  of  handmaids  to  philosophy. 
Indeed,  the  progress  achieved  within  itself  by  each 
particular  science  brings  one  more  revolution  in 
knowledge.  So  long  as  instruments  of  observation 
were  imperfect,  and  inductive  methods  restricted,  it 
was  practically  impossible  to  rise  above  an  elementary 
knowledge.  People  knew,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  that 
wine,  when  left  exj)osed  to  the  air,  became  vinegar; 
but  what  do  facts  like  this  amount  to  in  comparison 
with  the  complex  formulae  of  modern  chemistry? 
Hence  it  was  that  an  Albertus  Magnus  or  a  Roger 
Bacon  could  flattei'  himself,  in  those  days,  with  having 
acquired  all  the  science  ol  his  time,  a  claim  which 
would  now  only  provoke  a,  smile.  In  every  department 
progress  has  drawn  the  line  sharply  between  popular 
and  scientific  knowledge;  the  former  is  ordinarily  the 
starting-point  of  the  latter,  but  the  conclusions  and 
teachings  involved  in  the  sciences  are  unintelligible 
to  those  who  lack  the  requisite  preparation. 


Do  not,  then,  these  profound  modifications  in  the 
condition  of  the  sciences  entail  modifications  in  the 
relations  which,  until  the  seventeenth  century,  had 
been  accepted  as  existing  between  the  sciences  and 
philosophy?  Must  not  the  separation  of  philosophy 
and  science  widen  out  to  a  complete  divorce?  Many 
have  thought  so,  both  scientists  and  philosophers, 
and  it  was  for  this  that  in  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
teenth centuries  so  many  savants  and  philosophers 
turned  their  backs  on  one  another.  For  the  former, 
philosophy  has  become  useless;  the  particular  sci- 
ences, they  say,  multiplying  and  becoming  perfect, 
must  exhaust  the  whole  field  of  the  knowable,  and  a 
time  will  come  when  philosophy  shall  be  no  more. 
For  the  philosophers,  philosophy  has  no  need  of  the 
immeasurable  mass  of  scientific  notions  which  have 
been  acquired,  many  of  which  possess  only  a  pre- 
carious and  provisional  value.  Wolff,  who  pro- 
nounced the  divorce  of  science  from  philosophy, 
did  most  to  accredit  this  view,  and  he  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  certain  Catholic  philosophers  who  held  that 
scientific  study  may  be  excluded  from  philosophic 
culture. 

What  shall  we  say  on  this  question?  That  the 
reasons  which  formerly  existed  for  keeping  touch 
with  science  are  a  thousand  times  more  imperative 
in  our  day.  If  the  profound  synthetic  view  of  things 
which  justifies  the  existence  of  philosophy  presup- 
poses analytical  researches,  the  multiplication  and 
perfection  of  those  researches  is  certainly  reason  for 
neglecting  them.  The  horizon  of  detailed  knowledge 
widens  incessantly;  research  of  every  kind  is  busy 
exploring  the  departments  of  the  universe  which  it  has 
mapped  out.  And  philosophy,  whose  mission  is  to 
explain  the  order  of  the  universe  by  general  and  ulti- 
mate reasons  applicable,  not  only  to  a  group  of  facts, 
but  to  the  whole  body  of  known  phenomena,  cannot 
be  indifferent  to  the  matter  which  it  has  to  explain. 
Philosophy  is  like  a  tower  whence  we  obtain  the 
panorama  of  a  great  city — its  plan,  its  monuments, 
its  great  arteries,  with  the  form  and  location  of  each — 
things  which  a  visitor  cannot  discern  while  he  goes 
through  the  streets  and  lanes,  or  visits  libraries, 
churches,  palaces,  and  museums,  one  after  another. 
If  the  city  grows  and  develops,  there  is  all  the  more 
reason,  if  we  would  know  it  as  a  whole,  why  we 
should  hesitate  to  ascend  the  tower  and  study  from 
that  height  the  plan  upon  which  its  new  quarters 
have  been  laid  out. 

It  is,  happily,  evident  that  contemporary  phi- 
losophy is  inclined  to  be  first  and  foremost  a  scientific 
philosophy;  it  has  found  its  way  back  from  its  wan- 
derings of  yore.  This  is  noticeable  in  philosophers 
of  the  most  opposite  tendencies.  There  would  be  no 
end  to  the  Ijst  if  we  had  to  enumerate  every  case 
where  this  orientation  of  ideas  has  been  adopted. 
"This  union",  says  Boutroux,  speaking  of  the  sci- 
ences and  philosophy,  "  is  in  truth  the  classic  tradition 
of  philosophy.  But  there  had  been  established  a 
psychology  and  a,  metaphysics  which  aspired  to  set 
themselves  up  beyond  the  sciences,  by  mere  reflection 
of  the  mind  upon  itself.  Nowadays  all  philosophers 
are  agreed  to  make  scientific  data  their  starting-point " 
(Address  at  the  International  Congress  of  Philosophy 
in  1900;  Revue  de  M^taph.  et  de  Morale,  1900,  p. 
697).  Boutroux  and  many  others  spoke  similarly 
at  the  International  Congress  of  Bologna  (April,  ' 
1911).  Wundt  introduces  this  union  into  the  very 
definition  of  philosophy,  which,  he  says,  is  "the  gen- 
eral science  whose  function  it  is  to  unite  in  a  system 
free  of  all  contradictions  the  knowledge  acquired 
through  the  particular  sciences,  and  to  reduce  to  their 
principles  the  general  methods  of  science  and  the 
conditions  of  knowledge  supposed  by  them"  ("Einlei- 
tung  in  die  Philosophic",  Leipzig,  1901,  p.  19).  And 
R.  Eucken  says:  "The  farther  back  the  limits  of  the 
observable  world  recede,  the  more  conscious  are  we 


PHILOSOPHY 


36 


PHILOSOPHY 


of  the  lack  of  an  adequateb^  comprehensive  expla- 
nation" ["  Gesammelte  Aufsatze  zur  Philos.  u.  Leben- 
sanschanung"  (Leipzig,  1903),  p.  157].  This  same 
thought  inspired  Leo  XIII  when  he  placed  the  paral- 
lel and  harmonious  teaching  of  philosophy  and  of  the 
sciences  on  the  programme  of  the  Institute  of  Phi- 
losophy created  by  him  in  the  University  of  Louvain 
(see  Neo-Scholasticism). 

On  their  side,  the  scientists  have  been  coming  to 
the  same  conclusions  ever  since  they  rose  to  a  syn- 
thetic view  of  that  matter  which  is  the  object  of  their 
study.  So  it  was  with  Pasteur,  so  with  Newton. 
Ostwald,  professor  of  chemistry  at  Leipzig,  has  under- 
taken to  pubhsh  the  ' '  Annalen  der  Naturphilosophie  ", 
a  review  "devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  territory 
which  is  common  to  philosophy  and  the  sciences". 
A  great  many  men  of  science,  too,  are  engaged 
in  philosophy  without  knowing  it:  in  their  con- 
stant discussions  of  "Mechanism",  "Evolutionism", 
"Transformism",  they  are  using  terms  which  imply 
a  philosophical  theory  of  matter. 

If  philosophy  is  the  explanation  as  a  whole  of  that 
world  which  the  particular  sciences  investigate  in 
detail,  it  follows  that  the  latter  find  their  culmination 
in  the  former,  and  that  as  the  sciences  are  so  will 
philosophy  be.  It  is  true  that  objections  are  put 
forward  against  this  way  of  uniting  philosophy  and  the 
sciences.  Common  observation,  it  is  said,  is  enough 
support  for  philosophy.  This  is  a  mistake:  philoso- 
phy cannot  ignore  whole  departments  of  knowledge 
which  are  inaccessible  to  ordinary  experience; 
biology,  for  example,  has  shed  a  new  light  on  the 
philosophic  study  of  man.  Others  again  adduce  the 
extent  and  the  growth  of  the  sciences  to  show  that 
scientific  philosophy  must  ever  remain  an  unattain- 
able ideal;  the  practical  solution  of  this  difficulty 
concerns  the  teaching  of  philosophy  (see  section 
XI). 

IX.  Philosophy  and  Religion. — Rehgion  pre- 
sents to  man,  with  authority,  the  solution  of  many 
problems  which  also  concern  philosophy.  Such  are 
the  questions  of  the  nature  of  God,  of  His  relations 
with  the  visible  world,  of  man's  origin  and  destiny. 
Now  religion,  which  precedes  philosophy  in  the  social 
life,  naturally  obliges  it  to  take  into  consideration 
the  points  of  religious  doctrine.  Hence  the  close 
connexion  of  philosophy  with  religion  in  the  early 
stages  of  civilization,  a  fact  strikingly  apparent  in 
Indian  philosophy,  which,  not  only  at  its  beginning, 
but  throughout  its  development,  was  intimately  bound 
up  with  the  doctrine  of  the  sacred  books  (see  above) . 
The  Greeks,  at  least  during  the  most  important 
periods  of  their  history,  were  much  less  subject  to  the 
influences  of  pagan  religions;  in  fact,  they  combined 
with  extreme  scrupulosity  in  what  concerned  cere- 
monial usage  a  wide  liberty  in  regard  to  dogma. 
Greek  thought  soon  took  its  independent  flight; 
Socrates  ridicules  the  gods  in  whom  the  common 
people  believed ;  Plato  does  not  banish  religious  ideas 
from  his  philosophy;  but  Aristotle  keeps  them  en- 
tirely apart,  his  God  is  the  Actits  purus,  with  a  mean- 
ing exclusively  philosophic,  the  prime  mover  of  the 
universal  mechanism.  The  Stoics  point  out  that  all 
things  obey  an  irresistible  fatality  and  that  the  wise 
man  fears  no  gods.  And  if  Epicurus  teaches  cosmic 
determinism  and  denies  all  finality,  it  is  only  to  con- 
clude that  man  can  lay  aside  all  fear  of  divine  inter- 
vention in  mundane  affairs.  The  question  takes  a 
new  aspect  when  the  influences  of  the  Oriental  and 
Jewish  religions  are  brought  to  bear  on  Greek 
philosophy  by  neo  -  Pythagorism,  the  Jewish  the- 
ology (end  of  the  first  century),  and,  above  all,  neo- 
Platonism  (third  century  b.  c).  A  yearning  for 
religion  was  stirring  in  the  world,  and  philosophy 
became  enamoured  of  every  rehgious  doctrine. 
Plotinus  (third  century  after  Christ),  who  must 
always    remain    the    most    perfect    type    of    the 


neo-Platonic  mentality,  makes  philosophy  identical 
with  rehgion,  assigning  as  its  highest  aim  the  union 
of  the  soul  with  God  by  mystical  ways.  This  mystical 
need  of  the  supernatural  issues  in  the  most  bizarre 
lucubrations  from  Plotinus's  successors,  e.  g.  Jambli- 
cus  (d.  about  a.  d.  330),  who,  on  a  foundation  of  neo- 
Platonism,  erected  an  international  pantheon  for  all 
the  divinities  whose  names  are  known. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  that  Christianity,  with 
its  monotheistic  dogma  and  its  serene,  purifying 
morality,  came  in  the  fulness  of  time  and  appeased 
the  inward  unrest  with  which  souls  were  afflicted  at 
the  end  of  the  Roman  world.  Though  Christ  did 
not  make  Himself  the  head  of  a  philosophical  school, 
the  religion  which  He  founded  supplies  solutions  for  a 
group  of  problems  which  philosophy  solves  by  other 
methods  (e.  g.  the  immortality  of  the  soul).  The  first 
Christian  philosophers,  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
were  imbued  with  Greek  ideas  and  took  over  from  the 
circumambient  neo-Platonism  the  commingling  of 
philosophy  and  religion.  With  them  philosophy 
is  incidental  and  secondary,  employed  only  to 
meet  polemic  needs,  and  to  support  dogma;  their 
philosophy  is  religious.  In  this  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria and  Origen  are  one  with  St.  Augustine  and 
Pseudo-Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  The  early 
Middle  Ages  continued  the  same  traditions,  and 
the  first  philosophers  may  be  said  to  have  re- 
ceived neo-Platonic  influences  through  the  channel 
of  the  Fathers.  John  Scotus  Eriugena  (ninth  cen- 
tury), the  most  remarkable  mind  of  this  first  period, 
writes  that  "true  religion  is  true  philosophy  and, 
conversely,  true  philosophy  is  true  religion"  (De 
div.  praed.,  I,  I).  But  as  the  era  advances  a  process 
of  dissociation  sets  in,  to  end  in  the  complete  separa- 
tion between  the  two  sciences  of  Scholastic  theology 
or  the  study  of  dogma,  based  fundamentally  on  Holy 
Scripture,  and  Scholastic  philosophy,  based  on  purely 
rational  investigation.  To  understand  the  successive 
stages  of  this  differentiation,  which  was  not  completed 
until  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  we  must 
draw  attention  to  certain  historical  facts  of  capital 
importance. 

(1)  The  origin  of  several  philosophical  problems, 
in  the  early  Middle  Ages,  must  be  sought  within  the 
domain  of  theology,  in  the  sense  that  the  philosophical 
discussions  arose  in  reference  to  theological  questions. 
The  discussion,  e.  g.  of  transubstantiation  (Beren- 
garius  of  Tours),  raised  the  problem  of  substance 
and  of  change,  or  becoming.  (2)  Theology  being 
regarded  as  a  superior  and  sacred  science,  the  whole 
pedagogic  and  didactic  organization  of  the  period 
tended  to  confirm  this  superiority  (see  section  XI). 
(3)  The  enthusiasm  for  dialectics,  which  reached  its 
maximum  in  the  eleventh  century,  brought  into 
fashion  certain  purely  verbal  methods  of  reasoning 
bordering  on  the  sophistical.  Anselm  of  Besata 
(Anselmus  Peripateticus)  is  the  type  of  this  kind  of 
reasoner.  Now  the  dialecticians,  in  discussing  theo- 
logical subjects,  claimed  absolute  validity  for  their 
methods,  and  they  ended  in  such  heresies  as  Gott- 
schalk's  on  predestination,  Berengarius's  on  tran- 
substantiation, and  Roscelin's  Tritheism.  Beren- 
garius's motto  was:  "Per  omnia  ad  dialecticam 
confugere".  There  followed  an  excessive  reaction  on 
the  part  of  timorous  theologians,  practical  men  before 
all  things,  who  charged  dialectics  with  the  sins  of 
the  dialecticians.  This  antagonistic  movement  coin- 
cided with  an  attempt  to  reform  religious  life.  At 
the  head  of  the  group  was  Peter  Damian  (1007- 
72),  the  adversary  of  the  liberal  arts;  he  was  the 
author  of  the  saying  that  philosophy  is  the  handmaid 
of  theology.  From  this  saying  it  has  been  concluded 
that  the  Middle  Ages  in  general  put  philosophy  under 
tutelage,  whereas  the  maxim  was  current  only  among 
a  narrow  circle  of  reactionary  theologians.  Side  by 
side   with   Peter  Damian  in  Italy,  were  Manegold 


PHILOSOPHY 


37 


PHILOSOPHY 


of  Lautenbach  and  Othloh  of  St.  Emmeram,  in 
Germany. 

(4)  At  the  same  time  a  new  tendency  becomes  dis- 
cernible in  the  eleventh  century,  in  Lanfranc,  Wil- 
liam of  Hirsohau,  Rodulfus  Ardens,  and  particularly 
St.  Anselm  of  Canterbury;  the  theologian  calls  in  the 
aid  of  philosophy  to  demonstrate  certain  dogmas  or  to 
show  their  rational  side.  St.  Anselm,  in  an  Augus- 
tinian  spirit,  attempted  this  justification  of  dogma, 
without  perhaps  invariably  applying  to  the  demon- 
strative value  of  his  arguments  the  requisite  limi- 
tations. In  the  thirteenth  century  these  efforts 
resulted  in  a  new  theological  method,  the  dialec- 
tic. (5)  While  these  disputes  as  to  the  relations 
of  philosophy  and  theology  went  on,  many  philosophi- 
cal questions  were  nevertheless  treated  on  their  own 
account,  as  we  have  seen  above  (universals,  St.  An- 
selm's  theodicy,  Abelard's  philosophy,  etc.).  (6)  The 
dialectic  method,  developed  fully  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, just  when  Scholastic  theology  received  a  power- 
ful impetus,  is  a  theological,  not  a  philosophical, 
method.  The  principal  method  in  theology  is  the 
interpretation  of  Scripture  and  of  authority;  the 
dialectic  method  is  secondary  and  consists  in  first 
establishing  a  dogma  and  then  showing  its  reasonable- 
ness, confirming  the  argument  from  authority  by  the 
argument  from  reason.  It  is  a  process  of  apologetics. 
From  the  twelfth  century  onward,  these  two  theo- 
logical methods  are  fairly  distinguished  by  the  words 
auctoritates,  rationes.  Scholastic  theology,  condensed 
in  the  "summse"  and  "books  of  sentences",  is  hence- 
forward regarded  as  distinct  from  philosophy.  The 
attitude  of  theologians  towards  philosophy  is  three- 
fold: one  group,  the  least  influential,  still  opposes  its 
introduction  into  theology,  and  carries  on  the  reaction- 
ary traditions  of  the  preceding  period  (e.  g.  Gauthier 
de  Saint- Victor) ;  another  accepts  philosophy,  but 
takes  a  utilitarian  view  of  it,  regarding  it  merely 
as  a  prop  of  dogma  (Peter  Lombard) ;  a  third  group, 
the  most  influential,  since  it  includes  the  three  theo- 
logical schools  of  St.  Victor,  Abelard,  and  Gilbert 
de  la  Porr^e,  grants  to  philosophy,  in  addition  to 
this  apologetic  role,  an  independent  value  which  en- 
titles it  to  be  cultivated  and  studied  for  its  own 
sake.  The  members  of  this  group  are  at  once  both 
theologians  and  philosophers. 

(7)  At  the  opening  of  the  thirteenth  century  one 
section  of  Augustinian  theologians  continued  to  em- 
phasize the  utilitarian  and  apologetic  office  of  philoso- 
phy. But  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  created  new  Scholastic 
traditions,  and  wrote  a  chapter  on  scientific  method- 
ology in  which  the  distinctness  and  independence  of 
the  two  sciences  is  thoroughly  established.  Duns 
Scotus,  again,  and  the  Terminists  exaggerated  this 
independence.  Latin  Averroism,  which  had  a  bril- 
liant but  ephemeral  vogue  in  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  accepted  whole  and  entire  in 
philosophy  Averroistic  Peripateticism,  and,  to  safe- 
guard Catholic  orthodoxy,  took  refuge  behind  the 
sophism  that  what  is  true  in  philosophy  may  be  false 
in  theology,  and  conversely — wherein  they  were  more 
reserved  than  Averroes  and  the  Arab  philosophers, 
who  regarded  religion  as  something  inferior,  good 
enough  for  the  masses,  and  who  did  not  trouble  them- 
selves about  Moslem  orthodoxy.  LuUy,  going  to 
extremes,  maintained  that  all  dogma  is  susceptible  of 
demonstration,  and  that  philosophy  and  theology 
coalesce.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Middle  Ages,  pro- 
foundly religious,  constantly  sought  to  reconcile  its 
philosophy  with  the  Catholic  Faith.  This  bond  the 
Renaissance  philosophy  severed.  In  the  Reformation 
period  a  group  of  publicists,  in  view  of  the  prevailing 
strife,  formed  projects  of  reconciliation  among  the 
numerous  religious  bodies.  They  convinced  them- 
selves that  all  religions  possess  a  common  fund  of 
essential  truths  relating  to  God,  and  that  their  con- 
tent is  identical,  in  spite  of  divergent  dogmas.    Be- 


sides, Theism,  being  only  a  form  of  Naturism  applied 
to  religion,  suited  the  independent  ways  of  the  Renais- 
sance. As  in  building  up  natural  law,  human  na- 
ture was  taken  into  consideration,  so  reason  was  in- 
terrogated to  discover  religious  ideas.  And  hence  the 
wide  acceptance  of  Theism,  not  among  Protestants 
only,  but  generally  among  minds  that  had  been 
carried  away  with  the  Renaissance  movement 
(Erasmus,  Coornheert). 

For  this  tolerance  or  religious  indifferentism  modem 
philosophy  in  more  than  one  instance  substituted  a 
disdain  of  positive  religions.  The  English  Theism  or 
Deism  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
criticizes  all  positive  religion  and,  in  the  name  of  an 
innate  religious  sense,  builds  up  a  natural  religion 
which  is  reducible  to  a  collection  of  theses  on  the 
existence  of  God  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
The  initiator  of  this  movement  was  Herbert  of  Cher- 
bury  (1581-1648);  J.  Toland  (1670-1722),  Tindal 
(1656-1733),  and  Lord  Bolingbroke  took  part  in  it. 
This  criticizing  movement  inaugurated  in  England 
was  taken  up  in  France,  where  it  combined  with  an 
outright  hatred  of  Catholicism.  Pierre  Bayle  (1646- 
1706)  propounded  the  thesis  that  all  religion  is  anti- 
rational  and  absurd,  and  that  a  state  composed  of 
Atheists  is  possible.  Voltaire  wished  to  substitute 
for  Catholicism  an  incoherent  mass  of  doctrines  about 
God.  The  religious  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth 
century  in  France  led  to  Atheism  and  paved  the  way 
for  the  Revolution.  In  justice  to  contemporary  phi- 
losophy it  must  be  credited  with  teaching  the  amplest 
tolerance  towards  the  various  religions;  and  in  its 
programme  of  research  it  has  included  religious  psy- 
chology, or  the  study  of  the  religious  sentiment. 

For  Catholic  philosophy  the  relations  between 
philosophy  and  theology,  between  reason  and  faith, 
were  fixed,  in  a  chapter  of  scientific  methodology,  by 
the  great  Scholastic  thinkers  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Its  principles,  which  still  retain  their  vitality, 
are  as  follows:  (a)  Distinctness  of  the  two  sciences. — 
The  independence  of  philosophy  in  regard  to  theology, 
as  in  regard  to  any  other  science  whatsoever,  is  only 
an  interpretation  of  this  undeniable  principle  of  sci- 
entific progress,  as  applicable  in  the  twentieth  century 
as  it  was  in  the  thirteenth,  that  a  rightly  constituted 
science  derives  its  formal  object,  its  principles,  and 
its  constructive  method  from  its  own  resources,  and 
that,  this  being  so,  it  cannot  borrow  from  any  other 
science  without  compromising  its  own  right  to  exist, 
(b)  Negative,  not  positive,  material,  not  formal,  sub- 
ordination of  philosophy  in  regard  to  theology. — 
This  means  that,  while  the  two  sciences  keep  their 
formal  independence  (the  independence  of  the  prin- 
ciples by  which  their  investigations  are  guided),  there 
are  certain  matters  where  philosophy  cannot  con- 
tradict the  solutions  afforded  by  theology.  The 
Scholastics  of  the  Middle  Ages  justified  this  subordi- 
nation, being  profoundly  convinced  that  Catholic 
dogma  contains  the  infaUible  word  of  God,  the  ex- 
pression of  truth.  Once  a  proposition,  e.  g.  that  two 
and  two  make  four,  has  been  accepted  as  certain, 
logic  forbids  any  other  science  to  form  any  conclusion 
subversive  of  that  proposition.  The  material  mutual 
subordination  of  the  sciences  is  one  of  those  laws  out 
of  which  logic  makes  the  indispensable  guarantee  of 
the  unity  of  knowledge.  "The  truth  duly  demon- 
strated by  one  science  serves  as  a  beacon  in  an- 
other science. "  The  certainty  of  a  theory  in  chemistry 
imposes  its  acceptance  on  physics,  and  the  physicist 
who  should  go  contrary  to  it  would  be  out  of  his 
course.  Similarly,  the  philosopher  cannot  contradict 
the  certain  data  of  theology,  any  more  than  he  can 
contradict  the  certain  conclusions  of  the  individual 
sciences.  To  deny  this  would  be  to  deny  the  conform- 
ity of  truth  with  truth,  to  contest  the  principle  of 
contradiction,  to  surrender  to  a  relativism  which  is 
destructive  of  all  certitude.    "It  being  supposed  that 


PHILOSOPHY 


38 


PHILOSOPHY 


nothing  but  what  is  true  is  included  in  this  science 
(sc.  theology)  ...  it  being  supposed  that  what- 
ever is  true  by  the  decision  and  authority  of  this 
science  can  nowise  be  false  by  the  decision  of  right 
reason:  these  things,  I  say,  being  supposed,  as  it  is 
manifest  from  them  that  the  authority  of  this  science 
and  reason  alike  rest  upon  truth,  and  one  verity  can- 
not be  contrary  to  another,  it  must  be  said  absolutely 
that  reason  can  in  no  way  be  contrary  to  the  authority 
of  this  Scripture,  nay,  all  right  reason  is  in  accord  with 
it"  (Henry  of  Ghent,  "Summa  Theologica",  X,  iii, 
n.  4). 

But  when  is  a  theory  certain?  This  is  a  question 
of  fact,  and  error  is  easy.  In  proportion  as  the  prin- 
ciple is  simple  and  absolute,  so  are  its  applications 
complex  and  variable.  It  is  not  for  philosophy  to 
establish  the  certitude  of  theological  data,  any  more 
than  to  fix  the  conclusions  of  chemistry  or  of  physiol- 
ogy. The  certainty  of  those  data  and  those  conclu- 
sions must  proceed  from  another  source.  "The  pre- 
conceived idea  is  entertained  that  a  Cathohc  savant 
is  a  soldier  in  the  service  of  his  religious  faith,  and 
that,  in  his  hands,  science  is  but  a  weapon  to  defend 
his  Credo.  In  the  eyes  of  a  great  many  people,  the 
Catholic  savant  seems  to  be  always  under  the  menace 
of  excommunication,  or  entangled  in  dogmas  which 
hamper  him,  and  compelled,  for  the  sake  of  loyalty 
to  his  Faith,  to  renounce  the  disinterested  love  of 
science  and  its  free  cultivation"  (Meroier,  "Rapport 
sur  les  6tudes  supiSr.  de  philos.",  1891,  p.  9).  Nothing 
could  be  more  untrue. 

X.  The  Catholic  Church  and  Philosophy. — 
The  principles  which  govern  the  doctrinal  relations  of 
philosophy  and  theology  have  moved  the  Catholic 
Church  to  intervene  on  various  occasions  in  the  his- 
tory of  philosophy.  As  to  the  Church's  right  and 
duty  to  intervene  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the 
integrity  of  theological  dogma  and  the  deposit  of 
faith,  there  is  no  need  of  discussion  in  this  place.  It 
is  interesting,  however,  to  note  the  attitude  taken 
by  the  Church  towards  philosophy  throughout  the 
ages,  and  particularly  in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  a 
civilization  saturated  with  Christianity  had  estab- 
Ushed  extremely  intimate  relations  between  theology 
and  philosophy. 

A.  The  censures  of  the  Church  have  never  fallen 
upon  philosophy  as  such,  but  upon  theological  appli- 
cations, judged  false,  which  were  based  upon  phil- 
osophical reasonings.  John  Scotus  Eriugena,  Rosce- 
lin,  Berengarius,  Abelard,  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^e  were 
condemned  because  their  teachings  tended  to  subvert 
theological  dogmas.  Eriugena  denied  the  substantial 
distinction  between  God  and  created  things;  Rosce- 
lin  held  that  there  are  three  Gods;  Berengarius,  that 
there  is  no  real  transubstantiation  in  the  Eucharist; 
Abelard  and  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^e  essentially  modified 
the  dogma  of  the  Trinity.  The  Church,  through  her 
councils,  condemned  their  theological  errors ;  with  their 
philosophy  as  such  she  does  not  concern  herself. 
"Nominalism",  says  Haur^au,  "is  the  old  enemy. 
It  is,  in  fact,  the  doctrine  which,  because  it  best 
accords  with  reason,  is  most  remote  from  axioms  of 
faith.  Denounced  before  council  after  council.  Nom- 
inalism was  condemned  ia  the  person  of  Abelard  as  it 
had  been  in  the  person  of  Roscelin"  (Hist,  philos.  scol., 
I,  292). 

No  assertion  could  be  more  inaccurate.  What 
the  Church  has  condemned  is  neither  the  so-called 
Nominalism,  nor  Reahsm,  nor  philosophy  in  general, 
nor  the  method  of  arguing  in  theology,  but  certain 
applications  of  that  method  which  are  judged  dan- 
gerous, i.  e.  matters  which  are  not  philosophical.  In 
the  thirteenth  century  a  host  of  teachers  adopted  the 
philosophical  theories  of  Roscehn  and  Abelard,  and 
no  councils  were  convoked  to  condemn  them.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  condemnation  of  David  of 
Dinant  (thirteenth  century),  who  denied  the  distinc- 


tion between  God  and  matter,  and  of  various  doc- 
trines condemned  in  the  fourteenth  century  as  tend- 
ing to  the  negation  of  morality.  It  has  been  the  same 
in  modern  times.  To  mention  only  the  condemnations 
of  Giinther,  of  Rosmini,  and  of  Ontologism  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  what  alarmed  the  Church  was 
the  fact  that  the  theses  in  question  had  a  theological 
bearing. 

B.  The  Church  has  never  imposed  any  philosophi- 
cal system,  though  she  has  anathematized  many 
doctrines,  or  branded  them  as  suspect. — This  cor- 
responds with  the  prohibitive,  but  not  imperative, 
attitude  of  theology  in  regard  to  philosophy.  To 
take  one  example,  faith  teaches  that  the  world  was 
created  in  time;  and  yet  St.  Thomas  maintains  that 
the  concept  of  eternal  creation  {ah  mterno)  involves 
no  contradiction.  He  did  not  think  himself  obliged 
to  demonstrate  creation  in  time:  his  teaching  would 
have  been  heterodox  only  if,  with  the  Averroists  of 
his  day,  he  had  maintained  the  necessary  eternity 
of  the  world.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  objected  that  many 
Thomistic  doctrines  were  condemned  in  1277  by 
Etienne  Tempier,  Bishop  of  Paris.  But  it  is  well  to 
note,  and  recent  works  on  the  subject  have  abun- 
dantly proved  this,  that  Tempier's  condemnation,  in 
so  far  as  it  applied  to  Thomas  Aquinas,  was  the  issue 
of  intrigues  and  personal  animosity,  and  that,  in 
canon  law,  it  had  no  force  outside  of  the  Diocese  of 
Paris.  Moreover,  it  was  annulled  by  one  of  Tempier's 
successors,  Etienne  de  Borrete,  in  1325. 

C.  The  Church  has  encouraged  philosophy. — To 
say  nothing  of  the  fact  that  all  those  who  applied 
themselves  to  science  and  philosophy  in  the  Middle 
Ages  were  churchmen,  and  that  the  liberal  arts  found 
an  asylum  in  capitular  and  monastic  schools  until  the 
twelfth  century,  it  is  important  to  remark  that  the 
principal  universities  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  pon- 
tifical foundations.  This  was  the  case  with  Paris. 
To  be  sure,  in  the  first  years  of  the  university's  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Aristotelean  encyclopaedia  (late 
twelfth  century)  there  were  prohibitions  against  read- 
ing the  "Physics",  the  "Metaphysics",  and  the 
treatise  "On  the  Soul"  But  these  restrictions  were 
of  a  temporary  character  and  arose  out  of  par- 
ticular circumstances.  In  1231,  Gregory  IX  laid 
upon  a  commission  of  three  consultors  the  charge  to 
prepare  a,n  amended  edition  of  Aristotle  "ne  utile  per 
inutile  vitietur"  (lest  what  is  useful  suffer  damage 
through  what  is  useless).  The  work  of  expurgation 
was  done,  in  point  of  fact,  by  the  Albertine-Thomist 
School,  and,  beginning  from  the  year  1255,  the 
Faculty  of  Arts,  with  the  knowledge  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal authority,  ordered  the  teaching  of  all  the  books 
previously  prohibited  (see  Mandonnet,  "Siger  de 
Brabant  et  Taverroisme  latin  au  XIII®  s.",  Louvain, 
1910).  It  might  also  be  shown  how  in  modern  times 
and  in  our  own  day  the  popes  have  encouraged  phil- 
osophic studies.  Leo  XIII,  as  is  well  known,  con- 
sidered the  restoration  of  philosophic  Thomism  one 
of  the  chief  tasks  of  his  pontificate. 

XL  The  Teaching  of  Philosophy. — The  methods 
of  teaching  philosophy  have  varied  in  various  ages. 
Socrates  used  to  interview  his  auditors,  and  hold 
symposia  in  the  market-place,  on  the  porticoes, 
and  in  the  public  gardens.  His  method  was  interro- 
gation, he  whetted  the  curiosity  of  the  audience  and 
practised  what  had  become  known  as  Socratic  irony 
and  the  maieutic  art  (ixaievrm^  Tix^rj),  the  art  of  de- 
livering minds  of  their  conceptions.  His  successors 
opened  schools  properly  so  called,  and  from  the  places 
occupied  by  these  schools  several  systems  took  their 
names  (the  Stoic  School,  the  Academy,  the  Lyceum). 
In  the  Middle  Ages  and  down  to  the  seventeenth 
century  the  learned  language  was  Latin.  The  Ger- 
man discourses  of  Eckhart  are  mentioned  as  merely 
sporadic  examples.  From  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth 
century    teaching    was    confined    to    the    monastic 


PHILOSOPHY 


39 


PHILOSOPHY 


and  cathedral  schools.  It  was  the  golden  age  of 
schools.  Masters  and  students  went  from  one  school 
to  another:  Lanfranc  travelled  over  Europe;  John 
of  Salisbury  (twelfth  century)  heard  at  Paris  all  the 
then  famous  professors  of  philosophy;  Abelard 
gathered  crowds  about  his  rostrum.  Moreover:  as 
the  same  subjects  were  taught  everywhere,  and  from 
the  same  text-books  scholastic  wanderings  were 
attended  with  few  disadvantages.  The  books  took 
the  form  of  commentaries  or  monographs.  From  the 
time  of  Abelard  a  method  came  into  use  which  met 
with  great  success,  that  of  setting  forth  the  pros 
and  cons  of  a  question,  which  was  later  perfected  by 
the  addition  of  a  solutio.  The  application  of  this 
method  was  extended  in  the  thirteenth  century  (e. 
g.  in  the  "Summa  theologica"  of  St.  Thomas). 
Lastly,  philosophy  being  an  educational  preparation 
for  theology,  the  "Queen  of  the  Sciences",  philo- 
sophical and  theological  topics  were  combined  in 
one  and  the  same  book,  or  even  in  the  same 
lecture. 

At  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  and  the  beginning 
of  the  thirteenth,  the  University  of  Paris  was  organ- 
ized, and  philosophical  teaching  was  concentrated 
in  the  Faculty  of  Arts.  Teaching  was  dominated  by 
two  principles:  internationalism  and  freedom.  The 
student  was  an  apprentice-professor:  after  receiving 
the  various  degrees,  he  obtained  from  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  a  licence  to  teach  (licentia 
docendi).  Many  of  the  courses  of  this  period  have 
been  preserved,  the  abbreviated  script  of  the  Middle 
Ages  being  virtually  a  stenographic  system.  The 
programme  of  courses  drawn  up  in  1255  is  well  known : 
it  comprises  the  exegesis  of  all  the  books  of  Aristotle. 
The  commentary,  or  lectio  (from  legere,  to  read),  is  the 
ordinary  form  of  instruction  (whence  the  German 
Vorlesungen  and  the  English  lecture).  There  were 
also  disputations,  in  which  questions  were  treated 
by  means  of  obj  ections  and  answers ;  the  exercise  took  a 
lively  character,  each  one  being  invited  to  contribute 
his  thoughts  on  the  subject.  The  University  of  Paris 
was  the  model  for  all  the  others,  notably  those  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  These  forms  of  instruction 
in  the  universities  lasted  as  long  as  Aristoteleanism, 
i.  e.  until  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the  eighteenth 
century — the  siecle  des  lumieres  (Erkldrung) — philos- 
ophy took  a  popular  and  encyclopedic  form,  and 
was  circulated  in  the  literary  productions  of  the 
period.  In  the  nineteenth  century  it  resumed  its 
didactic  attitude  in  the  universities  and  in  the  semi- 
naries, where,  indeed  its  teaching  had  long  continued. 
The  advance  of  philological  and  historical  studies  had 
a  great  influence  on  the  character  of  philosophical 
teaching:  critical  methods  were  welcomed,  and  little 
by  Uttle  the  professors  adopted  the  practice  of  special- 
izing in  this  or  that  branch  of  philosophy — a  practice 
which  is  still  in  vogue.  Without  attempting  to  touch 
on  all  the  questions  involved  in  modern  methods  of 
teaching  philosophy,  we  shall  here  indicate  some  of 
the  principal  features. 

A.  The  Language  of  Philosophy. — The  earliest  of 
the  moderns — as  Descartes  or  Leibniz — used  both 
Latin  and  the  vernacular,  but  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury (except  in  ecclesiastical  seminaries  and  in  certain 
academical  exercises  mainly  ceremonial  in  character) 
the  living  languages  supplanted  Latin;  the  result  has 
been  a  gain  in  clearness  of  thought  and  interest  and 
vitality  of  teaching.  Teaching  in  Latin  too  often  con- 
tents itself  with  formulae:  the  living  language  effects 
a  better  comprehension  of  things  which  must  in  any 
case  be  difficult.  Personal  experience,  writes  Fr. 
Hogan,  formerly  superior  of  the  Boston  Seminary,  in 
his  "Clerical  Studies"  (Philadelphia,  1895-1901), 
has  shown  that  among  students  who  have  learned 
philosophy,  particularly  Scholastic,  only  in  Latin, 
very  few  have  acquired  anything  more  than  a  mass 
of  formula,  which  they  hardly  understand;  though 


this  does  not  always  prevent  their  adhering  to  their 
formulae  through  thick  and  thin.  Those  who  continue 
to  write  in  Latin — as  many  Cathohc  philosophers,  of- 
ten of  the  highest  worth,  still  do — have  the  sad  ex- 
perience of  seeing  their  books  confined  to  a  very 
narrow  circle  of  readers. 

B.  Didactic  Processes. — Aristotle's  advice,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Scholastics,  still  retains  its  value  and  its 
force:  before  giving  the  solution  of  a  problem,  ex- 
pound the  reasons  for  and  against.  This  explains,  in 
particular,  the  great  part  played  by  the  history  of 
philosophy  or  the  critical  examination  of  the  solutions 
proposed  by  the  great  thinkers.  Commentary  on  a 
treatise  still  figures  in  some  special  higher  courses; 
but  contemporary  philosophical  teaching  is  princi- 
pally divided  according  to  the  numerous  branches  of 
philosophy  (see  section  II).  The  introduction  of 
laboratories  and  practical  seminaries  {seminaires  pra- 
tiques) in  philosophical  teaching  has  been  of  the  great- 
est advantage.  Side  by  side  with  libraries  and  shelves 
full  of  periodicals  there  is  room  for  laboratories  and 
museums,  once  the  necessity  of  vivifying  philos- 
ophy by  contact  with  the  sciences  is  admitted  (see 
section  VIII).  As  for  the  practical  seminary,  in 
which  a  group  of  students,  with  the  aid  of  a  teacher, 
investigate  to  some  special  problem,  it  may  be  ap- 
plied to  any  branch  of  philosophy  with  remarkable 
results.  The  work  in  common,  where  each  directs 
his  individual  efforts  towards  one  general  aim,  makes 
each  the  beneficiary  of  the  researches  of  all;  it 
accustoms  them  to  handling  the  instruments  of  re- 
search, facilitates  the  detection  of  facts,  teaches  the 
pupil  how  to  discover  for  himself  the  reasons  for  what 
he  observes,  affords  a  real  experience  in  the  con- 
structive methods  of  discovery  proper  to  each  sub- 
ject, and  very  often  decides  the  scientific  vocation 
of  those  whose  efforts  have  been  crowned  with  a  first 
success. 

C.  The  Order  of  Philosophical  Teaching. — One  of 
the  most  complex  questions  is:  With  what  branch 
ought  philosophical  teaching  to  begin,  and  what  order 
should  it  follow?  In  conformity  with  an  immemorial 
tradition,  the  beginning  is  often  made  with  logic. 
Now  logic,  the  science  of  science,  is  difficult  to  under- 
stand and  unattractive  in  the  earliest  stages  of  teach- 
ing. It  is  better  to  begin  with  the  sciences  which  take 
the  real  for  their  object:  psychology,  cosmology, 
metaphysics,  and  theodicy.  Scientific  logic  will  be 
better  understood  later  on;  moral  philosophy  pre- 
supposes psychology;  systematic  history  of  phi- 
losophy requires  a  preliminary  acquaintance  with  all 
the  branches  of  philosophy  (see  Mercier,  "Manuel  de 
philosophie",  Introduction,  third  edition,  Louvain, 
1911). 

Connected  with  this  question  of  the  order  of  teachiag 
is  another:  viz.  What  should  be  the  scientific  teaching 
preliminary  to  philosophy?  Only  a  course  in  the  sciences 
specially  appropriate  to  philosophy  can  meet  the  man- 
ifold exigencies  of  the  problem.  The  general  scientific 
courses  of  our  modern  universities  include  too  much 
or  too  little:  "too  much  in  the  sense  that  professional 
teaching  must  go  into  numerous  technical  facts  and 
details  with  which  philosophy  has  nothing  to  do;  too 
little,  because  professional  teaching  often  makes  the 
observation  of  facts  its  ultimate  aim,  whilst,  from  our 
standpoint,  facts  are,  and  can  be,  only  a  means,  a. 
starting-point,  towards  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the 
most  general  causes  and  laws"  (Mercier,  "Rapport 
sur  les  etudes  sup&ieures  de  philosophie",  Louvain, 
1891,  p.  25).  M.  Boutroux,  a  professor  at  the  Sor- 
bonne,  solves  the  problem  of  philosophical  teaching  at 
the  university  in  the  same  sense,  and,  according  to  him, 
the  flexible  and  very  liberal  organization  of  the  faculty 
of  philosophy  should  include  "the  whole  assemblage 
of  the  sciences,  whether  theoretic,  mathematico- 
physical,  or  philologico-historical "  ("Revue  Inter- 
nationale de  I'enseignement",   Paris,  1901,  p.  610). 


PHILOXENUS 


40 


PHOC^A 


The  programme  of  courses  of  the  Institute  of  Philos- 
ophy  of   Louvain   is   drawn  up  in  conformity  with 

this  spirit. 

General  AA'orks. — Mercieh,  Cours  de  philosophie.  Logique. 
(■riti:riologie  generale.  Ontotogie.  Psychologie  (Louvain,  1905-10) ; 
Nvs,  Co^molugie  (Louvain,  1904) ;  Stonyhursl  Philosophical  Series: 
— Clarke,  Logic  (London,  1909);  John  Rickaby,  First  Princi- 
ples of  Knowledge  (London,  1901) ;  Joseph  Rickaby,  Aloral  Phi- 
Ui^'iphy  (London,  1910);  Boedder,  Natural  Theology  (London, 
riOO);'  Maher,  Psychology  (London,  1909);  John  Rickaby,  Gen- 
eral Mrtaphysics  (London,  1909);  Walker,  Theories  of  Knowledge 
(Lundun,  1910 — );  ZiauARA,  SumTrw.  philus.  (Paris);  Kchiej-ini, 
PHncipia  philos.  (Turin);  IIhbabuhu,  Iftstitut.  philosopkica 
(\'alladolid);  Ide^i,  Compend.  phil.  schol.  (Madrid);  Philosophia 
Lacensis: — Pesch,  Inst,  logieales  (Freiburg,  1888);  Idem,  Inst, 
phil.  imlur.  (Freiburg,  1880);  Idem,  Inst,  psychol.  (Freiburg, 
IS'IS);  HoNTHEiM,  Inst.  Iheudiceos:  Meyer,  Inst,  juris  natur.: 
DOMET  DE  ViiRGES,  Ahrcge  de  metaphysique  (Paris);  Farces, 
Etudes  phil.  (Pai-is);  Gutberlet,  Lehrbuch  der  Philos.  Logik  und 
Erkeiuttiiisthearie,  .Ugemeine  Metaphys.,  Naturphilos.,  Die  psy- 
cho!.. Die  Theodicee,  Ethik  u.  Naturrecht,  Ethik  u.  Religion 
Olunster,  l.S7S-8o) ;  Rabier,  Lemons  de  phil.  (Paris) ;  Wixdei^ 
HAND  with  tiio  collaboration  of  Liebmann,  Wundt,  Lipps, 
HviTH,  Lask,  Rickert,  Troeltsch,  and  Grogs,  Die  Philos.  im 
Bcijinn  lies  zwiuiziip^ten  Jahrhund.  (Heidelberg);  Systematische 
Plnhj^ophie  by  Dilthey,  Riehl,  Wundt,  Ostwald,  Kbbinghaus, 
Er(Kp;M,  Paulsen,  and  Munch;  Lipps,  Des  Gesamtu-er/:er.^.  Die 
KuUur  der  Gegcnwdrt  (Leipzig),  pt.  I,  vi;  De  Wulf,  tr.  Coffey, 
Scholasticism  Old  and  New.  An  Intn>dii.clion  to  Neo-Scliolastlr 
Phi/osi'phg  (Dublin,  1907);  Kulpe,  Einleitung  in  die  Philos. 
(Leipzig);  Wundt,  Einleitung  in  die  Philos.  (Leipzig) ;  Harper, 
The  Metaphysics  of  the  School  (London,  1879-84). 

Dictionaries. — Baldwin,  Diet,  of  Philo^oi>hy  and  Psychology 
(London,  1901-05) ;  France,  Diet,  des  sciences  phil.  (Paris,  1876) ; 
ElSLER,  Worterbuch  der  I^hllosoph.  Begnffe  (Berlin,  1890);  Voca- 
bulaire  technique  et  critique  de  phil.,  in  course  of  puljlieation  by  the 
Soc.  fran^aise  de  philosophie. 

Collections. — Bibliothkque  de  VInstitut  superieur  de  philoso- 
phie; Peill.aube,  Bibl.  de  phil.  experimentale  (Paris);  Riviere, 
Bibl.  de  phil.  contemporaine  (Paris) ;  Coll.  historique  des  grands 
philosophes  (Paris) ;  Le  Bon,  Bibl.  de  philosophie  scientif.  (Paris) ; 
Pi  VT,  Les  grands  philosophes  (Paris) ;  Philosophische  Bibliothek 
(Leipzig). 

Periodical  Publications. — Mind,  a  quarterly  review  of  psy- 
chology and  philosophy  (London,  1870 — ) ;  The  Philosoph.  Rei\ 
(New  York,  1892—);  Internal.  Jour,  of  Ethics  (Philadelphia); 
Proc.  of  Aristotelian  Society  (London,  1888 — );  Rev.  neo-seholas- 
(iijiie  de  phil.  (Louvain,  1894 — ) ;  Rev.des  sciences  phil.  et  thiol.  (Paris) ; 
Rri'ue  Thomiste  (Toulouse,  1893 — );  Annates  de  philosophie  chret. 
(Paris,  1831 — );  Rev.  de  philos.  (Paris);  Philosophisches  Jahrbuch 
(Fulda);  Zeitschr.  fiir  philos.  und  philosophische  Kritik,  formerly 
Fichte-Vhistsrlie  Zeitschr.  (Leipzig,  1847 — );  Kants'udien  (Ber- 
lin, 1890 — );  .Vreh.  f.  unssen^chnflliehe  Phi!<is.  und  Soziologie 
(Leipzig,  1877 — ):  .irch.  f.  systematisrhr  Phitos.  {Berlin,  1895 — ); 
.4rr//.  /.  (lesch.  d.  Philos.  (Berlin,  18SS— );  Rei-.  phil.  de  la  France 
et  de  r Etranger  (Paris,  187(1 — ) ;  Rev.  de  milaph.  <t  de  morale  (Paris, 
1894—);  Tijdschrifl  voor  Wijsbi-geerte  (Amsterdam,  1907 — );  Ri«. 
di  filosofia  neo-scholastica  (I'^lorence,  1909 — );  Ridista  di  filosofla 
(Modena). 

Di^'i^ioN  OF  Philosophy.  —  Methods.  —  Marietax,  Le  pro- 
blkmede  la  classifieation  des  sciences  d'  Aristote  d  S.  Thomas  (Paris, 
1901);   WiLLMANx,  Didaklik  (Brunswick,  1903). 

General  History. — I'eberweg,  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  tr.  Mor- 
ris (Now  York,  1N75-7(J) ;  Erdmann,  Hist,  of  Phil.  (London, 
1S9S);  Windelband,  //!.s(.  o/P/.!7.  (New  York,  1901);  Turner, 
Hist,  of  PhiJ.  (Boslrni,  1903);  ^^■ILLMANN,  Gesch.  des  Idenlismus 
(Brunswick,  I(IOS) ;  Zeller,  Die  Philos.  der  Griechen.  (Berlin),  tr. 
Alleyne,  Reichel,  Goodwin,  Costelloe,  and  Muirhead  (Lon- 
don);  De  Wulf,  Hi.-:t.  of  Mediannl  Phil.  (London,  1909;  Paris, 
Tiibingen,  and  Florence,  1912);  Windblband,  Gesch.  der  neueren 
Philos.  (Leipzig,  1872-80),  tr.  Tufts  (New  York,  1901);  Hoffding, 
Difi  nycre  Filosofis  Historic  (Copenhagen,  1804),  tr.  Mayer,  .4 
Htst.  of  Mod.  Pint.  (London,  1900);  Fisher,  Ge^chichte  der  neueren 
Philosophie  (Heidelberg,  1889-1901);  Stockl,  Lehrbuch  der  Ge- 
srlnrhle  der  Philosophie  (  Mainz,  1888;  tr.  in  part  by  Finlay,  Dub- 
lin, 1903) ;  Weber,  History  of  Philosophy,  tr.  Thilly  (New  York, 
1901). 

Contemporary  History. — Eucken,  Gei.^lige  SIrijmungen  der 
(ie<ienwart  (Leipzig,  1901);  Windelband,  Die  Philos.  irn  Beginn 
d.  .X.X.  Jahr.,  I  (Heidelberg);  Calderon.  Les  conrants  phil.  dans 
V.imerique-  Inline  (Heidelberg,  10(i9);  CEULE^L\xs,  Le  mouvement 
phil.  en  Am^rique  in  Rev.  neo-scholast.  (Nov.,  1909);  Baumann, 
Deutsche  u.  ausserdeutsche  Philos.  der  letzen  Jahrzehnte  (Gotha 
1903). 

Philosophy  and  Theology. — Heitz,  Essai  hist,  sur  les  rapp. 
entre  la  philosophie  et  la  foi  de  Birenger  de  Tours  a  S.  Thomas 
(Paris,  1909);  Brunhes,  La  foi  chrcl.  el  la  phil.  au  temps  de  la 
renaiss.  caroling.  (Paris,  1903) ;  Grab.mann,  Die  Gesch.  der  scho- 
losl.  methode  (Freiburg,  1909). 

M.  De  WiiLF. 

Philoxenus  (Akhsbnaya)  of  Mabbogh,  b.  at  Ta- 
hiti, in  the  Persian  province  of  Beth-Garmai  in  the 
scc(ind  quarter  of  the  fifth  century;  d.  at  Gangra,  in 
Paphlagonia,  .523.  He  studied  at  Edossa  when  Ibas 
was  bishop  of  that  city  (4:!.5-.")7).  Shortly  after  he 
joined  the  ranks  of  the  Monophysites  and  became 
cheir  most  learned  and  courageous  champion.  In  485 
he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Hierapohs,  or  Mabbogh 


(Manbidj)  by  Peter  the  Fuller.  Ho  continued  to 
attack  the  Decrees  of  Chalcedon  and  to  defend  the 
"Henoticon"  of  Zeno.  He  twice  visited  Constanti- 
nople in  the  interests  of  his  party,  and  in  .512  he  per- 
suaded the  Emperor  Anastasius  to  depose  Flavian  of 
Antiooh  and  to  appoint  Severus  in  his  stead.  His  tri- 
umph, however,  was  short-lived.  Anastasius  died  in 
518  and  was  succeeded  by  the  orthodox  .lustin  I.  By  a 
decree  of  the  new  ruler  the  bishops  who  had  been  de- 
posed under  Zeno  and  Anastasius  were  restored  to 
their  sees,  and  Philoxenus,  with  fiftj-three  other 
Monophysites,  was  banished.  He  went  to  Philippop- 
olis,  in  Thrace,  and  afterwards  to  Gangra  where  he 
was  murdered. 

Philoxenus  is  considered  one  of  the  greatest  masters 
of  Syriac  prose.  He  wrote  treatises  on  liturgy,  exe- 
gesis, moral  and  dogmatic  theology,  besides  many 
letters  which  are  important  for  the  ecclesiastical  history 
of  his  time.  Notice  must  be  taken  of  the  Philoxenian 
Syriac  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  This  version 
was  not  Philoxenus's  own  work,  but  was  made,  upon 
his  request  and  under  his  direction,  by  the  chorepisco- 
pus  Polycarp  about  505.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  free 
revision  of  the  Peshitta  according  to  the  Lucian  re- 
cension of  the  Septuagint.  It  is  not  known  whether  it 
extended  to  the  whole  Bible.  Of  the  Philoxenian  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament  we  have  only  a  few  frag- 
ments of  the  Book  of  Is;das  (xxviii,  3-17;  xlii,  17-xlix, 
18;  l.xvi,  11-23)  preserved  in  Syr.  MS.  Add.  17106  of 
the  British  Museum,  and  published  by  Ceriani.  Of 
the  New  Testament  we  lla^•(■  the  Second  Epistle  of  St. 
Peter,  the  Second  and  Third  Epistles  of  St.  John  and 
the  Epistle  of  St.  Jude,  all  of  which  are  printed  in  our 
Syriac  Bibles.  There  remain  also  a  few  fragments  of 
the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  (Rom.,  vi,  20;  I  Cor.,  i,  2M;  II 
Cor.,  vii,  13;  x,  4;  Eph.,  vi,  12),  first  published  by 
Wiseman  from  Syr.  MS.  153  of  the  Vatican.  Gwynn 
is  of  the  opinion  that  the  Syriac  text  of  the  Apocalypse 
published  by  himself  in  1897  probably  belongs  to  the 
original  Philoxenian. 

Duval,  Litterature  Syrinque  (3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1907) ;  Wright,  A 
Short  History  of  Syrioe  Literature  (London,  1894);  Assemani, 
Bibliotheea  Orienlali^,  II  (Rome,  1719);  Wiseman,  Horec  Syriacce 
(Rome,  182S) ;  Ceriani,  Monumenta  sacra  et  profa-na,  V  (Milan, 
ISO.S);  Ren..\.udot,  Liturgiarum  Orientalium  Collectio,  II  (Frank- 
fort, 1S47);  Martin,  Syro-Chaldaice  Insliluliones  (1873);  GuiDl, 
La  Lettera  di  Filosseno  ai  monaei  di  Tdl  'Adda  (Rome,  1886); 
FROTHiXGH.iM,  Stephen  bar  Sudnili,  the  Syrian  Mnslic  and  the 
Book  of  llierotheos  (Leyden,  18813);  Wallis-Budge,  The  Dis- 
courses of  Philoxenus,  Bishop  of  Mabbogh  (2  vols.,  London,  1894) ; 
Vaschalde,  Three  Letters  of  Philoxenus,  Bishop  of  Mabbogh 
{JtSo~.~>in):  being  the  letter  to  the  monks,  the  first  letter  to  the  monks  of 
Beth-Gaugal,  and  the  letter  to  Emperor  Zeno,  with  an  English  trans- 
lation, and  an  introduction  to  the  life,  works,  and  doctrine  of 
Philoxenus  (Rome,  1902) ;  Idem,  Philoxeni  Mabhugeiisis  Tractatua 
de  Trinitote  et  Incarnatione  in  Corpus  Scriptorum  Cliristianorum 
Orientalium  (Paris,  1907);  Gwynn,  The  .{poculypse  of  St.  John  in 
a  Syriac  Version  hitherto  unknown  (Dublin,  1897);  Idem,  Rem- 
nants of  the  later  .Syriac  Versions  of  the  Bible  (Oxford,  1909); 
Baethgen,  Philoxenus  von  Mabug  uber  drn  Gtuuben  in  Zcitsrhrift 
far  Kirchgeschichte,  V  (1882),  122-38. 

A.  A.  Vaschalde. 

Phocsea,  titular  see  in  Asia,  suffragan  of  Ephesus. 
The  town  of  Phocsea  was  founded  in  the  eleventh 
century  B.  c.  by  colonists  from  Phocidia  led  by  two 
Athenians.  They  settled  first  on  a  small  island  on 
the  neighbouring  coast,  a  territory  given  by  the 
Cymaeans,  between  the  Bays  of  Cymaeus  and  Her- 
maeus,  23  miles  nortli  of  Smyrna.  It  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Ionian  Confederation  after  having 
accepted  kings  of  the  race  of  Codrus.  Its  fine  posi- 
tion, its  two  ports,  and  the  enterprising  spirit  of  the 
inhabitants  made  it  one  of  the  chief  maritime  cities  of 
ancient  times.  Historians  speak  of  it  but  rarely  before 
the  Roman  wars  against  Antiochus.  The  prator 
^milius  Regillus  took  possession  of  the  town  (189 
B.  c.) ;  he  disturbed  neither  its  boundaries  nor  its  laws. 
During  the  war  against  Aristonicus,  who  reclaimed  the 
throne  of  Pergamum,  the  Phocaeans  took  his  part  and, 
through  the  intervention  of  Massilia,  escaped  being 
severely  punished  by  the  Romans.    At  the  time  the 


PHffiNICIA 


41 


PHCENICIA 


latter  had  definitively  established  his  power  in  Asia, 
Phoca3a  was  only  a  commercial  town;  its  money  was 
coined  until  the  time  of  the  later  Empire;  but  its  har- 
bour gradually  silted  up  and  the  inhabitants  aban- 
doned it.  In  978  Theodore  Carentenus  built  Bardas 
Sclerus  near  Phociea.  In  1090  the  Turk  Tchaga  of 
Smyrna  took  possession  of  'M  for  a  short  time.  The 
Venetians  traded  there  after  1082,  but  the  Genoese 
quickly  supplanted  them. 

In  1275  Michael  VIII  Palaeologus  gave  Manuel  Zao- 
caria  the  territory  of  the  city  and  the  right  to  exploit 
the  neighbouring  alum  mines.  In  1304  the  Genoese, 
with  the  co-operation  of  the  Greeks  of  the  adjoining 
towns,  erected  a  fortress  to  defend  the  town  against 
the  Turks,  and  some  distance  from  the  ancient  Pho- 
caea  founded  a  city  which  they  called  New  Phociea. 
In  1336  Andronicus  the  Young,  allied  with  Saroukhan, 
Sultan  of  Magnesia,  besieged  the  two  towns  and 
obliged  them  to  pay  the  tribute  stipulated  in  1275. 
They  continued  also  to  pay  annually  to  Saroukhan 
500  ducats.  From  1340  to  1345  the  Greeks  occupied 
the  two  towns,  and  again  in  1358  for  a  short  period. 
At  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Timur  in  1403,  they  pur- 
chased peace  by  the  payment  of  money.  In  the  midst 
of  difficulties  the  Genoese  colony  continued  until  the 
end  of  1455,  when  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks.  In  1650  a  naval  battle  between  the  Turks  and 
Venetians  took  place  in  sight  of  Phocaea.  To-day 
Phocaea,  in  Turkish  Fotchatin,  or  Eski  Fotcha  (an- 
cient Phocaea),  is  the  capital  of  a  cazaof  the  vilayet  of 
Smyrna,  has  about  6000  inhabitants  (4500  Greeks), 
and  exports  salt.  About  six  miles  to  the  north,  Yeni 
Fotcha  (new  Phociea)  is  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Tchan- 
darli ;  it  has  4500  inhabitants  (3500  Greeks) ,  and  ex- 
ports agricultural  products. 

Seven  Greek  bishops  of  Phocaea  are  known  by  their 
signatures  at  the  Councils;  Mark,  at  Sardica  (344); 
Theoctistus,  at  Ephesus  (441);  Quintus,  at  Chalcedon 
(451);  John,  at  Constantinople  (692);  Leo,  at  Nice 
(787) ;  Xicetas,  at  Constantinople  (869);  Paul,  at  Con- 
stantinople (879).  In  1387  ancient  Phocaea  was  sepa- 
rated from  Ephesus  and  given  to  the  suffragan  of 
Smyrna.  In  1403  it  still  had  a  titular.  The  Genoese 
colony  had  its  Latin  bishops,  seven  of  whose  names 
are  recorded  from  1346  to  1475;  the  later  ones  were 
undoubtedly  non-residents :  Bartholomew,  1346 ;  John, 
1383;  John,  before  1427;  Nicholas,  1427;  Ludovicus, 
about  1450;  Stephanus,  1457;  iEgidius,  1475. 

Le  Qoien,  Oriens  christ.,  I,  735;  III,  1077;  Texieb,  Asie 
mineure,  371-5;  Thisquen,  Phocaica  (Bonn,  1842);  de  Mas- 
Latrie,  THsor  de  chronologie  (Paris,  1889),  1787;  Tomaschek, 
Zur  historischen  Topographie  von  Kleinasien  im  MitielaUer  (Vienna, 
1891),  25-27:  Waechter,  Z>er  Verfall  des  Griechentums  in  Kleina- 
sien im  XIV.  Jahrhundert  (Leipzig,  1903),  63;  CuiNET,  La  Tur- 
quie  d'Asie.  Ill,  478-85.  S.    PeTRIdJiS. 

Phoenicia  is  a  narrow  strip  of  land,  about  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles  long  and  thirty  miles  wide,  shut  in 
between  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west  and  the  high 
range  of  Lebanon  on  the  east,  and  consisting  mostly  of 
a  succession  of  narrow  valleys,  ravines,  and  hills,  the 
latter  descending  gradually  towards  the  sea.  On  the 
north  it  is  bounded  by  the  River  Orontes  and  Mount 
Casius,  and  by  Mount  Carmel  on  the  south.  The  land 
is  fertile  and  well  irrigated  by  numerous  torrents  and 
streams  deriving  their  waters  mainly  from  the  melting 
snows  and  rain-storms  of  the  winter  and  spring  seasons. 
The  principal  vegetation  consists  of  the  renowned 
cedars  of  Lebanon,  cypresses,  pines,  palms,  olive,  vine, 
fig,  and  pomegranates.  On  this  narrow  strip  of  land, 
the  Phoenicians  had  twenty-five  cities  of  which  the 
most  important  were  Tyre,  Sidon,  Aradus,  Byblus, 
Marathus,  and  Tripolis.  Less  important  were  Lao- 
dicea,  Simyra,  Area,  Aphaoa,  Berytus,  Ecdippa,  Akko, 
Dor,  Joppa,  Gabala,  Betrys,  and  Sarepta.  The  name 
"Phoenicia"  is  in  all  probability  of  Greek  origin,  0om| 
being  a  Greek  derivative  of  <i>otvos,  blood-red.  Our 
principal  sources  of  information  concerning  Phoenicia 
are:  first,  numerous  Phoenician   inscriptions    found 


in  Phoenicia,  Cyprus,  Egypt,  Greece,  Sicily,  Spain, 
Africa,  Italy,  and  France,  and  published  in  the  "Cor- 
pus Inscriptionum  Semiticarum",  the  oldest  being  a 
simple  one  of  the  ninth  century  B.C.;  the  rest  of 
little  historical  value,  and  of  comparatively  late  date, 
i.  e.,  from  the  fourth  century  b.  c.  down;  second, 
Egyptian  and  Assyro-Babylonian  historical  inscrip- 
tions, especially  the  Tell-el-Amarna  letters  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  B.  c,  in  which  are  found  frequent  and 
valuable  references  to  Phoenicia  and  its  political  rela- 
tions with  Western  Asia  and  Egypt;  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, especially  in  III  Kings,  v,  xvi;  Isaias,  xxiii;  Jere- 
mias,  XXV,  xxvii,  and  Ezeohiel,  xxvi-xxxii;  finally, 
some  Greek  and  Latin  historians  and  writers,  both 
ecclesiastical  and  pagan. 

The  oldest  historical  references  to  Phoenicia  are 
found  in  the  Egyptian  inscriptions  of  the  Pharaohs, 
Aahmes  (1587-62  b.  c.)  and  his  successors,  Thothmes 
I  (1541-16  B.  c),  and  Thothmes  III  (1503-1449  b.  c.) 
in  which  the  Phoenicians  are  called  "Dahe"  or 
"Zahi",  and  "Fenkhu".  In  the  Tell-el-Amarna  let- 
ters is  found  much  interesting  information  concerning 
their  cities  and  especially  Tyre,  famous  for  her  wealth. 
During  all  this  period  Egyptian  suzerainty  was  more 
or  less  effective.  Sidon  was  gradually  eclipsed  by  the 
rising  power  and  wealth  of  Tyre,  against  which  the 
Philistines  were  powerless,  though  they  constantly 
attacked  the  former.  About  the  year  12.50,  after  con- 
quering Ashdod,  Askelon,  Ekron,  Gaza,  and  Gath, 
they  forced  the  Sidonians  to  surrender  the  city  of  Dor. 
At  this  time  Tyre  became  foremost  in  Pha'nicia  and 
one  of  the  greatest  and  wealthiest  cities  of  the  Medi- 
terranean region.  Its  first  king  was  Hiram,  the  son  of 
Abi-Baal  and  contemporary  of  David  and  Solomon. 
His  reign  lasted  some  forty  years,  and  to  his  energy 
Tyre  owed  much  of  its  renown.  He  enlarged  the  city, 
surrounding  it  with  massive  walls,  improved  its  har- 
bours, and  rebuilt  the  temple  of  Melkarth.  He  forced 
the  Philistine  pirates  to  retreat,  thus  securing  pros- 
perity in  maritime  commerce  and  caravan  trade,  and 
Phoenician  colonization  spread  along  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  Sicily,  Greece,  and  Africa.  He  established  a 
commercial  alliance  with  the  Hebrews,  and  his  Phoeni- 
cian artists  and  craftsmen  greatly  aided  them  in  build- 
ing the  temple,  and  palaces  of  Solomon.  He  quelled 
the  revolt  in  Utioa  and  established  Phoenician  su- 
premacy in  North  Africa  where  Carthage,  the  most 
important  of  all  Phoenician  colonies,  was  later  built. 

Hiram  was  succeeded  in  922  by  his  son,  Abd-Starte  I, 
who,  after  seven  years  of  troubled  reign,  was  mur- 
dered, and  most  of  his  successors  also  met  with  a 
violent  end.  About  this  time  hostilities  arose  between 
Phoenicia  and  Assyria,  although  two  centuries  earlier 
Tiglath-pileser  I,  when  marching  through  the  northern 
part  of  Phoenicia,  was  hospitably  entertained  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Aradus.  In  880  Ithbaal  became  King 
of  Phoenicia,  contemporaneous  with  Asshur-nasir-pal 
in  Assyria  and  Achab  in  Israel.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Baal-azar  and  Metten  I.  Metten  reigned  for  nine 
years  and  died,  leaving  Pygmalion,  an  infant  son,  but 
nominating  as  his  successor  Sicharbas,  the  high  priest 
of  Melkarth,  who  was  married  to  Elissa,  his  daughter. 
The  tale  runs  that  when  Pygmalion  came  to  manhood 
he  killed  Sicharbas,  upon  which  Elissa,  with  such 
nobles  as  adhered  to  her,  fled  first  to  Cyprus  and  after- 
wards to  Africa,  where  the  colony  of  Carthage  was 
founded  (c.  850  b.  c).  Asshur-nasir-pal  and  his  son 
and  successor  Shalmaneser  II  nominally  conquered 
Phoenicia;  but  in  745  b.  c.  Tiglath-pileser  III  com- 
pelled the  northern  tribes  to  accept  Assyrian  gov- 
ernors. As  soon  as  this  scheme  of  complete  absorption 
became  manifest  a  general  conflict  ensued,  from  which 
Assyria  emerged  victorious  and  several  Phoenician 
cities  were  captured  and  destroyed.  The  invasion  of 
Shalmaneser  IV  in  727  was  frustrated,  but  in  722  he 
almost  sacked  the  city  of  Tyre.  Sargon,  his  successor 
and  great  general,  compelled  Elulaeus,  King  of  Tyre, 


PH(ENICIA 


42 


PH(ENICIA 


to  come  to  honourable  terms  with  him.  In  701  Sen- 
nacherib conquered  the  revolting  cities  of  Syria  and 
Phoenicia.  Elukcus  fled  to  Cyprus  and  Tubaal  was 
made  king. 

In  680  Abd-Melkarth,  his  successor,  rebelled  against 
the  Assyrian  domination,  but  fled  before  Esarhaddon, 
the  son  of  Sennacherib.  Sidon  was  practically  de- 
stroyed, most  of  its  inhabitants  carried  off  to  Assyria, 
and  their  places  filled  by  captives  from  Babylonia  and 
Elam.  During  the  reign  of  Asshurbanipal  (668-625 
B.  c.)  Tyre  was  once  more  attacked  and  conquered, 
but,  as  usual,  honourably  treated.  In  606  the  Assyr- 
ian empire  itself  was  demolished  by  the  allied  Baby- 
lonians and  Medes,  and  in  605  Xabuchadonosor,  son 
and  successor  of  Nabopolassar,  after  having  conquered 
Elam  and  the  adjacent  countries,  subdued  (586  B.C.) 
Syria,  Palestine,  Phoenicia,  and  Egypt.  As  the 
Tyrians  had  command  of  the  sea,  it  was  thirteen  years 
before  their  city  surrendered,  but  the  long  siege 
crippled  its  commerce,  and  Sidon  regained  its  ancient 
position  as  the  leading  city.  Phoenicia  was  passing 
through  its  final  stage  of  national  independence  and 
glory.  From  the  fifth  century  on,  it  was  continually 
harassed  by  the  incursions  of  various  Greek  colonies 
who  gradually  absorbed  its  commerce  and  industry. 
It  passed  repeatedly  under  the  rule  of  the  Medo- 
Persian  kings,  Cyrus,  Cambyses,  Darius,  and  finally 
Xerxes,  who  attacked  the  Athenians  at  Salamis  with 
the  aid  of  the  Phoenician  navy,  but  their  fleet  was 
defeated  and  destroyed.  In  332,  it  was  finally  and 
completely  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  after 
whose  death  and  subsequent  to  the  partition  of  his 
great  Maceilonian  empire  amongst  his  four  generals, 
it  fell  to  Laodemon.  In  314,  Ptolemy  attacked  Lao- 
demon  and  annexed  Phoenicia  to  Egypt.  In  198  b.  c, 
it  was  absorbed  by  the  Seleucid  dynasty  of  Syria, 
after  the  downfall  of  which  (65  a.  d.),  it  became  a 
Roman  province  and  remained  such  till  the  Moham- 
medan conquest  of  Syria  in  the  seventh  century. 
Phoenicia  now  forms  one  of  the  most  important 
Turkish  vilayets  of  Syria  with  Beyrout  as  its  prin- 
cipal city. 

The  whole  political  history  and  constitution  of 
Phoenicia  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  The 
Phoenicians  never  built  an  empire,  but  each  city  had 
its  little  independent  territory,  assemblies,  kings,  and 
government,  and  for  general  state  business  sent  dele- 
gates to  Tyre.  They  were  not  a  military,  but  essen- 
tially a  seafaring  and  commercial  people,  and  were 
successively  conquered  by  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians, 
Babylonians,  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  to  whom, 
because  of  their  great  wealth,  they  fulfilled  all  their 
obligations  by  the  payment  of  tribute.  Although 
blessed  with  fertile  land  and  well  provided  by  nature, 
the  Phoenicians,  owing  to  their  small  territory  and 
comparatively  large  population,  were  compelled,  from 
the  very  remotest  antiquity,  to  gain  their  livehhood 
through  commerce.  Hence,  their  numerous  caravan 
routes  to  the  East,  and  their  wonderful  marine  com- 
merce with  the  West.  They  were  the  only  nation  of 
the  ancient  East  who  had  a  navy.  By  land  they 
pushed  their  trade  to  Arabia  for  gold,  agate,  onyx, 
incense,  and  m>Trh;  to  India  for  pearls,  spices,  ivory, 
ebony,  and  ostrich  plumes;  to  Mesopotamia  for 
cotton  and  linen  clothes;  to  Palestine  and  Egypt  for 
grain,  wheat,  and  barley;  to  the  regions  of  the  Black 
Sea  for  horses,  slaves,  and  copper.  By  sea  they  en- 
circled all  the  Mediterranean  coast,  along  Syria, 
North  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  the  ^Egean  Sea,  and  even 
Spain,  France,  and  England.  A  logical  result  of  this 
remarkable  commercial  activity  was  the  founding  in 
Cyprus,  Egypt,  Crete,  Sicily,  Africa,  Malta,  Sardinia, 
Spam,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece  of  numerous  colonies, 
which  became  important  centres  of  Phoenician  com- 
merce and  ri\ilization,  and  in  due  time  left  their 
deep  mark  upon  the  history  and  civilization  of  the 
classical  nations  of  the  Mediterranean  world. 


Owing  to  this  activity  also,  the  Phoenicians  devel- 
oped neither  literature  nor  arts.  The  work  done  by 
them  for  Solomon  shows  that  their  architectural  and 
mechanical  skill  was  great  only  in  superiority  to  that 
of  the  Hebrews.  The  remains  of  their  architecture 
are  heavy  and  their  sesthetic  art  is  primitive  in  char- 
acter. In  literature,  they  left  nothing  worthy  of 
preservation.  To  them  is  ascribed  the  simplification 
of  the  primitive,  pictorial  or  ideographic,  and  syllabic 
systems  of  writing  into  an  alphabetic  one  consisting 
of  twenty-two  letters  and  written  from  right  to  left, 
from  which  are  derived  all  the  later  and  modern 
Semitic  and  European  alphabets.  This  tradition, 
however,  must  be  accepted  with  some  modification. 
There  is  also  no  agreement  as  to  whether  the  basis  of 
this  Phoenician  alphabet  is  of  Eg}rptian  (hieroglyphic 
and  hieratic)  or  of  Assyro-Babylonian  (cuneiform) 
origin.  Those  who  derive  it  from  a  Cypriot  prototype 
have  not  as  yet  sufficiently  demonstrated  the  plau- 
sibility and  probability  of  their  opinion.  The  recent 
discovery  of  numerous  Minoan  inscriptions  in  the 
Island  of  Crete,  some  of  them  dating  as  early  as  2000 
B.  c,  has  considerably  complicated  the  problem. 
Other  inventions,  or  improvements,  in  science  and 
mechanics,  such  as  weights  and  measures,  glass  manu- 
facture, coinage,  the  finding  of  the  polar  star,  and 
navigation  are  perhaps  justly  attributed  to  the 
Phoenicians.  Both  ethnographically  and  linguistic- 
ally, they  belong  to  the  so-called  Semitic  group. 
They  were  called  Canaanites,  and  spoke  a  dialectical 
variety  of  the  Canaanite  group  of  Western  Semitic 
tongues,  closely  akin  to  the  dialects  of  the  Semitic 
inhabitants  of  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Canaan.  A  few 
specimens  of  their  language,  as  it  was  spoken  by  the 
colonies  in  North  Africa  towards  the  end  of  the  third 
century  b.  c,  may  still  be  read  in  Plautus,  from  x^hich 
it  appears  to  have  already  attained  a  great  degree  of 
consonantal  and  vocal  decay.  The  dialect  of  the 
inscriptions  is  more  archaic  and  less  corrupt. 

Our  information  concerning  the  religion  of  the 
Phoenicians  is  meagre  and  mainly  found  in  the  Old 
Testament,  in  classical  traditions,  and  legends.  Of 
special  interest,  however,  are  the  votive  inscriptions 
in  which  a  great  number  of  proper  names  generally 
construed  with  that  of  some  divinity  are  found. 
Phoenician  polytheism,  like  that  of  the  other  Semitic 
nations,  was  based  partly  on  Animism  and  partly 
on  the  worship  of  the  great  powers  of  nature,  mostly 
of  astral  origin.  They  deified  the  sun  and  the  moon, 
which  they  considered  the  great  forces  that  create 
and  destroy,  and  called  them  Baal  and  Astaroth. 
Each  city  had  its  divine  pair:  at  Sidon  it  was  Baal 
Sidon  (the  sun)  and  Astarte  (the  moon);  at  Gebel, 
Baal  Tummuz  and  Baaleth;  at  Carthage,  Baal 
Hamon  and  Tanith.  But  the  same  god  changed  his 
name  according  as  he  was  conceived  as  creator  or 
destroyer;  thus  Baal  as  destroyer  was  worshipped 
at  Carthage  under  the  name  of  Moloch.  These  gods, 
represented  by  idols,  had  their  temples,  altars,  and 
priests.  As  creators  they  were  honoured  with  orgies 
and  tumultuous  feasts;  as  destroyers,  by  human  vic- 
tims. Astoreth  (Venus),  whom  the  Sidonians  repre- 
sented by  the  crescent  of  the  moon  and  the  dove, 
had  her  cult  in  the  sacred  woods.  Baal  Moloch  was 
figured  at  Carthage  as  a  bronze  colossus  with  arms 
extended  and  lowered.  To  appease  him  children  were 
laid  in  his  arms,  and  fell  at  once  into  a  pit  of  fire. 
When  Agathocles  besieged  the  city  the  principal 
Carthaginians  sacrificed  to  Moloch  as  many  as  two 
hundred  of  their  children.  Although  this  sensual  and 
sa.nguinary  religion  inspired  the  surrounding  nations 
with  horror,  they,  nevertheless,  imitated  it.  Hence, 
the  Hebrews  frequently  sacrificed  to  Baal  on  the 
mountains,  and  the  Greeks  adored  Astarte  of  Sidon 
under  the  name  of  Aphrodite,  and  Baal  Melkart  of 
Tyre  under  the  name  of  Herakles.  The  principal 
Phoenician  divinities  are  Adonis,  El,  Eshmon,  Baal, 


PHOTINUS 


43 


PHOTIUS 


Gad,  Moloch,  Melkarth,  Sakan,  Anath,  Aetaroth, 
Rasaph,  Sad,  and  many  others.  (For  the  history  of 
Christianity  in  Phoenicia  and  its  present  condition 
see  Syria.) 

M.o\Bna,  Die  PhUnizier  (Bonn-Berlin,  1841-56);  Lenormant- 
Babelon,  Hist,  ancienne  de  VOrient  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1881-88), 
see  especially  vol.  VI;  Kenrick,  Phmnicia  (London,  1855); 
Rawlinbon,  Hist,  of  PhoEnicia  (London,  1889)  ;  Meyer,  Gesch. 
d.  AUertums  (Stuttgart,  1884-1902)  ;  Pietsohmann,  Gesch,  d. 
Phonizier  (Berlin,  1889) ;  Renan,  La  Mission  de  PhSnicie  (Paris, 
1874);  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Hist,  of  Art  in  Phoenicia  (London, 
1885);  Baudissin,  Studien  zur  semitischen  Religionsocsch.,  1,  II 
(Leipzig,  1876-78) ;  Baethgen,  Beitrtige  zur  Semitischen  Reli- 
ffionsffesc/i.,  16-65  ;  Schroder,  i>.  P/tfiniz.  5prac^e  (Halle,  1869); 
Williams,  The  Hist,  of  the  Art  of  Writing  (London-New  York, 
1902);  Landau,  Die  Phonizier  in  Der  Alte  Orient  (Leipzig,  1903); 
Eiselen,  Sidon,  a  Study  in  Oriental  Hist.  (New  York,  1907). 

GaBEIEL   OUSSANI. 

Photinus,  heretic  of  the  fourth  century,  a  Galatian 
and  deacon  to  Marcellus,  Metropolitan  of  Ancyra;  d. 
376.  He  became  Bishop  of  Sirmium  in  Pannonia,  an 
important  position  on  account  of  the  frequent  residence 
of  the  Emperor  Constantius  there.  The  city  was  more 
Latin  than  Greek,  and  Photinus  knew  both  languages. 
Marcellus  was  deposed  by  the  Arian  party,  but  was 
restored  by  Pope  Julius  and  the  Synod  of  Sardica 
(343),  and  was  believed  by  them  to  be  orthodox.  But 
Photinus  was  obviously  heretical,  and  the  Eusebian 
court-party  condemned  them  both  at  the  Synod  of 
Antioch  (344),  which  drew  up  the  "macrostich"  creed. 
Three  envoys  were  sent  to  the  West  and  in  a  synod  at 
Milan  (345)  Photinus  was  condemned,  but  not  Mar- 
cellus ;  communion  was  refused  to  the  envoys  because 
they  refused  to  anathematize  Arius.  It  is  evident 
from  the  way  in  which  Pope  Liberius  mentions 
this  synod  that  Roman  legates  were  present,  and 
St.  Hilary  calls  its  sentence  a  condemnation  by  the 
Romans.  Two  years  later  another  synod,  perhaps  also 
at  Milan,  tried  to  obtain  the  deposition  of  Photinus 
but  this  was  impossible  owing  to  an  outbreak  of  the 
populace  in  his  favour.  Another  synod  was  held 
against  him  at  Sirmium;  some  Arianizing  propositions 
from  it  are  quoted  by  St.  Hilary.  The  heretic  appealed 
to  the  emperor,  who  appointed  judges  before  whom  he 
should  be  heard.  For  this  purpose  a  great  synod  as- 
sembled at  Sirmium  (351).  Basil,  the  supplanter  of 
Marcellus  as  Bishop  of  Ancyra  and  the  future  leader 
of  the  Semi-Arians,  disputed  with  Photinus.  The  her- 
etic was  deposed,  and  twenty-seven  anathematisms 
were  agreed  to.  Photinus  probably  returned  to  his  see 
at  the  accession  of  Julian,  like  the  other  exiled  bishops, 
for  St.  Jerome  says  he  was  banished  by  Valentinian 
(364-75).  Eventually  he  settled  in  Galatia.  Epipha- 
nius,  writing  at  about  the  date  of  his  death,  considered 
his  heresy  dead  in  the  West.  In  Pannonia  there  were 
still  some  Photinians  in  381,  and  a  Photinian  named 
Marcus,  driven  from  Rome  under  Innocent  I,  found 
adherents  in  Croatia.  In  later  writers,  e.  g.,  St.  Augus- 
tine, Photinian  is  the  name  for  any  who  held  Christ 
to  be  a  mere  man. 

We  obtain  some  knowledge  of  the  heresies  of  Pho- 
tinus from  the  twenty-seven  anathematisms  of  the 
council  of  351,  of  which  all  but  1,  10,  12,  13,  18,  23,  24, 
25  (according  to  St.  Hilary's  order:  1,  10,  11,  12,  17, 
22,  24,  25)  and  possibly  2  are  directed  against  him. 
We  have  corroborative  evidence  from  many  writers, 
especially  St.  Epiphanius,  who  had  before  him  the 
complete  minutes  of  the  disputation  with  Basil  of 
Ancyra.  The  canons  obviously  misrepresent  Pho- 
tinus's  doctrine  in  condemning  it,  in  so  far  as  they 
sometimes  say  "  Son  "  where  Photinus  would  have  said 
"Word".  He  makes  the  Father  and  the  Word  one 
Person  {Trptxrairov) .  The  Word  is  equally  with  the 
Father  unbegotten,  or  is  called  a  part  of  the  Father, 
eternally  in  Him  as  our  logos  is  in  us.  The  latent 
Word  {ivStideTos)  becomes  the  explicit  Word  (irpo- 
^opi/cAs)  not,  apparently,  at  the  creation,  but  at  the 
Incarnation,  for  only  then  is  He  really  Son.  The 
Divine  Substance  can  be  dilated  and  contracted  (so 


St.  Hilary  translates  irXaTivvreai  and  ffuffTAXEffSai,  while 
Mercator's  version  of  Nestorius's  fourth  sermon  gives 
"extended  and  collected").  This  is  exactly  the  word- 
ing of  Sabellius,  who  said  that  God  irXariveTai,  is 
broadened  out,  into  Son  and  Spirit.  To  Photinus  the 
expansion  forms  the  Son,  who  is  not,  until  the  human 
birth  of  Christ.  Hence  before  the  Incarnation  there  is 
no  Son,  and  God  is  Father  and  Word,  AoyoTrdTuip.  The 
Incarnation  seems  to  have  been  conceived  after  a  Nes- 
torian  fashion,  for  Photinus  declared  the  Son  of  Mary 
to  be  mere  man,  and  this  is  the  best-known  point  in  his 
teaching.  He  was  consequently  classed  with  Paul  of 
Samosata;  Jerome  even  calls  him  an  Ebionite,  prob- 
ably because,  like  Mercator,  he  believed  him  to  have 
denied  the  Virgin  birth.  But  this  is  perhaps  an  error. 
He  certainly  said  that  the  Holy  Ghost  descended  upon 
Christ  and  that  He  was  conceived  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 
By  His  union  with  the  prophoric  Word,  Christ  was  the 
Son.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  identified  like  the  Word  with 
the  Unbegotten;  He  is  a  part  of  the  Father  and  the 
Word,  as  the  Word  is  a  part  of  the  Father.  It  is  evident 
that  Photinus  went  so  far  beyond  Marcellus  that  it  is 
unfair  to  call  him  his  follower.  In  his  Trinitarian  doc- 
trine he  is  a  Medalist  Monarchian,  and  in  his  Chris- 
tology  aDynamistic  Monarchian,  combining  the  errors 
of  Theodotus  with  those  of  Sabellius.  But  it  is  clear 
that  his  views  were  partly  motived  by  the  desire  to  get 
away  from  the  Ditheism  which  not  only  the  Arians  but 
even  the  Eastern  moderates  were  unable  to  avoid,  and 
he  especially  denounced  the  Arian  doctrine  that  the 
Son  is  produced  by  the  Will  of  the  Father.  His  writ- 
ings are  lost;  the  chief  of  them  were  "  Contra  Gentes" 
and  "Libri  ad  Valentinianum",  according  to  St. 
Jerome;  he  wrote  a  work  in  both  Greek  and  Latin 
against  all  the  heresies,  and  an  explanation  of  the 
Creed. 

See  Arianism;  also  Hefele,  Councils.  II;  Walch,  Historie 
der  Ketzereien,  III  (Leipzig,  1766);  Klose,  Gesch.  und  Lehre  dca 
Marcellus  und  Photinus  (Hamburg,  1837);  Zahn,  Marcellus  von 
Ancyra  (Gotiia,  1867)  ;   FrouLKES  in  Did.  Christ.  Biog.  (1887). 

John  Chapman. 

Fhotius  of  Constantinople,  chief  author  of  the 
great  schism  between  East  and  West,  was  b.  at  Con- 
stantinople c.  815  (Hergenrother  says  "not  much  ear- 
her  than  827",  "Photius",  1,316;  others,  about  810); 
d.  probably  6  Feb.,  897.  His  father  was  a  spalharios 
(lifeguard)  named  Sergius.  Symeon  Magister  ("De 
Mich,  et  Theod.",  Bonn  ed.,  1838,  xxix,  668)  says  that 
his  mother  was  an  escaped  nun  and  that  he  was  ille- 
gitimate. He  further  relates  that  a  holy  bishop, 
Michael  of  Synnada,  before  his  birth  foretold  that  he 
would  become  patriarch,  but  would  work  so  much  evil 
that  it  would  be  better  that  he  should  not  be  born. 
His  father  then  wanted  to  kill  him  and  his  mother,  but 
the  bishop  said:  "You  cannot  hinder  what  God  has 
ordained.  Take  care  for  yourself."  His  mother  also 
dreamed  that  she  would  give  birth  to  a  demon.  When 
he  was  born  the  abbot  of  the  Maximine  monastery 
baptized  him  and  gave  him  the  name  Photius  (En- 
lightened), saying:  "Perhaps  the  anger  of  God  will  be 
turned  from  him"  (Symeon  Magister,  ibid.,  cf.  Her- 
genrother, "Photius",  I,  318-19).  These  stories 
need  not  be  taken  seriously.  It  is  certain  that  the  fu- 
ture patriarch  belonged  to  one  of  the  great  families  of 
Constantinople;  the  Patriarch  Tarasius  (784-806),  in 
whose  time  the  seventh  general  council  (Second  of 
Nicaea,  787)  was  held,  was  either  elder  brother  or  uncle 
of  his  father  (Photius:  Ep.  ii,  P.  G.,  CII,  609).  The 
family  was  conspicuously  orthodox  and  had  suffered 
some  persecution  in  Iconoclast  times  (under  Leo  V, 
813-20).  Photius  says  that  in  his  youth  he  had  had  a 
passing  inclination  for  the  monastic  life  ("Ep.  ad 
Orient,  et  CEcon.",  P.  G.,  CII,  1020),  but  the  prospect 
of  a  career  in  the  world  soon  eclipsed  it. 

He  early  laid  the  foundations  of  that  erudition 
which  eventually  made  him  one  of  the  most  famous 
scholars  of  all  the  Middle  Ages.    His  natural  aptitude 


PHOTIUS 


44 


PHOTIUS 


must  have  been  extraordinary,  his  industry  was  colos- 
sal. Photius  does  not  appear  to  have  had  any  teach- 
ers worthy  of  being  remembered;  at  any  rate  he  never 
alludes  to  his  masters.  Hergenrother,  however,  notes 
that  there  were  many  good  scholars  at  Constantinople 
while  Photius  was  a  child  and  young  man,  and  argues 
from  his  exact  and  sj'stematic  knowledge  of  all 
branches  of  learning  that  he  could  not  have  been  en- 
tirely self-taught  (op.  cit.,  I,  322).  His  enemies  ap- 
preciated his  learning.  Nicetas,  the  friend  and  biog- 
rapher of  his  rival  Ignatius,  praises  Photius's  skill  in 
grammar,  poetry,  rhetoric,  philosophy,  medicine,  law, 
"and  all  science"  ("Vita  S.  Ignatii"  in  Mansi,  XVI, 
229).  Pope  Nicholas  I,  in  the  heat  of  the  quarrel, 
writes  to  the  Emperor  Michael  III:  "Consider  very 
carefully  how  Photius  can  stand,  in  spite  of  his  great 
virtues  and  universal  knowledge"  (Ep.  xcviii  "Ad 
Mich.",  P.  G.,  CXIX,  1030).  It  is  curious  that  so 
learned  a  man  never  knew  Latin.  While  he  was  still  a 
young  man  he  made  the  first  draft  of  his  encyclopaedic 
"Myrobiblion"  At  an  early  age,  also,  he  began  to 
teach  grammar,  philosophy,  and  theology  in  his  own 
house  to  a  steadily  increasing  number  of  students. 

His  public  career  was  to  be  that  of  a  statesman, 
coupled  with  a  military  command.  His  brother 
Sergius  married  Irene,  the  emperor's  aunt.  This 
connexion  and  his  undoubted  merit  procured  Photius 
siicedy  advancement.  He  became  chief  secretary  of 
State  {■n-puiT0(7r)KpTjTi.i)  and  captain  of  the  Life  Guard 
(TrpuToo-n-affdpcos).  He  was  unmarried.  Probably  about 
838  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy  "to  the  Assyr- 
ians" ("Myrobiblion",  preface),  i.  e.,  apparently,  to 
the  Khalifa  at  Bagdad.  In  the  year  857,  then,  when 
the  crisis  came  in  his  life,  Photius  was  already  one  of 
the  most  prominent  members  of  the  Court  of  Constan- 
tinople. That  crisis  is  the  story  of  the  Great  Schism 
(see  Greek  Church).  The  emperor  was  Michael 
III  (.S42-()7),  son  of  the  Theodora  who  had  finally  re- 
stored the  holy  images.  When  he  succeeded  his 
father  Theophilus  (829-S42)  he  was  only  three  years 
old;  he  grew  to  be  the  wretched  boy  known  in  Byzan- 
tine history  as  Michael  the  Drunkard  (6  fiedvcrT-rii). 
Theodora,  at  first  regent,  retired  in  S.56,  and  her 
brother  Bardas  succeeded,  with  the  title  of  Ciesar. 
Bardas  Uved  in  incest  with  his  daughter-in-law 
Eudocia,  wherefore  the  Patriarch  Ignatius  (S46-57) 
refused  him  Holy  Communion  on  the  Epiphany  of 
S.')7.  Ignatius  was  deposed  and  banished  (Nov.  23, 
S.57),  and  the  more  pliant  Photius  was  intruded  into 
his  place.  He  was  hurried  through  Holy  Orders  in 
six  day .s;  on  Christmas  Day,  S57,  Gregory  Asbestas 
of  Syracuse,  himself  excommunicate  for  insubordina- 
tion })y  Ignatius,  ordained  Photius  patriarch.  By  this 
act  Photius  committed  three  offences  against  canon 
law:  he  was  ordained  bishop  without  having  kept  tlie 
interstices,  by  an  excommunicate  consecrator,  and 
to  an  already  occupied  see.  To  receive  ordination 
from  an  excommunicate  person  made  him  too  ex- 
communicate ipso  facto. 

After  vain  attempts  to  make  Ignatius  resign  his  see, 
the  emperor  tried  to  obtain  from  Pope  Nicholas  I 
(!S5S-(i7)  recognition  of  Photius  by  a  letter  grossly 
niisi-epresenting  the  facts  and  asking  for  legates  to 
come  and  decide  the  question  in  a  synod.  Photius 
also  wrote,  very  respectfully,  to  the  same  purpose 
(Hergenrother,  "Photius",  I,  407-11).  The  pope 
sent  t\vo  legates,  Rodoald  of  Porto  and  Zachary  of 
Anagni,  with  cautious  letters.  The  legates  were  to 
hear  both  sides  and  report  to  him.  A  synod  was  held 
in  St.  Sophia's  (xMay,  SOI).  The  legates  took  heavy 
bribes andagreed  to  Ignatius'sdeposition  and  Photius's 
succession.  They  returned  to  Kome  with  further 
letters,  and  the  emperor  sent  his  Secretary  of  State, 
Leo,  after  them  with  more  explanations  (Hergen- 
rf>ther,  op.  cit.,  I,  439-460).  In  all  these  letters  both 
the  emperor  and  Photius  emphatically  acknowledge 
the  Roman  primacy  and  categorically  invoke  the 


pope's  jurisdiction  to  confirm  what  has  happened. 
Meanwhile  Ignatius,  in  exile  at  the  island  Terebinth, 
sent  his  friend  the  Archimandrite  Theognostus  to 
Rome  with  an  urgent  letter  setting  forth  his  case  (Her- 
genrother, I,  460-61).  Theognostus  did  not  arrive 
till  S62.  Nicholas,  then,  having  heard  both  sides, 
decided  for  Ignatius,  and  answered  the  letters  of 
Michael  and  Photius  by  insisting  that  Ignatius  must 
be  restored,  that  the  usurpation  of  his  see  must  cease 
(ibid.,  I,  511-16,  516-19).  He  also  wrote  in  the  same 
sense  to  the  other  Eastern  patriarchs  (510-11).  From 
that  attitude  Rome  never  wavered:  it  was  the  immedi- 
ate cause  of  the  schism.  In  863  the  pope  held  a  synod 
at  the  Lateran  in  which  the  two  legates  were  tried, 
degraded,  and  excommunicated.  The  synod  repeats 
Nicholas's  decision,  that  Ignatius  is  lawful  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople;  Photius  is  to  be  excommunicate 
unless  he  retires  at  once  from  his  usurped  place. 

But  Photius  had  the  emperor  and  the  Court  on  his 
side.  Instead  of  obeying  the  pope,  to  whom  he  had 
appealed,  he  resolved  to  deny  his  authority  altogether. 
Ignatius  was  kept  chained  in  prison,  the  pope's  letters 
were  not  allowed  to  be  published.  The  emperor  sent 
an  answer  dictated  by  Photius  saying  that  nothing 
Nicholas  could  do  would  help  Ignatius,  that  all  the 
Eastern  Patriarchs  were  on  Photius's  side,  that  the 
excommunication  of  the  legates  must  be  explained 
and  that  unless  the  pope  altered  his  decision,  Michael 
would  come  to  Rome  with  an  army  to  punish  him. 
Photius  then  kept  his  place  undisturbed  for  four 
years.  In  867  he  carried  the  war  into  the  enemy's 
camp  by  excommunicating  the  pope  and  his  Latins. 
The  reasons  he  gives  for  this,  in  an  enoychcal 
sent  to  the  Eastern  patriarchs,  are:  that  Latins  (1) 
fast  on  Saturdaj',  (2)  do  not  begin  Lent  til!  Ash 
Wednesday  (instead  of  three  days  earlier,  as  in  the 
East),  (3)  do  not  allow  priests  to  be  married,  (4)  do 
not  allow  priests  to  administer  confirmation,  (5)  have 
added  the  filioqiie  to  the  creed.  Because  of  these 
errors  the  pope  and  all  Latins  are:  "forerunners  of 
apostasy,  servants  of  Antichrist  who  deserve  a 
thousand  deaths,  liars,  fighters  against  God"  (Her- 
genrother, I,  642-46).  It  is  not  easy  to  say  what  the 
Melchite  patriarchs  thought  of  the  quarrel  at  this 
juncture.  Afterwards,  at  the  Eighth  General  Coun- 
cil, their  legates  declared  that  they  had  pronounced 
no  sentence  against  Photius  because  that  of  the  pope 
was  obviously  sufficient. 

Then,  suddenly,  in  the  same  year  (Sept.,  867), 
Photius  fell.  Michael  III  was  murdered  and  Basil  I 
(the  Macedonian,  867-86)  seized  his  place  as  emperor. 
Photius  shared  the  fate  of  all  Michael's  friends.  He 
was  ejected  from  the  patriarch's  palace,  and  Ignatius 
restored.  Nicholas  I  died  (Nov.  1.3,  867).  Adrian  II 
(S67-72),  his  successor,  answered  Ignatius's  appeal  for 
legates  to  attend  a  synod  that  should  examine  the 
whole  matter  by  sending  Donatus,  Bishop  of  Oetia, 
Stephen,  Bishop  of  Nepi,  and  a  deacon,  Marinus. 
They  arrived  at  Constantinople  in  Sept.,  869,  and  in 
October  the  synod  was  opened  which  Catholics  recog- 
nize as  the  Eighth  General  Council  (Fourth  of  Con- 
s1;antinople).  This  synod  tried  Photius,  confirmed 
his  deposition,  and,  as  he  refused  to  renounce  his 
claim,  excommunicated  him.  The  bishops  of  his 
party  received  light  penances  (Mansi,  XVI,  308-409). 
Photius  was  banished  to  a  monastery  at  Stenos  on  the 
Bosphorus.  Here  he  spent  seven  years,  writing  let- 
ters to  his  friends,  organizing  his  party,  and  waiting 
for  another  chance.  Kleanwhile  Ignatius  reigned  as 
patriarch.  Photius,  as  part  of  his  poHcy,  professed 
great  admiration  for  the  emperor  and  sent  him  a 
fictitious  pedigree  showing  his  descent  from  St. 
Gregory  the  Illuminator  and  a  forged  prophecy  fore- 
telling his  greatness  (Mansi,  XM,  284).  Basil  was 
so  pleased  with  this  that  he  recalled  him  in  876  and 
appointed  him  tutor  to  his  son  Constantine.  Photius 
ingratiated  himself  with  everyone  and  feigned  recon- 


PHOTIUS 


45 


PHOTIUS 


ciliation  with  Ignatius.  It  is  doubtful  how  far  Igna- 
tius believed  in  him,  but  Photius  at  this  time  never 
tires  of  expatiating  on  his  close  friendship  with  the 
patriarch.  He  became  so  popular  that  when  Ignatius 
died  (23  Oct.,  877)  a  strong  party  demanded  that 
Photius  should  succeed  him;  the  emperor  was  now 
on  their  side,  and  an  embassy  went  to  Rome  to  explain 
that  everyone  at  Constantinople  wanted  Photius  to 
be  patriarch.  The  pope  (John  VIII,  872-82)  agreed, 
absolved  him  from  all  censure,  and  acknowledged 
hin  as  patriarch. 

This  concession  has  been  much  discussed.  It  has 
been  represented,  truly  enough,  that  Photius  had 
shown  himself  unfit  for  such  a  post;  John  VIII's 
acknowledgment  of  him  has  been  described  as  showing 
deplorable  weakness.  On  the  other  hand,  by  Igna- 
tius's  death  the  See  of  Constantinople  was  now  really 
vacant;  the  clergy  had  an  undoubted  right  to  elect 
their  own  patriarch;  to  refuse  to  acknowledge  Photius 
would  have  provoked  a  fresh  broach  with  the  East, 
would  not  have  prevented  his  occupation  of  the  see, 
and  would  have  given  his  party  (including  the  emperor) 
just  reason  for  a  quarrel.  The  event  proved  that 
almost  anything  would  have  been  better  than  to  allow 
his  succession,  if  it  could  be  prevented.  But  the  pope 
could  not  foresee  that,  and  no  doubt  hoped  that 
Photius,  having  reached  the  height  of  his  ambition, 
would  drop  the  quarrel. 

In  878,  then,  Photius  at  last  obtained  lawfully  the 
place  he  had  formerly  usurped.  Rome  acknowledged 
him  and  restored  him  to  her  communion.  There  was 
no  possible  reason  now  for  a  fresh  quarrel .  But  he  had 
identified  himself  so  completely  with  that  strong 
anti-Roman  party  in  the  East  which  he  mainly  had 
formed,  and,  doubtless,  he  had  formed  so  great  a  hatred 
of  Rome,  that  now  he  carried  on  the  old  quarrel  with 
as  much  bitterness  as  ever  and  more  influence. 
Nevertheless  he  apphed  to  Rome  for  legates  to  come 
to  another  synod.  There  was  no  reason  for  the  synod, 
but  he  persuaded  John  VIII  that  it  would  clear  up 
the  last  remains  of  the  schism  and  rivet  more  firmly 
the  union  between  East  and  West.  His  real  motive 
was,  no  doubt,  to  undo  the  effect  of  the  synod  that  had 
deposed  him.  The  pope  sent  three  legates,  Cardinal 
Peter  of  St.  Chrysogonus,  Paul,  Bishop  of  Ancona, 
and  Eugene,  Bishop  of  Ostia.  The  synod  was  opened 
in  St.  Sophia's  in  November,  879.  This  is  the  "  Pseu- 
dosynodus  Photiana"  which  the  Orthodox  count  as 
the  Eighth  General  Council.  Photius  had  it  all  his 
own  way  throughout.  He  revoked  the  acts  of  the 
former  synod  (869),  repeated  all  his  accusations  against 
the  Latins,  dwelling  especially  on  the  filioque  griev- 
ance, anathematized  all  who  added  anything  to  the 
Creed,  and  declared  that  Bulgaria  should  belong  to 
the  Byzantine  Patriarchate.  The  fact  that  there 
was  a  great  majority  for  all  these  measures  shows  how 
strong  Photius's  party  had  become  in  the  East.  The 
legates,  like  their  predecessors  in  861,  agreed  to  every- 
thing the  majority  desired  (Mansi,  XVII,  374  sq.). 
As  soon  as  they  had  returned  to  Rome,  Photius  sent 
the  Acts  to  the  pope  for  his  confirmation.  Instead 
John,  naturally,  again  excommunicated  him.  So  the 
schism  broke  out  again.  This  time  it  lasted  seven 
years,  till  Basil  I's  death  in  886. 

Basil  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Leo  VI  (886-912), 
who  strongly  disliked  Photius.  One  of  his  first  acts 
was  to  accuse  him  of  treason,  depose,  and  banish 
him  (886).  The  story  of  this  second  deposition 
and  banishment  is  obscure.  The  charge  was  that 
Photius  had  conspired  to  depose  the  emperor  and 
put  one  of  his  own  relations  on  the  throne — an  accusa- 
tion which  probablymeant  that  the  emperor  wanted 
to  get  rid  of  him.  As  Stephen,  Leo's  younger  brother, 
was  made  patriarch  (886-93)  the  real  explanation 
may  be  merely  that  Leo  disliked  Photius  and  wanted  a 
place  for  his  brother.  Stephen's  intrusion  was  as 
glaring  an  offence  against  canon  law  as  had  been  that 


of  Photius  in  857;  so  Rome  refused  to  recognize  him. 
It  was  only  under  his  successor  Antony  II  (893-95) 
that  a  synod  was  held  which  restored  reunion  for 
a  century  and  a  half,  till  the  time  of  Michael  Caerular- 
ius  (1043-58).  But  Photius  had  left  a  powerful  anti- 
Roman  party,  eager  to  repudiate  the  pope's  primacy 
and  ready  for  another  schism.  It  was  this  party,  to 
which  Caerularius  belonged,  that  triumphed  at  Con- 
stantinople under  him,  so  that  Photius  is  rightly  con- 
sidered the  author  of  the  schism  which  still  lasts. 
After  this  second  deposition  Photius  suddenly  dis- 
appears from  history.  It  is  not  even  known  in  what 
monastery  he  spent  his  last  years.  Among  his  many 
letters  there  is  none  that  can  be  dated  certainly  as  be- 
longing to  this  second  exile.  The  date  of  his  death, 
not  quite  (certain,  is  generally  given  as  6  February, 
897. 

That  Photius  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  characters 
in  all  church  history,  will  not  be  disputed.  His  fatal 
quarrel  with  Rome,  though  the  most  famous,  was  only 
one  result  of  his  many-sided  activity.  During  the 
stormy  years  he  spent  on  the  patriarch's  throne,  while 
he  was  warring  against  the  Latins,  he  was  negotiating 
with  the  Moslem  Khalifa  for  the  protection  of  the 
Christians  under  Moslem  rule  and  the  care  of  the  Holy 
Places,  and  carrying  on  controversies  against  various 
Eastern  heretics,  Armenians,  Paulicians  etc.  His 
interest  in  letters  never  abated.  Amid  all  his  cares 
he  found  time  to  write  works  on  dogma.  Biblical  criti- 
cism, canon  law,  homilies,  an  encyclopaedia  of  all  kinds 
of  learning,  and  letters  on  all  questions  of  the  day. 
Had  it  not  been  for  his  disastrous  schism,  he  might  be 
counted  the  last,  and  one  of  the  greatest,  of  the  Greek 
Fathers.  There  is  no  shadow  of  suspicion  against  his 
private  life.  He  bore  his  exiles  and  other  troubles 
manfully  and  well.  He  never  despaired  of  his  cause 
and  spent  the  years  of  adversity  in  building  up  his 
party,  writing  letters  to  encourage  his  old  friends  and 
make  new  ones. 

And  yet  the  other  side  of  his  character  is  no  less 
evident.  His  insatiable  ambition,  his  determination 
to  obtain  and  keep  the  patriarchal  see,  led  him  to  the 
extreme  of  dishonesty.  His  claim  was  worthless. 
That  Ignatius  was  the  rightful  patriarch  as  long  as  he 
lived,  and  Photius  an  intruder,  cannot  be  denied  by 
any  one  who  does  not  conceive  the  Church  as  merely 
the  slave  of  a  civil  government.  And  to  keep  this 
place  Photius  descended  to  the  lowest  depth  of  deceit. 
At  the  very  time  he  was  protesting  his  obedience  to 
the  pope  he  was  dictating  to  the  emperor  insolent 
letters  that  denied  all  papal  jurisdiction.  He  misrep- 
resented the  story  of  Ignatius's  deposition  with  un- 
blushing lies,  and  he  at  least  connived  at  Ignatius's 
ill-treatment  in  banishment.  He  proclaimed  openly 
his  entire  subservience  to  the  State  in  the  whole 
question  of  his  intrusion.  He  stops  at  nothing  in  his 
war  against  the  Latins.  He  heaps  up  accusations 
against  them  that  he  must  have  known  were  lies. 
His  effrontery  on  occasions  is  almost  incredible.  For 
instance,  as  one  more  grievance  against  Rome,  he 
never  tires  of  inveighing  against  the  fact  that  Pope 
Marinus  I  (882-84),  John  VIII's  successor,  was 
translated  from  another  see,  instead  of  being  ordained 
from  the  Roman  clergy.  He  describes  this  as  an 
atrocious  breach  of  canon  law,  quoting  against  it 
the  first  and  second  canons  of  Sardica;  and  at  the  same 
time  he  himself  continually  transferred  bishops  in  his 
patriarchate.  The  Orthodox,  who  look  upon  him, 
rightly,  as  the  great  champion  of  their  cause  against 
Rome,  have  forgiven  all  his  offences  for  the  sake  of 
this  championship.  They  have  canonized  him,  and 
on  6  Feb.,  when  they  keep  his  feast,  their  office  over- 
flows with  his  praise.  He  is  the  "far-shining  radiant 
star  of  the  church",  the  "most  inspired  guide  of  the 
Orthodox",  "thrice  blessed  speaker  for  God",  "wise 
and  divine  glory  of  the  hierarchy,  who  broke  the  horns 


PHRYGIANS 


46 


PHYLACTERIES 


of  Roman  pride"  ("Menologion"  for  6  Feb.,  ed.  Malt- 
zew,  I,  916  sq.).  The  Catholic  remembers  this  ex- 
traordinary man  with  mixed  feelings.  We  do  not 
deny  his  eminent  qualities  and  yet  we  certainly  do  not 
remember  him  as  a  thrice  blessed  speaker  for  God. 
One  may  perhaps  sum  up  Photius  by  saying  that  he 
was  a  great  man  with  one  blot  on  his  character — his 
insatiable  and  unscrupulous  ambition.  But  that  blot 
so  co\-('rs  his  life  that  it  eclipses  everything  else  and 
makes  him  deserve  our  final  judgment  as  one  of  the 
worst  enemies  the  Church  of  Christ  ever  had,  and  the 
cause  of  the  greatest  calamity  that  ever  befell  her. 

Works. — Of  Photius's  prolific  literary  production 
part  has  been  lost.  A  great  merit  of  what  remains  is 
that  he  has  preserved  at  least  fragments  of  earUer 
Greek  works  of  which  otherwise  we  should  know  noth- 
ing. This  applies  especially  to  his  "MyriobibUon" 
(1)  The  "MyriobibUon"  or  "Bibhotheca"  is  a  col- 
lection of  descriptions  of  books  he  had  read,  with  notes 
and  sometimes  copious  extracts.  It  contains  280 
such  notices  of  books  (or  rather  279;  no.  89  is  lost)  on 
every  possible  subject — theology,  philosophy,  rhet- 
oric, grammar,  physics,  medicine.  He  quotes  pagans 
and  Christians,  Acts  of  Councils,  Acts  of  Martyrs, 
and  so  on,  in  no  sort  of  order.  For  the  works  thus 
partially  saved  (otherwise  unknown)  see  Krumbacher, 
"Byz.  Litter.",  518-19.  (2)  The  "Lexicon"  (A^|ewv 
(rvvayuiy-/))  was  compiled,  probably,  to  a  great  extent 
by  his  students  under  his  direction  (Krumbacher,  ibid., 
521),  from  older  Greek  dictionaries  (Pausanias,  Har- 
pokration,  Diogenianos,  ^lius  Dionysius).  It  was 
intended  as  a  practical  help  to  readers  of  the  Greek 
classics,  the  Septuagint,  and  the  Xew  Testament. 
Only  one  MS.  of  it  exists,  the  defective  "Codex 
Galeanus"  (formerly  in  the  possession  of  Thomas 
Gale,  now  at  Cambridge),  written  about  1200.  (3) 
The  "  Amphilochia",  dedicated  to  one  of  his  favourite 
disciples,  Amphilochius  of  Cyzicus,  are  answers  to 
questions  on  Biblical,  philosophical,  and  theological 
difficulties,  written  during  his  first  exile  (867-77). 
There  are  324  subjects  discussed,  each  in  a  regular 
form — question,  answer,  difficulties,  solutions — but 
arranged  again  in  no  order.  Photius  gives  mostly  the 
views  of  famous  Greek  Fathers,  Epiphanius,  Cyril 
of  Alexandria,  John  Damascene,  especially  Theodoret. 
(4)  Biblical  works. — Only  fragments  of  these  are 
extant,  chiefly  in  Catenas.  The  longest  are  from 
Commentaries  on  St.  Matthew  and  Romans.  (5) 
Canon  Law. — The  classical  "Nomocanou"  (q.  v.),  the 
official  code  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  is  attributed  to 
Photius.  It  is,  however,  older  than  his  time  (see 
John  Scholasticus).  It  was  revised  and  received 
additions  (from  the  synods  of  861  and  879)  in  Photius's 
time,  probably  by  his  orders.  The  "Collections  and 
AccurateExpositions"(Si;»'a7u7al  Kal  aTroSel^eis  d/c/ji^eis) 
(Hergenrother,  op.  cit..  Ill,  165-70)  are  a  series  of 
questions  and  answers  on  points  of  canon  law,  really 
an  indirect  vindication  of  his  own  claims  and  position. 
A  number  of  his  letters  bear  on  canonical  questions. 
(6)  Homilies. — Hergenrother  mentions  twenty-two 
sermons  of  Photius  (III,  232).  Of  these  two  were 
printed  when  Hergenrother  wrote  (in  P.  G.,  CII,  548 
sq.),  one  on  the  Nati\'ity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
one  at  the  dedication  of  a  new  church  during  his 
second  patriarchate.  Later,  S.  Aristarches  published 
eighty-three  homilies  of  different  kinds  (Constanti- 
nople, 1900).  (7)  Dogmatic  and  polemical  works. — 
Many  of  these  bear  on  his  accusations  against  the 
Latins  and  so  form  the  beginning  of  the  long  series  of 
anti-Catholic  contro\ersy  produced  by  Orthodox 
theologians.  The  most  important  is  "Concerning  the 
Theology  about  the  Holy  Ghost"  (Uepl  ttjs  toO  aylov 
iryeO/iaTos  /ivarayoiyias,  P.  G.,  CII,  264-541),  a  defence 
of  the  Procession  from  God  the  Father  alone,  based 
chiefly  on  John,  x\-,  26.  An  epitome  of  the  same 
work,  made  by  a  later  author  and  contained  in 
Euthymms  Zigabenus's  "Panoplia",  XIII,  became 


the  favourite  weapon  of  Orthodox  controversialists 
for  many  centuries.  The  treatise  "Against  Those  who 
say  that  Rome  is  the  First  See",  also  a  very  popular 
Orthodox  weapon,  is  only  the  last  part  or  supplement 
of  the  "Collections",  often  written  out  separately. 
The ' '  Dissertation  Concerning  the  Reappearance  of  the 
Manichajans"  (Ai^vtjo-is  irepl  ttjs  ixavixa-lwv  ava^XauTii- 
aews,  P.  (!.,  CII,  9-264),  in  four  books,  is  a  history  and 
refutation  of  the  Pauhcians.  Much  of  the  "Amphil- 
ochia" belongs  to  this  heading.  The  little  work 
"Against  theFranks  and  other  Latins"  (Hergenrother, 
"Monumenta",  62-71),  attributed  to  Photius,  is  not 
authentic.  It  was  written  after  CEerularius  (Hergen- 
rother, "Photius",  III,  172-224).  (8)  Letters.— 
Migne,  P.  G.,  CII,  publishes  193  letters  arranged  in 
three  books;  Balettas  (London,  1864)  has  edited  a 
more  complete  collection  in  five  parts.  They  cover 
all  the  chief  periods  of  Photius's  life,  and  are  the  most 
important  source  for  his  history. 

A.  Ehrhard  (in  Krumbacher,  "  Byzantinische  Lit- 
teratur",  74-77)  judges  Photius  as  a  distinguished 
preacher,  but  not  as  a  theologian  of  the  first  importance. 
His  theological  work  is  chiefly  the  collection  of  ex- 
cerpts from  Greek  Fathers  and  other  sources.  His 
erudition  is  vast,  and  probably  unequalled  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  but  he  has  little  originality,  even  in  his  con- 
troversy against  the  Latins.  Here,  too,  he  only 
needed  to  collect  angry  things  said  by  Byzantine 
theologians  before  his  time.  But  his  discovery  of  the 
filioque  grievance  seems  to  be  original.  Its  success 
as  a  weapon  is  considerably  greater  than  its  real  value 
deserves  (Fortescue,  "Orthodox  Eastern  Church", 
372-84). 

Editions. — The  works  of  Photius  known  at  the  time 
were  collected  by  Migne,  P.  G.,  CI-CV.  J.  Balettas, 
*ut(ou  iviaToKal  (London,  1864),  contains  other  let- 
ters (altogether  260)  not  in  Migne.  A.  Papadopulos- 
Kerameus,  "S.  Patris  Photii  Epistolse  XLV"  (St. 
Petersburg,  1896)  gives  forty-five  more,  of  which,  how- 
ever, only  the  first  twenty-one  are  authentic.  S.  Aris- 
tarches, ^utIov  \6yoi-Kal  6/j,i\iai  83  (Constantinople, 
1900,  2  vols.),  gives  other  homilies  not  in  Migne. 
Oikonomos  has  edited  the  "Amphilochia"  (Athens, 
1858)  in  a  more  complete  text.  J.  Hergenrother, 
"Monumenta  graeca  ad  Photium  eiusque  historiam 
pertinentia"  (Ratisbon,  1869),  and  Papadopulos-Kera- 
meus,  "Monumenta  grasca  et  latina  ad  historiam 
Photii  patriarchs  pertinentia"  (St.  Petersburg,  2  parts, 
1899  and  1901),  add  further  documents. 

The  Acls  of  the  Synods  of  869  and  879  are  the  most  important 
sources  (Mansi,  XVI  and  XVII).  Theognostus  (Archimandrite 
at  Constantinople),  At/3eAAo?  Trepte'^toi'  Trai-ra  Ta  (caTa  Toc  fieyav 
'lyvanoy,  a  contemporary  account  of  the  beginning  of  the  schism 
(in  Mansi,  XVI,  295  sq.):  Niketas  David  Paphlagon  (d.  890); 
Bios 'I-yKoTiou  (Mansi,  XVI,  209  sq.).  Papadopulos-Kehameub 
declared  this  to  be  a  fourteenth-century  forgery  in  the  Vizant. 
Vremennik  (1899),  13-3S,  ^euSoi-iKvjTas  6  7ra(f)Aai'uii') ;  he  was  suc- 
cessfully refuted  by  Vasiuewski  (ibid.,  39-66);  cf.  Byzant.  Zeit- 
schrift,  IX  (1900),  268  sq.  Genesios,  BamKe'iaL  (written  between 
945-959),  a  history  of  the  emperors  and  Court  from  Leo  V  (813- 
20)  to  Basil  I  (867-86),  published  in  Corpus  Scriptorum  Hist. 
Byzanlina:  (Bonn,  1834)  and  P.G.,CIX,  985  sqq.;  Theophanes 
CoNTiNUATUs  for  813-961  in  Corpus  Script.,  1838,  and  P.  G., 
CIX,  15  sqq.;  Leo  Grammaticus,  re-edition  of  Symeon  Magis- 
TER,  Chronicle,  in  Corpus  Script.,  1842,  and  P.  6.,  CVIII,  1037  sqq. 

Hergenrother,  Photius,  Patriarch  von  Konstantinopel,  sein 
Leben,  seine  Schriften  u.  das  griechische  Schisma  ( Ratisbon,  1867- 
69)  (the  most  learned  and  exhaustive  work  on  the  subject). 
DemetrakopulOS,  'laropia  rod  cr\t(7MaTos  ttjs  AaTivtjc^s  airo  T^s 
opSoSo^ov  e«KA7)(7[a?  (Leipzig,  1867),  is  an  attempted  rejoinder  to 
Hergenrother,  as  is  also  Kremos,  'lo-ropta  toO  trvto-^aTo?  Totv  Svo 
iKK\ri<ria>v  (Athens,  1905-07,  two  volumes  published  out  of 
four).  Lammer,  Papst  Nikolaus  u.  die  byzantinische  Staatskirche 
seiner  Zeit  (Berlin,  1857);  Pichler,  Ceschichte  der  kirchlichen 
Trennung  zwi.ichen  dem  Orient,  u.  Occiilcnl  (Munich,  1864-65); 
NoRDEN,  Das  Papsttum  und  Byzanz  (Berlin,  1903) ;  Krumbacher, 
Geschichte  drr  Byzantinischen  Litleratur  (Munich,  1897),  73-79, 
515-524  (with  copious  bibliography) ;  Fortescue,  The  Orthodox 
Eastern  Church  (London,  1907) ,  135-171 ;  Ruinaut,  Le  schisme  de 
Photius  (Paris,  1910). 

Adrian  Fortescue. 
Phrygians.     See  Montanists. 

Phylacteries  (^uXax-rii/jioi',  safeguard,  amulet,  or 
charm).    The  word  occurs  only  once  in  the  New  Tes- 


PHYSICS 


47 


PHYSICS 


tament  (Matt.,  xxiii,  5),  in  the  great  discourse  of  Our 
Lord  against  the  Pharisees  whom  He  reproaches  with 
ostentation  in  the  discharge  of  their  religious  and 
social  duties:  "For  they  make  their  phylacteries 
broad  and  enlarge  their  fringes"  By  the  Jews  the 
phylacteries  are  termed  tephillin,  plural  of  the  word 
tephillah,  "a  prayer",  and  consist  of  two  small  square 


Arm  entwined  with  Phylactery 

cases  of  leather,  one  of  which  is  worn  on  the  forehead, 
the  other  on  the  upper  left  arm.  The  case  for  the 
forehead  holds  four  distinct  compartments,  that  for 
the  arm  only  one.  They  contain  narrow  strips  of 
parchment  on  which  are  copied  passages  from  the 
Pentateuch,  viz.,  Ex.,  xiii,  1-10;  and  Deut.,  vi,  4-9; 
xi,  13-21.  The  practice  of  wearing  the  phylacteries 
at  stated  moments  is  still  regarded  as  a  sacred  reli- 
gious duty  by  the  orthodox  Jews. 

Klein,  Die  Totaphoth  nach  Bibel  und  Tradition  in  Jahrbucher 
}.  Prot.  Theol.  (Berlin,  1881),  666-689;  ViGOuBonx,  Diet,  de  la 
Bible,  s.  V.  Phylactires. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Physics,  History  op. — The  subject  will  be  treated 
under  the  following  heads: — I.  A  Glance  at  Ancient 
Physics;  II.  Science  and  Early  Christian  Scholars; 
III.  A  Glance  at  Arabian  Physics;  IV.  Arabian  Tradi- 
tion and  Latin  Scholasticism;  V.  The  Science  of  Ob- 
servation and  Its  Progress — Astronomers — The  Stat- 
ics of  Jordanus — Thierry  of  Freiberg — Pierre  of 
Maricourt;  VI.  The  Articles  of  Paris  (1277) — Possi- 
bility of  Vacuum;  VII.  The  Earth's  Motion — Oresme; 
VIII.  Plurality  of  Worlds;  IX.  Dynamics — Theory  of 
Impetus — Inertia — Celestial  and  Sublunary  Mechan- 
ics Identical;  X.  Propagation  of  the  Doctrines  of  the 
School  of  Paris  in  Germany  and  Italy — Purbach  and 
Regiomontanus — Nicholas  of  Cusa — Vinci;  XI.  Ital- 
ian Averroism  and  its  Tendencies  to  Routine — At- 
tempts at  Restoring  the  Astronomy  of  Homooentric 
Spheres;  XII.  The  Copernican  Revolution;  XIII. 
Fortunes  of  the  Copernican  System  in  the  Sixteenth 
Century;  XIV.  Theory  of  the  Tides;  XV.  Statics  in 
the  Sixteenth  Century — Stevinus;  XVI.  Dynamics  in 
the  Sixteenth  Century;  XVII.  Galileo's  Work; 
XVIII.  Initial  Attempts  in  Celestial  Mechanics — 
Gilbert — Kepler;  XIX.  Controversies  concerning 
Geostatics;  XX.  Descartes's  Work;  XXI.  Progress  of 
Experimental  Physics;  XXII.  Undulatory  Theory  of 
Light;  XXIII.  Development  of  Dynamics;  XXIV. 
Newton's  Work;  XXV.  Progress  of  General  and  Celes- 
tial Mechanics  in  the  Eighteenth  Century;  XXVI. 
Establishment  of  the  Theory  of  Electricity  and  Mag- 
netism; XXVII.  Molecular  Attraction;  XXVIII. 
Revival  of  the  Undulatory  Theory  of  Light;  XXIX. 
Theories  of  Heat. 

I.  A  Glance  at  Ancient  Physics.^ — Although  at 
the  time  of  Christ's  birth  Hellenic  science  had  pro- 
duced nearly  all  its  masterpieces,  it  was  still  to  give 
to  the  world  Ptolemy's  astronomy,  the  way  for  which 
had  been  paved  for  more  than  a  century  by  the  works 
of  Hipparchus.  The  revelations  of  Greek  thought  on 
the  nature  of  the  exterior  world  ended  with  the 
"Almagest",  which  appeared  about  a.  d.  145,  and 
then  began  the  decline  of  ancient  learning.  Those  of 
its  works  that  escaped  the  fires  kindled  by  Moham- 
medan warriors  were  subjected  to  the  barren  inter- 
pretations of  Mussulman  commentators  and,  like 
parched  seed,  awaited  the  time  when  Latin  Chris- 
tianity would  furnish  a  favourable  soil  in  which  they 
could  once  more  flourish  and  bring  forth  fruit.  Hence 
it  is  that  the  time  when  Ptolemy  put  the  finishing 


touches  to  his  "Great  Mathematical  Syntax  of  Astron- 
omy" seems  the  most  opportune  in  which  to  study 
the  field  of  ancient  physics.  An  impassable  frontier 
separated  this  field  into  two  regions  in  which  different 
laws  prevailed.  From  the  moon's  orbit  to  the  sphere 
enclosing  the  world,  extended  the  region  of  beings 
exempt  from  generation,  change,  and  death,  of  per- 
fect, divine  beings,  and  these  were  the  star-sphere  and 
the  stars  themselves.  Inside  the  lunar  orbit  lay  the 
region  of  generation  and  corruption,  where  the  four 
elements  and  the  mixed  bodies  generated  by  their 
mutual  combinations  were  subject  to  perpetual 
change. 

The  science  of  the  stars  was  dominated  by  a  prin- 
ciple formulated  by  Plato  and  the  Pythagoreans, 
according  to  which  all  the  phenomena  presented  to  us 
by  the  heavenly  bodies  must  be  accounted  for  by 
combinations  of  circular  and  uniform  motions.  More- 
over, Plato  declared  that  these  circular  motions  were 
reducible  to  the  rotation  of  solid  globes  all  limited  by 
spherical  surfaces  concentric  with  the  World  and  the 
Earth,  and  some  of  these  homocentrio  spheres  carried 
fixed  or  wandering  stars.  Eudoxus  of  Cnidus,  Cal- 
ippus,  and  Aristotle  vied  with  one  another  in  striving 
to  advance  this  theory  of  homocentric  spheres,  its 
fundamental  hypothesis  being  incorporated  in  Aris- 
totle's "Physics"  and  "Metaphysics".  However,  the 
astronomy  of  homocentrio  spheres  could  not  explain 
all  celestial  phenomena,  a  considerable  number  of 
which  showed  that  the  wandering  stars  did  not  always 
remain  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  Earth.  Hera- 
clides  Ponticus  in  Plato's  time,  and  Aristarchus  of 
Samos  about  280  B.  c.  endeavoured  to  account  for  all 
astronomical  phenomena  by  a  heliocentric  system, 
which  was  an  outline  of  the  Copernican  mechanics; 
but  the  arguments  of  physics  and  the  precepts  of 
theology  proclaiming  the  Earth's  immobility,  readily 
obtained  the  ascendency  over  this  doctrine  which 
existed  in  a  mere  outline.  Then  the  labours  of  Apol- 
lonius  Pergaeus  (at  Alexandria,  205  B.  c),  of  Hip- 
parchus (who  made  observation  at  Rhodes  in  128  and 
127  B.  c),  and  finally  of  Ptolemy  (Claudius  Ptol- 
emaeus  of  Pelusium)  constituted  a  new  astronomical 
system  that  claimed  the  Earth  to  be  immovable  in  the 
centre  of  the  universe;  a  system  that  seemed,  as  it 
were,  to  reach  its  completion  when,  between  a.  d.  142 
and  146,  Ptolemy  wrote  a  work  called  "Me7iiX7; 
fmSri/iaTiKTi  aivTa^ts  t^s  dtTTpovofilas" ,  its  Arabian  title 
being  transliterated  by  the  Christians  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  who  named  it  "Almagest"  The  astronomy  of 
the  "Almagest"  explained  all  astronomical  phe- 
nomena with  a  precision  which  for  a  long  time  seemed 
satisfactory,  accounting  for  them  by  combinations  of 
circular  motions;  but,  of  the  circles  described,  some 
were  eccentric  to  the  World,  whilst  others  were  epi- 
cyclic  circles,  the  centres  of  which  described  deferent 
circles  concentric  with  or  eccentric  to  the  World; 
moreover,  the  motion  on  the  deferent  was  no  longer 
uniform,  seeming  so  only  when  viewed  from  the  centre 
of  the  equant.  Briefly,  in  order  to  construct  a  kine- 
matioal  arrangement  by  means  of  which  phenomena 
could  be  accurately  represented,  the  astronomers 
whose  work  Ptolemy  completed  had  to  set  at  naught 
the  properties  ascribed  to  the  celestial  substance  by 
Aristotle's  "Physics",  and  between  this  "Physios" 
and  the  astronomy  of  eccentrics  and  epicycles  there 
ensued  a  violent  struggle  which  lasted  until  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

In  Ptolemy's  time  the  physics  of  celestial  motion 
was  far  more  advanced  than  the  physics  of  sublunary 
bodies,  as,  in  this  science  of  beings  subject  to  genera- 
tion and  corruption,  only  two  chapters  had  reached 
any  degree  of  perfection,  namely,  those  on  optics 
(called  perspective)  and  statics.  The  law  of  reflec- 
tion was  known  as  early  as  the  time  of  Euclid,  about 
320  B.  c,  and  to  this  geometrician  was  attributed,  al- 
though probably  erroneously,  a  "Treatise  on  Mir- 


PHYSICS 


48 


PHYSICS 


rors'',  in  which  the  principles  of  catoptrics  were  cor- 
rectly set  forth.  Dioptrics,  being  more  difficult,  was 
developed  less  rapidly.  Ptolemy  already  knew  that 
the  angle  of  refraction  is  not  proportional  to  the  angle 
of  inciilencc,  and  in  order  to  determine  the  ratio  be- 
tween the  two  he  undertook  experiments  the  results 
of  which  were  remarkably  exact. 

Statics  reached  a  fuller  development  than  optics. 
The  "Mechanical  Questions"  ascribed  to  Aristotle 
were  a  first  attempt  to  organize  that  science,  and  they 
contained  a  kind  of  outline  of  the  principle  of  virtual 
velocities,  destined  to  justify  the  law  of  the  equi- 
librium of  the  lever;  besides,  they  embodied  the  happy 
idea  of  ri'ferring  to  the  le\er  theory  the  theory  of  all 
simple  machines.  An  elaboration,  in  which  Euclid 
seems  to  liave  had  some  part,  brought  statics  to  the 
stage  of  development  in  which  it  was  found  by  Ar- 
chimedes (about  287-212  b.  c),  who  was  to  raise  it 
to  a  still  higher  degree  of  perfection.  It  will  here 
suffice  to  mention  the  works  of  genius  in  which  the 
great  Syracusan  treated  the  equilibrium  of  the 
weight  .s  suspended  from  the  two  arms  of  a  lever,  the 
search  for  the  centre  of  gravity,  and  the  equilibrium 
of  liquids  and  floating  bodies.  The  treatises  of  Ar- 
chimedes were  too  scholarly  to  be  widely  read  by  the 
mechanicians  who  succeeded  this  geometrician;  these 
men  preferred  easier  and  more  practical  writings  as, 
for  instance,  those  on  the  lines  of  Aristotle's  "Mechan- 
ical Questions".  Various  treatises  by  Heron  of  Alex- 
andria have  preserved  for  us  the  type  of  these  de- 
cadent works. 

II.  Science  and  Early  Christian  Scholars. — 
Shortly  after  the  death  of  Ptolemy,  Christian  science 
took  root  at  Alexandria  with  Origen  (about  lSO-253), 
and  a  fragment  of  his  "Commentaries  on  Genesis", 
presen-ed  by  Eusebius,  show.s  us  that  the  author  was 
familiar  with  the  latest  astronomical  discoveries, 
especially  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  However, 
the  writings  in  which  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  com- 
ment upon  the  work  of  the  six  days  of  Creation,  notably 
the  commentaries  of  St.  Basil  and  St.  Ambrose,  bor- 
row but  little  from  Hellenic  physics;  in  fact,  their  tone 
would  seem  to  indicate  distrust  in  the  teachings  of 
Greek  science,  this  distrust  being  engendered  by  two 
prejudices:  in  the  first  place,  astronomy  was  becoming 
more  and  more  the  slave  of  astrology,  the  superstitions 
of  which  the  Church  diligently  combatted;  in  the 
second  place,  between  the  essential  propositions  of 
peripatetic  physics  and  what  we  believe  to  be  the 
teaching  of  Holy  ^ynt,  contradictions  appeared; 
thus  Genesis  was  thought  to  teach  the  presence  of 
water  above  the  heaven  of  the  fixed  stars  (the  firma- 
ment) and  this  was  incompatible  with  the  Aristotelean 
theory  concerning  the  natural  place  of  the  elements. 
The  debates  raised  by  this  question  gave  St.  Augustine 
an  opportunity  to  lay  down  wise  exegetical  rules,  and 
he  recommended  Christians  not  to  put  forth  lightly, 
as  articles  of  faith,  propositions  contradicted  by 
physical  science  based  upon  careful  experiments.  St. 
Isidore  of  Seville  (d.  636),  a  bishop,  considered  it 
legitimate  for  Christians  to  desire  to  know  the  teach- 
ings of  profane  science,  and  he  laboured  to  satisfy 
this  curiosity.  His  "Etymologies"  and  "De  natura 
rerum"  are  merely  compilations  of  fragments  bor- 
rowed from  all  the  pagan  and  Christian  authors  with 
whom  he  was  acquainted.  In  the  height  of  the  Latm 
Middle  .\ges  these  works  served  as  models  for  numer- 
ous encycl(ipa-dias,  of  which  the  "De  natura  rerum" 
by  Bede  (about  672-73.5)  and  the  "De  universo"  by 
Rabanus  Maurus  (776-S.56)  were  the  best  known. 

Ho\yever,  the  sources  from  which  the  Christians  of 
the  West  imbibed  a  knowledge  of  ancient  physics 
became  daily  more  numerous,  and  to  Phny  the  Elder's 
"Xatural  Hi.story",  read  by  Bede,  were  added 
Chalciduis's  commentary  on  Plato's  "Timaus"  and 
Martianus  Capella's  "De  Xuptiis  Philologia  et  Mer- 
curii",  these  different  works  inspiring  the  physics  of 


John  Scotus  Eriugena.  Prior  to  a.  d.  1000  a  new 
Platonic  work  by  Macrobius,  a  commentary  on  the 
"Somnium  Scipionis",  was  in  great  favour  in  the 
schools.  Influenced  by  the  various  treatises  already 
mentioned,  Guillaume  of  Conches  (1080-1150  or 
1154)  and  the  unknown  author  of  "De  mundi  con- 
stitutione  liber",  which,  by  the  way,  has  been  falsely 
attributed  to  Bede,  set  forth  a  planetary  theory 
making  Venus  and  Mercury  satellites  of  the  sun,  but 
Eriugena  went  still  further  and  made  the  sun  also 
the  centre  of  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter.  Had  he 
but  extended  this  hypothesis  to  Saturn,  he  would  have 
merited  the  title  of  precursor  of  Tycho  Brahe. 

III.  A  Glance  at  Arabian  Physics. — The  authors 
of  whom  we  have  heretofore  spoken  had  only  been 
acquainted  with  Greek  science  through  the  medium 
of  Latin  tradition,  but  the  time  came  when  it  was  to 
be  much  more  completely  revealed  to  the  Christians 
of  the  West  through  the  medium  of  Mussulman 
tradition. 

There  is  no  Arabian  science.  The  wise  men  of 
Mohammedanism  were  always  the  more  or  less  faith- 
ful disciples  of  the  Greeks,  but  were  themselves  desti- 
tute of  all  originality.  For  instance,  they  compiled 
many  abridgments  of  Ptolemy's  "Almagest",  made 
numerous  observations,  and  constructed  a  great  many 
astronomical  tables,  but  added  nothing  essential  to 
the  theories  of  astronomical  motion;  their  only  inno- 
vation in  this  respect,  and,  by  the  way,  quite  an  un- 
fortunate one,  was  the  doctrine  of  the  oscillatory 
motion  of  the  equinoctial  points,  which  the  Middle 
Ages  ascribed  to  Thabit  ibn  Ktlrrah  (836-901),  but 
which  was  probably  the  idea  of  Al-Zarkali,  who  lived 
much  later  and  made  observations  between  1060  and 
1080.  This  motion  was  merely  the  adaptation  of  a 
mechanism  conceived  by  Ptolemy  for  a  totally  differ- 
ent purpose. 

In  physics,  Arabian  scholars  confined  themselves 
to  commentaries  on  the  statements  of  Aristotle,  their 
attitude  being  at  times  one  of  absolute  servility.  This 
intellectual  servility  to  Peripatetic  teaching  reached 
its  climax  in  Abul  ibn  Roshd,  whom  Latin  scholastics 
called  Averroes  (about  1120-98)  and  who  said:  Aris- 
totle "founded  and  completed  logic,  physics,  and 
metaphysics  because  none  of  those  who  have 

followed  him  up  to  our  time,  that  is  to  say,  for  four 
hundred  years,  have  been  able  to  add  anything  to  his 
writings  or  to  detect  therein  an  error  of  any  impor- 
tance" This  unbounded  respect  for  Aristotle's  work 
impelled  a  great  many  Arabian  philosophers  to  attack 
Ptolemy's  "Astronomy"  in  the  name  of  Peripatetic 
physics.  The  conflict  between  the  hypotheses  of 
eccentrics  and  epicycles  was  inaugurated  by  Ibn 
Badja,  known  to  the  scholastics  as  Avempace  (d. 
1138),  and  Abu  Bekr  ibn  cl-Tofeil,  called  Abubacer 
by  the  scholastics  (d.  1185),  and  was  vigorously  con- 
ducted by  Averroes,  the  protege  of  Abubacer.  Abu 
Ishak  ibn  al-Bitrogi,  known  by  the  scholastics  as 
Alpetragius,  another  disciple  of  Abubacer  and  a  con- 
temporary of  Averroes,  advanced  a  theory  on  plan- 
etary motion  wherein  he  wished  to  account  for  the 
phenomena  peculiar  to  the  wandering  stars,  by  com- 
pounding rotations  of  homocentric  spheres;  his  trea- 
tise, which  was  more  neo-Platonic  than  Peripatetic, 
seerned  to  be  a  Greek  book  altered,  or  else  a  simple 
plagiarism.  Less  inflexible  in  his  Feripateticism  than 
Averroes  and  Alpetragius,  Moses  ben  Maimun,  called 
Maimonides  (1139-1204),  accepted  Ptolemy's  astron- 
omy despite  its  incompatibility  with  Aristotelean 
physics,  although  he  regarded  Aristotle's  sublunary 
physics  as  absolutely  true. 

IV.  Arabian  Tradition  and  Latin  Scholasti- 
cism.— It  cannot  be  said  exactly  when  the  first  trans- 
lations of  Arabic  writings  began  to  be  received  by  the 
Christians  of  the  West,  but  it  was  certainly  previously 
to  the  time  of  Gerbert  (Sylvester  II ;  about  930-1003) . 
Gerbert  used  treatises  translated  from  the  Arabic, 


PHYSICS 


49 


PHYSICS 


and  containing  instructions  on  the  use  of  astronomical 
instruments,  notably  the  astrolabe,  to  which  instru- 
ment Hermann  the  Lame  (1013-54)  devoted  part  of 
his  researches.  In  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury the  contributions  of  Mohammedan  science  and 
philosophy  to  Latin  Christendom  became  more  and 
more  frequent  and  important.  About  1120  or  1130 
Adelard  of  Bath  translated  the  "Elements"  of  EucUd, 
and  various  astronomical  treatises;  in  1141  Peter  the 
Venerable,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  found  two  translators, 
Hermann  the  Second  (or  the  Dalmatian)  and  Robert 
of  Retines,  established  in  Spain;  he  engaged  them 
to  translate  the  Koran  into  Latin,  and  in  1143  these 
same  translators  made  Christendom  acquainted  with 
Ptolemy's  planisphere.  Under  the  direction  of 
Raimond  (Archbishop  of  Toledo,  1130;  d.  1150), 
Domengo  Gondisalvi  (Gonsalvi;  Gundissalinu.s), 
Archdeacon  of  Segovia,  began  to  collaborate  with  the 
converted  Jew,  John  of  Luna,  erroneously  called  John 
of  Seville  (Johannes  Hispalensis) .  While  John  of 
Luna  applied  himself  to  works  in  mathematics,  he  also 
assisted  Gondisalvi  in  translating  into  Latin  a  part  of 
Aristotle's  physics,  the  "De  Cajlo"  and  the  "Meta- 
physics", besides  treatises  by  Avicenna,  Al-C!az^li, 
Al-Far&bi,  and  perhaps  Salomon  ibn  Gebirol  (Avice- 
bron).  About  1134  John  of  Luna  translated  Al- 
Fergani'streatise  "  Astronomy  ",  which  was  an  abridge- 
ment of  the  "Almagest",  thereby  introducing  Chris- 
tians to  the  Ptolemaic  system,  while  at  the  same  time 
his  translations,  made  in  collaboration  with  Gondi- 
salvi, familiarized  the  Latins  with  the  physical  and 
metaphysical  doctrines  of  Aristotle.  Indeed  the  in- 
fluence of  Aristotle's  "Physics"  was  already  apparent 
in  the  writings  of  the  most  celebrated  masters  of  the 
school  of  Chartres  (from  1121  until  before  1155),  and 
of  Gilbert  de  la  Porree  (1070-1154). 

The  abridgement  of  Al-Fergani's  "Astronomy'', 
translated  by  John  of  Luna,  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  the  first  work  in  which  the  Latins  were  enabled 
to  read  the  exposition  of  Ptolemy's  system;  it  was 
undoubtedly  preceded  by  a  more  complete  treatise, 
the  "De  Scientia  stellarum"  of  Albategnius  (Al- 
Batt^ni),  latinized  by  Plato  of  Tivoli  about  1120. 
However,  the  "Almagest"  itself  was  still  unknown. 
Moved  by  a  desire  to  read  and  translate  Ptolemy's 
immortal  work,  Gerard  of  Cremona  (d.  1187)  left  Italy 
and  went  to  Toledo,  eventually  making  the  transla- 
tion which  he  finished  in  1175.  Besides  the  "Alma- 
gest", Gerard  rendered  into  Latin  other  works,  of 
which  we  have  a  list  comprising  seventy-four  different 
treatises.  Some  of  t^ese  were  writings  of  Greek 
origin,  and  included  a  large  portion  of  the  works  of 
Aristotle,  a  treatise  by  Archimedes,  Euclid's  "Ele- 
ments" (completed  by  Hypsicles),  and  books  by 
Hippocrates.  Others  were  Arabic  writings,  such  as  the 
celebrated  "Book  of  Three  Brothers",  composed  by 
the  Beni  Mftsa,  "Optics"  by  Ibn  Al-Haitam  (the 
Alhazen  of  the  Scholastics),  "Astronomy"  by  Geber, 
and  "De  motu  octavte  sphaerae"  by  Thabit  ibn 
Kilrrah.  Moreover,  in  order  to  spread  the  study  of 
Ptolemaic  astronomy,  Gerard  composed  at  Toledo  his 
"Theoricae  planetarum",  which  during  the  Middle 
Ages  became  one  of  the  classics  of  astronomical  in- 
struction. Beginners  who  obtained  their  first  cos- 
mographic  information  through  the  study  of  the 
"Sphaera",  written  about  1230  by  Joannes  de  Sacro- 
bosco,  could  acquire  a  knowledge  of  eccentrics  and 
epicycles  by  reading  the  "Theories  planetarum" 
of  Gerard  of  Cremona.  In  fact,  until  the  sixteenth 
century,  most  astronomical  treatises  assumed  the 
form  of  commentaries,  either  on  the  "Spha3ra'',  or 
the  "Theoricae  planetarum" 

"Aristotle's  philosophy",  wrote  Roger  Bacon  in 
1267,  "reached  a  great  development  among  the  Latins 
when  Michael  Scot  appeared  about  1230,  bringing 
with  him  certain  parts  of  the  mathematical  and  phys- 
ical treatises  of  Aristotle  and  his  learned  commen- 
XII.— 4 


tators''.  Among  the  Arabic  writings  made  known  to 
Christians  by  Michael  Scot  (before  1291;  astrologer 
to  Frederick  II)  were  the  treatises  of  Aristotle  and 
the  "Theory  of  Planets",  which  Alpetragius  had  com- 
posed in  accordance  with  the  hypothesis  of  homo- 
centric  spheres.  The  translation  of  this  last  work  was 
completed  in  1217.  By  propagating  among  the  Latins 
the  commentaries  on  Averroes  and  on  Alpetragius's 
theory  of  the  jilanets,  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  the 
treatises  of  Aristotle,  Michael  Scot  developed  in  them 
an  intellectual  disposition  which  might  be  termed 
Averroism,  and  which  consisted  in  a  superstitious 
respect  for  the  word  of  Aristotle  and  his  commentator. 

'There  was  a  metaphysical  Averroism  which,  because 
professing  the  doctrine  of  the  substantial  unity  of  all 
human  intellects,  was  in  open  conflict  with  Christian 
orthodoxy ;  but  there  was  hkewise  a  physical  Averro- 
ism which,  in  its  blind  confidence  in  Peripatetic 
physics,  held  as  absolutely  certain  all  that  the  latter 
taught  on  the  subject  of  the  celestial  substance,  re- 
jecting in  particular  the  system  of  epicycles  and  eccen- 
trics in  order  to  commend  Alpetragius's  astronomy  of 
homocentric  spheres. 

Scientific  Averroism  found  partisans  even  among 
those  whose  purity  of  faith  constrained  them  to 
strugggle  against  metaphysical  Averroism,  and  who 
were  very  often  Peripatetics  in  so  far  as  was  possible 
without  formally  contradicting  the  teaching  of  the 
Church.  For  instance,  William  of  Auvergne  (d.  1249), 
who  was  the  first  to  combat  "Aristotle  and  his  sec- 
tarians" on  metaphysical  grounds,  was  somewhat 
misled  by  Alpetragius's  astronomy,  which,  moreover, 
he  understood  but  imperfectly.  Albertus  Magnus 
(1193  or  1205-1280)  followed  to  a  great  extent  the 
doctrine  of  Ptolemy,  although  he  was  sometimes  in- 
fluenced by  the  objections  of  Averroes  or  affected  by 
Alpetragius's  principles.  Vincent  of  Beauvais  in  his 
"Speculum  quadruplex",  a  vast  encyclopaedic  com- 
pilation published  about  1250,  seemed  to  attach  great 
importance  to  the  system  of  Alpetragius,  borrowing 
the  exposition  of  it  from  Albertus  Magnus.  Finally, 
even  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  gave  evidence  of  being  ex- 
tremely perplexed  by  the  theory  (1227-74)  of  eccen- 
trics and  epicycles  which  justified  celestial  phenomena 
by  contradicting  the  principles  of  Peripatetic  physics, 
and  the  theory  of  Alpetragius  which  honoured  these 
principles  but  did  not  go  so  far  as  to  represent  their 
phenomena  in  detail. 

This  hesitation,  so  marked  in  the  Dominican  school, 
was  hardly  less  remarkable  in  the  Franciscan.  Robert 
Grosseteste  or  Greathead  (1175-1253),  whose  in- 
fluence on  Franciscan  studies  was  so  great,  followed 
the  Ptolemaic  system  in  his  astronomical  writings,  his 
physics  being  imbued  with  Alpetragius's  ideas.  St. 
Bonaventure  (1221-74)  wavered  between  doctrines 
which  he  did  not  thoroughly  understand,  and  Roger 
Bacon  (1214-92)  in  several  of  his  writings  weighed 
with  great  care  the  arguments  that  could  be  made  to 
count  for  or  against  each  of  these  two  astronomical 
theories,  without  eventually  making  a  choice.  Bacon, 
however,  was  familiar  with  a  method  of  figuration  in 
the  system  of  eccentrics  and  epicycles  which  Alhazen 
had  derived  from  the  Greeks;  and  in  this  figuration 
all  the  motions  acknowledged  by  Ptolemy  were  traced 
back  to  the  rotation  of  solid  orbs  accurately  fitted  one 
into  the  other.  This  representation,  which  refuted 
most  of  the  objections  raised  by  Averroes  against 
Ptolemaic  astronomy,  contributed  largely  to  prop- 
agate the  knowledge  of  this  astronomy,  and  it  seems 
that  the  first  of  the  Latins  to  adopt  it  and  expatiate 
on  its  merits  was  the  Franciscan  Bernard  of  Verdun 
(end  of  thirteenth  century),  who  had  read  Bacon's 
writings.  In  sublunary  physics  the  authors  whom 
we  have  just  mentioned  did  not  show  the  hesitation 
that  rendered  astronomical  doctrines  so  perplexing, 
but  on  almost  all  points  adhered  closely  to  Peripatetic 
opinions. 


PHYSICS 


50 


PHYSICS 


V.  The  Science  of  Observation  and  Its  Prog- 
ress— Astronomers — The  Statics  of  Jordanus — 
Thierry  of  Freiberg — Pierre  of  Maricourt. — 
Averroisni  had  rendered  scientific  progress  impossible, 
but  fortunately  in  Latin  Christendom  it  was  to  meet 
with  two  powerful  enemies:  the  unhampered  curi- 
osity of  human  reason,  and  the  authority  of  the 
Church.  Encouraged  by  the  certainty  resulting  from 
experiments,  astronomers  rudely  shook  off  the  yoke 
which  Peripatetic  ))h>'sics  had  imposed  upon  them. 
The  Schodl  of  Paris  in  particular  was  remarkable  for 
its  critical  views  and  its  freedom  of  attitude  towards 
the  argument  of  authority.  In  1290  William  of  Saint- 
Cloud  determined  with  wonderful  accuracy  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  ecliptic  and  the  time  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  and  his  observations  led  him  to  recognize  the 
inaccuracies  that  marred  the  "Tables  of  Toledo", 
drawn  up  by  Al-Zarkali.  The  theory  of  the  pre- 
cession of  the  equinoxes,  conceived  by  the  astron- 
omers of  Alfonso  X  of  Castile,  and  the  "Alphonsine 
Tables"  set  up  in  accordance  with  this  theory,  gave 
rise  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  to  the 
observations,  calculations,  and  critical  discussioiis  of 
Parisian  astronomers,  especially  of  Jean  des  Linieres 
and  his  pupil  John  of  Saxonia  or  Connaught. 

At  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourteenth,  sublunary  physics  owed  great 
ad\'ancement  to  the  simultaneous  efforts  of  geome- 
tricians and  experimenters — their  method  and  dis- 
coveries being  duly  boasted  of  by  Roger  Bacon  who, 
however,  took  no  important  part  in  their  labours. 
Jordanus  de  Xemore,  a  talented  mathematician 
who,  not  later  than  about  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  wrote  treatises  on  arithmetic  and 
geometry,  left  a  very  short  treatise  on  statics  in  which, 
side  by  side  with  erroneous  propositions,  we  find  the 
law  of  the  equilibrium  of  the  straight  lever  very  cor- 
rectly established  with  the  aid  of  the  principle  of 
virtual  displacements.  The  treatise,  "De  ponder- 
ibus",  by  Jordanus  provoked  research  on  the  part  of 
various  ecjmmentators,  and  one  of  these,  whose  name 
is  unknown  and  who  must  have  written  before  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  drew,  from  the  same  prin- 
ciple of  virtual  displacements,  demonstrations,  ad- 
mirable in  exactness  and  elegance,  of  the  law  of  the 
equilibrium  of  the  bent  lever,  and  of  the  apparent 
weight  (gravitas  secundum  situnt)  of  a  body  on  an 
inclined  plane. 

Alhazen's  "  Treatise  on  Perspective  "  was  read  thor- 
oughly by  Roger  Bacon  and  his  contemporaries,  John 
Peckham  (1228-91),  the  English  Franciscan,  giving 
a  summary  of  it.  About  1270  Witelo  (or  Witek;  the 
Thuringopolonus),  composed  an  exhausti\'e  ten-vol- 
ume treatise  on  optics,  which  remained  a  classic  until 
the  time  of  Kepler,  who  wrote  a  commentary  on  it. 

Albertus  Magnus,  Roger  Bacon,  John  Peckham, 
and  Witelo  were  deeply  interested  in  the  theory  of  the 
rainbow,  and,  like  the  ancient  meteorologists,  they  all 
took  the  rainbow  to  be  the  image  of  the  sun  reflected 
in  a  sort  of  a  concave  mirror  formed  by  a  cloud 
resolved  into  rain.  In  1300  Thierry  of  Freiberg 
proved  by  means  of  carefully-conducted  experiments 
in  which  he  used  glass  balls  filled  with  water,  that  the 
rays  which  render  the  bow  visible  have  been  reflected 
on  the  inside  of  the  spherical  drops  of  water,  and  he 
traced  with  great  accuracy  the  course  of  the  rays 
which  produce  the  rainbows  respectively. 

The  system  of  Thierry  of  Freiberg,  at  least  that 
part  relating  to  the  primary  rainbow,  was  reproduced 
about  13G0  by  Themon,  "Son  of  the  Jew"  (Themo  ju 
dcei),  and,  from  his  commentary  on  "Meteors",  it 
passed  on  down  to  the  days  of  the  Renaissance  when, 
having  been  somewhat  distorted,  it  reappeared  in 
the  writings  of  Alessandro  Piceolomini,  Simon  Porta, 
and  Marco  and  Antonio  de  Dominis,  being  thus  propa- 
gated until  the  time  of  Descartes. 

The  study  of  the  magnet  had  also  made  great 


progress  in  the  course  of  the  thirteenth  century;  the 
permanent  magnetization  of  iron,  the  properties  of 
the  magnetic  poles,  the  direction  of  the  Earth's  ac- 
tion exerted  on  these  poles  or  of  their  action  on  one 
another,  are  all  found  very  accurately  described  in 
a  treatise  written  in  1269  by  Pierre  of  Maricourt 
(Petrus  Peregrinus).  Like  the  work  of  Thierry  of 
Freiberg  on  the  rainbow,  the  "Epistola  de  magnete" 
by  Maricourt  was  a  model  of  the  art  of  logical  se- 
quence between  experimen    and  deduction. 

VI.  The  Articles  of  Paris  (1277) — Possibility 
OF  Vacuum. — The  University  of  Paris  was  very  un- 
easy because  of  the  antagonism  existing  between 
Christian  dogmas  and  certain  Peripatetic  doctrines, 
and  on  several  occasions  it  combatted  Aristotelean 
influence.  In  1277  Etienne  Tempier,  Bishop  of  Paris, 
acting  on  the  advice  of  the  theologians  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  condemned  a  great  number  of  errors,  some  of 
which  emanated  from  the  astrology,  and  others  from 
the  philosophy  of  the  Peripatetics.  Among  these 
errors  considered  dangerous  to  faith  were  several 
which  might  have  impeded  the  progress  of  physical 
science,  and  hence  it  was  that  the  theologians  of  Paris 
declared  erroneous  the  opinion  maintaining  that  God 
Himself  could  not  give  the  entire  universe  a  recti- 
linear motion,  as  the  universe  would  then  leave  a 
vacuum  behind  it,  and  also  declared  false  the  notion 
that  God  could  not  create  several  worlds.  These  con- 
demnations destroyed  certain  essential  foundations 
of  Peripatetic  physics;  because,  although,  in  Aris- 
totle's system,  such  propositions  were  ridiculously  un- 
tenable, belief  in  Divine  Omnipotence  sanctioned  them 
as  possible,  whilst  waiting  for  science  to  confirm  them 
as  true.  For  instance,  Aristotle's  physics  treated  the 
existence  of  an  empty  space  as  a  pure  absurdity; 
in  virtue  of  the  "Articles  of  Paris"  Richard  of  Mid- 
dletown  (about  1280)  and,  after  him,  many  masters 
at  Paris  and  Oxford  admitted  that  the  laws  of  nature 
are  certainly  opposed  to  the  production  of  empty 
space,  but  that  the  realization  of  such  a  space  is  not, 
in  itself,  contrary  to  reason;  thus,  without  any  ab- 
surdity, one  could  argue  on  vacuum  and  on  motion  in  a 
vacuum.  Next,  in  order  that  such  arguments  might 
be  legitimatized,  it  was  necessary  to  create  that 
branch  of  mechanical  science  known  as  dynamics. 

VII.  The  Earth's  Motion — Oresme. — The  "Ar- 
ticles of  Paris"  were  of  about  the  same  value  in  sup- 
porting the  question  of  the  Earth's  motion  as  in 
furthering  the  progress  of  dynamics  by  regarding 
vacuum  as  something  conceivable. 

Aristotle  maintained  that  the  first  heaven  (the 
firmament)  moved  with  a  uniform  rotary  motion,  and 
that  the  Earth  was  absolutely  stationary,  and  as  these 
two  propositions  necessarily  resulted  from  the  first 
principles  relative  to  time  and  place,  it  would  have 
been  absurd  to  deny  them.  However,  by  declaring 
that  God  could  endow  the  World  with  a  rectilinear 
motion,  the  theologians  of  the  Sorbonne  acknowledged 
that  these  two  Aristotelean  propositions  could  not  be 
imposed  as  a  logical  necessity  and  thenceforth,  whilst 
continuing  to  admit  that,  as  a  fact,  the  Earth  was  im- 
movable and  that  the  heavens  moved  with  a  rotary 
diurnal  motion,  Richard  of  Middletown  and  Duns 
Scotus  (about  1275-1308)  began  to  formulate  hy- 
potheses to  the  effect  that  these  bodies  were  animated 
by  other  motions,  and  the  entire  school  of  Paris 
adopted  the  same  opinion.  Soon,  however,  the  Earth's 
motion  was  taught  in  the  School  of  Paris,  not  as  a 
possibility,  but  as  a  reality.  In  fact,  in  the  specific 
setting  forth  of  certain  information  given  by  Aristotle 
and  Simplicius,  a  principle  was  formulated  which  for 
three  centuries  was  to  play  a  great  role  in  statics,  viz. 
that  every  heavy  body  tends  to  unite  its  centre  of 
gravity  with  the  centre  of  the  Earth. 

When  writing  his  "Questions"  on  Aristotle's  "De 
Caelo"  in  1368,  Albert  of  Helmstadt  (or  of  Saxony) 
admitted  this  principle,  which  he  applied  to  the  entire 


PHYSICS 


51 


PHYSICS 


mas3  of  the  terrestrial  element.  The  centre  of  gravity 
of  this  mass  is  constantly  inclined  to  place  itself 
in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  but,  within  the 
terrestrial  mass,  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity 
is  incessantly  changing.  The  principal  cause  of  this 
variation  is  the  erosion  brought  about  by  the  streams 
and  rivers  that  continually  wear  away  the  land  sur- 
face, deepening  its  valleys  and  carrying  off  all  loose 
matter  to  the  bed  of  the  sea,  thereby  producing  a  dis- 
placement of  weight  which  entails  a  ceaseless  change 
in  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity.  Now,  in  or- 
der to  replace  this  centre  of  gravity  in  the  centre  of 
the  universe,  the  Earth  moves  without  ceasing;  and 
meanwhile  a  slow  but  perpetual  exchange  is  being 
effected  between  the  continents  and  the  oceans. 
Albert  of  Saxony  ventured  so  far  as  to  think  that  these 
small  and  incessant  motions  of  the  Earth  could  ex- 
plain the  phenomena  of  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes. The  same  author  declared  that  one  of  his 
masters,  whose  name  he  did  not  disclose,  announced 
himself  in  favour  of  the  daily  rotation  of  the  Earth, 
inasmuch  as  he  refuted  the  arguments  that  were  op- 
posed to  this  motion.  This  anonymous  master  had  a 
thoroughly  convinced  disciple  in  Nicole  Oresme  who, 
in  1377,  being  then  Canon  of  Rouen  and  later  Bishop 
of  Lisieux,  wrote  a  French  commentary  on  Aris- 
totle's treatise  "De  Caelo",  maintaining  with  quite 
as  much  force  as  clearness  that  neither  experiment  nor 
argument  could  determine  whether  the  daily  motion 
belonged  to  the  firmament  of  the  fixed  stars  or  to  the 
Earth.  He  also  showed  how  to  interpret  the  difficul- 
ties encountered  in  "the  Sacred  Scriptures  wherein 
it  is  stated  that  the  sun  turns,  etc.  It  might  be  sup- 
posed that  here  Holy  Writ  adapts  itself  to  the  com- 
mon mode  of  human  speech,  as  also  in  several  places, 
for  instance,  where  it  is  written  that  God  repented 
Himself,  and  was  angry  and  calmed  Himself  and  so  on, 
all  of  which  is,  however,  not  to  be  taken  in  a  strictly 
literal  sense"  Finally,  Oresme  offered  several  con- 
siderations favourable  to  the  hypothesis  of  the 
Earth's  daily  motion.  In  order  to  refute  one  of  the 
objections  raised  by  the  Peripatetics  against  this 
point,  Oresme  was  led  to  explain  how,  in  spite  of  this 
motion,  heavy  bodies  seemed  to  fall  in  a  vertical  line; 
he  admitted  their  real  motion  to  be  composed  of  a 
fall  in  a  vertical  line  and  a  diurnal  rotation  identical 
with  that  which  they  would  have  if  bound  to  the 
Earth.  This  is  precisely  the  principle  to  which 
Galileo  was  afterwards  to  turn. 

VIII.  Plurality  of  Worlds. — Aristotle  main- 
tained the  simultaneous  existence  of  several  worlds  to 
be  an  absurdity,  his  principal  argument  being  drawn 
from  his  theory  of  gravity,  whence  he  concluded  that 
two  distinct  worlds  could  not  coexist  and  be  each  sur- 
rounded by  its  elements;  therefore  it  would  be  ridic- 
ulous to  compare  each  of  the  planets  to  an  earth 
similar  to  ours.  In  1277  the  theologians  of  Paris  con- 
demned this  doctrine  as  a  denial  of  the  creative  omnip- 
otence of  God;  Richard  of  Middletown  and  Henry  of 
Ghent  (who  wrote  about  1280),  Guillaume  Varon  (who 
wrote  a  commentary  on  the  "Sentences"  about  1300), 
and,  towards  1320,  Jean  de  Bassols,  William  of  Occam 
(d.  after  1347),  and  Walter  Hurley  (d.  about  1343)  did 
not  hesitate  to  declare  that  God  could  create  other 
worlds  similar  to  ours.  This  doctrine,  adopted  by 
several  Parisian  masters,  exacted  that  the  theory  of 
gravity  and  natural  place  developed  by  Aristotle  be 
thoroughly  changed;  in  fact,  the  following  theory 
was  substituted  for  it.  If  some  part  of  the  elements 
forming  a  world  be  detached  from  it  and  driven  far 
away,  its  tendency  will  be  to  move  towards  the  world 
to  which  it  belongs  and  from  which  it  was  separated; 
the  elements  of  each  world  are  inclined  so  to  arrange 
themselves  that  the  heaviest  will  be  in  the  centre  and 
the  lightest  on  the  surface.  This  theory  of  gravity 
appeared  in  the  writings  of  Jean  Buridan  of  Bethune, 
who  became  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris  in  1327, 


teaching  at  that  institution  until  about  1360;  and  in 
1377  this  same  theory  was  formally  proposed  by 
Oresme.  It  was  also  destined  to  be  adopted  by 
Copernicus  and  his  first  followers,  and  to  be  main- 
tained by  Galileo,  WilUam  Gilbert,  and  Otto  von 
Guericke. 

IX.  Dynamics — Theory  of  Impetus — Inertia — 
Celestial  and  Sublunary  Mechanics  Identical. 
— If  the  School  of  Paris  completely  transformed  the 
Peripatetic  theory  of  gravity,  it  was  equally  respon- 
sible for  the  overthrow  of  Aristotelean  dynamics. 
Convinced  that,  in  all  motion,  the  mover  should  be 
directly  contiguous  to  the  body  moved,  Aristotle  had 
proposed  a  strange  theory  of  the  motion  of  projectiles. 
He  held  that  the  projectile  was  moved  by  the  fluid 
medium,  whether  air  or  water,  through  which  it 
passed  and  this,  by  virtue  of  the  vibration  brought 
about  in  the  fluid  at  the  moment  of  throwing,  and 
spread  through  it.  In  the  sixth  century  of  our  era 
this  explanation  was  strenuously  opposed  by  the 
Christian  Stoic,  Joannes  Philoponus,  according  to 
whom  the  projectile  was  moved  by  a  certain  power 
communicated  to  it  at  the  instant  of  throwing;  how- 
ever, despite  the  objections  raised  by  Philoponus, 
Aristotle  s  various  commentators,  particularly  Aver- 
roes,  continued  to  attribute  the  motion  of  the  pro- 
jectile to  the  disturbance  of  the  air,  and  Albertus 
Magnus,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Roger  Bacon,  Gilles  of 
Rome,  and  Walter  Burley  persevered  in  maintaining 
this  error.  By  means  of  most  spirited  argumentation, 
William  of  Occam  made  known  the  complete  absur- 
dity of  the  Peripatetic  theory  of  the  motion  of  projec- 
tiles. Going  back  to  Philoponus's  thesis,  Buridan 
gave  the  name  impetus  to  the  virtue  or  power  com- 
municated to  the  projectile  by  the  hand  or  instrument 
throwing  it;  he  declared  that  in  any  given  body  in 
motion,  this  impetus  was  proportional  to  the  velocity, 
and  that,  in  different  bodies  in  motion  propelled  by 
the  same  velocity,  the  quantities  of  impetus  were  pro- 
portional to  the  mass  or  quantity  of  matter  defined 
as  it  was  afterwards  defined  by  Newton. 

In  a  projectile,  impetus  is  gradually  destroyed  by 
the  resistance  of  air  or  other  medium  and  is  also 
destroyed  by  the  natural  gravity  of  the  body  in 
motion,  which  gravity  is  opposed  to  the  impetus  if 
the  projectile  be  thrown  upward;  this  struggle  ex- 
plains the  different  peculiarities  of  the  motion  of 
projectiles.  In  a  falling  body,  gravity  comes  to  the 
assistance  of  impetus  which  it  increases  at  every 
instant,  hence  the  velocity  of  the  fall  is  increasing 
incessantly. 

With  the  assistance  of  these  principles  concerning 
impetus,  Buridan  accounts  for  the  swinging  of  the 
pendulum.  He  likewise  analyses  the  mechanism  of 
impact  and  rebound  and,  in  this  connexion,  puts  forth 
very  correct  views  on  the  deformations  and  elastic 
reactions  that  arise  in  the  contiguous  parts  of  two 
bodies  coming  into  collision.  Nearly  all  this  doctrine 
of  impetus  is  transformed  into  a  very  correct  mechan- 
ical theory  if  one  is  careful  to  substitute  the  expression 
vis  viva  for  impetus.  The  dynamics  expounded  by 
Buridan  were  adopted  in  their  entirety  by  Albert  of 
Saxony,  Oresme,  Marsile  of  Inghem,  and  the  entire 
School  of  Paris.  Albert  of  Saxony  appended  thereto 
the  statement  that  the  velocity  of  a  falling  body 
must  be  proportional  either  to  the  time  elapsed  from 
the  beginning  of  the  fall  or  to  the  distance  traversed 
during  this  time.  In  a  projectile,  the  impetus  is  grad- 
ually destroyed  either  by  the  resistance  of  the  medium 
or  by  the  contrary  tendency  of  the  gravity  natural 
to  the  body.  Where  these  causes  of  destruction  do 
not  exist,  the  impetus  remains  perpetually  the  same, 
as  in  the  case  of  a  millstone  exactly  centred  and  not 
rubbing  on  its  axis;  once  set  in  motion  it  will  turn  in- 
definitely with  the  same  swiftness.  It  was  under 
this  form  that  the  law  of  inertia  at  first  became  evi- 
dent to  Buridan  and  Albert  of  Saxony. 


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52 


PHYSICS 


The  conditions  manifested  in  tiiis  hypothetic  mill- 
stone are  realized  in  the  celestial  orbs,  as  in  these 
neither  friction  nor  gravity  impedes  motion;  hence 
it  may  be  admitted  that  each  celestial  orb  moves  iri- 
definitely  by  virtue  of  a  suitable  impetus  communi- 
cated to  it  by  God  at  the  moment  of  creation.  It  is 
useless  to  imitate  Aristotle  and  his  commentators  by 
attributing  the  motion  of  each  orb  to  a  presiding  spirit. 
This  was  the  opinion  proposed  by  Buridan  and  adopted 
by  Albert  of  Saxony;  and  whilst  formulating  a  doctrine 
from  which  modern  dynamics  was  to  spring,  these 
masters  understood  that  the  same  dynamics  governs 
both  celestial  and  sublunary  bodies.  Such  an  idea 
was  directly  opposed  to  the  essential  distinction  estab- 
lished by  ancient  physics  between  these  two  kinds  of 
bodies.  Moreover,  following  William  of  Occam,  the 
masters  of  Paris  rejected  this  distinction;  they  ac- 
knowledged that  the  matter  constituting  celestial 
bodies  was  of  the  same  nature  as  that  constituting 
sublunary  bodies  and  that,  if  the  former  remained 
perpetually  the  same,  it  was  not  because  they  were,  by 
nature,  incapable  of  change  and  destruction,  but  sim- 
ply because  the  place  in  which  they  were  contained 
no  agent  capable  of  corrupting  them.  A  century 
elapsed  between  the  condemnations  pronounced  by 
Etienne  Tempier  (1277)  and  the  editing  of  the 
"Traite  du  Ciel  et  du  Monde"  by  Oresme  (1377)  and, 
within  that  time,  all  the  essential  principles  of  Aris- 
totle's physics  were  undermined,  and  the  great  con- 
trolling ideas  of  modern  science  formulated.  This 
revolution  was  mainly  the  work  of  Oxford  Franciscans 
like  Richard  of  Middletown,  Duns  Scotus,  and  A\il- 
liam  of  Occam,  and  of  masters  in  the  School  of  Paris, 
heirs  to  the  tradition  inaugurated  by  these  Francis- 
cans; among  the  Parisian  masters  Buridan,  Albert  of 
Saxony,  and  Oresme  were  in  the  foremost  rank. 

X.  Pbopagation  of  the  Doctrines  of  the 
School  op  Paris  in  Germany  and  Italy — Purbach 

AND  ReGIOMONTANDS — NICHOLAS  OF  CuSA — YiNCI. — 

The  great  Western  Schism  involved  the  University  of 
Paris  in  politico-religious  quarrels  of  extreme  violence; 
the  misfortunes  brought  about  by  the  conflict  between 
the  Armagnacs  and  Burgundians  and  by  the  Hundred 
Years'  War,  completed  what  these  quarrels  had  begun, 
and  the  wonderful  progress  made  by  science  during 
the  fourteenth  century  in  the  University  of  Paris  sud- 
denly ceased.  However,  the  schism  contributed  to  the 
diffusion  of  Parisian  doctrines  by  dri\'ing  out  of  Paris 
a  large  number  of  brilliant  men  who  had  taught  there 
with  marked  success.  In  lliSG  Marsile  of  Inghem 
(d.  1396),  who  had  been  one  of  the  most  gifted  pro- 
fessorsof  theUniversity  of  Paris,became  rector  of  thein- 
fant  University  of  Heidelberg,  where  he  introduced  the 
dynamic  theories  of  Buridan  and  Albert  of  Saxony. 

About  the  same  time,  another  master,  reputedly  of 
Paris,  Heinrich  Heimbuch  of  Langenstein,  or  of  Hesse, 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  founding  the  University  of 
Vienna  and,  besides  his  theological  knowledge,  brought 
thither  the  astronomical  tradition  of  Jean  des  Linieres 
and  John  of  Saxony.  This  tradition  was  carefully 
preserved  in  Vienna,  being  magnificently  developed 
there  throughout  the  fifteenth  century,  and  paving 
the  way  for  Georg  Purbach  (1423-01 )  and  his  disciple 
Johann  Muller  of  Konigsberg,  surnamed  Regiomon- 
tanus  (1436-7(3).  It  was  to  the  writing  of  theories 
calculated  to  make  the  Ptolemaic  system  known,  to 
the  designing  and  constructing  of  exact  instruments, 
to  the  multiplying  of  observations,  and  the  preparing 
of  tables  and  almanacs  (ephemerides),  more  accurate 
than  those  used  by  astronomers  up  to  that  time,  that 
Purbach  and  Regiomontanus  devoted  their  prodig- 
ious energy.  By  perfecting  all  the  details  of  Ptolemy's 
theories,  which  they  never  called  in  question,  they 
were  most  helpful  in  bringing  to  light  the  defects  of 
these  theories  and  in  preparing  the  materials  by  means 
of  which  Copernicus  was  to  build  up  his  new  astron- 
omy. 


Averroism  flourished  in  the  Italian  Universities  of 
Padua  and  Bologna,  which  were  noted  for  their  ad- 
herence to  Peripatetic  doctrines.  Still  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifteenth  century  the  opinions  of  the 
School  of  Paris  began  to  find  their  way  into  these  insti- 
tutions, thanks  to  the  teaching  of  Paolo  Nicoletti  of 
Venice  (flourished  about  1420).  It  was  there  de- 
veloped by  his  pupil  Gattan  of  Tiene  (d.  1465). 
These  masters  devoted  special  attention  to  propaga- 
ting the  dynamics  of  impetus  in  Italy. 

About  the  time  that  Paola  of  Venice  was  teaching 
at  Padua,  Nicholas  of  Cusa  came  there  to  take  his 
doctorate  in  law.  Whether  it  was  then  that  the 
latter  became  initiated  in  the  physics  of  the  School  of 
Paris  matters  little,  as  in  any  event  it  was  from  Pari- 
sian physics  that  he  adopted  those  doctrines  that 
smacked  least  of  Peripateticism.  He  became  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  the  dynamics  of  impetus  and, 
like  Buridan  and  Albert  of  Saxony,  attributed  the 
motion  of  the  celestial  spheres  to  the  impetus  which 
God  had  communicated  to  them  in  creating  f  hem,  and 
which  was  perpetuated  because,  in  these  spheres,  there 
was  no  element  of  destruction.  He  admitted  that  the 
Earth  moved  incessantly,  and  that  its  motion  might 
be  the  cause  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  In  a 
note  discovered  long  after  his  death,  he  went  so  far  as 
to  attribute  to  the  Earth  a  daily  rotation.  He  imag- 
ined that  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  planets  were  so 
many  systems,  each  of  which  contained  an  earth  and 
elements  analogous  to  our  Earth  and  elements,  and  to 
account  for  the  action  of  gravity  in  each  of  these  sys- 
tems he  followed  closely  the  theory  of  gravity  ad- 
vanced by  Oresme. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1452-1519)  was  perhaps  more 
thoroughly  convinced  of  the  merits  of  the  Parisian 
physics  than  any  other  Italian  master.  A  keen  ob- 
server, and  endowed  with  insatiable  curiosity,  he 
had  studied  a  great  number  of  works,  amongst  which 
we  may  mention  the  various  treatises  of  the  School  of 
Jordanus,  various  books  by  Albert  of  Saxony,  and  in 
all  likelihood  the  works  of  Nicholas  of  Cusa;  then, 
profiting  by  the  learning  of  these  scholars,  he  formally 
enunciated  or  else  simply  intimated  many  new  ideas. 
The  statics  of  the  School  of  Jordanus  led  him  to  dis- 
cover the  law  of  the  composition  of  concurrent  forces 
stated  as  follows :  the  two  component  forces  have  equal 
moments  as  regards  the  direction  of  the  resultant,  and 
the  resultant  and  one  of  the  components  have  equal 
moments  as  regards  the  direction  of  the  other  com- 
ponent. The  statics  derived  from  the  properties  which 
Albert  of  Saxony  attributed  to  the  centre  of  gravity 
caused  Vinci  to  recognize  the  law  of  the  polygon  of 
support  and  to  determine  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a 
tetrahedron.  He  also  presented  the  law  of  the  equi- 
librium of  two  liquids  of  different  density  in  commu- 
nicating tubes,  and  the  principle  of  virtual  displace- 
ments seems  to  have  occasioned  his  acknowledgement 
of  the  hydrostatic  law  known  as  Pascal's.  Vinci  con- 
tinued to  meditate  on  the  properties  of  impetus,  which 
he  called  impeto  or  forza,  and  the  propositions  that  he 
formulated  on  the  subject  of  this  power  very  often 
showed  a  fairly  clear  discernment  of  the  law  of  the  con- 
servation of  energy.  These  propositions  conducted 
him  to  remarkably  correct  and  accurate  conclusions 
concerning  the  impossibility  of  perpetual  motion.  Un- 
fortunately he  misunderstood  the  pregnant  explana- 
tion, afforded  by  the  theory  of  impetus,  regarding  the 
acceleration  of  falling  bodies,  and  like  the  Peri- 
patetics attributed  this  acceleration  to  the  impulsion 
of  the  encompassing  air.  However,  by  way  of  com- 
pensation, he  distinctly  asserted  that  the  velocity  of  a 
body  that  falls  freely  is  proportional  to  the  time  occu- 
pied in  the  fall,  and  he  understood  in  what  way  this 
law  extends  to  a  fall  on  an  inclined  plane.  When  he 
wished  to  determine  how  the  path  traversed  by  a  fall- 
ing body  is  connected  with  the  time  occupied  in  the 
fail,  he  was  confronted  by  a  diflnculty  which,  in  the 


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seventeenth  century,  was  likewise  to  baffle  Baliani  and 
Gassendi. 

Vinci  was  much  engrossed  in  the  analysis  of  the  de- 
formations and  elastic  reactions  which  cause  a  body 
to  rebound  after  it  has  struck  another,  and  this  doc- 
trine, formulated  by  Buridan,  Albert  of  Saxony,  and 
Marsile  of  Ingham  he  applied  in  such  a  way  as  to 
draw  from  it  the  explanation  of  the  flight  of  birds. 
This  flight  is  an  alternation  of  falls  during  which  the 
bird  compresses  the  air  beneath  it,  and  of  rebounds 
due  to  the  elastic  force  of  this  air.  Until  the  great 
painter  discovered  this  explanation,  the  question  of  the 
flight  of  birds  was  always  looked  upon  as  a  problem 
in  statics,  and  was  likened  to  the  swimming  of  a  fish 
in  water.  Vinci  attached  great  importance  to  the 
views  developed  by  Albert  of  Saxony  in  regard  to 
the  Earth's  equilibrium.  Like  the  Parisian  master, 
he  held  that  the  centre  of  gravity  within  the  ter- 
restrial mass  is  constantly  changing  under  the  in- 
fluence of  erosion  and  that  the  Earth  is  continually 
moving  so  as  to  bring  this  centre  of  gravity  to  the 
centre  of  the  World.  These  small,  incessant  motions 
eventually  bring  to  the  surface  of  the  continents  those 
portions  of  earth  that  once  occupied  the  bed  of  the 
ocean  and,  to  place  this  assertion  of  Albert  of  Saxony 
beyond  the  range  of  doubt,  Vinci  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  fossils  and  to  extremely  cautious  observa- 
tions which  made  him  the  creator  of  Stratigraphy.  In 
many  passages  in  his  notes  Vinci  asserts,  like  Nicholas 
of  Cusa,  that  the  moon  and  the  other  wandering  stars 
are  worlds  analogous  to  ours,  that  they  carry  seas  upon 
their  surfaces,  and  are  surrounded  by  air;  and  the 
development  of  this  opinion  led  him  to  talk  of  the 
gravity  binding  to  each  of  these  stars  the  elements 
that  belonged  to  it.  On  the  subject  of  this  gravity  he 
professed  a  theory  similar  to  Oresme's.  Hence  it 
would  seem  that,  in  almost  every  particular,  Vinci 
was  a  faithful  disciple  of  the  great  Parisian  masters  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  of  Buridan,  Albert  of  Saxony, 
and  Oresme. 

XI.  Italian  Avekroism  and  Its  Tendencies  to 
Routine — Attempts  at  Restoring  the  Astronomy 
OF  Homocentric  Spheres. — Whilst,  through  the  anti- 
Peripatetic  influence  of  the  School  of  Paris,  Vinci 
reaped  a  rich  harvest  of  discoveries,  innumerable  Ital- 
ians devoted  themselves  to  the  sterile  worship  of  de- 
funct ideas  with  a  servility  that  was  truly  astonishing. 
The  Averroists  did  not  wish  to  acknowledge  as  true 
anything  out  of  conformity  with  the  ideas  of  Aristotle 
as  interpreted  by  Averroes;  with  Pompanazzi  (1462- 
1526),  the  Alexandrists,  seeking  their  inspiration  fur- 
ther back  in  the  past,  refused  to  understand  Aristotle 
otherwise  than  he  had  been  understood  by  Alexander 
of  Aphrodisias;  and  the  Humanists,  solicitous  only 
for  purity  of  form,  would  not  consent  to  use  any  tech- 
nical language  whatever  and  rejected  all  ideas  that 
were  not  sufficiently  vague  to  be  attractive  to  orators 
and  poets;  thus  Averroists,  Alexandrists,  and  Human- 
ists proclaimed  a  truce  to  their  vehement  discussions 
so  as  to  combine  against  the  "language  of  Paris",  the 
"logic  of  Paris",  and  the  "physics  of  Paris"  It  is 
difficult  to  conceive  the  absurdities  to  which  these 
minds  were  led  by  their  slavish  surrender  to  routine. 
A  great  number  of  physicists,  rejecting  the  Parisian 
theory  of  impetus,  returned  to  the  untenable  dynamics 
of  Aristotle,  and  maintained  that  the  projectile  was 
moved  by  the  ambient  air.  In  1499  Nicol6  Vernias 
of  Chieti,  an  Averroist  professor  at  Padua,  taught  that 
if  a  heavy  body  fell  it  was  in  consequence  of  the  mo- 
tion of  the  air  surrounding  it. 

A  servile  adoration  of  Peripateticism  prompted 
many  so-called  philosophers  to  reject  the  Ptolemaic 
system,  the  only  one  which,  at  that  time,  could  satisfy 
the  legitimate  exigencies  of  astronomers,  and  to  re- 
adopt  the  hypothesis  of  homocentric  spheres.  They 
held  as  null  and  void  the  innumerable  observations 
that  showed  changes  in  the  distance  of  each  planet 


from  the  Earth.  Alessandro  Achillini  of  Bologna 
(1463-1512),  an  uncompromising  Averroist  and  a 
strong  opponent  of  the  theory  of  impetus  and  of  all 
Parisian  doctrines,  inaugurated,  in  his  treatise  "De 
orbibus"  (1498),  a  strange  reaction  against  Ptolemaic 
astronomy;  Agostino  Nifo  (1473-1538)  laboured  for 
the  same  end  in  a  work  that  has  not  come  down  to  us; 
Girolamo  Fracastorio  (1483-1553)  gave  us,  in  1535, 
his  book  "Dehomocentricis",  and  Giaubattista  Amico 
(1536),  and  Giovanni  Antonio  Delfino  (1559)  pub- 
lished small  works  in  an  endeavour  to  restore  the 
system  of  homocentric  spheres. 

XII.  The  Copeenican  Revolution. — Although 
directed  by  tendencies  diametrically  opposed  to  the 
true  scientific  spirit,  the  efforts  made  by  Averroists  to 
restore  the  astronomy  of  homocentric  spheres  were 
perhaps  a  stimulus  to  the  progress  of  science,  inas- 
much as  they  accustomed  physicists  to  the  thought 
that  the  Ptolemaic  system  was  not  the  only  astro- 
nomical doctrine  possible,  or  even  the  best  that  could 
be  desired.  Thus,  in  their  own  way,  the  Averroists 
paved  the  way  for  the  Copernican  revolution.  The 
movements  forecasting  this  revolution  were  noticeable 
in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  in  the  writings 
of  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  in  the  notes  of  Vinci,  both  of  these 
eminent  scientists  being  well  versed  in  Parisian  phys- 
ics. 

Celio  Caloagnini  proposed,  in  his  turn,  to  explain 
the  daily  motion  of  the  stars  by  attributing  to  the 
Earth  a  rotation  from  West  to  East,  complete  in  one 
sidereal  day.  His  dissertation,  "Quod  coelum  stet, 
terra  vero  moveatur",  although  seeming  to  have  been 
written  about  1530,  was  not  published  until  1544, 
when  it  appeared  in  a  posthumous  edition  of  the 
author's  works.  Calcagnini  declared  that  the  Earth, 
originally  in  equilibrium  in  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
received  a  first  impulse  which  imparted  to  it  a  rotary 
motion,  and  this  motion,  to  which  nothing  was  op- 
posed, was  indefinitely  preserved  by  virtue  of  the 
principle  set  forth  by  Buridan  and  accepted  by  Albert 
of  Saxony  and  Nicholas  of  Cusa.  According  to  Cal- 
cagnini the  daily  rotation  of  the  Earth  was  accom- 
panied by  an  oscillation  which  explained  the  move- 
ment of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  Another 
oscillation  set  the  waters  of  the  sea  in  motion  and 
determined  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides.  This  last 
hypothesis  was  to  be  maintained  by  Andrea  Cesalpino 
(1519-1603)  in  his  " Qusestiones  peripateticse "  (1569), 
and  to  inspire  Galileo,  who,  unfortunately,  was  to  seek 
in  the  phenomena  of  the  tides  his  favourite  proof  of 
the  Earth's  rotation. 

The  "De  revolutionibus  orbium  ccElestium  hbri 
sex"  were  printed  in  1543,  a  few  months  after  the 
death  of  Copernicus  (1473-1543),  but  the  principles 
of  the  astronomic  system  proposed  by  this  man  of 
genius  had  been  pubhshed  as  early  as  1539  in  the 
"Narratio  prima"  of  his  disciple,  Joachim  Rhseticus 
(1514-76).  Copernicus  adhered  to  the  ancient  astro- 
nomical hypotheses  which  claimed  that  the  World 
was  spherical  and  hmited,  and  that  all  celestial 
motions  were  decomposable  into  circular  and  uniform 
motions;  but  he  held  that  the  firmament  of  fixed  stars 
was  immovable,  as  also  the  sun,  which  was  placed  in 
the  centre  of  this  firmament.  To  the  Earth  he  attrib- 
uted three  motions :  a  circular  motion  by  which  the 
centre  of  the  Earth  described  with  uniform  velocity 
a  circle  situated  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  and 
eccentric  to  the  sun;  a  daily  rotation  on  an  axis  in- 
clined towards  the  ecliptic,  and  finally,  a  rotation 
of  this  axis  around  an  axis  normal  to  the  ecliptic 
and  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  Earth.  The 
time  occupied  by  this  last  rotation  was  a  little  longer 
than  that  required  for  the  circular  motion  of  the 
centre  of  the  Earth  which  produced  the  phenomenon 
of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  To  the  five 
planets   Copernicus   ascribed   motions  analogous   to 


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54 


PHYSICS 


those  with  which  the  Earth  was  provided,  and  he 
maintained  that  the  moon  moved  in  a  circle  around 
the  Earth. 

Of  the  Copernioan  hypotheses,  the  newest  was  that 
according  to  which  the  Earth  moved  in  a  circle  around 
the  sun.  From  the  days  of  Aristarchus  of  Samos 
and  Seleuous  no  one  had  adopted  this  view.  Me- 
dieval astronomers  had  all  rejected  it,  because  they 
supposed  that  the  stars  were  much  too  close  to  the 
Earth  and  the  sun,  and  that  an  annual  circular 
motion  of  the  Earth  might  give  the  stars  a  perceptible 
parallax.  Still,  on  the  other  hand,  we  have  seen  that 
various  authors  had  proposed  to  attribute  to  the 
Earth  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  motions  which 
Copernicus  added  to  the  annual  motion.  To  defend 
the  hypothesis  of  the  daily  motion  of  the  Earth  against 
the  objections  formulated  by  Peripatetic  physios, 
Copernicus  invoked  exactly  the  same  reasons  as 
Oresme,  and  in  order  to  explain  how  each  planet 
retains  the  various  parts  of  its  elements,  he  adopted 
the  theory  of  gravity  proposed  by  the  eminent  mas- 
ter. Copernicus  showed  himself  the  adherent  of 
Parisian  physics  even  in  the  following  opinion,  enun- 
ciated accidently :  the  acceleration  of  the  fall  of  heavy 
bodies  is  explained  by  the  continual  increase  which 
impetus  receives  from  gravity. 

XIII.  Fortunes  of  the  Copbrnican  System  in 
THE  Sixteenth  Century. — Copernicus  and  his 
disciple  Rhseticus  very  probably  regarded  the  motions 
which  their  theory  ascribed  to  the  Earth  and  the 
planets,  the  sun's  rest  and  that  of  the  firmament  of 
fixed  stars,  as  the  real  motions  or  real  rest  of  these 
bodies.  The  "De  revolutionibus  orbium  cselestium 
libri  sex"  appeared  with  an  anonymous  preface 
which  inspired  an  entirely  different  idea.  This  pref- 
ace was  the  work  of  the  Lutheran  theologian  Osian- 
der  (1498-1552),  who  therein  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  hypotheses  proposed  by  philosophers  in 
general,  and  by  Copernicus  in  particular,  were  in  no 
wise  calculated  to  acquaint  us  with  the  reality  of 
things:  "Neque  enim  necesse  est  eas  hypotheses  esse 
veras,  imo,  ne  verisimiles  quidem,  sed  sufficit  hoc 
unum  si  calculum  observationibus  congruentem 
exhibeant".  Osiander's  view  of  astronomical  hy- 
potheses was  not  new.  Even  in  the  days  of  Grecian 
antiquity  a  number  of  thinkers  had  maintained  that 
the  sole  object  of  these  hypotheses  was  to  "save 
appearances",  (riifeii'  rd  4>a.ivbiMva-j  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  as  well  as  in  antiquity,  this  method  continued 
to  be  that  of  philosophers  who  wished  to  make  use 
of  Ptolemaic  astronomy  whilst  at  the  same  time  up- 
holding the  Peripatetic  physics  absolutely  incom- 
patible with  this  astronomy.  Osiander's  doctrine 
was  therefore  readily  received,  first  of  all  by  astron- 
omers who,  without  believing  the  Earth's  motion 
to  be  a  reaUt}',  accepted  and  admired  the  kinetic 
combinations  conceived  by  Copernicus,  as  these 
combinations  pro^  ided  them  with  better  means  than 
could  be  offered  by  the  Ptolemaic  system  for  figuring 
out  the  motion  of  the  moon  and  the  phenomena  of 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes. 

One  of  the  astronomers  who  most  distinctly  as- 
sumed this  attitude  in  regard  to  Ptolemy's  system 
was  Erasmus  Reinhold  (1511-53),  who,  although  not 
admitting  the  Earth's  motion,  professed  a  great 
admiration  for  the  system  of  Copernicus  and  used  it 
in  computing  new  astronomical  tables,  the  "Prutenica; 
tabulae"  (1551),  which  were  largely  instrumental  in 
introducing  to  astronomers  the  kinetic  combinations 
originated  by  Copernicus.  The  "Prutenicte  tabulae" 
were  especially  employed  by  the  commission  which 
in  1582  eflfected  the  Gregorian  reform  of  the  calendar. 
\\'hilst  not  believing  in  the  Earth's  motion,  the  mem- 
bers of  this  commission  did  not  hesitate  to  use  tables 
founded  on  a  theory  of  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes and  attributing  a  certain  motion  to  the  earth. 

However,  the  freedom  permitting  astronomers  to 


use  all  hypotheses  quahfied  to  account  for  phenomena 
was  soon  restricted  by  the  exigencies  of  Peripatetic 
philosophers^  and  Protestant  theologians.  Osiander 
had  written  his  celebrated  preface  to  Copernicus's 
book  with  a  view  to  warding  off  the  attacks  of  theo- 
logians, but  in  this  he  did  not  succeed.  Martin 
Luther,  in  his  "Tischrede",  was  the  first  to  express 
indignation  at  the  impiety  of  those  who  admitted  the 
hypothesis  of  solar  rest.  Melanchthon,  although 
acknowledging  the  purely  astronomical  advantages 
of  the  Copernican  system,  strongly  combatted  the 
hypothesis  of  the  Earth's  motion  (1549),  not  only 
with  the  aid  of  arguments  furnished  by  Peripatetic 
physics  but  likewise,  and  chiefly,  with  the  assistance 
of  numerous  texts  taken  from  Holy  Writ.  Kaspar 
Peucer  (1525-1602),  Melanchthon's  son-in-law,  whilst 
endeavouring  to  have  his  theory  of  the  planets  har- 
monize with  the  progress  which  the  Copernican  system 
had  made  in  this  regard,  nevertheless  rejected  the 
Copernican  hypotheses  as  absurd  (1571). 

It  then  came  to  be  exacted  of  astronomical  hypoth- 
eses that  not  only,  as  Osiander  had  desired,  the  result 
of  their  calculations  be  conformable  to  facts,  but  also 
that  they  be  not  refuted  "either  in  the  name  of  the 
principles  of  physics  or  in  the  name  of  the  authority 
of  the  Sacred  Scriptures".  This  criterion  was  explic- 
itly formulated  in  1578  by  a  Lutheran,  the  Danish, 
astronomer  Tycho  Brahe  (1546-1601),  and  it  was 
precisely  by  virtue  of  these  two  requirements  that 
the  doctrines  of  Galileo  were  to  be  condemned  by  the 
Inquisition  in  1616  and  1633.  Eager  not  to  admit 
any  hypothesis  that  would  conflict  with  Aristotelean 
physics  or  be  contrary  to  the  letter  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,  and  yet  most  desirous  to  retain  all  the 
astronomical  advantages  of  the  Copernican  system, 
Tycho  Brahe  proposed  a  new  system  which  virtually 
consisted  in  leaving  the  Earth  motionless  and  in 
moving  the  other  heavenly  bodies  in  such  a  way  that 
their  displacement  with  regard  to  the  Earth  might 
remain  the  same  as  in  the  system  of  Copernicus. 
Moreover,  although  posing  as  the  defender  of  Aris- 
totelean physics,  Tycho  Brahe  dealt  it  a  disastrous 
blow.  In  1572  a  star,  until  then  unknown,  appeared 
in  the  constellation  of  Cassiopeia,  and  in  showing 
accurate  observations  that  the  new  astral  body  was 
really  a  fixed  star,  Tycho  Brahe  proved  conclusively 
that  the  celestial  world  was  not,  as  Aristotle  would 
have  had  us  beheve,  formed  of  a  substance  exempt 
from  generation  and  destruction. 

The  Church  had  not  remained  indifferent  to  the 
hypothesis  of  the  Earth's  motion  until  the  time  of 
Tycho  Brahe,  as  it  was  amongst  her  members  that 
this  hypothesis  had  found  its  first  defenders,  counting 
adherents  even  in  the  extremely  orthodox  University 
of  Paris.  At  the  time  of  defending  this  hypothesis, 
Oresme  was  Canon  of  Rouen,  and  immediately  after 
he  was  promoted  to  the  Bishopric  of  Lisieux;  Nicholas 
of  Cusa  was  Bishop  of  Brixen  and  cardinal,  and  was 
entrusted  with  important  negotiations  by  Eugenius 
IV,  Nicholas  V,  and  Pius  II;  Calcagnini  was  protho- 
notary  Apostolic ;  Copernicus  was  Canon  of  Thorn, 
and  it  was  Cardinal  Schomberg  who  urged  him  to 
pubhsh  his  work,  the  dedication  of  which  was  ac- 
cepted by  Paul  III.  Besides,  Oresme  had  made 
clear  how  to  interpret  the  Scriptural  passages  claimed 
to  be  opposed  to  the  Copernican  system,  and  in  1584 
Didacus  a  Stunica  of  Salamanca  found  in  Holy  Writ 
texts  which  could  be  invoked  with  just  as  much 
certainty  in  favour  of  the  Earth's  motion.  However, 
in  1595  the  Protestant  senate  of  the  University  of 
Tiibingen  compelled  Kepler  to  retract  the  chapter 
in  his  "Mysterium  cosmographicum",  in  which  he 
had  endeavoured  to  make  the  Copernican  system 
agree  with  Scripture. 

Christopher  Clavius  (1537-1612),  a  Jesuit,  and  one 
of  the  influential  members  of  the  commission  that 
reformed  the  Gregorian  Calendar,  seemed  to  be  the 


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55 


PHYSICS 


first  Catholic  astronomer  to  adopt  the  double  test 
imposed  upon  astronomical  hypotheses  by  Tycho 
Brahe,  and  to  decide  (1581)  that  the  suppositions 
of  Copernicus  were  to  be  rejected,  as  opposed  both  to 
Peripatetic  physics  and  to  Scripture;  on  the  other 
hand,  at  the  end  of  his  hfe  and  under  the  influence 
of  Galileo's  discoveries,  Clavius  appeared  to  have 
assumed  a  far  more  favourable  attitude  towards 
Copernican  doctrines.  The  enemies  of  Aristotelean 
philosophy  gladly  adopted  the  system  of  Copernicus, 
considering  its  hypotheses  as  so  many  propositions 
physically  true,  this  being  the  case  with  Pierre  de  La 
RamiSe,  called  Petrus  Ramus  (1502-72),  and  espe- 
cially with  Giordano  Bruno  (about  1550-1600).  The 
physics  developed  by  Bruno,  in  which  he  incorporated 
the  Copernican  hypothesis,  proceeded  from  Nicole, 
Oresme,  and  Nicholas  of  Cusa;  but  chiefly  from  the 
physics  taught  in  the  University  of  Paris  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  The  infinite  extent  of  the  universe 
and  the  plurality  of  worlds  were  admitted  as  possible 
by  many  theologians  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  the  theory  of  the  slow  motion  which 
gradually  causes  the  central  portions  of  the  Earth 
to  work  to  the  surface  had  been  taught  by  Albert 
of  Saxony  before  it  attracted  the  attention  of  Vinci. 
The  solution  of  Peripatetic  arguments  against  the 
Earth's  motion  and  the  theory  of  gravity  called  forth 
by  the  comparison  of  the  planets  with  the  Earth 
would  appear  to  have  been  borrowed  by  Bruno  from 
Oresme.  The  apostasy  and  heresies  for  which  Bruno 
was  condemned  in  1600  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
physical  doctrines  he  had  espoused,  which  included 
in  particular  Copernican  astronomy.  In  fact  it 
does  not  seem  that,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
Church  manifested  the  slightest  anxiety  concerning 
the  system  of  Copernicus. 

XIV.  Theory  of  the  Tides. — It  is  undoubtedly  to 
the  great  voyages  that  shed  additional  lustre  on  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  we  must  attribute 
the  importance  assumed  in  the  sixteenth  century 
by  the  problem  of  the  tides,  and  the  great  progress 
made  at  that  time  towards  the  solution  of  this  prob- 
lem. The  correlation  existing  between  the  phenome- 
non of  high  and  low  tide  and  the  course  of  the  moon 
was  known  even  in  ancient  times.  Posidonius  accu- 
rately described  it;  the  Arabian  astronomers  were 
also  famihar  with  it,  and  the  explanation  given  of  it 
in  the  ninth  century  by  Albumazar  in  his  "Intro- 
ductorium  magnum  ad  Astronomiam"  remained  a 
classic  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  The  observation 
of  tidal  phenomena  very  naturally  led  to  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  moon  attracted  the  waters  of  the  ocean 
and,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  William  of  Auvergne 
compared  this  attraction  to  that  of  the  magnet  for 
iron.  However,  the  mere  attraction  of  the  moon  did 
not  suffice  to  account  for  the  alternation  of  spring 
and  neap  tides,  which  phenomenon  clearly  indicated 
a  certain  intervention  of  the  sun.  In  his  "Questions 
sur  les  livres  des  M^t^ores",  which  appeared  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  Themon, 
"Son  of  the  Jew",  introduced  in  a  vague  sort  of  way 
the  idea  of  superposing  two  tides,  the  one  due  to  the 
sun  and  the  other  to  the  moon. 

In  1528  this  idea  was  very  clearly  endorsed  by 
Federico  Grisogone  of  Zara,  a  Dalmatian  who  taught 
medicine  at  Padua.  Grisogone  declared  that,  under 
the  action  of  the  moon  exclusively,  the  sea  would 
assume  an  ovoid  shape,  its  major  axis  being  directed 
towards  the  centre  of  the  moon;  that  the  action  of 
the  Sun  would  also  give  it  an  ovoid  shape,  less  elon- 
gated than  the  first,  its  major  axis  being  directed 
towards  the  centre  of  the  sun;  and  that  the  variation 
of  sea  level,  at  all  times  and  in  all  places,  was  obtained 
by  adding  the  elevation  or  depression  produced  by 
the  solar  tide  to  the  elevation  or  depression  produced 
by  the  lunar  tide.  In  1557  Girolamo  Cardano 
accepted  and  briefly  explained  Grisogone's  theory. 


In  1559  a  posthumous  work  by  Delfino  gave  a  de- 
scription of  the  phenomena  of  the  tides,  identical  with 
that  deduced  from  the  mechanism  conceived  by 
Grisogone.  The  doctrine  of  the  Dalmatian  physician 
was  reproduced  by  Paolo  Galluoci  in  1588,  and  by 
Annibale  Raimondo  in  1589;  and  in  1600  Claude 
Duret,  who  had  plagiarized  Delfino's  treatise,  pub- 
lished in  France  the  description  of  the  tides  given  in 
that  work. 

XV.  Statics  in  the  Sixteenth  Century — 
Stevinus. — When  writing  on  statics  Cardano  drew 
upon  two  sources,  the  writings  of  Archimedes  and 
the  treatises  of  the  School  of  Jordanus;  besides,  he 
probably  plagiarized  the  notes  left  by  Vinr-i,  and  it 
was  perhaps  from  this  source  that  he  took  the  theo- 
rem: a  system  endowed  with  weight  is  in  equilibrium 
when  the  centre  of  gravity  of  this  system  is  the  lowest 
possible. 

Nicolo  Tartaglia  (about  1500-57),  Cardano's  an- 
tagonist, shamelessly  purloined  a  supposedly  for- 
gotten treatise  by  one  of  Jordanus's  commentators. 
Ferrari,  Cardano's  faithful  disciple,  harshly  rebuked 
Tartaglia  for  the  theft,  which  nevertheless  had  the 
merit  of  re-establishing  the  vogue  of  certain  discov- 
eries of  the  thirteenth  century,  especially  the  law  of 
the  equilibrium  of  a  body  supported  by  an  inclined 
plane.  By  another  and  no  less  barefaced  plagiarism, 
Tartaglia  published  under  his  own  name  a  translation 
of  Archimedes's  "Treatise  on  floating  bodies"  made 
by  William  of  Moerbeke  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  This  publication,  dishonest  though  it  was, 
helped  to  give  prominence  to  the  study  of  Arch- 
imedes's mechanical  labours,  which  study  exerted 
the  greatest  influence  over  the  progress  of  science  at 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  blending  of 
Archimedean  mathematics  with  Parisian  physics, 
generating  the  movement  that  terminated  in  Galileo's 
work.  The  translation  and  explanation  of  the  works 
of  Archimedes  enlisted  the  attention  of  geometricians 
such  as  Francesco  Maurolycus  of  Messina  (1494- 
1575)  and  Federico  Commandino  of  Urbino  (1509-75), 
and  these  two  authors,  continuing  the  work  of  the 
great  Syracusan,  determined  the  position  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  various  solids;  in  addition  Com- 
mandin  translated  and  explained  Pappus's  mathe- 
matical "Collection",  and  the  fragment  of  "Mechan- 
ics" by  Heron  of  Alexandria  appended  thereto. 
Admiration  for  these  monuments  of  ancient  science 
inspired  a  number  of  Italians  with  a  profound  con- 
tempt for  medieval  statics.  The  fecundity  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  virtual  displacements,  so  happily  employed 
by  the  School  of  Jordanus,  was  ignored;  and,  de- 
prived of  the  laws  discovered  by  this  school  and 
of  the  additions  made  to  them  by  Vinci,  the  treatises 
on  statics  written  by  over-enthusiastic  admirers  of 
the  Archimedean  method  were  notably  deficient. 
Among  the  authors  of  these  treatises  Guidobaldo 
dal  Monte  (1545-1607)  and  Giovanni  Battista 
Benedetti  (1530-90)  deserve  special  mention. 

Of  the  mathematicians  who,  in  statics,  claimed  to 
follow  exclusively  the  rigorous  methods  of  Archimedes 
and  the  Greek  geometricians,  the  most  illustrious 
was  Simon  Stevinus  of  Bruges  (1548-1620).  Through 
him  the  statics  of  solid  bodies  recovered  all  that  had 
been  gained  by  the  School  of  Jordanus  and  Vinci,  and 
lost  by  the  contempt  of  such  men  as  Guidobaldo  del 
Monte  and  Benedetti.  The  law  of  the  equilibrium 
of  the  lever,  one  of  the  fundamental  propositions  of 
which  Stevinus  made  use,  was  established  by  him  with 
the  aid  of  an  ingenious  demonstration  which  Galileo 
was  also  to  employ,  and  which  is  found  in  a  small 
anonymous  work  of  the  thirteenth  century.  In  order 
to  confirm  another  essential  principle  of  his  theory, 
the  law  of  the  equilibrium  of  ii  body  on  an  inclined 
plane,  Stevinus  resorted  to  the  impossibility  of  per- 
petual motion,  which  had  been  affirmed  with  great 
precision  by  Vinci  and  Cardano.     Stevinus's  chief 


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56 


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glory  lay  in  his  discoveries  in  hydrostatics;  and  the 
determining  of  the  extent  and  point  of  application 
of  the  pressure  on  the  slanting  inner  side  of  a  vessel 
by  the  liquid  contained  therein  was  in  itself  sufficient 
to  entitle  this  geometrician  from  Bruges  to  a  foremost 
place  among  the  creators  of  the  theory  of  the  equi- 
librium of  fluids.  Benedetti  was  on  the  point  of 
enunciating  the  principle  known  as  Pascal's  Law,  and 
an  insignificant  addition  permitted  Mersenne  to 
inter  this  principle  and  the  idea  of  the  hydraulic 
press  from  what  the  Italian  geometrician  had  written. 
Benedetti  had  justified  his  propositions  by  using  as 
an  axiom  the  law  of  the  equilibrium  of  liquids  in 
communicating  vessels,  and  prior  to  this  time  Vinci 
had  followed  the  same  logical  proceeding. 

X\'I.  Dynamics  in  the  Sixteenth  Cextuky. — 
The  geometricians  who,  in  spite  of  the  stereotyped 
methods  of  Averroism  and  the  banter  of  Humanism, 
continued  to  cultivate  the  Parisian  dynamics  of 
impetus,  were  rewarded  by  splendid  discoveries. 
Dissipating  the  doubt  in  which  Albert  of  Saxony  had 
remained  enveloped,  Vinci  had  declared  the  velocity 
acquired  by  a  falling  body  to  be  proportional  to  the 
time  occupied  by  the  fall,  but  he  did  not  know  how 
to  determine  the  law  connecting  the  time  consumed 
in  falling  with  the  space  passed  over  by  the  falling 
body.  Nevertheless  to  find  this  law  it  would  have 
sufficed  to  invoke  the  following  proposition:  in  a 
uniformly  varied  motion,  the  space  traversed  by  the 
moving  body  is  equal  to  that  which  it  would  traverse 
in  a  uniform  motion  whose  duration  would  be  that 
of  the  preceding  motion,  and  whose  velocity  would 
be  the  same  as  that  which  affected  the  preceding 
motion  at  the  mean  instant  of  its  duration.  This 
proposition  was  known  to  Oresme,  who  had  demon- 
strated it  exactly  as  it  was  to  be  demonstrated  later 
by  Galileo;  it  was  enunciated  and  discussed  at  the 
close  of  the  fourteenth  century  by  all  the  logicians 
who,  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  composed  the  school 
of  William  of  Heytesbury,  Chancellor  of  Oxford  in 
1375;  it  was  subsequently  examined  or  in\-oked  in  the 
fifteenth  century  by  all  the  Italians  who  became  the 
commentatons  of  these  logicians;  and  finally,  the 
masters  of  the  University  of  Paris,  contemporaries 
of  \'inci,  taught  and  demonstrated  it  as  Oresme  had 
done. 

This  law  which  ^'inei  was  not  able  to  determine 
was  published  in  1545  by  a  Spanish  Dominican, 
Domingo  Soto  (1494-1560),  an  aUimims  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Alcald 
de  Henares,  and  afterwards  at  Salamanca.  He  for- 
mulated these  two  laws  thus : 

The  velocity'  of  a  falling  body  increases  propor- 
tionally to  the  time  of  the  fall. 

The  space  traversed  in  a  uniformly  varied  motion 
is  the  same  as  in  a  uniform  motion  occupying  the 
same  time,  its  velocity  being  the  mean  velocity  of 
the  former. 

In  addition  Soto  declared  that  the  motion  of  a 
body  thrown  vertically  upward  is  uniformly  retarded. 
It  should  be  mentioned  that  all  these  propositions 
were  formulated  by  the  celebrated  Dominican  as  if 
in  relation  to  truths  generally  admitted  by  the  mas- 
ters among  whom  he  lived. 

The  Parisian  theory,  maintaining  that  the  accel- 
erated fall  of  bodies  was  due  to  the  effect  of  a  continual 
increa.se  of  impetus  caused  by  gravity,  was  admitted 
by  Julius  Ca?sar  ScaUger  (1484-1558),  Benedetti,  and 
Gabriel  Vasquez  (1551-1604),  the  celebrated  .Jesuit 
theologian.  The  first  of  these  authors  presented  this 
theory  in  such  a  way  that  uniform  acceleration  of 
motion  seemed  naturally  to  follow  from  it. 

Soto,  Tartaglia,  and  Cardano  made  strenuous 
efforts,  after  the  manner  of  Vinci,  to  explain  the 
motion  of  projc^ctiles  by  appealing  to  the  conflict 
between  imjjetus  and  gravity,  but  their  attempts 
were  frustrated  by  a  Peripatetic  error  which  several 


Parisian  masters  had  long  before  rejected.  They 
believed  that  the  motion  of  the  projectile  was  acceler- 
ated from  the  start,  and  attributed  this  initial  acceler- 
ation to  an  impulse  communicated  by  the  vibrating 
air.  Indeed,  throughout  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
Italian  Averroists  continued  to  attribute  to  the  am- 
bient air  the  very  transportation  of  the  projectile. 
Tartaglia  empirically  discovered  that  a  piece  of 
artillery  attained  its  greatest  range  when  pointed  at 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  to  the  horizon.  Bruno 
insisted  upon  Oresme's  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
a  body  appears  to  fall  in  a  vertical  line  in  spite  of  the 
Earth's  motion;  to  obtain  the  trajectory  of  this 
body  it  is  necessary  to  combine  the  action  of  its 
weight  with  the  impetus  which  the  Earth  has  im- 
parted to  it.  It  was  as  follows  that  Benedetti  set 
forth  the  law  followed  by  such  an  impetus.  A  body 
whirled  in  a  circle  and  suddenly  left  to  itself  will 
move  in  a  straight  line  tangent  to  the  circle  at  the 
very  point  where  the  body  happened  to  be  at  the 
moment  of  its  release.  For  this  achievement  Bene- 
detti deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the  most  valuable 
contributors  to  the  disco\-ery  of  the  law  of  inertia. 
In  1553  Benedetti  advanced  the  following  argument: 
in  air,  or  any  fluid  whatever,  ten  equal  stones  fall 
with  the  same  velocity  as  one  of  their  number;  and 
if  all  were  combined  they  would  still  fall  with  the 
same  velocity;  therefore,  in  a  fluid  two  stones,  one 
of  which  is  ten  times  heavier  than  the  other,  fall  with 
the  same  velocity.  Benedetti  lauded  the  extreme 
novelty  of  this  argument  with  which,  in  reality, 
many  scholastics  had  been  familiar,  but  which  they 
had  all  claimed  was  not  conclusive,  because  the  resis- 
tance which  the  air  offered  to  the  heavier  stone 
could  certainly  not  be  ten  times  that  which  it  opposed 
to  the  lighter  one.  Achillini  was  one  of  those  who 
clearly  maintained  this  principle.  That  it  might 
lead  to  a  correct  conclusion,  Benedetti's  argument 
had  to  be  restricted  to  the  motion  of  bodies  in  a 
vacuum,  and  this  is  what  was  done  by  Galileo. 

XVII.  Galileo's  Work.— Galileo  Galilei  (1564- 
1642)  had  been  in  youth  a  staunch  Peripatetic,  but 
was  later  converted  to  the  Copernican  system,  and 
devoted  most  of  his  efforts  to  its  defence.  The  tri- 
umph of  the  system  of  Copernicus  could  only  be 
secured  by  the  perfecting  of  mechanics,  and  espe- 
cially by  solving  the  problem  presented  by  the  fall 
of  bodies,  when  the  earth  was  supposed  to  be  in 
motion.  It  was  towards  this  solution  that  many 
of  Galileo's  researches  were  directed,  and  to  bring 
his  labours  to  a  successful  issue  he  had  to  adopt  cer- 
tain principles  of  Parisian  dynamics.  Unfortunately, 
instead  of  using  them  all,  he  left  it  to  others  to  ex- 
haust their  fecundity. 

Galilean  statics  was  a  compromise  between  the 
incorrect  method  inaugurated  in  Aristotle's  "  Mechan- 
ical Questions"  and  the  correct  method  of  virtual 
displacements  successfully  applied  by  the  School  of 
Jordanus.  Imbued  with  ideas  that  were  still  intensely 
Peripatetic,  it  introduced  the  consideration  of  a 
certain  impeto  or  momenta,  proportional  to  the 
velocity  of  the  moving  body  and  not  unlike  the 
impetus  of  the  Parisians.  Galilean  hydrostatics 
also  showed  an  imperfect  form  of  the  principle  of 
virtual  displacements,  which  seemed  to  have  been 
suggested  to  the  great  Pisan  by  the  effectual  re- 
searches made  on  the  theory  of  running  water  by  his 
friend  Benedetto  Ca.stelli,  the  Benedictine  (1577-1644). 
At  first  Galileo  asserted  that  the  velocity  of  a  falhng 
body  increased  proportionally  to  the  space  traversed, 
and  afterwards,  by  an  ingenious  demonstration,  he 
proved  the  utter  absurdity  of  such  a  law.  He  then 
taught  that  the  motion  of  a  freely  falhng  body  was 
uniformly  accelerated;  in  favour  of  this  law,  he  con- 
tented himself  with  appealing  to  its  simplicity  with- 
out considering  the  continual  increase  of  impetus 
under  the  influence  of  gravity.     Gravity  creates,  in 


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57 


PHYSICS 


equal  periods,  a  new  and  uniform  impetus  which, 
added  to  that  already  acquired,  causes  the  total 
impetus  to  increase  in  arithmetical  progression 
according  to  the  time  occupied  in  the  fall;  hence  the 
velocity  of  the  falling  body.  This  argument  towards 
which  all  Parisian  tradition  had  been  tending  and 
which,  in  the  last  place,  had  been  broached  by  Sca- 
liger,  leads  to  our  modern  law:  a  constant  force 
produces  uniformly  accelerated  motion.  In  Gali- 
leo's work  there  is  no  trace  either  of  the  argument 
or  of  the  conclusion  deduced  therefrom;  however, 
the  argument  itself  was  carefully  developed  by 
Galileo's  friend,  Giambattista  Baliani   (1582-1666). 

From  the  very  definition  of  velocity,  Baliani  en- 
deavoured to  deduce  the  law  according  to  which  the 
space  traversed  by  a  falling  body  is  increased  pro- 
portionally to  the  time  occupied  in  the  fall.  Here 
he  was  confronted  by  a  difficulty  that  had  also  baffled 
Vinci;  however,  he  eventually  anticipated  its  solu- 
tion, which  was  given,  after  similar  hesitation,  by 
another  of  Galileo's  disciples,  Pierre  Gassendi  (1592- 
1655).  Galileo  had  reached  the  law  connecting  the 
time  occupied  in  the  fall  with  the  space  traversed  by 
a  faUing  body,  by  using  a  demonstration  that  became 
celebrated  as  the  "demonstration  of  the  triangle" 
It  was  textually  that  given  by  Oresme  in  the  four- 
teenth century  and,  as  we  have  seen,  Soto  had  thought 
of  using  Oresme's  proposition  in  the  study  of  the 
accelerated  fall  of  bodies.  Galileo  extended  the  laws 
of  freely  falling  bodies  to  a  fall  down  an  inclined  plane 
and  subjected  to  the  test  of  experiment  the  law  of  the 
motion  of  a  weight  on  an  inclined  plane. 

A  body  which,  without  friction  or  resistance  of  any 
kind,  would  describe  the  circumference  of  a  circle 
concentric  with  the  Earth  would  retain  an  invariable 
impelo  or  momento,  as  gravity  would  in  no  wise  tend 
to  increase  or  destroy  this  impeto:  this  principle, 
which  belonged  to  the  dynamics  of  Buridan  and 
Albert  of  Saxony,  was  acknowledged  by  Gahleo. 
On  a  small  surface,  a  sphere  concentric  with  the 
Earth  is  apparently  merged  into  a  horizontal  plane; 
a  body  thrown  upon  a  horizontal  plane  and  free  from 
all  friction  would  therefore  assume  a  motion  appar- 
ently rectilinear  and  uniform.  It  is  only  under  this 
restricted  and  erroneous  form  that  Galileo  recognized 
the  law  of  inertia  and,  in  this,  he  was  the  faithful 
disciple  of  the  School  of  Paris. 

If  a  heavy  body  moved  by  an  impeto  that  would 
make  it  describe  a  circle  concentric  with  the  Earth 
is,  moreover,  free  to  fall,  the  impeto  of  uniform  rota- 
tion and  gravity  are  component  forces.  Over  a 
small  extent  the  motion  produced  by  this  impeto 
may  be  assumed  to  be  rectilinear,  horizontal,  and 
uniform;  hence  the  approximate  law  may  be  enun- 
ciated as  follows:  a  heavy  body,  to  which  a  hori- 
zontal initial  velocity  has  been  imparted  at  the  very 
moment  that  it  is  abandoned  to  the  action  of  gravity, 
assumes  a  motion  which  is  sensibly  the  combination  of 
a  uniform  horizontal  motion  with  the  vertical  motion 
that  it  would  assume  without  initial  velocity.  Galileo 
then  demonstrated  that  the  trajectory  of  this  heavy 
body  is  a  parabola  with  vertical  axis.  This  theory 
of  the  motion  of  projectiles  rests  upon  principles  in 
no  wise  conformable  to  an  exact  knowledge  of  the 
law  of  inertia  and  which  are,  at  bottom,  identical 
with  those  invoked  by  Oresme  when  he  wished  to 
explain  how,  despite  the  Earth's  rotation,  a  body 
seems  to  fall  vertically.  The  argument  employed  by 
Galileo  did  not  permit  him  to  state  how  a  projectile 
moves  when  its  initial  velocity  is  not  horizontal. 

Evangelista  TorrioelU  (1608-47),  a  disciple  of 
Castelli  and  of  Galileo,  extended  the  latter's  method 
to  the  case  of  a  projectile  whose  initial  velocity  had 
a  direction  other  than  horizontal,  and  proved  that 
the  trajectory  remained  a  parabola  with  a  vertical 
axis.  On  the  other  hand  Gassendi  showed  that  in 
this  problem  of  the  motion  of  projectiles,  the  real 


law  of  inertia  which  had  just  been  formulated  by 
Descartes  should  be  substituted  for  the  principles 
admitted  by  the  Parisian  dynamics  of  the  fourteenth 
century. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  Galileo's  observations 
on  the  duration  of  the  oscillation  of  the  pendulum, 
as  these  observations  opened  up  to  dynamics  a  new 
field.  Galileo's  progress  in  dynamics  served  as  a 
defence  of  the  Copernican  system  and  the  disooveri(>a 
which,  with  the  aid  of  the  telescope,  he  was  able  to 
make  in  the  heavens  contributed  to  the  same  end. 
The  spots  on  the  sun's  surface  and  the  mountains, 
similar  to  those  upon  the  Earth,  that  hid  from  view 
certain  portions  of  the  lunar  disc,  gave  ample  proof 
of  the  fact  that  the  celestial  bodies  were  not,  as  Aris- 
totelean  physics  had  maintained,  formed  of  an  in- 
corruptible substance  unlike  sublunary  elements; 
moreover,  the  r61e  of  satellite  which,  in  this  helio- 
centric astronomy,  the  moon  played  in  regard  to  the 
Earth  was  carried  out  in  relation  to  Jupiter  by  the 
two  "Medicean  planets",  which  Galileo  had  been  the 
first  to  discover.  Not  satisfied  with  having  defeated 
the  arguments  opposed  to  the  Copernican  system  by 
adducing  these  excellent  reasons,  Galileo  was  eager 
to  establish  a  positive  proof  in  favour  of  this  system. 
Inspired  perhaps  by  Caloagnini,  he  believed  that  the 
phenomenon  of  the  tides  would  furnish  him  the  de- 
sired proof  and  he  consequently  rejected  every  expla- 
nation of  ebb  and  flow  founded  on  the  attraction  of 
the  sun  and  the  moon,  in  order  to  attribute  the  motion 
of  the  seas  to  the  centrifugal  force  produced  by  ter- 
restrial rotation.  Such  an  explanation  would  con- 
nect the  period  of  high  tide  with  the  sidereal  instead 
of  the  lunar  day,  thus  contradicting  the  most  ordi- 
nary and  ancient  observations.  This  remark  alone 
ought  to  have  held  Galileo  back  and  prevented  him 
from  producing  an  argument  better  calculated  to 
overthrow  the  doctrine  of  the  Earth's  rotation  than 
to  establish  and  confirm  it. 

On  two  occasions,  in  1616  and  1633,  the  Inquisi- 
tion condemned  what  Galileo  had  written  in  favour 
of  the  system  of  Copernicus.  The  hypothesis  of  the 
Earth's  motion  was  declared  falsa  in  Philosophia  et 
ad  minus  erronea  in  fide;  the  hypothesis  of  the  sun 
being  stationary  was  adjudged  falsa  in  Philosophia 
et  formaliter  hceretica.  Adopting  the  doctrine  formu- 
lated by  Tycho  Brahe  in  1578,  the  Holy  Office  forbade 
the  use  of  all  astronomical  hypotheses  that  did  not 
agree  both  with  the  principles  of  Aristotelean  physics, 
and  with  the  letter  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  (see 
Galilei,  Galileo). 

XVIII.  Initial  Attempts  in  Celestial  Mechan- 
ics— Gilbert — Kepler. — Copernicus  had  endeav- 
oured to  describe  accurately  the  motion  of  each  of  the 
celestial  bodies,  and  Gahleo  had  striven  to  show  that 
the  views  of  Copernicus  were  correct;  but  neither 
Copernicus  nor  Galileo  had  attempted  to  extend  to 
the  stars,  what  they  knew  concerning  the  dynamics 
of  sublunary  motions,  or  to  determine  thereby  the 
forces  that  sustain  celestial  motions.  They  were 
satisfied  with  holding  that  the  daily  rotation  of  the 
Earth  is  perpetuated  by  virtue  of  an  impetus  given 
once  for  all;  that  the  various  parts  of  an  element 
belonging  to  a  star  tend  towards  the  centre  of  this 
star  by  reason  of  a  gravity  peculiar  to  each  of  the 
celestial  bodies  through  which  the  body  is  enabled 
to  preserve  its  entireness.  Thus,  in  celestial  mechan- 
ics, these  two  great  scientists  contributed  scarcely 
anything  to  what  had  already  been  taught  by 
Buridan,  Oresme,  and  Nicholas  of  Cusa.  About 
Galileo's  time  we  notice  the  first  attempts  to  consti- 
tute celestial  mechanics,  that  is  to  say,  to  explain 
the  motion  of  the  stars  by  the  aid  of  forces  analogous 
to  those  the  effects  of  which  we  feel  upon  earth;  the 
most  important  of  these  initial  attempts  were  made 
by  William  Gilbert  (1540-1603),  and  Johann  Kepler 
(1571-1631). 


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58 


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To  Gilbert  we  are  indebted  for  an  exhaustive  trea- 
tise on  magnetism,  in  which  he  systematically  incor- 
porated what  was  known  in  medieval  times  of  elec- 
trical and  magnetic  phenomena,  without  adding 
thereto  anything  very  essential;  he  also  gave  the 
result  of  his  own  valuable  experiments.  It  was  in 
this  treatise  that  he  began  to  expound  his  "Magnetic 
Philosophy",  that  is  to  say  his  celestial  mechanics, 
but  the  work  in  which  he  fully  developed  it  was  not 
published  until  1651,  long  after  his  death.  Like 
Oresme  and  Copernicus,  Gilbert  maintained  that  in 
each  star  there  was  a  particular  gravity  through 
which  the  material  parts  belonging  to  this  star,  and 
these  only,  tended  to  rejoin  the  star  when  they  had 
been  separated  from  it.  He  compared  this  gravity, 
peculiar  to  each  star,  to  the  action  by  which  a  piece 
of  iron  flies  towards  the  magnet  whose  nature  it 
shares.  This  opinion,  held  by  so  many  of  Gilbert's 
predecessors  and  adopted  by  a  great  number  of  his 
imitators,  led  Francis  Bacon  astray.  Bacon  was  the 
enthusiastic  herald  of  the  experimental  method 
which,  however,  he  never  practised  and  of  which  he 
had  an  utterly  false  conception.  According  to  Gil- 
bert, the  Earth,  sun,  and  the  stars  were  animated,  and 
the  animating  principle  of  each  communicated  to 
the  body  the  motion  of  perpetual  rotation.  From  a 
distance,  the  sun  exerted  an  action  perpendicular 
to  the  radius  vector  which  goes  from  the  centre  of 
the  sun  to  a  planet,  and  this  action  caused  the  planet 
to  revolve  around  the  sun  just  as  a  horse  turns  the 
horse-mill  to  which  it  is  yoked. 

Kepler  himself  admitted  that  in  his  first  attempts 
along  the  line  of  celestial  mechanics  he  was  under  the 
influence  of  Nicholas  of  Cusa  and  Gilbert.  Inspired 
by  the  former  of  these  authors,  he  attributed  the 
Earth's  rotation  on  its  axis  to  an  impetus  communi- 
cated by  the  Creator  at  the  beginning  of  time;  but, 
under  the  influence  of  Gilbert's  theory,  he  declared 
that  this  impetus  ended  by  being  transformed  into 
a  soul  or  an  animating  principle.  In  Kepler's  earliest 
system,  as  in  Gilbert's,  the  distant  sun  was  said  to 
exercise  over  each  planet  a  power  perpendicular  to 
the  radius  vector,  which  power  produced  the  circular 
motion  of  the  planet.  However,  Kepler  had  the 
happy  thought  of  submitting  a  universal  attraction 
for  the  magnetic  attraction  that  Gilbert  had  con- 
sidered peculiar  to  each  star.  He  assumed  that 
every  material  mass  tended  towards  every  other 
material  mass,  no  matter  to  what  celestial  body  each 
one  of  them  belonged ;  that  a  portion  of  matter  placed 
between  two  stars  would  tend  towards  the  larger 
and  nearer  one,  although  it  might  never  have  belonged 
to  it;  that,  at  the  moment  of  high  tide,  the  waters 
of  the  sea  rose  towards  the  moon,  not  because  they 
had  any  special  affinity  for  this  humid  star,  but  by 
virtue  of  the  general  tendency  that  draws  all  material 
masses  towards  one  another. 

In  the  course  of  numerous  attempts  to  explain 
the  motion  of  the  stars,  Kepler  was  led  to  complicate 
his  first  celestial  mechanics.  He  assumed  tliat  all 
celestial  bodies  were  plunged  into  an  ethereal  fluid, 
that  the  rotation  of  the  sun  engendered  a  vortex  with- 
in this  fluid  the  reactions  of  which  interposed  to 
deflect  each  planet  from  the  circular  path.  He  also 
thought  that  a  certain  power,  similar  to  that  which 
directs  the  magnetic  needle,  preserved  invariable 
in  space  the  direction  of  the  axis  around  which  the 
rotation  of  each  planet  is  effected.  The  unstable 
and  complicated  .system  of  celestial  mechanics 
taught  by  Kepler  sprang  from  very  deficient  djmam- 
ifs  which,  on  many  points,  was  more  akin  to  that 
of  the  Peripatetics  than  to  t.hat  of  the  Parisians. 
Howe\'er,  these  many  vague  hypotheses  exerted  an 
incontestable  influence  on  the  attempts  of  scientists 
from  K'epler  to  Newton  to  determine  the  forces  that 
raovc  the  stars.  If,  indeed,  Kepler  prepared  the  way 
for  Newton's  work,  it  was  mainly  by  the  discovery 


of  the  three  admirable  laws  that  have  immortalized 
his  name;  and,  by  teaching  that  the  planets  de- 
scribed ellipses  instead  of  circles,  he  produced  in 
astronomy  a  revolution  greater  by  far  than  that 
caused  by  Copernicus;  he  destroyed  the  last  time- 
honoured  principle  of  ancient  physics,  according 
to  which  all  celestial  motions  were  reducible  to  cii- 
cular  motion. 

XIX.  Controversies  concerning  Geostatics. — 
The  "magnetic"  philosophy  adopted  and  developed 
by  Gilbert  was  not  only  rejected  by  Kepler  but 
badly  abused  in  a  dispute  over  the  principles  of 
statics.  A  number  of  the  Parisian  Scholastics 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  Albert  of  Saxony  in 
particular,  had  accepted  the  principle  that  in  every 
body  there  is  a  fixed,  determined  point  which  tends 
to  join  the  centre  of  the  World,  this  point  being 
identical  with  the  centre  of  gravity  as  considered  by 
Archimedes.  From  this  principle  various  authors, 
notably  Vinci,  deduced  corollaries  that  retained  a 
place  in  statics.  The  Copernican  revolution  had 
modified  this  principle  but  little,  having  simply 
substituted,  for  the  centre  of  the  universe,  a  particular 
point  in  each  star,  towards  which  point  tended  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  each  mass  belonging  to  this  star. 
Copernicus,  Galileo,  and  Gilbert  admitted  the  prin- 
ciple thus  modified,  but  Kepler  rejected  it.  In  1635 
Jean  de  Beaugrand  deduced  from  this  principle  a 
paradoxical  theory  on  the  gravity  of  bodies,  and  par- 
ticularly on  the  variation  in  the  weight  of  a  body  whose 
distance  from  the  centre  of  the  universe  changes. 
Opinions  similar  to  those  proposed  by  Beaugrand  in 
his  geostatics  were  held  in  Italy  by  Caetelli,  and  in 
France  by  Pierre  Fermat  (1608-65).  Fermat's 
doctrine  was  discussed  and  refuted  by  Etienne 
Pascal  (1588-1651)  and  Gilles  Persone  de  Roberval 
(1602-75),  and  the  admirable  controversy  between 
these  authors  and  Fermat  contributed  in  great  measure 
to  the  clear  exposition  of  a  certain  number  of  ideas 
employed  in  statics,  amongst  them,  that  of  the  centre 
of  gravity. 

It  was  this  controversy  which  led  Descartes  to 
revive  the  question  of  virtual  displacements  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  form  as  that  adopted  by  the  School 
of  Jordanus,  in  order  that  the  essential  propositions 
of  statics  might  be  given  a  stable  foundation.  On 
the  other  hand,  Torricelli  based  all  his  arguments 
concerning  the  laws  of  equilibrium  on  the  axiom 
quoted  above,  viz.:  a  system  endowed  with  weight 
is  in  equilibrium  when  the  centre  of  gravit}'  of  all  the 
bodies  forming  it  is  the  lowest  possible.  Cardano  and 
perhaps  Vinci  had  derived  this  proposition  from  the 
doctrine  of  Albert  of  Saxony,  but  Torricelli  was  care- 
ful to  use  it  only  under  circumstances  in  which  all 
verticals  are  considered  parallel  to  one  another  and, 
in  this  way,  he  severed  all  connexion  between  the 
axiom  that  he  admitted  and  the  doubtful  hypotheses 
of  Parisian  physics  or  magnetic  philosophy.  Thence- 
forth the  principles  of  statics  were  formulated  with 
accuracy,  John  Wallis  (1616-1703),  Pierre  Varignon 
(1654-1722),  and  Jean  BernouUi  (1667-1748)  having 
merely  to  complete  and  develop  the  information  pro- 
vided by  Stevinus,  Roberval,  Descartes,  and  Tor- 
ricelli. 

XX.  Descabtbs's  Work. — We  have  just  stated 
what  part  Descartes  took  in  the  building  of  statics 
by  bringing  forward  the  method  of  virtual  displace- 
ments, but  his  active  interest  in  the  building  up  of 
dynamics  was  still  more  important.  He  clearly  for- 
mulated the  law  of  inertia  as  observed  by  Benedetti: 
every  moving  body  is  inclined,  if  nothing  prevent  it, 
to  continue  its  motion  in  a  straight  line  and  with 
constant  \'elocity;  a  body  cannot  move  in  a  circle 
unless  it  be  drawn  towards  the  centre,  by  centripetal 
movement  in  opposition  to  the  centrifugal  force  by 
which  this  body  tends  to  fly  away  from  the  centre. 
Because  of  the  similarity  of  the  views  held  by  Des- 


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69 


PHYSICS 


cartes  and  Benedetti  concerning  this  law,  we  may 
conclude  that  Descartes' s  discovery  was  influenced 
by  that  of  Benedetti,  especially  as  Benedetti's  works 
were  known  to  Marin  Mersenne  (1588-1648),  the 
faithful  friend  and  correspondent  of  Descartes. 
Descartes  connected  the  following  truth  with  the 
law  of  inertia:  a  weight  constant  in  size  and  direction 
causes  a  uniformly  accelerated  motion.  Besides,  we 
have  seen  how,  with  the  aid  of  Descartes's  principles, 
Gassendi  was  able  to  rectify  what  Galileo  had  taught 
concerning  falling  bodies  and  the  motion  of  projec- 
tiles. 

In  statics  a  heavy  body  can  very  often  be  replaced 
by  a  material  point  placed  at  its  centre  of  gravity; 
but  in  dynamics  the  question  arises  whether  the 
motion  of  a  body  be  treated  as  if  this  body  were 
entirely  concentrated  in  one  of  these  points,  and  also 
which  point  this  is?  This  question  relative  to  the 
existence  and  finding  of  a  centre  of  impulsion  had 
already  engrossed  the  attention  of  Vinci  and,  after 
him,  of  Bernardino  Baldi  (1553-1617).  Baldi  as- 
serted that,  in  a  body  undergoing  a  motion  of  trans- 
lation, the  centre  of  impulsion  does  not  differ  from  the 
centre  of  gravity.  Now,  is  there  a  centre  of  impulsion 
and,  if  so,  where  is  it  to  be  found  in  a  body  under- 
going a  motion  other  than  that  of  translation,  for 
instance,  by  a  rotation  around  an  axis?  In  other 
words,  is  there  a  simple  pendulum  that  moves  in  the 
same  way  as  a  given  compound  pendulum?  Inspired, 
no  doubt,  by  reading  Baldi,  Mersenne  laid  this  prob- 
lem before  Roberval  and  Descartes,  both  of  whom 
made  great  efforts  to  solve  it  but  became  unfriendly 
to  each  other  because  of  the  difference  in  their  respec- 
tive propositions.  Of  the  two,  Descartes  came  nearer 
to  the  truth,  but  the  dynamic  principles  that  he  used 
were  not  sufficiently  accurate  to  justify  his  opinion 
in  a  convincing  manner;  the  glory  was  reserved  to 
Christian  Huygens. 

The  Jesuits,  who  at  the  College  of  La  FlSche  had 
been  the  preceptors  of  Mersenne  and  Descartes,  did 
not  teach  Peripatetic  physics  in  its  stereot3TDed 
integrity,  but  Parisian  physics;  the  treatise  that 
guided  the  instruction  imparted  at  this  institution 
being  represented  by  the  "Commentaries"  on  Aris- 
totle, published  by  the  Jesuits  of  Coimbra  at  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  Hence  it  can  be  under- 
stood why  the  dynamics  of  Descartes  had  many 
points  in  common  with  the  dynamics  of  Buridan  and 
the  Parisians.  Indeed,  so  close  were  the  relations 
between  Parisian  and  Cartesian  physics  that  certain 
professors  at  La  Fleche,  such  as  Etienne  Noel  (1581- 
1660),  became  Cartesians.  Other  Jesuits  attempted 
to  build  up  a  sort  of  a  combination  of  Galilean  and 
Cartesian  mechanics  with  the  mechanics  taugh  by 
Parisian  Scholasticism,  and  foremost  among  these 
men  must  be  mentioned  Honor^  Fabri  (1606-88),  a 
friend  of  Mersenne. 

In  every  moving  body  Descartes  maintained  the 
existence  of  a  certain  power  to  continue  its  motion 
in  the  same  direction  and  with  the  same  velocity  and 
this  power,  which  he  called  the  quantity  of  motion, 
he  measured  by  estimating  the  product  of  the  mass 
of  the  moving  body  by  the  velocity  that  impels  it. 
The  affinity  is  close  between  the  r61e  which  Descartes 
attributed  to  this  quantity  of  motion,  and  that  which 
Buridan  ascribed  to  impetus.  Fabri  was  fully  aware 
of  this  analogy  and  the  momentum  that  he  discussed 
was  at  once  the  impetus  of  the  Parisians,  and  Des- 
cartes's quantity  of  motion.  In  statics  he  identified 
this  momentum  with  what  Galileo  called  momento  or 
impeto,  and  this  identification  was  certainly  conform- 
able to  the  Pisan's  idea.  Fabri's  synthesis  was  well 
adapted  to  make  this  truth  clear,  that  modern  dynam- 
ics, the  foundations  of  which  were  laid  by  Descartes 
and  Gahleo,  proceeded  almost  directly  from  the 
dynamics  taught  during  the  fourteenth  century  in 
the  University  of  Paris. 


If  the  special  physical  truths  demonstrated  or 
anticipated  by  Descartes  were  easily  traceable  to  the 
philosophy  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  principles 
on  which  the  great  geometrician  wished  to  base 
these  truths  were  absolutely  incompatible  with  this 
philosophy.  In  fact,  denying  that  in  reality  there 
existed  anything  qualitative,  Descartes  insisted  that 
matter  be  reduced  to  extension  and  to  the  attributes 
of  which  extension  seemed  to  him  susceptible,  namely, 
numerical  proportions  and  motion;  and  it  was  by 
combinations  of  different  figures  and  motions  that 
all  the  effects  of  physios  could  be  explained  according 
to  his  Uking.  Therefore  the  power  by  virtue  of  which 
a  body  tends  to  preserve  the  direction  and  velocity 
of  its  motion  is  not  a  quaUty  distinct  from  motion, 
such  as  the  impetus  recognized  by  the  scholastics; 
it  is  nothing  else  than  the  motion  itself,  as  was  taught 
by  William  of  Occam  at  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  A  body  in  motion  and  isolated  would 
always  retain  the  same  quantity  of  motion,  but  there 
is  no  isolated  body  in  a  vacuum,  because  matter  being 
identical  with  extension,  vacuum  is  inconceivable, 
as  is  also  compressibility.  The  only  conceivable 
motions  are  those  which  can  be  produced  in  the  midst 
of  incompressible  matter,  that  is  to  say,  vortical 
motions  confined  within  their  own  bulk. 

In  these  motions  bodies  drive  one  another  from  the 
place  they  have  occupied  and,  in  such  a  transmission 
of  motion,  the  quantity  of  motion  of  each  of  these 
bodies  varies;  however,  the  entire  quantity  of  motion 
of  all  the  bodies  that  impinge  on  one  another  remains 
constant,  as  God  always  maintains  the  same  sum 
total  of  motion  in  the  world.  This  transmission  of 
motion  by  impact  is  the  only  action  that  bodies  can 
exert  over  one  another  and  in  Cartesian,  as  well  as 
in  Aristotelean  physics,  a  body  cannot  put  another 
in  motion  unless  it  touch  it,  immediate  action  at  a 
distance  being  beyond  conception. 

There  are  various  species  of  matter,  differing  from 
one  another  only  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  contig- 
uous particles  of  which  they  are  formed.  The  space 
that  extends  between  the  different  heavenly  bodies 
is  filled  with  a  certain  subtile  matter,  the  very  fine 
particles  of  which  easily  penetrate  the  interstices 
left  between  the  coarser  constituents  of  other  bodies. 
The  properties  of  subtile  matter  play  an  important 
part  in  all  Cartesian  cosmology.  The  vortices  in 
which  subtile  matter  moves,  and  the  pressure  gener- 
ated by  these  vortical  motions,  serve  to  explain  all 
celestial  phenomena.  Leibniz  was  right  in  supposing 
that  for  this  part  of  his  work  Descartes  had  drawn 
largely  upon  Kepler.  Descartes  also  strove  to  ex- 
plain, with  the  aid  of  the  figures  and  motions  of  sub- 
tile and  other  matter,  the  different  effects  observable 
in  physics,  particularly  the  properties  of  the  magnet 
and  of  light.  Light  is  identical  with  the  pressure 
which  subtile  matter  exerts  over  bodies  and,  as  sub- 
tile matter  is  incompressible,  light  is  instantly  trans- 
mitted to  any  distance,  however  great. 

The  suppositions  by  the  aid  of  which  Descartes 
attempted  to  reduce  all  physical  phenomena  to  com- 
binations of  figures  and  motions  had  scarcely  any 
part  in  the  discoveries  that  he  made  in  physics; 
therefore  the  identification  of  light  with  the  pressure 
exerted  by  subtile  matter  plays  no  part  in  the  inven- 
tion of  the  new  truths  which  Descartes  taught  in 
optics.  Foremost  amongst  these  truths  is  the  law 
of  the  refraction  of  light  passing  from  one  medium  to 
another,  although  the  question  still  remains  whether 
Descartes  discovered  this  law  himself,  or  whether,  as 
Huygens  accused  him  of  doing,  he  borrowed  it  from 
Willebrord  Snellius  (1591-1626),  without  any  men- 
tion of  the  real  author.  By  this  law  Descartes  gave 
the  theory  of  refraction  through  a  prism,  which  per- 
mitted him  to  measure  the  indices  of  refraction; 
moreover,  he  greatly  perfected  the  study  of  lenses, 
and  finally  completed  the  explanation  of  the  rainbow, 


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no  progress  having  been  made  along  this  Une  from  the 
year  1300,  when  Thierry  of  Freiberg  had  given  his 
treatise  on  it.  However,  the  reason  why  the  rays 
emerging  from  the  drops  of  water  are  variously  col- 
oured was  no  better  Itnown  by  Descartes  than  by 
Aristotle;  it  remained  for  Newton  to  make  the  dis- 
covery. 

XXI.  Progress  of  Experimental  Physics.— 
Even  in  Descartes's  work  the  discoveries  in  physics 
were  almost  independent  of  Cartesianism.  The 
knowledge  of  natural  truths  continued  to  advance 
without  the  influence  of  this  system  and,  at  times, 
e\-en  in  opposition  to  it,  although  those  to  whom  this 
progress  was  due  were  often  Cartesians.  This  ad- 
vancement was  largely  the  result  of  a  more  frequent 
and  skilful  use  of  the  experimental  method.  The  art 
of  making  logically  connected  experiments  and  of 
deducing  their  consequences  is  indeed  very  ancient; 
in  a  way  the  works  produced  by  this  art  were  no  more 
perfect  than  the  researches  of  Pierre  of  Maricourt  on 
the  magnet  or  Thierry  of  Freiberg  on  the  rainbow. 
However,  if  the  art  remained  the  same,  its  technic 
continued  to  improve;  more  skilled  workmen  and 
more  powerful  processes  furnishing  physicists  with 
more  intricate  and  better  made  instruments,  and  thus 
rendering  possible  more  delicate  experiments.  The 
rather  imperfect  tests  made  by  Galileo  and  Mersenne 
in  endeavouring  to  determine  the  specific  weight  of 
air  mark  the  beginning  of  the  development  of  the 
experimental  method,  which  was  at  once  vigorously 
pushed  forward  by  discussions  in  regard  to  vacuum. 

In  Peripatetic  physics  the  possibility  of  an  empty 
space  was  a  logical  contradiction;  but,  after  the 
condemnation  pronounced  at  Paris  in  1277  by  Tem- 
pier,  the  existence  of  a  vacuum  ceased  to  be  consid- 
ered absurd.  It  was  simply  taught  as  a  fact  that 
the  powers  of  nature  are  so  constructed  as  to  oppose 
the  production  of  an  empty  space.  Of  the  various 
conjectures  proposed  concerning  the  forces  which 
prevent  the  appearance  of  a  vacuum,  the  most  sen- 
sible and,  it  would  seem,  the  most  generally  received 
among  sixteenth-century  Parisians,  was  the  follow- 
ing: contiguous  bodies  adhere  to  one  another,  and 
this  adhesion  is  maintained  by  forces  resembling 
those  by  which  a  piece  of  iron  adheres  to  the  magnet 
wliich  it  touches.  In  naming  this  force  horror  vacui, 
there  was  no  intention  of  considering  the  bodies  as 
animate  beings.  A  heavy  piece  of  iron  detaches 
itself  from  the  magnet  that  should  hold  it  up,  its 
weight  having  conquered  the  force  by  which  the 
magnet  retained  it;  in  the  same  way,  the  weight  of 
too  heavy  a  body  can  prevent  the  horror  vacui  from 
raising  this  body.  This  very  logical  corollary  of  the 
hypothesis  we  have  just  mentioned  was  formulated 
by  Galileo,  who  saw  therein  the  explanation  of  a  fact 
well-known  to  the  cistern  makers  of  his  time;  namely, 
that  a  suction-pump  could  not  raise  water  higher 
than  thirty-two  feet.  This  corollary  entailed  the 
possibility  of  producing  an  empty  space,  a  fact  known 
to  Torricelli  who,  in  1644,  made  the  celebrated  experi- 
ment with  mercury  that  was  destined  to  immortalize 
his  name.  However,  at  the  same  time,  he  anticipated 
a  new  explanation  of  this  experiment;  the  mercury 
is  supported  in  the  tube  not  by  the  horror  vacui  that 
does  not  exist,  but  by  the  pressure  which  the  heavy 
air  exerts  on  the  exterior  surface  of  the  basin. 

Torricelli's  experiment  quickly  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  ijliysicists.  In  France,  thanks  to  Mersenne, 
it  called  forth  on  his  part,  and  on  that  of  those  who 
had  dealings  with  him,  many  experiments  in  which 
Rober\  al  and  Pascal  (1623-62)  vied  with  each  other 
in  ingenuity,  and  in  order  to  have  the  resources  of 
technic  more  easily  at  his  disposal,  Pascal  made  his 
startling  experiments  in  a  glass  factory  at  Rouen. 
Among  the  numerous  inquirers  interested  in  Torri- 
celli's experiment  some  accepted  the  explanation 
offered  by  the  "column  of  air",  and  advanced  by  the 


great  ItaUan  geometrician  himself;  whereas  others, 
such  as  Roberval,  held  to  the  ancient  hypothesis  of 
an  attraction  analogous  to  magnetic  action.  At 
length,  with  a  view  to  setthng  the  difference,  an 
experiment  was  made  which  consisted  in  measuring 
at  what  height  the  mercury  remained  suspended  in 
Torricelli's  tube;  observing  it  first  of  all  at  the  foot 
of  a  mountain  and  then  at  its  summit.  The  idea  of 
this  experiment  seemed  to  have  suggested  itself  to 
several  physicists,  notably  Mersenne,  Descartes,  and 
Pascal  and,  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  last 
named  and  the  courtesy  of  P^rier,  his  brother-in- 
law,  it  was  made  between  the  base  and  summit  of 
Puy-de-D6me,  19  Sept.,  1648.  The  "Trait6  de  1' 
6quihbre  de  liqueurs  et  de  la  pesanteur  de  la  masse 
de  Fair",  which  Pascal  subsequently  composed,  is 
justly  cited  as  a  model  of  the  art  of  logically  connected 
experiments  with  deductions.  Between  atomists 
and  Cartesians  there  were  many  discussions  as  to 
whether  the  upper  part  of  Torricelli's  tube  was  really 
empty  or  filled  with  subtile  matter;  but  these  dis- 
cussions bore  httle  fruit.  However,  fortunately  for 
physics,  the  experimental  method  so  accurately  fol- 
lowed by  Torricelli,  Pascal,  and  their  rivals  continued 
to  progress. 

Otto  von  Guericke  (1602-86)  seems  to  have  pre- 
ceded Torricelli  in  the  production  of  an  empty  space, 
since,  between  1632  and  1638,  he  appears  to  have 
constructed  his  first  pneumatic  machine,  with  the  aid 
of  which  instrument  he  made  in  1654  the  celebrated 
Magdeburg  experiments,  published  in  1657  by  his 
friend  Caspar  Schoot,  S.J.  (1608-60).  Informed  by 
Schoot  of  Guericke's  researches,  Robert  Boyle 
(1627-91)  perfected  the  pneumatic  machine  and, 
assisted  by  Richard  Townley,  his  pupil,  pursued  the 
experiments  that  made  known  the  law  of  the  com- 
pressibility of  perfect  gases.  In  France  these  experi- 
ments were  taken  up  and  followed  by  Mariotte 
(1620-84).  The  use  of  the  dilatation  of  a  fluid  for 
showing  the  changes  of  temperature  was  already 
known  to  Galileo,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  the 
thermoscope  was  invented  by  Galileo  or  by  some  one 
of  the  numerous  physicists  to  whom  the  priority  is 
attributed,  among  these  being  Santorio,  called  Sanc- 
torius  (1560-1636),  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi  (1552-1623), 
Cornelis  van  Drebbel  (1572-1634),  and  Robert  Fludd 
(1574—1637).  Although  the  various  thermoscopes 
for  air  or  liquid  used  in  the  very  beginning  admitted 
of  only  arbitrary  graduation,  they  nevertheless  served 
to  indicate  the  constancy  of  the  temperature  or  the 
direction  of  its  variations,  and  consequently  contrib- 
uted to  the  discovery  of  a  number  of  the  laws  of  physics. 
Hence  this  apparatus  was  used  in  the  Accademia  del 
Cimento,  opened  at  Florence  19  June,  1657,  and 
devoted  to  the  study  of  experimental  physics.  To 
the  members  of  this  academy  we  are  especially 
indebted  for  the  demonstration  of  the  constancy  of 
the  point  of  fusion  of  ice  and  of  the  absorption  of 
heat  accompanying  this  fusion.  Observations  of 
this  kind,  made  by  means  of  the  thermoscope,  created 
an  ardent  desire  for  the  transformation  of  this  appa- 
ratus into  a  thermometer,  by  the  aid  of  a  definite 
graduation  so  arranged  that  everywhere  instruments 
could  be  made  which  would  be  comparable  with  one 
another.  This  problem,  one  of  the  most  important 
in  physics,  was  not  solved  until  1702  when  Guillaume 
Amontons  (1663-1705)  worked  it  out  in  the  most 
remarkable  manner.  Amontons  took  as  a  starting- 
point  these  two  laws,  discovered  or  verified  by  him' 
the  boiling  point  of  water  under  atmospheric  pressure 
is  constant.  The  pressures  sustained  by  any  two 
masses  of  air,  heated  in  the  same  way  in  any  two  con- 
stant volumes,  have  a  relation  independent  of  the 
temperature.  These  two  laws  enabled  Amontons 
to  use  the  air  thermometer  under  constant  volume 
and  to  graduate  it  in  such  a  way  that  it  gave  what  we 
to-day  call  absolute  temperature.    Of  all  the  defini- 


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61 


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tions  of  the  degree  of  temperature  given  since  Amon- 
tons's  time,  he,  at  the  first  stroke,  found  the  most 
perfect.  Equipped  with  instruments  capable  of 
measuring  pressure  and  registering  temperature, 
experimental  physics  could  not  but  make  rapid 
progress,  this  being  still  further  augmented  by  reason 
of  the  interest  shown  by  the  learned  societies  that  had 
been  recently  founded.  The  Accademia  del  Cimento 
was  discontinued  in  1667,  but  the  Royal  Society  of 
London  had  begun  its  sessions  in  1663,  and  the 
Acad6mie  des  Sciences  at  Paris  was  founded  or 
rather  organized  by  Colbert  in  1666.  These  different 
academies  immediately  became  the  enthusiastic 
centres  of  scientific  research  in  regard  to  natural 
phenomena. 

XXII.  Undulatort  Theory  op  Light. — It  was 
to  the  Acad(Smie  des  Sciences  of  Paris  that,  in  1678, 
Christian  Huygens  (1629-95)  presented  his  "Treatise 
on  Light".  According  to  the  Cartesian  system,  light 
was  instantly  transmitted  to  any  distance  through 
the  medium  of  incompressible  subtile  matter.  Des- 
cartes did  not  hesitate  to  assure  Fermat  that  his 
entire  philosophy  would  give  way  as  soon  as  it  should 
be  demonstrated  that  light  is  propagated  with  a  lim- 
ited velocity.  In  1675  Ole  Romer  (1644-1710),  the 
Danish  astronomer,  announced  to  the  Acad(5mie  des 
Sciences  the  extent  of  the  considerable  but  finite 
velocity  with  which  light  traverses  the  space  that 
separates  the  planets  from  one  another,  the  study  of 
the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites  having  brought 
him  to  this  conclusion.  Descartes's  optical  theory 
was  destroyed,  and  Huygens  undertook  to  build  up  a 
new  theory  of  light.  He  was  constantly  guided  by 
the  supposition  that,  in  the  midst  of  compressible 
ether,  substituted  for  incompressible  subtile  matter, 
light  is  propagated  by  waves  exactly  similar  to  those 
which  transmit  sound  through  a  gaseous  medium. 
This  comparison  led  him  to  an  explanation,  which 
is  still  the  standard  one,  of  the  laws  of  reflection  and 
refraction.  In  this  explanation  the  index  of  the  refrac- 
tion of  Ught  passing  from  one  medium  to  another 
equals  the  ratio  of  the  velocity  of  propagation  in  the 
first  medium  to  the  velocity  of  propagation  in  the 
second.  In  1850  this  fundamental  law  was  confirmed 
by  Foucault's  experiments. 

However,  Huygens  did  not  stop  here.  In  1669 
Erasmus  Berthelsen,  known  as  Bartholinus  (1625- 
98),  discovered  the  double  refraction  of  Iceland  spar. 
By  a  generalization,  as  ingenious  as  it  was  daring, 
of  the  theory  he  had  given  for  non-crystallized  media, 
Huygens  succeeded  in  tracing  the  form  of  the  surface 
of  a  luminous  wave  inside  of  a  crystal  such  as  spar  or 
quartz,  and  in  defining  the  apparently  complex  laws 
of  the  double  refraction  of  light  in  the  interior  of 
these  crystals.  At  the  same  time,  he  called  attention 
to  the  phenomena  of  polarization  which  accompany 
this  double  refraction;  he  was,  however,  unable  to 
draw  from  his  optical  theory  the  explanation  of  these 
effects.  The  comparison  between  light  and  sound 
caused  Malebranche  (1638-1715)  to  make  some  very 
effective  conjectures  in  1699.  He  assumed  that  light 
is  a  vibratory  motion  analogous  to  that  produced  by 
sound;  the  greater  or  less  amplitude  of  this  motion, 
as  the  case  may  be,  generates  a  greater  or  less  inten- 
sity but,  whilst  in  sound  each  period  corresponds  to 
a  particular  note,  in  light  it  corresponds  to  a  particu- 
lar colour.  Through  this  analogy  Malebranche 
arrived  at  the  idea  of  monochromatic  light,  which 
Newton  was  to  deduce  from  admirably  conducted 
experiments;  moreover,  he  established  between  simple 
colour  and  the  period  of  the  vibration^  of  light,  the 
connexion  that  was  to  be  preserved  in  the  optics 
of  Young  and  Fresnel. 

XXIII.  Developments  of  Dynamics. — Both  Car- 
tesians and  atomists  maintained  that  impact  was  the 
only  process  by  which  bodies  could  put  one  another 
in  motion;    hence,  to  Cartesians  and  atomists,  the 


theory  of  impact  seemed  like  the  first  chapter  of 
rational  physics.  This  theory  had  already  enlisted 
the  attention  of  Galileo,  Marcus  Marci  (1639),  and 
Descartes  when,  in  1668,  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don proposed  it  as  the  subject  of  a  competition  and, 
of  the  three  important  memoirs  submitted  to  the 
criticism  of  this  society  by  John  Wallis,  Christopher 
Wren  (1632-1723),  and  Huygens,  the  last  is  the  only 
one  that  we  can  consider.  In  his  treatise  Huygens 
adopted  the  following  principle:  if  a  material  body, 
subject  merely  to  the  action  of  gravity,  starts  from  a 
certain  position,  with  initial  velocity  equal  to  zero, 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  this  body  can  at  no  time  rise 
higher  than  it  was  at  the  outset  of  the  motion.  Huy- 
gens justified  this  principle  by  observing  that,  if 
it  were  false,  perpetual  motion  would  be  possible. 
To  find  the  origin  of  this  axiom  it  would  be  necessary 
to  go  back  to  "De  Subtilitate"  by  Cardano,  who  had 
probably  drawn  it  from  the  notes  of  Vinci;  the  propo- 
sition on  which  Torricelli  had  based  his  statics  was 
a  corollary  from  this  postulate.  By  maintaining  the 
accuracy  of  this  postulate,  even  in  the  case  where 
parts  of  the  system  clash;  by  combining  it  with  the 
law  of  the  accelerated  fall  of  bodies,  taken  from  Gali- 
leo's works,  and  with  another  postulate  on  the  rela- 
tivity of  motion,  Huygens  arrived  at  the  law  of  the 
impact  of  hard  bodies.  He  showed  that  the  quantity 
the  value  of  which  remains  constant  in  spite  of  this 
impact  is  not,  as  Descartes  declared,  the  total 
quantity  of  motion,  but  that  which  Leibniz  called  the 
quantity  of  vis  viva  (living  force) . 

The  axiom  that  had  so  happily  served  Huygens  in 
the  study  of  the  impact  of  bodies  he  now  extended  to  a 
body  oscillating  around  a  horizontal  axis  and  his 
"Horologium  oscillatorium",  which  appeared  in 
1673,  solved  in  the  most  elegant  and  complete  manner 
the  problem  of  the  centres  of  oscillation  previously 
handled  by  Descartes  and  Roberval.  That  Huy- 
gens's  axiom  was  the  subversion  of  Cartesian  dynamics 
was  shown  by  Leibniz  in  1686.  If,  like  Descartes, 
we  measure  the  efficiency  of  a  force  by  the  work  that 
it  does,  and  if,  moreover,  we  admit  Huygens's  axiom 
and  the  law  of  falling  bodies,  we  find  that  this  effi- 
ciency is  not  measured  by  the  increase  in  the  quantity 
of  motion  of  the  moving  body,  but  by  the  increase  in 
half  the  product  of  the  mass  of  the  moving  body  and 
the  square  of  its  velocity.  It  was  this  product  that 
Leibniz  called  vis  viva.  Huygens's  "Horologium 
oscillatorium"  not  only  gave  the  solution  of  the 
problem  of  the  centre  of  oscillation  but  likewise  a 
statement  of  the  laws  which,  in  circular  motion, 
govern  the  magnitude  of  centrifugal  force,  and  thus 
it  was  that  the  eminent  physicist  prepared  the  way 
for  Newton,  the  lawgiver  of  dynamics. 

XXIV.  Newton's  Work. — Most  of  the  great 
dynamical  truths  had  been  discovered  between  the 
time  of  Galileo  and  Descartes,  and  that  of  Huygens 
and  Leibniz.  The  science  of  dynamics  required  a 
Euclid  who  would  organize  it  as  geometry  had  been 
organized,  and  this  Euclid  appeared  in  the  person  of 
Isaac  Newton  (1642-1727)  who,  in  his  "Philosophise 
naturalis  principia  mathematica",  published  in  1687, 
succeeded  in  deducing  the  entire  science  of  motion 
from  three  postulates:  inertia;  the  independence  of 
the  effects  of  previously  acquired  forces  and  motions; 
and  the  equality  of  action  and  reaction.  Had  New- 
ton's "Principia"  contained  nothing  more  than  this 
co-ordination  of  dynamics  into  a  logical  system,  they 
would  nevertheless  have  been  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant works  ever  written;  but,  in  addition,  they 
gave  the  grandest  possible  application  of  this  dynam- 
ics in  utilizing  it  for  the  establishment  of  celestial 
mechanics.  In  fact,  Newton  succeeded  in  showing 
that  the  laws  of  bodies  falling  to  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  the  laws  that  preside  over  the  motion  of  planets 
around  the  sun,  and  of  satellites  around  the  planets 
which  they  accompany,  finally,  the  laws  that  govern 


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62 


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the  form  of  the  Earth  and  of  the  other  stars,  as  also 
the  high  and  low  tides  of  the  sea,  are  but  so  many 
corollaries  from  this  unique  hypothesis:  two  bodies, 
whatever  their  origin  or  nature,  exert  over  each  other 
an  attraction  proportional  to  the  product  of  their 
masses  and  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance that  separates  them. 

The  dominating  principle  of  ancient  physics 
declared  the  essential  distinction  between  the  laws 
that  directed  the  motions  of  the  stars — beings  exempt 
from  generation,  clumge,  and  death — and  the  laws 
presiding  over  the  motions  of  sublunary  bodies  sub- 
ject to  generation  and  corruption.  From  the  birth 
of  Christian  physics  and  especially  from  the  end  of 
tjie  thirteen!  li  century,  physicists  had  been  endeav- 
ouring to  destroy  the  authority  of  this  principle  and 
to  render  the  celestial  and  sublunary  worlds  subject 
to  the  same  law.s,  the  doctrine  of  universal  gravitation 
being  the  outcome  of  this  prolonged  effort.  In  pro- 
portion as  the  time  approached,  when  Newton  was  to 
produce  his  system,  attempts  at  cosmology  were 
multiplied,  so  many  forerunners,  as  it  were,  of  this 
di.scovery.  AA'hen  in  1672  Guericke  again  took  up 
Kepler's  celestial  mechanics,  he  made  but  one  cor- 
rection therein,  which  unfortunately  caused  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  only  proposition  by  which  this 
work  led  up  to  Newton's  discoveries.  Kepler  had 
maintained  that  two  material  masses  of  any  kind 
attract  each  other,  but,  in  imitation  of  Copernicus, 
Gilbert,  and  Galileo,  Guericke  Umited  this  mutual 
attraction  to  parts  of  the  same  star,  so  that,  far  from 
being  attracted  by  the  Earth,  portions  of  the  moon 
would  be  repelled  by  the  Earth  if  placed  upon  its 
surface.  But,  in  1644,  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Aristarchus  of  Samos,  Roberval  published  a  system 
of  celestial  mechanics,  in  which  the  attraction  was 
perhaps  mutual  between  two  masses  of  no  matter 
what  kind;  in  which,  at  all  events,  the  Earth  and 
Jupiter  attracted  their  satellites  with  a  power  iden- 
tical with  the  gravity  with  which  they  endow  their 
own  fragments.  In  1665,  on  the  pretence  of  explain- 
ing the  motions  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  Giovanni 
Alfonso  Borelli  (1608-79)  tried  to  advance  a  theory 
which  simultaneously  comprised  the  motions  of  the 
planets  around  the  sun  and  of  the  satellites  around 
the  planets.  He  was  the  first  of  modern  scientists 
(Plutarch  having  preceded  him)  to  hold  the  opinion 
that  the  attraction  which  causes  a  planet  to  tend 
towards  the  sun  and  a  satellite  to  tend  towards  the 
star  which  it  accompanies,  is  in  equilibrium  with  the 
centrifugal  force  produced  by  the  circular  motion 
of  the  planet  or  satellite  in  question.  In  1674  Robert 
Hooke  (16.35-1702)  formulated  the  same  idea  with 
great  precision.  Having  already  supposed  the  attrac- 
tion of  two  masses  to  vary  inversely  as  the  square 
of  their  distance,  he  was  in  possession  of  the  funda- 
mental hypotheses  of  the  theory  of  universal  gravi- 
tation, which  hypotheses  were  held  by  Wren  about 
the  same  time.  However,  neither  of  these  scientists 
was  able  to  deduce  therefrom  celestial  mechanics, 
as  both  were  still  unacquainted  with  the  laws  of 
centrifugal  force,  published  just  at  this  time  by 
Huygens.  In  1684  Edmund  Halley  (1656-1742) 
strove  to  combine  Huygens's  theories  with  Hooke's 
hypotheses,  but,  before  his  work  was  finished,  Newton 
presented  his  "Principia"  to  the  Royal  Society, 
having  for  twenty  years  silently  pursued  his  medita- 
tions on  the  system  of  the  world.  Halley,  who  could 
not  forestall  Newton,  had  the  glory  of  broadening 
the  domain  of  universal  gravitation  by  making  it 
include  comets  (1705). 

Not  satisfied  with  creating  celestial  mechanics, 
Newton  also  contributed  largely  to  the  progress  of 
optics.  From  ancient  times  the  colouring  of  the 
spectrum,  produced  by  the  passage  of  white  light 
through  a  glass  prism,  had  elicited  the  wonder  of 
observers  and  appealed  to  the  acumen  of  physicists 


without,  however,  being  satisfactorily  explained. 
Finally,  a  complete  explanation  was  given  by  Newton 
who,  in  creating  a  theory  of  colours,  accomplished 
what  all  the  philosophers  from  Aristotle  down  had 
laboured  in  vain  to  achieve.  The  theory  advanced 
by  the  Enghsh  physicist  agreed  with  that  proposed 
by  Malebranche  at  the  same  time.  However,  Male- 
branche's  theory  was  nothing  more  than  a  hypothesis 
suggested  by  the  analogy  between  light  and  sound, 
whereas  Newton's  explanation  was  drawn  from  experi- 
ments, as  simple  as  they  were  ingenious,  its  exposition 
by  the  author  being  one  of  the  most  beautiful  ex- 
amples of  experimental  induction.  Unfortunately 
Newton  disregarded  this  analogy  between  sound  and 
light  that  had  furnished  Huygens  and  Malebranche 
with  such  fruitful  discoveries.  Newton's  opinion 
was  to  the  effect  that  light  is  formed  of  infinitely 
small  projectiles  thrown  off  with  extreme  velocity  by 
incandescent  bodies.  The  particles  of  the  medium 
in  which  these  projectiles  move  exert  over  them  an 
attraction  similar  to  universal  attraction;  however, 
this  new  attraction  does  not  vary  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance  but  according  to  another 
function  of  the  distance,  and  in  such  a  way  that  it 
exercises  a  very  great  power  between  a  material 
particle  and  a  luminous  corpuscle  that  are  contiguous. 
Nevertheless  this  attraction  becomes  altogether 
insensible  as  soon  as  the  two  masses  between  which 
it  operates  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  per- 
ceptible interval. 

This  action  exerted  by  the  particles  of  a  medium 
on  the  luminous  corpuscles  pervading  them  changes 
the  velocity  with  which  these  bodies  move  and  the 
direction  which  they  follow  at  the  moment  of  passing 
from  one  medium  to  another ;  hence  the  phenomenon 
of  refraction.  The  index  of  refraction  is  the  ratio 
of  the  velocity  of  light  in  the  medium  which  it  enters, 
to  the  velocity  it  had  in  the  medium  which  it  leaves. 
Now,  as  the  index  of  refraction  so  understood  was 
precisely  the  reverse  of  that  attributed  to  it  by 
Huygens's  theory,  in  1850  Foucault  submitted  both 
to  the  test  of  experiment,  with  the  result  that  New- 
ton's theory  of  emission  was  condemned.  Newton 
explained  the  experimental  laws  that  govern  the 
colouring  of  thin  laminae,  such  as  soap  bubbles,  and 
succeeded  in  compelling  these  colours,  by  suitable 
forms  of  these  thin  laminae,  to  assume  the  regular 
order  known  as  "Newton's  Rings".  To  explain  this 
phenomenon  he  conceived  that  luminous  projectiles 
have  a  form  that  may,  at  the  surface  of  contact  of 
two  media,  either  pass  easily  or  be  easily  reflected, 
according  to  the  manner  of  their  presentation  at  the 
moment  of  passage;  a  rotary  motion  causes  them  to 
pass  alternately  by  "fits  of  easy  transmission  or  of 
easy  reflection". 

Newton  thought  that  he  had  accounted  for  the 
principal  optical  phenomena  by  supposing  that, 
besides  this  universal  attraction,  there  existed  an 
attraction,  sensible  only  at  a  very  short  distance, 
exerted  by  the  particles  of  bodies  on  luminous  cor- 
puscles, and  naturally  he  came  to  believe  that  these 
two  kinds  of  attraction  would  suffice  to  explain  all 
physical  phenomena.  Action  extending  to  a  con- 
siderable distance,  such  as  electric  and  magnetic 
action,  must  follow  laws  analogous  to  those  which 
govern  universal  gravity;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
effects  of  capillarity  and  cohesion,  chemical  decom- 
position and  reaction  must  depend  on  molecular 
attraction  extending  only  to  extremely  small  dis- 
tances and  similar  to  that  exerted  over  luminous 
corpuscles.  This  comprehensive  hypothesis  proposed 
by  Newton  in  a  "question"  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
second  edition  of  his  "Optics"  (1717)  gave  a  sort  of 
outline  of  the  programme  which  eighteenth-century 
physics  was  to  attempt  to  carry  out. 

XXV.  Progress  of  General  and  Celestial 
Mechanics  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. — This 


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63 


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programme  made  three  demands:  first,  that  general 
mechanics  and  celestial  mechanics  advance  in  the 
way  indicated  by  Newton;  secondly,  that  electric 
and  magnetic  phenomena  be  explained  by  a  theory 
analogous  to  that  of  universal  gravitation;  thirdly, 
that  molecular  attraction  furnish  the  detailed  expla- 
nations of  the  various  changes  investigated  by  physics 
and  chemistry. 

Many  followed  in  the  path  outlined  by  Newton, 
and  tried  to  extend  the  domain  of  general  and  celestial 
mechanics,  but  there  were  three  who  seem  to  have 
surpassed  all  the  others:  Alexis-Claude  Clairaut 
(1713-65),  Jean-Baptiste  le  Rond  d'Alembert  (1717- 
83),  and  Leonhard  Euler  (1707-83).  The  progress 
which,  thanks  to  these  three  able  men,  was  made  in 
general  mechanics,  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 
In  1743,  by  his  principle  of  the  equilibrium  of  chan- 
nels, which  was  easily  connected  with  the  principle 
of  virtual  displacements,  Clairaut  obtained  the  gen- 
eral equations  of  the  equilibrium  of  liquids.  In  the 
same  year  d'Alembert  formulated  a  rule  whereby  all 
problems  of  motion  were  reduced  to  problems  of 
equilibrium  and,  in  1744,  applied  this  rule  to  the 
equation  of  hydrostatics  given  by  Clairaut  and  arrived 
at  the  equations  of  hydrodynamics.  Euler  trans- 
formed these  equations  and,  in  his  studies  on  the 
motion  of  liquids,  was  enabled  to  obtain  results  no 
less  important  than  those  which  he  had  obtained  by 
analysing  the  motion  of  solids.  Clairaut  extended  the 
consequences  of  universal  attraction  in  all  directions, 
and,  in  1743,  the  equations  of  hydrostatics  that  he 
had  established  enabled  him  to  perfect  the  theory  of 
the  figure  of  the  earth.  In  1752  he  published  his 
theory  of  lunar  inequalities,  which  he  had  at  first 
despaired  of  accounting  for  by  Newton's  principles. 
The  methods  that  he  devised  for  the  study  of  the 
perturbations  which  the  planets  produce  on  the  path 
of  a  star  permitted  him,  in  1758,  to  announce  with 
accuracy  the  time  of  the  return  of  Halley's  Comet. 
The  confirmation  of  this  prediction  in  which  Clairaut 
had  received  assistance  from  Lalande  (1732-1807) 
and  Mme.  Lepaute,  both  able  mathematicians, 
placed  beyond  doubt  the  applicability  of  Newton's 
hypotheses  to  comets. 

Great  as  were  Clairaut's  achievements  in  perfecting 
the  system  of  universal  attraction,  they  were  not  as 
important  as  those  of  d'Alembert.  Newton  could 
not  deduce  from  his  suppositions  a  satisfactory 
theory  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  and  this 
failure  marred  the  harmony  of  the  doctrine  of  uni- 
versal gravitation.  In  1749  d'Alembert  deduced 
from  the  hypothesis  of  gravitation  the  explanation 
of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  and  of  the  nutation 
of  the  earth's  axis;  and  soon  afterwards  Euler, 
drawing  upon  the  admirable  resources  of  his  mathe- 
matical genius,  made  still  further  improvements  on 
d'Alembert's  discovery.  Clairaut,  d'Alembert,  and 
Euler  were  the  most  brilliant  stars  in  an  entire  con- 
stellation of  mechanical  theorists  and  astronomers, 
and  to  this  group  there  succeeded  another,  in  which 
shone  two  men  of  surpassing  intellectuality,  Joseph- 
Louis  Lagrange  (1736-1813)  and  Pierre-Simon 
Laplace  (1749-1827).  Laplace  was  said  to  have 
been  born  to  complete  celestial  mechanics,  if,  indeed, 
it  were  in  the  nature  of  a  science  to  admit  of  com- 
pletion; and  quite  as  much  could  be  said  of  Lagrange 
with  regard  to  general  mechanics.  In  1787  Lagrange 
published  the  first  edition  of  his  "M^canique  analy- 
tique";  the  second,  which  was  greatly  enlarged,  was 
published  after  the  author's  death.  Laplace's  "M6- 
canique  celeste"  was  published  from  1799  to  1805, 
and  both  of  these  works  give  an  account  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  mechanical  conquests  made  in  the  course 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
principles  that  Newton  had  assigned  to  general 
mechanics  and  the  laws  that  he  had  imposed  upon 
universal    gravitation.      However    exhaustive    and 


effective  these  two  treatises  are,  they  do  not  by  any 
means  include  all  the  discoveries  in  general  and 
celestial  mechanics  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  their 
authors.  To  do  Lagrange  even  meagre  justice  his 
able  researches  should  be  placed  on  a  par  with  his 
"M^canique  analytique";  and  our  idea  of  Laplace's 
work  would  be  very  incomplete  were  we  to  omit  the 
grand  cosmogonic  hypothesis  with  which,  in  1796, 
he  crowned  his  "Exposition  du  systfeme  du  monde" 
In  developing  this  hypothesis  the  illustrious  geometri- 
cian was  unaware  that  in  1755  Kant  had  expressed 
similar  suppositions  which  were  marred  by  serious 
errors  in  dynamic  theories. 
XXVI.  Establishment  of  the  Theory  of  Elec- 
tricity AND  Magnetism. — For  a  long  time  the  study 
of  electric  action  was  merely  superficial  and,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  still 
in  the  condition  in  which  Thales  of  Miletus  had  left 
it,  remaining  far  from  the  point  to  which  the  study 
of  magnetic  attraction  and  repulsion  had  been  carried 
in  the  time  of  Pierre  of  Maricourt.  When,  in  1733  and 
1734,  Charles-Francois  de  Cisternay  du  Fay  distin- 
guished two  kinds  of  electricity,  resinous  and  vitreous, 
and  when  he  proved  that  bodies  charged  with  the  same 
kind  of  electricity  repel  one  another,  whereas  those 
charged  with  different  kinds  attract  one  another, 
electrical  science  was  brought  up  to  the  level  that 
magnetic  science  had  long  before  attained,  and 
thenceforth  these  two  sciences,  united  by  the  closest 
analogy,  progressed  side  by  side.  They  advanced 
rapidly  as,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  the  study  of 
electrical  phenomena  became  a  popular  craze.  Physi- 
cists were  not  the  only  ones  devoted  to  it;  men  of  the 
world  crowded  the  salons  where  popularizers  of  the 
science,  such  as  the  Abb6  NoUet  (1700-70),  enlisted 
as  votaries  dandified  marquesses  and  sprightly 
marchionesses.  Numberless  experimentalists  applied 
themselves  to  multiplying  observations  on  electricity 
and  magnetism,  but  we  shall  restrict  ourselves  to 
mentioning  Benjamin  Franklin  (1706-90)  who,  by  his 
logically-conducted  researches,  contributed  more 
than  any  other  man  to  the  formation  of  the  theories 
of  electricity  and  magnetism.  The  researches  of 
Henry  Cavendish  (1731-1810)  deserve  to  be  placed 
in  the  same  rank  as  Franklin's,  though  they  were 
but  little  known  before  his  death. 

By  means  of  Franklin's  experiments  and  his  own, 
iEpinus  (Franz  Ulrich  Theodor  Hoch,  1724-1802) 
was  the  first  to  attempt  to  solve  the  problem  suggested 
by  Newton  and,  by  the  hypothesis  of  attractive  and 
repellent  forces,  to  explain  the  distribution  of  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism  over  the  bodies  which  they 
affect.  His  researches  could  not  be  pushed  very  far, 
as  it  was  still  unknown  that  these  forces  depend  upon 
the  distance  at  which  they  are  exerted.  Moreover, 
.iEpinus  succeeded  in  drawing  still  closer  the  connexion 
already  estaJDlished  between  the  sciences  of  electricity 
and  magnetism,  by  showing  the  polarization  of  each 
of  the  elements  of  the  insulating  plate  which  separates 
the  two  collecting  plates  of  the  condenser.  The 
experiment  he  made  in  this  line  in  1759  was  destined 
to  suggest  to  Coulomb  the  experiment  of  the  broken 
magnets  and  the  theory  of  magnetic  polarization, 
which  is  the  foundation  of  the  study  of  magnets; 
and  was  also  to  be  the  starting-point  of  an  entire 
branch  of  electrical  science,  namely  the  study  of 
dielectric  bodies,  which  study  was  developed  in  the 
nineteenth  century  by  Michael  Faraday  and  James 
Clerk-Maxwell. 

Their  analogy  to  the  fertile  law  of  universal  gravi- 
tation undoubtedly  led  physicists  to  suppose  that 
electrical  and  magnetic  forces  vary  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance  that  separates  the  acting  ele- 
ments; but,  so  far,  this  opinion  had  not  been  con- 
firmed by  experiment.  However,  in  1780  it  received 
this  confirmation  from  Charles-Augustin  de  Coulomb 
with  the  aid  of  the  torsion  balance.    By  the  use  of 


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64 


PHYSICS 


this  balance  and  the  proof  plane,  he  was  enabled  to 
make  detailed  experiments  on  the  subject  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  electricity  over  conductive  bodies,  no 
such  tests  having  been  previously  made.  Although 
Coulomb's  experiments  placed  beyond  doubt  the 
elementary  laws  of  electricity  and  magnetism,  it  still 
remained  to  be  established  by  mathematical  analysis 
how  electricity  was  distributed  over  the  surface  of 
conductive  bodies  of  given  shape,  and  how  a  piece 
of  soft  iron  was  magnetized  under  given  circum- 
stances. The  solution  of  these  problems  was  attempted 
by  Coulomb  and  also  in  1787  by  Hatiy  (q.  v.),  but 
neither  of  these  two  savants  pushed  his  tests  very  far. 
The  estabhshment  of  principles  which  would  permit 
of  an  analysis  of  the  distribution  of  electricity  on  con- 
ductors, and  of  magnetism  on  soft  iron,  required  the 
genius  of  Simon-Denis  Poisson  (1781-1840). 

In  1812  Poisson  showed  how  the  investigation  of 
the  distribution  of  electricity  in  equilibrium  on  con- 
ductors belonged  to  the  domain  of  analysis,  and  he 
gave  a  complete  solution  of  this  problem  in  the  case 
of  two  conductive  spheres  influencing  each  other, 
whether  placed  at  given  distances  or  in  contact. 
Coulomb's  experiments  in  connexion  with  contiguous 
spheres  established  the  truth  of  Poisson's  theory. 
In  1824  Poisson  established  on  the  subject  of  hollow 
conductors  limited  either  interiorly  or  exteriorly  by  a 
spherical  cavity,  theorems  which,  in  1828,  were  ex- 
tended by  George  Green  (1793-1841)  to  all  kinds  of 
hollow  conductors  and  which  Faraday  was  subse- 
quently to  confirm  through  experimentation.  Be- 
tween 1813  and  1824  Poisson  took  up  the  study  of 
magnetic  forces  and  magnetization  by  impulsion 
and,  in  spite  of  a  few  inaccuracies  which  the  future 
was  to  correct,  the  formula  which  he  established 
remain  at  the  basis  of  all  the  research  of  which  mag- 
netism has  meanwhile  been  the  object.  Thanks  to 
Poisson's  memoirs,  the  theory  of  the  forces  exercised 
in  inverse  ratio  to  the  square  of  the  distance,  by 
annexing  the  domain  of  static  electricity  and  mag- 
netism, markedly  enlarged  the  field  which  at  first 
included  only  celestial  mechanics.  The  study  of  the 
action  of  the  electric  current  was  to  open  up  to  this 
theory  a  new  and  fertile  territory. 

The  discoveries  of  Aloisio  Galvani  (1737-98)  and 
Alessandro  Volta  (1745-1827)  enriched  physics  with 
the  voltaic  battery.  It  would  be  impossible  to  enu- 
merate, even  briefly,  the  researches  occasioned  by  this 
discovery.  All  physicists  have  compared  the  con- 
ductor, the  seat  of  a  current,  to  a  space  in  which  a 
fluid  circulates.  In  his  works  on  hydrodynamics 
Euler  had  established  general  formulae  which  apply 
to  the  motion  of  all  fluids  and,  imitating  Euler's 
method,  Jean-Baptiste-Joseph  Fourier  (1768-1830) 
began  the  study  of  the  circulation  of  heat — then  con- 
sidered a  fluid  and  called  caloric — within  conductive 
bodies.  The  mathematical  laws  to  which  he  had 
recourse  once  more  showed  the  extreme  importance 
of  the  mathematical  methods  inaugurated  by  La- 
grange and  Laplace  in  the  study  of  universal  attrac- 
tion, and  at  the  same  time  extended  by  Poisson  to  the 
study  of  electrostatics.  In  order  to  treat  mathe- 
matically of  the  circulation  of  electric  fluid  in  the 
interior  of  conductive  bodies,  it  sufficed  to  take  up 
Fourier's  analysis  almost  textually,  substituting  the 
word  electricity  for  the  word  heat,  this  being  done  in 
1827  by  Georg  Simon  Ohm  (1789-1854). 

Meanwhile  on  21  .July,  1820,  Hans  Christian  Oer- 
sted (1777-1851)  had  discovered  the  action  of  the 
electric  current  on  the  magnetic  needle.  To  this  dis- 
covery Aiidr^-Marie  Amp&e  (1775-1836)  added  that 
of  the  action  exerted  over  each  other  by  two  conduc- 
tors carrying  electric  currents  and,  to  the  study  of 
electro-dynamic  and  electro-magnetic  forces,  he 
applied  a  method  similar  to  that  used  by  Newton 
when  studying  universal  attraction.  In  1826  Ampere 
gave  the  complete  theory  of  all  these  forces  in  Ms 


"Mfemoire  sur  la  thdorie  math^matique  des  ph^ 
nomenes  ^lectro-dynamiques  uniquement  d^duite  de 
I'experience",  a  work  that  can  stand  the  test  of 
comparison  with  the  "Philosophise  naturalis  princi- 
pia  mathematica"  and  not  be  found  wanting. 

Not  wishing  to  carry  the  history  of  electricity  and 
magnetism  beyond  this  date,  we  shall  content  our- 
selves with  making  another  comparison  between  the 
two  works  we  have  just  mentioned.  As  Newton's 
treatise  brought  about  numerous  discoveries  on  the 
part  of  his  successors,  Ampere's  memoir  gave  the 
initial  impetus  to  researches  which  have  greatly 
broadened  the  field  of  electro-dynamics  and  electro- 
magnetism.  Michael  Faraday  (1791-1867),  an  ex- 
perimentafist  whose  activity,  skill,  and  good  fortune 
have  perhaps  never  been  equalled,  established  in 
1831  the  experimental  laws  of  electro-dynamic  and 
electro-magnetic  induction,  and,  between  1845  and 
1847,  Franz  Ernst  Neumann  (1798-1895)  and  Wil- 
helm  Weber  (1804-91),  by  closely  following  Ampere's 
method  of  studying  electro-dynamic  force,  finally 
established  the  mathematical  theory  of  these  phe- 
nomena of  induction.  Michael  Faraday  was  opposed 
to  Newtonian  doctrines,  and  highly  disapproved  the 
theory  of  action  at  a  distance;  in  fact,  when  he 
applied  himself  to  analysing  the  polarization  of 
insulated  media,  which  he  called  dielectrics,  he  hoped 
to  eliminate  the  hypothesis  of  such  action.  Meantime 
by  extending  to  dielectric  bodies  the  formula  that 
Poisson,  Ampere,  and  Neumann  had  established  for 
magnets  and  conductive  bodies,  James  Clerk-Maxwell 
(1831-79)  was  enabled  to  create  a  new  branch  of 
electro-dynamics,  and  thereby  bring  to  light  the 
long-sought  link  connecting  the  sciences  of  electricity 
and  optics.  This  wonderful  discovery  was  not  one 
of  the  least  important  conquests  of  the  method  defined 
and  practised  by  Newton. 

XXVII.  Molecular  Attraction. — While  uni- 
versal attraction,  which  varies  proportionally  as  the 
product  of  the  masses  and  inversely  as  the  square  of 
the  distance,  was  being  established  throughout  the 
science  of  astronomy,  and  while,  thanks  to  the  study 
of  other  forces  also  varying  inversely  as  the  square 
of  the  distance,  electricity  and  magnetism  were  being 
organized,  other  parts  of  physics  received  no  less 
light  from  another  Newtonian  hypothesis,  namely, 
the  supposition  that,  between  two  material  particles, 
there  is  an  attraction  distinct  from  universal  attrac- 
tion and  extremely  powerful,  while  the  two  particles 
are  contiguous,  but  ceasing  to  be  appreciable  as  soon 
as  the  two  masses  which  it  acts  upon  are  separated 
by  a  sensible  distance.  Among  the  phenomena  to  be 
explained  by  such  attractions,  Newton  had  already 
signalized  the  effect  of  capillarity  in  connexion  with 
which  Francis  Hauksbee  (d.  1705)  had  made  inter- 
esting experiments.  In  1718  James  Jurin  (1684- 
1750)  tried  to  follow  Newton's  idea  but  without  any 
marked  success,  and  it  was  Clairaut  who,  in  1743, 
showed  how  hydrostatic  methods  permitted  the 
application  of  this  idea  to  the  explanation  of  capillary 
phenomena.  Unfortunately  his  able  reasoning  led  to 
no  important  result,  as  he  had  ascribed  too  great  a 
value  to  the  extent  of  molecular  action. 

Chemical  action  also  was  one  of  the  actions  which 
Newton  made  subject  to  molecular  attraction,  and 
John  Keill  (1671-1721),  John  Freind  (1675-1728), 
and  Pierre-Joseph  Macquer  (1718-84)  believed  in  the 
fruitfulness  of  this  Newtonian  opinion.  The  hypothe- 
sis of  molecular  attraction  proved  a  great  annoyance 
to  a  man  whose  scientific  mediocrity  had  not  pre- 
vented him  from  acquiring  great  influence,  we  mean 
Georges-Louis-Leclerc  de  Buff  on  (1707-88).  Inca- 
pable of  understanding  that  an  attraction  could  be 
other  than  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
distance,  Buffon  entered  into  a  discussion  of  the  sub- 
ject with  Clairaut,  and  fondly  imagined  that  he  had 
triumphed  over  the  modest  learning  of  his  opponent. 


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65 


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Ruggiero  Giuseppe  Bosoovich,  S.J.  (1711-87),  pub- 
lished a  detailed  exposition  of  the  views  attacked  by 
Buffon  and  defended  by  Clairaut,  and,  inspired  alike 
by  the  opinions  of  Newton  and  Leibniz,  he  conceived 
a  cosmology  in  which  the  universe  is  composed  solely 
of  material  points,  these  being  attracted  to  each  other 
in  pairs.  When  these  points  are  separated  by  a 
sensible  distance,  their  attraction  is  reduced  to  mere 
universal  attraction,  whereas  when  they  are  in  very 
close  proximity  it  assumes  a  dominant  importance. 
Boscovich's  cosmology  provided  physical  theory 
with  a  programme  which  the  geometricians  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  of  a  great  portion  of  the 
nineteenth,  laboured  assiduously  to  carry  out. 

The  efforts  of  Johann  Andreas  von  Segner  (1704- 
77),  and  subsequently  of  Thomas  Young  (1773-1829), 
again  drew  attention  to  capillary  phenomena,  and 
with  the  assistance  of  the  hypothesis  of  molecular 
attraction,  as  also  of  Clairaut's  method,  Laplace 
advanced  in  1806  and  1807  an  admirable  theory, 
which  Karl  Friedrich  Gauss  (1777-1855)  improved 
in  1829.  Being  a  thoroughly-convinced  partisan  of 
Boscovich's  cosmological  doctrine,  Laplace  com- 
municated his  convictions  to  numerous  geometricians, 
who  surrendered  to  the  ascendency  of  his  genius;  we 
shall  only  mention  Claude-Louis-Marie  Navier  (1785- 
1836),  Poisson,  and  Augustin  Cauchy  (1789-1857). 
In  developing  the  consequences  of  the  hypothesis  of 
molecular  attraction  Xavier,  Poisson,  and  Cauchy 
succeeded  in  building  up  the  theory  of  the  equilibrium 
and  small  motions  of  elastic  bodies,  one  of  the  finest 
and  most  fruitful  theories  of  modern  physics.  The 
discredit  into  which  the  progress  of  present-day 
thermodynamics  has  brought  Boscovich's  cosmology 
has,  however,  affected  scarcely  anything  of  what 
Laplace,  Gauss,  Navier,  Poisson,  Cauchy,  and  many 
others  have  deduced  from  the  principles  of  this 
cosmology.  The  theories  which  they  established 
have  always  been  readily  justified  with  the  assistance 
of  new  methods,  the  way  of  bringing  about  this  justi- 
fication having  been  indicated  by  Cauchy  himself 
and  George  Green.  After  Macquer,  many  chemists 
used  the  hypothesis  of  molecular  attraction  in  an 
attempt  to  disentangle  the  laws  of  reaction  which 
they  studied,  and  among  these  scientists  we  may  men- 
tion Torbern  Bergman  (1735-1784),  and  above  all 
Claude-Louis  Berthollet  (1784-1822).  When  the 
latter  published  his  "Statique  chimique"  in  1803,  he 
believed  that  the  science  of  chemical  equilibria,  sub- 
ject at  last  to  Newton's  method,  had  found  its  true 
direction;  however,  it  was  not  to  enter  upon  this 
direction  until  much  later  on,  when  it  would  be  guided 
by  precepts  altogether  different  and  which  were  to 
be  formulated  by  thermodynamics. 

XX\TII.  Revival  of  the  Undulatory  Theory 
OF  Light. — The  emission  theory  of  light  not  only 
led  Newton  to  conceive  the  hypothesis  of  molecular 
attraction,  but  seemed  to  provide  this  hypothesis 
with  an  opportunity  for  further  success  by  permitting 
Laplace  to  find,  in  the  emission  system,  the  laws  of 
the  double  refraction  of  Iceland  spar,  which  laws 
Huygens  had  discovered  by  the  use  of  the  undulatory 
theory.  In  this  way  Newton's  optics  appeared  to 
rob  Huygens's  optics  of  the  one  advantage  in  which  it 
glorified.  However,  at  the  very  moment  that  La- 
place's discovery  seemed  to  ensure  the  triumph  of  the 
emission  system,  the  undulatory  theory  carried  off 
new  and  dazzling  victories,  won  mainly  through  the 
efforts  of  Thomas  Young  and  Augustin-Jean  Fresnel 
(1788-1827).  Between  1801  and  1803  Young  made 
the  memorable  discoveries  which  provoked  this  revi- 
val of  undulatory  optics.  The  comparison  of  the  ether 
that  vibrates  in  a  ray  of  light  to  the  air  that  vibrates 
in  a  resonant  tube  led  him  to  explain  the  alternately 
light  and  dark  fringes  that  show  in  a  place  illumined 
by  two  equal  beams  slightly  inclined  to  each  other. 
The  principle  of  interference,  thus  justified,  allowed 
XII.— 5 


him  to  connect  with  the  undulatory  theory  the  expla- 
nation of  the  colours  of  thin  laminae  that  Newton  had 
demanded  of  the  "fits  of  easy  transmission  and  easy 
reflection"  of  the  particles  of  Ught. 

In  1815  Fresnel,  who  combined  this  principle  of 
interference  with  the  methods  devised  by  Huygens, 
took  up  the  theory  of  the  phenomc^na  of  diffraction 
which  had  been  discovered  by  Francesco  Maria  Gri- 
maldi,  S.J.  (1618-63),  and  had  remained  a  mystery  to 
opticians.  Fresnel's  attempts  at  exjilaining  these 
phenomena  led  him  to  draw  up  in  1818  a  memoir 
which  in  a  marked  degree  revealed  the  essential  char- 
acter of  his  genius,  namely,  a  strange  power  of  divina- 
tion exercised  independently  of  all  rules  of  deductive 
reasoning.  Despite  the  irregularity  of  his  procedure, 
Fresnel  made  known  very  complicated  formulae,  the 
most  minute  details  of  which  were  verified  by  experi- 
ment, and  long  afterwards  justified  according  to  the 
logical  method  of  mathematicians.  Never  did  physi- 
cist conquer  more  important  and  more  unthought-of 
truths,  and  yet  never  was  there  employed  a  method 
more  capable  of  leading  the  common  mind  into  error. 
Up  to  this  time  the  vibrations  of  ether  in  a  ray  of 
light  had  been  supposed  to  be  longitudinal,  as  it  is  in 
the  air  of  a  resonant  tube,  but  in  1808  Etienne-Louis 
Mains  (1775-1812)  discovered  the  polarization  of 
fight  when  reflected  on  glass,  and,  in  1817,  when 
studying  this  phenomenon.  Young  was  led  to  suppose 
that  luminous  vibrations  are  perpendicular  to  the 
ray  which  transmits  them.  Fresnel,  who  had  con- 
ceived the  same  idea,  completed  an  experiment  (1816) 
in  collaboration  with  Arago  (1786-1853),  which 
proved  the  view  that  luminous  vibrations  are  trans- 
verse to  the  direction  of  propagation. 

The  hypothesis  of  transverse  vibrations  was,  for 
Fresnel,  the  key  to  all  the  secrets  of  optics,  and  from 
the  day  that  he  adopted  it  he  made  discoveries  with 
great  rapidity.  Among  these  discoveries  were:  (a) 
The  complete  theory  of  the  phenomena  of  polarization 
accompanying  the  reflection  or  refraction  of  light  on 
the  surface  of  contact  of  two  isotropic  media.  The 
peculiarities  which  accompany  total  reflection  gave 
Fresnel  an  opportunity  to  display  in  a  most  striking 
manner  his  strange  power  of  divination  and  thus 
throw  out  a  veritable  challenge  to  logic.  This  divi- 
nation was  no  less  efficient  in  the  second  discovery, 
(b).  In  studying  double  refraction,  Huygens  limited 
himself  to  determining  the  direction  of  luminous  rays 
in  the  interior  of  crystals  now  called  uniaxial,  without, 
however,  being  able  to  account  for  the  polarization  of 
these  rays;  but  with  the  aid  of  the  wave-surface, 
Fresnel  succeeded  in  giving  the  most  elegant  form  to 
the  law  of  the  refraction  of  rays  in  biaxial  crystals, 
and  in  formulating  rules  by  which  rays  polarize  in  the 
interior  of  all  crystals,  uniaxial  as  well  as  biaxial. 

Although  all  these  wonderful  theories  destroyed 
the  theory  of  emission,  the  hypothesis  of  molecular 
attraction  was  far  from  losing  ground.  In  fact  Fresnel 
thought  he  could  find  in  the  elasticity  of  the  ether, 
which  transmits  luminous  vibrations,  the  explanation 
of  all  the  optical  laws  that  he  had  verified  by  experi- 
ment, and  he  sought  the  explanation  of  this  elasticity 
and  its  laws  in  the  attraction  which  he  believed  to 
exist  between  the  contiguous  particles  of  this  fluid. 
Being  too  little  of  a  mathematician  and  too  little  of  a 
mechanician  to  go  very  far  in  the  analysis  of  such  a 
problem,  he  left  its  solution  to  his  successors.  To 
this  task,  so  clearly  defined  by  Fresnel,  Cauchy  de- 
voted the  most  powerful  efforts  of  his  genius  as  an 
algebraist  and,  thanks  to  this  pupil  of  Laplace,  the 
Newtonian  physics  of  molecular  attraction  became  an 
active  factor  in  the  propagation  of  the  theory  of 
undulatory  optics.  Fresnel's  discoveries  did  not 
please  all  Newtonians  as  much  as  they  did  Cauchy. 
Arago  could  never  admit  that  luminous  vibrations 
were  transverse,  notwithstanding  that  he  had  collab- 
orated with  Fresnel  in  making  the  experiment  by 


PHYSICS 


66 


PHYSICS 


which  this  point  was  verified,  and  Jean-Baptiste  Biot 
(1774-1S62),  whdse  experimental  researches  were 
numerous  and  slcilful,  and  who  had  furnished  recent 
optics  with  very  valuable  matter,  remained  strongly 
attached  to  the  system  of  emission  by  which  he 
endeavoured  to  explain  all  the  phenomena  that  Fres- 
nel  had  discovered  and  explained  by  the  undulatory 
system.  Alor(o\'er,  Bi<jt  would  not  acknowledge 
himself  defeated,  or  regard  the  system  of  emission  as 
condemned  until  Foucault  (1S1'J-(J8)  proved  that  light 
is  iiropagated  much  more  quickly  in  air  than  in  water. 

XXIX.  Theories  of  Heat. — The  idea  of  the 
quantity  of  heat  antl  the  invention  of  the  calorimeter 
intended  for  measuring  the  amount  of  heat  emitted  or 
absorbed  by  a  body  under  given  circumstances  are 
due  to  Joseph  Black  (1728-99)  and  Adair  Crawford 
(1749-95),  who,  by  joining  calorimetry  with  ther- 
mometry, veritably  created  the  scaeuce  of  heat,  which 
science  remained  unborn  as  long  as  the  only  thing 
done  was  the  comparison  of  temperatures.  Like 
Descartes,  X^ewton  held  that  heat  consisted  in  a  very 
lively  agitation  of  the  smallest  parts  of  which  bodies 
are  composed.  By  showing  that  a  certain  quantity 
of  heat  is  furnished  to  ice  which  melts,  without  how- 
ever raising  the  temperature  of  the  ice,  that  this  heat 
remains  in  a  "latent  state"  in  the  water  resulting 
from  the  melting  and  that  it  again  becomes  manifest 
when  the  water  returns  to  ice,  the  experiments  of 
Black  and  Crawford  led  physicists  to  change  their 
opinion  concerning  the  nature  of  heat.  In  it  they 
beheld  a  certain  fluid  which  combines  with  other 
matter  when  heat  passes  into  the  latent  state,  and 
separates  from  it  when  heat  is  liberated  again,  and, 
in  the  new  nomenclature  that  perpetuated  the  rev- 
olution brought  about  by  Antoine-Laurent  Lavoisier 
(1743-94),  this  imponderable  fluid  was  assigned  a 
place  among  simple  bodies  and  named  caloric. 

Air  becomes  heated  when  it  is  compressed,  and 
cools  again  when  rarefied  under  the  receiver  of  the 
pneumaticmachine.  JoliannHeinrich  Lambert  (172S- 
77),  Horace  de  Saussure  (1740-79),  and  John  Dalton 
(1766-1S44)  recognized  the  importance  of  this  already 
old  experiment,  but  it  is  to  Laplace  that  we  are 
indebted  for  a  complete  explanation  of  this  phenome- 
non. The  experiment  proved  to  Laplace  that,  at  a 
given  temperature,  a  mass  of  air  contains  a  quantity 
of  caloric  proportional  to  its  volume.  If  we  admit  the 
accuracy  of  the  law  of  compressibility  enunciated  by 
Boyle  and  Mariotte,  this  quantity  of  heat  combined 
with  a  given  mass  of  air,  also  of  given  temperature, 
is  proportional  to  the  volume  of  this  air.  In  1803 
Laplace  formulated  these  propositions  in  a  short  note 
inserted  in  BerthoUet's  "Slatique  chimique"  In 
order  to  verify  the  consequences  which  Laplace 
deduced  therefrom  concerning  the  expansion  of  gases, 
Louis-Joseph  Gay-Lussac  (177S-18.50)  began  re- 
searches on  this  subject,  and  in  1807  on  the  variations 
of  temperature  produced  when  a  gas  contained  in  a 
receiver  enters  another  receiver  previously  empty. 

Laplace's  views  entail  an  evident  corollary;  to 
raise  to  a  certain  number  of  degrees  the  temperature 
of  a  gas  of  a  fixed  volume,  the  communication  of  less 
heat  is  rec|uired  than  if  this  gas  were  expanded  under 
an  invariable  pressure.  Hence  a  gas  admits  of  two 
distinct  kinds  of  specific  heat  which  depend  on 
whether  it  is  heated  at  constant  volume  or  under 
constant  pressure;  the  specific  heat  being  greater 
in  the  latter  case  than  in  the  former.  Through  these 
remarks  the  study  of  the  specific  heat  of  gases  was 
signalized  as  one  of  the  most  important  in  which 
experimenters  could  engage.  The  Institute  made  this 
study  the  subject  of  a  competition  which  called  forth 
two  notable  memoirs,  one  by  Delaroche  and  B6rard 
on  the  measurement  of  the  specific  heats  of  various 
gases  under  constant  pressure;  and  the  other  by 
Desormes  and  Clement,  published  in  1812,  on  the  de- 
termination of  the  increase  of  heat  due  to  a  given  com- 


pression in  a  given  mass  of  air.  The  experiments 
of  Desormes  and  Clement  enabled  Laplace  to  deduce, 
in  the  case  of  air,  the  ratio  of  specific  heat  under  con- 
stant pressure  to  specific  heat  under  constant  volume, 
and  hence  to  test  the  ideas  he  had  formed  on  the 
propagation  of  sound. 

In  applying  to  air  the  law  of  compressiV)ility  dis- 
covered by  Boyle,  Newton  had  attempted  to  calculate 
the  velocity  of  the  propagation  of  sound  in  this  fluid, 
and  the  formula  which  he  had  established  gave  values 
very  inferior  to  those  furnished  by  experimental 
determination.  Lagrange  had  already  shown  that, 
by  modifying  Boyle's  law  of  compressibility,  this  dis- 
agreement could  be  overcome;  howe^'er,  the  modifi- 
cation was  to  be  justified  not  by  what  Lagrange  said 
but  by  what  Laplace  discovered.  AA'hcn  sound  is 
propagated  in  air  by  alternate  condensations  and 
rarefactions,  the  temperature  at  each  point  instead 
of  remainfng  unchanged,  as  Boyle's  law  supposed, 
is  alternately  raised  and  lowered  about  a  mean  -value. 
Hence  velocity  of  sound  was  no  longer  expressed  by 
the  formula  Newton  had  proposed;  this  expression 
had  to  be  multiplied  by  the  square  root  of  the  ratio 
of  specific  heat  under  constant  pressure  to  specific 
heat  under  constant  volume.  Laiilace  had  this 
thought  in  mind  in  1803  (Berthollet,  "Statique 
chimique") ;  its  consequences  being  developed  in  1807 
by  Poisson,  his  disciple.  In  1816  Laplace  published 
his  new  formula;  fresh  experiments  by  Desormes  and 
Cl(5ment,  and  analogous  experiments  by  Gay-Lussao 
and  Welter  gave  him  tolerably  exact  values  of  the  re- 
lation of  the  specific  heats  of  gases.  Henceforth  the 
great  geometrician  could  compare  the  result  given  by 
his  formula  with  that  furnished  by  the  direct  deter- 
mination of  the  velocity  of  sound,  the  latter,  in  metres 
per  second,  being  represented  by  the  number  :i40-889, 
and  the  former  by  the  number  337-715.  This  agree- 
ment seemed  a  very  strong  confirmation  of  the  hypoth- 
esis of  caloric  and  the  theory  of  molecular  action,  to 
both  of  which  it  was  attributable.  It  would  appear 
that  Laplace  had  a  right  to  say:  "The  phenomena  of 
the  expansion  of  heat  and  vibration  of  gases  lead  back 
to  the  attractive  and  repellent  forces  sensible  only  at 
imperceptible  distances.  In  my  theory  on  capillary 
action,  I  have  traced  to  similar  forces  the  effects  of 
capillarity.  All  terrestrial  phenomena  depend  upon 
this  species  of  force,  just  as  celestial  phenomena 
depend  upon  universal  gravitation,  and  the  study  of 
these  forces  now  seems  to  me  the  principal  object 
of  mathematical  philosophy"  (written  in  1823).  ■ 

In  1824  a  new  truth  was  formulated  from  which  was 
to  be  developed  a  doctrine  which  was  to  overturn, 
to  a  great  extent,  natural  philosophy  as  conceived  by 
Newton  and  Boscovich  and  carried  out  by  Laplace 
and  his  disciples.  However,  Sadi  Carnot(1796-1832), 
the  author  of  this  new  truth,  still  assumed  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  theory  of  caloric.  He  proposed 
to  extend  to  heat-engines  the  principle  of  the  impossi- 
bility of  perpetual  motion  recognized  for  engines  of ' 
unchanging  temperature,  and  was  led  to  the  following 
conclusion:  In  order  that  a  certain  quantity  of  caloric 
may  produce  work  of  the  kind  that  human  industry 
requires,  this  caloric  must  pass  from  a  hot  to  a  cold 
body;  when  the  quantity  of  caloric  is  given,  as  well 
as  the  temperatures  to  which  these  two  bodies  are 
raised,  the  useful  work  produced  admits  of  a  superior 
hmit  independent  of  the  nature  of  the  substances 
which  transmit  the  caloric  and  of  the  device  by  means 
of  which  the  transmission  is  effected.  The  moment 
that  Carnot  formulated  this  fertile  truth,  the  founda- 
tions of  the  theory  of  caloric  were  shaken.  However, 
in  the  hypothesis  of  caloric,  how  could  the  generation 
of  heat  by  friction  be  explained?  Two  bodies  rubbed 
together  were  found  to  be  just  as  rich  in  caloric  as 
they  had  been;  therefore,  whence  came  the  caloric 
evolved  by  friction? 

As  early  as  1783  Lavoisier  and  Laplace  were  much 


PHYSIOCRATS 


67 


PHYSIOCRATS 


troubled  by  the  problem,  which  also  arrested  the  at- 
tention of  physicists;  as  in  1798  when  Benjamin 
Thompson,  Count  Rumford  (1753-1814),  made  ac- 
curate experiments  on  the  heat  evolved  by  friction, 
and,  in  1799,  when  similar  experiments  were  made  by 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy  (1778-1829).  In  1803,  beside 
the  notes  in  which  Laplace. announced  some  of  the 
greatest  conquests  of  the  doctrine  of  caloric,  Ber- 
thoUct,  in  his  "Statique  chimique",  gave  an  account  of 
Kumford's  experiments,  trying  in  vain  to  reconcile 
them  with  the  prevailing  opinion.  Now  these  ex- 
periments, which  were  incompatible  with  the  hj'poth- 
esis  that  heat  is  a  fluid  contained  in  a  quantity  in 
each  body,  recalled  to  mind  the  supposition  of 
Descartes  and  Newton,  which  claimed  heat  to  be  a 
very  lively  agitation  of  the  small  particles  of  bodies. 
It  was  in  favour  of  this  view  that  Rumford  and  Davy 
finally  declared  themselves. 

In  the  last  years  of  his  life  Carnot  consigned  to 
paper  a  few  notes  which  remained  unpublished  until 
1878.  In  these  notes  he  rejected  the  theory  of  ca- 
loric as  inconsistent  with  Rumford's  experiments. 
"Heat",  he  added,  "is  therefore  the  result  of  motion. 
It  is  quite  plain  that  it  can  be  produced  by  the  con- 
sumption of  moti\'e  power  and  that  it  can  produce 
this  power.  Where\-er  there  is  destruction  of  motive 
power  there  is,  at  the  same  time,  production  of  heat 
in  a  quantity  exactly  proportional  to  the  quantity 
of  motive  power  destroyed;  and  inversely,  wherever 
there  is  destruction  of  heat,  there  is  production  of 
motive  power". 

In  1842  Robert  Mayer  (1814-78)  found  the  princi- 
ple of  the  equivalence  between  heat  and  work,  and 
showed  that  once  the  difference  in  two  specific  heats 
of  a,  gas  is  known,  it  is  possible  to  calculate  the  me- 
chanical value  of  heat.  This  value  differed  little 
from  that  found  by  Carnot.  Mayer's  pleasing  work 
exerted  scarcely  any  more  influence  on  the  progress  of 
the  theory  of  heat  than  did  Carnot's  unpublished 
notes.  However,  in  1843  James  Prescott  Joule 
(1818-89)  was  the  next  to  discover  the  principle  of  the 
equivalence  between  heat  and  work,  and  conducted 
several  of  the  experiments  which  Carnot  in  his  notes 
had  requested  to  have  made.  Joule's  work  com- 
municated to  the  new  theory  a  fresh  impetus.  In 
1849  Wilham  Thomson,  afterwards  Lord  Kelvin 
(1824-1907),  indicated  the  necessity  of  reconciling 
Carnot's  principle  with  the  thenceforth  incon- 
testable principle  of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of 
heat;  and  in  1850  Rudolf  Clausius  (1822-88)  accom- 
plished the  task;  thus  the  science  of  thermodynamics 
was  founded.  When  in  1847  Hermann  von  Helmholtz 
published  his  small  work  entitled  "Ueber  die  Erhal- 
tung  der  Kraft",  he  showed  that  the  principle  of  the 
mechanical  equi\'alent  of  heat  not  only  established 
a  bond  between  mechanics  and  the  theory  of  heat, 
but  also  linked  the  studies  of  chemical  reaction, 
electricity,  and  magnetism,  and  in  this  way  physics 
was  confronted  with  the  carrying-out  of  an  entirely 
new  programme,  whose  results  are  at  present  too 
incomplete  to  be  judged  even  by  scientists. 

AlmagiA,  La  dottrina  delta  marea  nelV  antichitd  classica  et 
nel  medio  eno,  taken  from  Memorie  delta  Reate  Accademia  dei 
Lincei  (Rome,  1905);  Ca\'ERXi,  Storia  del  metodo  sperimenlate 
in  Italia  (Florence,  iSOl-8);  Duhem,  Les  theories  de  hi  Chateur 
in  Reme  des  Deux  Motides  (1895),  CXXIX,  869;  CXXX, 
380,  851;  Idem,  L'Svohition  de  la  Mccanique  (Paris,  1903); 
Idem,  Les  origines  de  la  Statique  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1905-6);  Idem, 
Etudes  suT  Leonard  de  Vinci,  ceux  qu\l  a  lus  et  ceux  qui  Vont  lu 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1906-9) ;  Idem,  La  Iheorie  physique,  son  objet 
et  sa  structure  (Paris,  1906) ;  Idem,  Stu^eiy  ra  iftatvofjieva. 
Essai  SUT  la  notation  de  Theorie  physique  de  Platon  d  Galilee 
(Paris,  1908) ;  Duhring,  Kritische  Gesch.  d.  allg.  Mechanik  (2nd 
ed.,  Leipzig,  1877);  Heller,  Gesch.  d.  Pln/sik  v.  Aristoteles  bis 
a-uf  d.  mmeste  Zeit  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1882-4);  Hellmann, 
Neudrucke  von  Schriften  u.  Karten  iiber  Meteorologie  u.  Erdmag- 
netisnus  (15  vols.,  Berlin,  1893-1904);  JonanET,  Lectures  de 
Micanique,  La  MScanique  enseignSe  par  les  auteurs  originaux 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1908-9) ;  Klein,  D.  Principien  d.  Mechanik, 
historisch  u.  kritisch  dargestellt  (LeipziK,  1872);  Lasswitz, 
Gesch.  d.  Atomislik  vom  Mittelalter  bis  Newton  (2  vols.,  Hamburg 
and  Leipzig,  1890) ;    Libri,  Hist,  des  Sciences  math&matiques  en 


Italic,  depuis  la  Renaissance  des  Lettres  jusqu^d  la  fin  du  XVII" 
sii-cle  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1838^1);  MAfH,  D.  Mcclianih  in  ihrer 
Entwickelung,  histor. — kritisch  dargestellt  (6th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1908) ; 
Pascal,  QSuvres,  ed.  Brunschvicg  and  Boutroux  (3  vols., 
Paris,  1908);  Rouse  Ball,  An  E^^ny  on  Newton's  Principia 
(London  and  New  York,  1893) ;  Mcmoires  sur  VElectro'hjua- 
mique  in  Collection  de  Memoires  puhlics  pur  la  Societe  franQaise  de 
Physique,  II-III  (Paris,  lS.S.^-7);  SrE  Aixe,  Hist,  du  Galvanisme 
et  analyse  des  dijj^rens  ouvrages  publics  sur  ccttc  d^couvertr,  depuis 
son  engine  jusqu'd  nos  jours  (4  vols.,  Paris),  an  X  (1802) — an 
XIII  (1803);  Thirion,  Pascal,  I'horreur  du  vide  et  la  presaion 
atmosphdrique  in  Revue  des  Quest,  scien.,  3rd  series;  XII  (1907), 
384;  XIII  (1908),  149;  XV  (1909),  149;  Thurot,  Recherches 
histor.  sur  Ic  Principe  d'Archim^de  in  Reeue  Archeologique  (new 
series,  Paris),  XVIII  (186S),  389;  XIX  (1869),  42;  III,  284,  345; 
XX  (1869),  14;  Todhunter,  A  Hist,  of  Mathematical  Theories 
of  Attraction  and  the  Figure  of  the  Earth  from  time  of  Newton  to 
that  of  Laplace  (2  vols.,  London,  1873) ;  Todhunter  and  Pear- 
son, A  Hist,  of  the  Theory  of  Elasticity  (2  vols.,  Cambridge,  1886- 
93) :  Venturi,  Commentari  sopra  la  Storica  e  le  Teorie  delV 
Ottica  (Bologna,  1814);  Verdet,  Introduction  aux  CEuvres  d'Au- 
gustin  Fresnel,  I  (Paris,  1866-70),  pp.  ix-xcix;  Weidetviann, 
D.  Lehre  v.  d.  Elcktricitdt,  2nd  ed.  (3  vols.,  Brunswick,  1893-5) ; 
WoHLWiLL,  D.  Entdeckung  d.  Beharrungsgesetzes  in  Zeitschrift  /. 
Volkerpsychologie  u.  Sprachwissenschaft  (Berlin),  XIV  (1883), 
365;  XV  (1884),  70,  337;  Idem,  Galilei  u.  sein  Kampf  f.  d. 
Copernicanische  Lehre  (Hamburg  and  Leipzig,  1909). 

Pierre  Duhem. 

Physiocrats  {4>i(m,  nature,  Kparetv,  rule),  a  school 
of  writers  on  political  and  economic  subjects  that 
flourished  in  France  in  the  second  half  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  and  attacked  the  monopolies,  exclu- 
sive corporations,  vexatious  taxes,  and  various  other 
abuses  which  had  grown  up  under  the  mercantile  sys- 
tem. Statesmen  of  the  mercantile  school  in  France 
and  elsewhere  had  adopted  a  system  of  tutelage  which 
often  gave  an  artificial  growth  to  industry  but  which 
pressed  hardly  upon  agriculture.  The  physiocrats 
proposed  to  advance  the  interests  of  agriculture  by 
adopting  a  system  of  economic  freedom.  Laissez 
faire  et  laissez  passer  was  tlieir  watchword.  Francois 
Quesnay  (1694-1774),  physician  to  Mme  de  Pompa- 
dour and  Louis  XV,  founded  the  school  (1758).  The 
term  "  physiocracy "  was  probably  used  by  Ques- 
nay to  convey  the  idea  that  the  new  system  provides 
for  the  reign  of  the  natural  law.  Quesnay  and  his 
disciples  were  called  economistes  by  their  contempo- 
raries; the  term  physiocraies  was  not  used  until  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Political  Philosophy . — In  metaphysics  Quesnay  was 
a  follower  of  Descartes  and  borrowed  from  him  the 
mathematical  method  used  in  his  "Tableau  Econ- 
omique  ".  He  accepted  a  modified  form  of  the  natural 
rights  theory  which  pervades  eighteenth-century  lit- 
erature and  gave  it  an  optimistic  interpretation.  He 
emphasizes  the  distinction  between  the  natural  order 
{ordre  naturel)  and  the  positive  order  (ordre  posilif). 
The  first  is  founded  upon  the  laws  of  nature  which  are 
the  creation  of  God  and  which  can  be  discovered  by 
reason.  The  second  is  man-made;  when  its  laws 
coincide  with  those  of  the  natural  order  the  world 
will  be  at  its  best.  He  objected  to  the  natural  rights 
philosophers  of  his  day  that  they  concerned  themselves 
only  with  the  positive  order  to  the  neglect  of  the 
natural.  He  held  that  primitive  man  upon  entering 
society  does  not  give  up  any  of  his  natural  rights, 
thus  taking  issue  with  Rousseau's  theory  of  the  social 
contract.  From  his  optimistic  doctrines  concerning 
the  laws  of  the  natural  order  he  deduces  his  doctrine 
of  laissez  faire.  Economic  evils  arise  from  the  monop- 
olies and  restrictions  of  the  positive  order ;  statesmen 
should  aim  to  harmonize  the  positive  order  with  the 
natural  by  abolishing  these  excrescences.  The  state 
should  withdraw  its  support  from  the  attempts  of 
special  interests  to  bolster  up  industry  artificially.  In 
the  language  of  the  physiocrats,  "He  governs  best 
who  governs  least".  Although  ultimately  their  prin- 
ciples proved  favourable  to  the  Revolution,  Quesnay 
and  his  disciples  were  in  favour  of  an  absolute  mon- 
archy subject  only  to  the  laws  of  the  "natural  order". 
They  considered  that  it  would  be  easier  to  persuade 
a  prince  than  a  nation  and  that  the  triumph"  of  their 


PHYSIOLOGUS 


68 


PHYSIOLOGUS 


principles  would  be  sooner  secured  by  the  sovereign 
power  of  a  single  man. 

Economic  Doctrine. — Quesnay  divides  the  citizens 
of  a  nation  into  three  classes:  the  productive,  which 
cultivates  the  soil  and  pays  a  rent  to  the  landed  pro- 
prietors, the  proprietors  (Turgot's  classe  disponible), 
who  receive  the  rent  or  net  product  (produit  net)  of 
agriculture,  and  the  barren  (classe  sterile),  which  com- 
prises those  engaged  in  other  occupations  than  that 
of  agriculture,  and  produces  no  surplus.  For  example, 
in  a  country  producing  five  billions  of  agricultural 
wealth  annually,  two  billions  will  go  to  the  proprie- 
tors as  rent.  With  this  the  proprietors  will  buy  one 
billion's  worth  of  agricultural  products  and  one  bil- 
lion's worth  of  the  manufactured  products  of  the  barren 
class.  The  productive  class  also  will  buy  one  billion's 
worth  of  the  products  of  the  barren  class.  The  barren 
class  will  spend  the  two  billions  which  it  receives  in 
buying  one  biUion's  worth  of  agricultural  products 
upon  which  to  subsist  and  one  billion's  worth  of  raw 
material  to  work  up  into  its  finished  product.  Thus 
the  barren  class  receive  two  billions  and  spend  two 
billions.  The  value  of  their  product  equals  the  cost 
of  their  subsistence  plus  the  cost  of  the  raw  material. 
Thus  industry  and  commerce  are  barren.  Agricul- 
ture is  productive,  since  it  supports  those  who  are 
engaged  in  it  and  produces  in  addition  a  surplus.  The 
national  welfare  depends  upon  having  this  surplus 
production  as  large  as  possible.  In  other  words,  a 
nation  will  prosper  not  in  proportion  as  it  succeeds 
in  getting  foreign  money  in  return  for  its  manufac- 
tures, but  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  its  net  prod- 
uct. The  mercantilists,  therefore,  made  a  mistake 
in  encouraging  manufactures  and  commerce  at  the 
expense  of  agriculture.  The  true  policy  is  to  encourage 
agriculture.  Statesmen  of  the  mercantile  school 
thought  it  desirable  to  have  cheap  food  so  that  the 
home  industries  could  compete  with  the  foreign  and 
thus  the  nation  might  secure  a  favourable  balance  of 
trade  which  would  bring  money  into  the  country. 
The  physiocrats  rejected  the  balance  of  trade  argu- 
ment and  held  that  dear  food  was  desirable  because 
this  meant  the  prosperity  of  agriculture  and  the  swell- 
ing of  the  net  product.  Quesnay  even  held  that  under 
some  circumstances  it  might  be  desirable  to  levy  a 
duty  on  imported  agricultural  products  or  to  grant 
an  export  bounty  in  order  to  keep  up  prices.  Holding 
that  the  incomes  received  by  the  productive  and  sterile 
classes  wfrc  just  sufficient  for  their  support,  the  phys- 
iocrats believed  that  any  tax  levied  upon  the  members 
of  either  of  these  classes  must  be  shifted  until  it  finally 
fell  upon  the  net  product  belonging  to  the  proprietors. 
In  the  miere.st  of  economy  of  administration,  there- 
fore, they  urged  that  a  single  tax  be  levied  upon  rent. 
This  was  their  celebrated  impot  itiiique.  The  proposal 
was  somewhat  similar  to  the  more  recent  demands  of 
Henry  George  for  a  single  tax.  The  physiocrats 
sought  to  protect  the  landed  proprietors,  while  George 
wished  to  expropriate  them. 

The  School— Most  of  the  ideas  of  the  physiocratic 
school  are  found  in  earlier  writings.  The  expression 
laissez  {aire  is  nai(l  to  have  been  used  by  a  French 
merchant,  Legendre,  in  answering  a  question  ad- 
dressed by  Colbert  to  a  gathering  of  merchants  con- 
cernmg  the  needs  of  industry.  The  idea  is  developed 
in  the  writm^s  of  Bois-Guillebert  (1712)  and  the  policy  ■ 
was  advocated  by  the  Marquis  d'.Vrgenson  in  17.3.5 
Gournay,  a  contemporary  of  Quesnay,  seems  to  have 
origmated  the  extended  expression  laissez  faire  et 
laissez  passer.  This  formula  called  for  freedom  of 
internal  commerce  and  manufacture.  Some  critics 
hold  that  Gournay  is  equally  entitled  with  Quesnay 
to  be  called  the  founder  of  the  physiocratic  school  on 
account  of  the  currency  which  he  gave  to  the  doctrine 
of  freedom  of  trade.  Other  sources  are  Hume's  criti- 
cism of  the  balance  of  trade  theory,  and  Cantillon 
"Essai  sur  la  Nature  du  Commerce  en  Gcn6ral"    in 


which  the  importance  of  agriculture  is  recognized  and 
the  doctrine  of  produit  net  developed.  The  elder 
Mirabeau  was  Quesnay's  first  disciple.  His  "Phi- 
losophie  rurale"  (1763)  gained  disciples.  Dupont 
de  Nemours,  who  later  exerted  considerable  influence 
m  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  the  discussions  on  tax- 
ation, wrote  several  works  in  defence  of  the  system 
Other  important  writers  were  Baudeau,  Mercier  de  la 
Riviere,  and  Letrosne.  The  most  eminent  of  Ques- 
nay's disciples  was  Turgot,  who,  as  Intendant  of 
Limoges  and  afterwards  as  minister  of  finance  under 
Louis  XVI,  attempted  to  apply  some  of  the  physio- 
cratic principles  practically  (Reflexions  sur  la  forma- 
tion et  la  distribution  des  richesses,  1766).  Outside 
of  France  the  school  had  not  many  disciples.  The 
best  known  are  the  Swiss  Isehn  and  the  German 
Schlettwein.  The  latter  was  engaged  by  the  Margrave 
Karl  Friedrich  of  Baden,  a  friend  of  Mirabeau,  to 
introduce  the  single  tax  in  three  villages  of  Baden. 
The  experiment,  made  under  unfavourable  conditions, 
was  soon  abandoned.  In  Italy  the  physiocratic  school 
had  few  followers.  In  England,  on  account  of  the 
advanced  position  of  trade  and  industry,  it  had  none. 

Cri.licisin. — The  principal  service  of  the  physiocrats 
to  modern  political  economy  was  not  the  discovery  of 
any  one  of  their  doctrines,  but  their  attempt  to  for- 
mulate a  science  of  society  out  of  materials  already  at 
hand.  It  was  from  this  system  as  a  base  that  Adam 
Smith  set  out  to  give  a  new  impetus  to  the  study  of 
economic  phenomena.  Another  important  contribu- 
tion consisted  in  calling  attention  to  the  weaknesses 
of  the  mercantile  system.  Laissez  faire  was  a  good 
doctrine  for  the  eighteenth  century  because  there  was 
need  of  a  reaction,  but  it  was  a  mistake  to  set  it  up 
as  a  universal  principle  applicable  under  all  condi- 
tions. The  chief  weakness  in  the  physiocratic  teach- 
ing lay  in  its  theory  of  value.  While  agriculture  brings 
forth  the  raw  material  of  production,  commerce  and 
manufactures  are  equally  productive  of  wealth.  In  a 
sense,  the  physiocrats  recognized  this,  but  they  held 
that  in  producing  this  wealth  the  manufacturing  and 
commercial  classes  use  up  an  equivalent  amount  of 
value.  This  is  a  gratuitous  assumption,  but  even  if 
true,  the  same  thing  could  be  said  of  the  so-called 
productive  class.  Moreover,  if  wages  were  governed 
by  the  "iron  law"  both  in  agriculture  and  in  manu- 
factures and  commerce,  as  the  physiocrats  assume,  the 
"net  product"  would  be  made  up  of  wealth  created  by 
the  commercial  and  manufacturing  classes  as  well  as 
by  the  agricultural  class.  The  theory  of  the  impdt 
unique  or  single  tax  rested  upon  the  assumption  that 
all  incomes,  except  those  of  the  proprietors,  were  at 
the  existence  minimum.  Since  this  is  not  true,  it  is 
also  not  true  that  all  taxes  levied  upon  the  other  classes 
will  ultimately  be  paid  by  the  proprietors. 

HiGGS,  The  Physiocrats  (London,  1897) ;  Oncken,  QHuvres 
Sconomiques  et  philosophitjues  de  Fr.  Quesnay  (Frankfort,  1888); 
Idem  in  Handworterbuch  d.  Staatswissenschaften,  s.  v.  Quesnay; 
Hasbach,  D.  alio,  philosophischen  Grundlagen  d.  von  F.  Quesnay 
u.  A,  Smith  begrundeten  politischen  Oekonomie  (Leipzig,  1890). 

Frank  O'Hara. 

Physiologus,  an  early  Christian  work  of  a  popular 
theological  type,  descriliing  animals  real  or  fabulous 
and  giving  each  an  allegorical  interpretation.  Thus 
the  story  is  told  of  the  lion  whose  cubs  are  born  dead 
and  receive  life  when  the  old  lion  breathes  upon  them, 
and  of  the  phoenix  which  burns  itself  to  death  and 
rises  on  the  third  day  from  the  ashes ;  bot  h  are  taken 
as  types  of  Christ.  The  unicorn  also  which  only  per- 
mits itself  to  be  captured  in  the  lap  of  a  pure  virgin 
is  a  type  of  the  Incarnation;  the  pelican  that  sheds 
its  own  blood  in  order  to  sprinkle  therewith  its  dead 
young,  so  that  they  may  live  again,  is  a  type  of  the 
salvation  of  mankind  by  the  death  of  Christ  on  the 
Cross.  Some  allegories  set  fori  h  the  decepi  ive  entice- 
ments of  the  De\il  and  his  defeat  by  Christ;   others 


PIACENZA 


69 


PIACENZA 


present  qualities  as  examples  to  be  imitated  or  avoided. 
The  book,  originally  written  in  Greek  at  Alexandria, 
perhaps  for  purposes  of  instruction,  appeared  prob- 
ably in  the  second  century,  though  some  place  its  date 
at  the  end  of  the  third  or  in  the  fourth  century.  In 
later  centuries  it  was  ascribed  to  various  celebrated 
Fathers,  especially  St.  Epiphanius,  St.  Basil,  and  St. 
Peter  of  Alexandria.  Origen,  however,  had  cited  it 
under  the  title  "Physiologus",  while  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria and  perhaps  even  Justin  Martyr  seem  to  have 
known  it.  The  assertion  that  the  method  of  the 
"Physiologus"  presupposes  the  allegorical  exegesis 
developed  by  Origen  is  not  correct;  the  so-called 
"Letter  of  Barnabas"  offers,  before  Origen,  a  suffi- 
cient model,  not  only  for  the  general  character  of  the 
"Physiologus"  but  also  for  many  of  its  details.  It 
can  hardly  be  asserted  that  the  later  recensions,  in 
which  the  Greek  text  has  been  preserved,  present  even 
in  the  best  and  oldest  manuscripts  a  perfectly  reliable 
transcription  of  the  original,  especially  as  this  was  an 
anonymous  and  popular  treatise.  "Physiologus"  is 
not  the  original  title;  it  was  given  to  the  book  because 
the  author  introduces  his  stories  from  natural  history 
with  the  phrase:  "the  physiologus  says",  that  is,  the 
naturalist  says,  the  natural  philosophers,  the  author- 
ities for  natural  history  say.  About  400  the  "Physi- 
ologus" was  translated  into  Latin;  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury into  jEthiopio  [edited  by  Hommel  with  a  German 
translation  (Leipzig,  1877),  revised  German  transla- 
tion in  "Romanische  Forschungen",  V,  13-36];  into 
Armenian  [edited  by  Pitra  in  "Spicilegium  Soles- 
mense".  III,  374-90;  French  translation  by  Cahier 
in  "  Nouveaux  M<?langes  d'arch^ologie,  d'histoire  et  de 
litt^rature"  (Paris,  1874)];  into  Syrian  [edited  by 
Tychsen,  "Physiologus  Syrus"  (Rostock,  1795),  a 
laf(>r  Syrian  and  an  Arabic  version  edited  by  Land  in 
"AnecdotaSyriaca",  IV  (Leyden,  1875)].  Numerous 
quotations  and  references  to  the  "Physiologus"  in 
the  Greek  and  the  Latin  Fathers  show  that  it  was  one 
of  the  most  generally  known  works  of  Christian  antiq- 
uity. Various  translations  and  revisions  were  cur- 
rent in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  earliest  translation  into 
Latin  was  followed  by  various  recensions,  among 
them  the  "Dicta  Johannis  Chrysostomi  de  naturis 
bestiarum'',  edited  by  Heider  in  "Archiv  filr  Kunde 
osterreichischer  Geschichtsquellen"  (11,  550  sqq., 
1850).  A  metrical  Latin  "Physiologus"  was  written 
in  the  eleventh  century  by  a  certain  Theobaldus,  and 
printed  by  Morris  in  "An  Old  English  Miscellany" 
(1872),  201  sqq.;  it  also  appears  among  the  works  of 
Hildebertus  Cenomanensis  in  P.  L.,  CLXXI,  1217-24. 
To  these  should  be  added  the  literature  of  the  "Bes- 
tiaries" (q.  v.),  in  which  the  material  of  "Physiologus" 
was  used;  the  " Tract atus  de  bostiis  et  alius  rebus", 
attributed  to  Hugo  of  St.  Victor;  and  the  "Speculum 
naturale"  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais. 

Translations  and  adaptations  from  the  Latin  intro- 
duced the  ' '  Physiologus ' '  into  almost  all  the  languages 
of  Western  Europe.  An  eleventh-century  German 
translation  was  printed  by  Mullenhoff  and  Scherer  in 
"Denkmaler  deutscher  Poesie  und  Prosa"  (No. 
LXXXI);  a  later  translation  (twelfth  century)  has 
been  edited  by  Lauchert  in  "Gcschichte  des  Physi- 
ologus" (pp.  280-99);  and  a  rhymed  version  appears 
in  Karajan,  "Deutsche  Sprachdenkmale  des  XII. 
Jahrhunderts"  (pp.  73-106),  both  based  on  the  Latin 
text  known  as  "Dicta  Chrysostomi".  Fragments  of  a 
ninth-century  Anglo-Saxon  "Physiologus",  metrical 
in  form,  still  exist;  they  are  printed  by  Thorpe  in 
"Codex  Exoniensis"  (pp.  355-67),  and  by  Grein  m 
"Bibliothek  der  angelsachischen  Poesie"  (I,  233-8). 
About  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  there  ap- 
peared an  English  metrical  "Bestiary",  an  adaptation 
of  the  Latin  "Physiologus  Theobaldi";  this  has  been 
edited  by  Wright  and  Halliwell  in  "Reliquia;  anti- 
qua;"  (I,  208-27),  also  by  Morris  in  "An  Old  English 
Miscellany"  (1-25).     Icelandic  literature  includes  a 


"Physiologus"'  belonging  to  the  early  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  edited  by  Dahlerup  (Copenhagen, 
1889).  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  century  there 
appeared  the  "Bestiaires"  of  Philippe  de  Thaun,  a 
metrical  Old-French  version,  edited  by  Thomas 
Wright  in  "Popular  Treatises  on  Science  Written 
during  the  Middle  Ages"  (74-131),  and  by  Walberg 
(Lund  and  Paris,  1900) ;  that  by  Guillaume,  clerk  of 
Normandy,  called  "Bestiaire  divin",  and  edited  by 
Cahier  in  his  "Melanges  d'archeologie"  (II-IV),  also 
edited  by  Hippeau  (Caen,  1852),  and  by  Reinsch 
(Leipzig,  1890);  the  "Bestiaire"  of  Gervaise,  edited 
by  Paul  Meyer  in  "Romania"  (I,  420-42);  the  "Bes- 
tiaire" in  prose  of  Pierre  le  Picard,  edited  by  Cahier 
in  "Melanges"  (II-IV).  A  singular  adaptation  is 
found  in  the  old  Waldensian  literature,  and  has  been 
edited  by  Alfons  Mayer  in  "Romanische  Forschun- 
gen" (V,  392  sqq.).  As  to  the  Italian  bestiaries,  a 
Tosco-Venetian  "Bestiarius"  has  been  edited  (Gold- 
staub  and  Wendriner,  "Ein  tosco-venezianischer  Bes- 
tiarius", Halle,  1892).  Extracts  from  the  "Physiol- 
ogus" in  Provencal  have  been  edited  by  Bartsch, 
"ProvenzalischesLesebuch"  (162-66).  The  "Physi- 
ologus" survived  in  the  literatures  of  Eastern  Europe 
in  books  on  animals  written  in  Middle  Greek,  among 
the  Slavs  to  whom  it  came  from  the  Byzantines,  and 
in  a  Roumanian  translation  from  a  Slavic  original 
(edited  by  Gaster  with  an  Italian  translation  in 
"  Archivio  glottologico  italiano",  X,  273-304).  Medi- 
eval poetical  literature  is  full  of  allusions  to  the 
"Physiologus",  and  it  also  exerted  great  influence  on 
the  symbolism  of  medieval  ecclesiastical  art ;  symbols 
like  those  of  the  phoenix  and  the  pelican  are  still 
well-known  and  popular. 

Lauchert,  Gesch,  d.  P/ij/sioioffws(Strasburg,  1889) ,  supplemented 
in  Romanische  Forschungen,  V,  3-12,  and  in  Zeitschrift  filr  kath- 
olische  Thcologie.  XXXIII  (1909);  177-79;  KEPPLEn,  D.  mittel- 
alterliche  Physiologus  in  Archiv  fiir  Christ.  Kunst,  IX  (1891) ,  n.  2-4, 
pp.  14-16,  23-4,  32-6;  Michael,  Gesch,  d.  deutschen  Volkes,  III 
(Freiburg,  1903),  413-17  ;  Pitra  in  Spicilegium  Solesmense, 
III  (Paris,  1855),  338-73;  Karnejev,  D.  Physiologus  d.  Moskauer 
Synodalbibliothek  in  Byzantinische  Zeitschrift,  III  (1894),  26-63; 
Peters,  D,  griechische  Physiologus  u,  seine  orientalischen  Ueber- 
setzungen  (Berlin,  1898) ;  the  Latin  text  has  been  edited  by 
Cahier  and  Martin,  MUanges  d'archeologie,  d'hist.  et  de  litt., 
II-IV  (Paris,  1851-56) ;  Goldstaxtb,  D.  Physiologus  u.  seine 
Weiterbildung  hesonders  in  d.  lateinischen  u.  byzantinischen  Lit. 
in  Philologus,  supplementary  vol.  VIII  (1901),  337-404;  Krdm- 
bacher,  Gesch.  d.  byzantinischen  Lit.  (2nd  ed.,  Munich,  1897), 
874-77;  Sthzygowski,  D.  Bilderkreis  d.  griechischen  Physiologus 
in  Byzaniinisches  Archiv,  II  (Leipzig,  1899) ;  Leitschuh,  Gesch. 
d.  karolingischen  Malerei  (Berlin,  1894),  405  sq.  ;  Schmid, 
Christ.  Symbole  aus  alter  u.  neuer  Zeit  (2nd  ed.,  Freiberg,  1909); 
Dreves,  D.  Jagd  d.  Einhorns  in  Stimmen  aus  Maria-Loach, 
XLIII  (1892),  66-76. 

Feiedkich  Lauchert. 

Piacenza,  Diocese  op  (Placentinensis),  in  Emi- 
lia, central  Italy.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  right  of 
the  Po,  near  its  junction  with  the  Trebbia,  in  an  im- 
portant strategic  position.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry. The  cathedral  is  of  the  ninth  century;  it  was 
remodelled  by  Santa  da  Sambuceto  and  others  (1122- 
1223)  in  beautiful  Lombard  style.  The  campanile, 
over  216  feet  high,  is  surmounted  by  an  angel,  in  brass; 
the  cupola  is  a  more  recent  part  of  the  edifice;  there 
are  frescoes  by  Guercino  and  by  Morazzone,  Ludovico 
Caracci,  Procaccino,  and  others.  Its  Cappella  del 
Crocifisso  has  an  arch  with  statues  of  Nero  and  of 
Vespasian;  the  Cappella  di  S.  Corrado  has  an  admi- 
rable Madonna  by  Zitto  diTagliasacchi,  and  contained 
once  a  picture  of  St.  Conrad  by  Lanfranco,  but  it  was 
taken  to  France.  Among  the  churches  is  S.  Antonio 
(fourth  century),  many  times  restored;  until  877  it 
was  the  cathedral;  in  1183  the  preliminaries  of  the 
Peace  of  Constance  were  concluded  in  this  church; 
here  also  are  paintings  by  Procaccino,  Mulinaretto, 
Novoloni  etc.;  the  sacristy  contains  a  triptych  with 
the  gesta  of  S.  Antonio.  In  the  pastor's  residence  of  S. 
Andrea  there  is  an  ancient  mosaic.  S.  Bartolommeo, 
formerly  a  church  of  the  Jesuits,  contains  besides  its 
beautiful  paintings  two  crucifixes,  one  very  ancient, 


PIACENZA 


70 


PIACENZA 


the  other  dating  from  1601.  S.  Francesco  (1278)  has 
beautiful  columns,  but  has  been  disfigured  by  incon- 
gruous restorations;  it  contains  a  Piet^  by  Bernardo 
Castelli,  a  Madonna  by  Francia,  and  the  tomb  of  the 
famous  Franciscan,  Francesco  Mairone  (1477).  S. 
Gio\'anni  in  Canali  (1220),  formerly  of  the  Templars, 
and  later  of  the  Dominicans,  has  also  been  disfigured 
by  its  restorations;  it  contains  statues  of  Pius  V  and 
Benedict  XI,  the  tomb  of  the  Scotti  family  and  of  the 
physician  Gulielmo  da  Saliceto.  S.  Savino  (903)  was 
restored  several  times  and  entirely  transformed  in  the 
eighteenth  century;  formerly  there  was  a  raoriastery 
annexed  to  it;  in  its  recent  restorations,  paintings  of 
the  fourteenth  century  were  discovered,  and  also  pil- 
lars and  other  sculptures  of  the  original  construction, 
as  well  as  mosaics,  a  crucifix  carved  in  wood,  and 
other  objects.  Outside  the  city  the  monastery  of  the 
Cassinesi  Benedictines,  S.  Sisto,  founded  in  874  by 
Queen  Angilberga,  is  a  veritable  sanctuary  of  art;  the 
famous  Sistine  Ma- 
donna by  Raphael, 
was  first  here,  but 
was  sold  by  the 
monks,  to  obtain 
funds  for  repairs. 
Santa  Maria  in 
Campagna  contains 
a  very  ancient  statue 
in  marble  of  Our 
Lady,  four  statues 
in  wood  by  Hermann 
Geernacrt,  and 
paintings  by  Procac- 
cino,  Pordenone, 
Guercino,andothers. 
The  Palazzo  Du- 
cale,  a  work  of  Vi- 
gnola  (1.1.58),  has 
since  IS(H), served  as  a 
barracks.  The  Pa- 
lazzo Anguissola  da 
Grazzano  contains 
fine  paintings.  The 
Palazzo  Brandini  has 
a  gallery  of  paintings 
by  Correggio,  Reni,  Guercino,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and 
Murillo.  The  Palazzo  Landi  contains  paintings  by  Van 
Dy  ck .  The  Palazzo  Palastrelli  has  a  library  of  works  on 
the  history  of  Piacenza.  Cardinal  Alberoni  established 
in  this  town  a  famous  college.  Its  church  has  paintings 
by  Paolo  \'cronese,  Guido  Reni,  and  others.  The  Piazza 
de  Cavalli  has  equestrian  statues  of  Alessandro  and 
of  Ranuccio  I,  Farnese,  by  Mocchi  da  Montevarchi. 
Placentia,  with  Cremona,  was  founded  in  218  B.  c, 
to  hold  in  check  the  Gauls  after  their  defeat  near 
Clastidium.  The  ^'ia  jEmilia  terminated  there. 
Scipio,  defeated  near  the  Trebbia,  retreated  to  this 
town.  In  206  it  was  besieged  in  vain  by  Hasdrubal 
and  burned  by  the  Gauls  in  200.  There  Emperor 
Otho  defeated  Vitelhus  (69)  and  then  Aurelian  was 
defeated  by  the  Alamanni  (271);  there  also  Emperor 
Orestes  was  decapitated  (467).  The  Lombards  took 
po.ssession  of  it,  at  the  beginning  of  their  invasion,  and 
thereafter  it  remained  in  their  power.  From  the  ninth 
century  the  temporal  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
bishops,  until  the  twelfth  century,  when  the  town  be- 
came a  commune,  governed  by  consuls,  and  later 
(1188),  by  a  podestS,.  In  the  wars  between  the  Lom- 
bard cities  and  with  the  emperors,  Piacenza  was  an 
ally  of  Milan,  on  account  of  its  hatred  of  Cremona  and 
of  Pa\'ia;  wherefore  it  was  Guelph  and  a  party  to  both 
of  the  Lombard  leagues.  Twice,  Uberto  Palavicino 
made  himself  lord  of  the  city  (12.54  and  1261),  but  the 
free  commune  was  re-established.  From  1290  to  131.3, 
Alberto  Scotti  was  lord  of  Piacenza;  his  rule  had  many 
interruptions,  as  in  1308,  by  Guido  della  Torre  of 
Milan,  in  1312,  by  Henry  VII.     The  latter's  vicar, 


Galeazzo  Visconti,  was  expelled  by  the  pontifical 
legate  Bertrando  del  Poggetto  (1322-35).  In  1336 
Piacenza  came  again  under  the  rule  of  the  dukes  of 
Milan;  between  1404  and  1418  they  were  compelled  to 
retake  the  city  on  various  occasions.  In  1447  there 
was  a  new  attempt  to  re-establish  independent  gov- 
ernment. The  fortunes  of  war  gave  Piacenza  to  the 
Holy  See  in  1512;  in  1.545  it  was  united  to  the  new 
Duchy  of  Parma.  After  the  assassination  of  Pier 
Luigi  Farnese,  which  occurred  at  Piacenza  (1547),  the 
city  was  occupied  by  the  troops  of  the  imperial  gov- 
ernor of  Milan  and  was  not  restored  to  the  Duchy  of 
Parma  for  ten  years.  In  1746  the  Austrians  obtained 
a  great  victory  there  over  the  French  and  Spainards, 
and  in  1799  the  Russians  and  Austrians  defeated  the 
French.  Napoleon  made  Lebrun  Duke  of  Piacenza. 
St.  Antonius,  who  is  said  to  have  belonged  to  the 
Theban  Legion,  suffered  martyrdom  at  Piacenza,  in  the 
second  or  third  century.    The  first  known  bishop  is 

St.  Victor,  present  at 
the  Council  of  Sar- 
dica  (343);  St.  Sa- 
vinus,  present  at 
Aquileia  (381),  was 
probably  the  Sa\inus 
to  whom  St.  Am- 
brose wrote  several 
letters.  Other  bish- 
ops were  St.  Mau- 
rus,  St.  Flavianus, 
St.Majorianus(451). 
^^'  hether  the  emperor 
of  this  name  intended 
to  become  Bishop  of 
Piacenza  is  uncer- 
tain; he  was  not  its 
bishop,  having  been 
killed  soon  after  his 
abdication.  Joannes 
was  a  contemporary 
of  St.  Gregory  the 
Great;Thoraas(737) 
was  very  influential 
with  King  Luit- 
prand;  Podo(d.839) 
was  honoured  with  a  metrical  epitaph;  Guido  (904),  a 
man  of  arms  rather  than  of  the  Church;  Boso  (940) 
freed  himself  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  metropolitan 
See  of  Ravenna  (re-established  by  Gregory  V),  and  be- 
came the  antipope  John  XVI ;  Pietro  (1031 )  was  exiled  to 
Germany  by  Conrad  II;  Dionisio  was  deposed  in  1076 
by  Gregory  VII;  St.  Bonizo  (108S),  who  had  been 
Bishop  of  Sutri  and  a  great  supporter  of  Gregory  VII, 
was  killed  in  1089;  during  the  incumbency  of  Aldo 
(1096),  Emilia  was  temporarily  taken  from  the  juris- 
diction of  Ravenna;  Arduino  (1118)  founded  the  new 
cathedral;  Ugo  (1155),  a  nephew  of  Anacletus  II,  was 
driven  from  his  diocese  by  the  schismatics;  under  Ar- 
dizzone  (1192)  and  Grumerio  (1199)  grave  conten- 
tions began  between  the  clergy  and  the  consuls,  and 
Grumerio  was  driven  from  the  diocese;  Orlando  da 
Cremona,  O.P.,  was  mortally  wounded  by  a  Catha- 
rist  while  preaching  (1233);  P.  Alberto  Pandoni 
(1243),  an  Augustinian;  Pietro  Filargo  (1386)  became 
Pope  Alexander  V;  Pietro  Maineri  (1388)  was  for- 
merly the  physician  of  Galeazzo  II;  Branda  Castig- 
lione  (1404)  was  a  professor  of  law  at  Pavia,  and  took 
part  in  the  conciliabulum  of  Pisa  and  in  the  Council  of 
Constance,  and  became  a  cardinal;  Alessio  da  Siregno 
(1412)  was  a  famous  preacher;  Fabrizio  MarUani 
(1476)  was  very  zealous  for  the  reform  of  morals  in  the 
clergy  and  in  the  people;  Cardinal  Scaramuzza  Trivul- 
zio  (1519);  Catalano  Trivulzio  (1.525);  Cardinal  Gio- 
vanni Bernardino  Scotti  (1550)  was  a  very  learned 
Theatine;  the  Bl.  Paolo  Burali(157()),  a  Theatine,  be- 
came a  cardinal;  Cardinal  Filippo  Sega  (1578);  Ales- 
sandro Scappi  (1627)  was  obliged  to  leave  the  duchy 


The  Cathedral,  Piacenza 


PIANCIANI 


71 


PIAKO 


for  having  excommunicated  the  duke,  Odoardo; 
Alessandro  Pisani's  election  (1766)  was  one  of  the 
causes  of  dissension  with  the  Holy  See;  Stefano  Fallot 
de  Beaumont  (1807)  was  present  at  the  national 
council  of  Paris  (ISIO).  Bl.  Corrado  (d.  at  Noto  in 
1351)  was  from  Piacenza.  The  councils  of  Piacenza 
were  those  of  1076  (concerning  the  schismatics  against 
Gregory  VII),  1090  (Urban  II  against  the  concubi- 
nage of  the  clergy,  and  in  fa-^-our  of  the  crusade),  1132 
(Innocent  II  against  Anacletus  II).  There  were  ten 
synods  under  Bishop  Marliani  (1476-1508). 

In  1582  the  diocese  was  made  a  suffragan  of  Bo- 
logna; it  is  now  immediately  dependent  upon  the 
Holy  See.  It  has  350  parishes,  with  310,000  inhabi- 
tants, 11  religious  houses  for  men,  and  29  for  women,  5 
educational  establishments  for  male  students,  and  18 
for  girls,  1  daily  paper,  and  1  monthly  periodical.  The 
diocese  has  a  house  of  missionaries  for  emigrants  es- 
tablished by  the  late  bishop,  INIgr  Soalabrini. 

C.\PPELLETTI,  Le  Chiese  <l'  Italia,  XV ;  Campi,  Hisioria  ecclesias- 
tica  di  Piacenza:  Poggi^li,  Memorie  storiche  di  Piacenza  (12  vola., 
17.)7-66);  Gl.vKELLi,  Slmui  di  Piacenza  (2  vols.,  1889);  MuRA- 
TORi,  Return  ilaUcorum  Scr.,  XX;  Malchiodi  (and  others),  La 
regia  basilica  di  S.  tianno  in  Piacenza  (Piacenza,  1903).    See  alao 

U.  Benigni. 

University  of  Piacenza. — Piacenza  was  the  first 
Italian  city  to  apply  for  a  Bull  erecting  its  town- 
schools  into  u,  stuilimn  generale,  which  Bull  was 
granted  by  Innocent  IV  in  1248,  and  conferred  all  the 
usual  privileges  of  other  studia  generalia;  by  it  the 
power  of  giving  degrees  was  vested  in  the  Bishop  of 
Piacenza.  But  no  practical  work  was  done  here  until 
1398,  when  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan 
and  Pavia,  refounded  the  university  in  his  capacity 
of  Vicar  of  the  Empire.  The  University  of  Pavia  was 
suppressed,  as  he  did  not  wish  to  have  a  university  in 
either  of  his  capitals.  Gian  Galeazzo  liberally  en- 
dowed Piacenza,  organizing  a  university  of  jurists  as 
well  as  a  university  of  arts  and  medicine,  each  with  an 
independent  rector.  Between  1398  and  1402  seventy- 
two  salaried  professors  are  recorded  as  having  lectured, 
including  not  only  the  usual  professors  of  theology, 
law,  medicine,  philosophy,  and  grammar,  but  also  the 
new  chairs  of  astrology,  rhetoric,  Dante,  and  Seneca. 
But  this  endeavour  to  establish  a  large  university  in  a 
small  town  which  had  no  natural  influx  of  students 
was  doomed  to  failure,  and  little  or  no  work  was  done 
after  Gian  Galeazzo's  death  in  1402.  In  1412  Pavia 
had  its  university  restored,  and  the  subjects  of  the 
duchy  were  forbidden  to  study  elsewhere.  Piacenza 
then  obtained  an  unenviable  notoriety  as  a  market  for 
cheap  degrees.  This  traffic  was  still  flourishing  in 
1471,  though  no  lectures  had  been  given  for  sixty 
years.  A  college  of  law  and  a  college  of  arts  and 
medicine,  however,  maintained  a  shadowy  existence 
for  many  years  later.  Among  the  famous  teachers  at 
Piacenza  may  be  named  the  jurist  Placentinus, 
founder  of  the  law-school  at  Montpellier  (d.  there, 
1192);  and  Baldus  (b.  1327),  the  most  famous  jurist 
of  his  day  (Muratori,  "Rer.  It.  SS.",  XX,  939). 

Campi,  Hi^t.  Univers.  delle  cose  eccl.  come  seculari  di  Piacenza,  II 
(Piacenza,  1651),  187  sq.;  Rashdall,  Univ.  of  Europe  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  II,  pt.  I  (Oxford,  1895),  35. 

C.  F.  Wemyss  Brown. 

Pianciani,  Giambattista,  scientist,  b.  at  Spoleto, 
27  Oct.,  1784;  d.  at  Rome,  23  March,  1862.  He  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus  on  2  .June,  1805;  after 
having  received  the  ordinary  Jesuit  training  he  was 
sent  to  various  cities  in  the  Papal  States  to  teach  math- 
ematics and  physics  and  finally  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  the  Roman  College,  where  he  lectured  and 
wrote  on  scientific  subjects  for  twenty-four  years.  He 
was  an  active  member  of  the  Aceademia  d' Arcadia,  his 
academical  pseudonym  being  "Polite  Megaride",  of 
the  .\ccademia  de'  Lincei,  and  of  other  scientific  soci- 
eties. His  scientific  labours  were  abruptly  brought  to 
an  end  by  the  Revolution  of  1848;  he  succeeded,  how- 


ever, in  making  his  escape  from  Rome  and  having 
come  to  America  he  taught  dogmatic  theology  during 
the  scholastic  year  1849-50  at  the  Jesuit  theologate 
then  connected  with  Georgetown  College,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  When  peace  was  restored  in  Rome  he  re- 
turned thither  and  from  1851  till  his  death  was  en- 
gaged chiefly  in  administrative  duties  and  in  teaching 
philosophy  both  in  the  Roman  College  and  in  the 
CoUegio  Filosofico  of  the  University  of  Rome,  of  which 
latter  college  he  was  president  during  the  last  two 
years  of  his  life.  Besides  nuirierous  articles  on  scien- 
tific subjects,  especially  on  electricity  and  magnetism, 
and  on  philosophieo-religious  subjects,  he  published 
the  following  works:  "Istituzioni  fisico-chemiche " 
(4  vols.,  Rome,  1833-4);  "Elementi  di  fisico-chi- 
mica"  (2  vols.,  Naples,  1840-41);  " In  hi,storiam  crea- 
tionismosaicamcommentarius"  (Naples,  1851),  which 
he  wrote  whilst  at  Georgetown  and  of  which  there  is 
a  German  translation  by  Schottl  (Ratisbon,  1853); 
"Saggi  filosofici"  (Rome,  1855);  "Nuovi  saggi  filo- 
sofici"  (Rome,  1856);  "Cosmogonia  naturale  com- 
parata  col  Genesi"  (Rome,  1862). 

SoMMERVOGEL,  Bihl.  de  In  C.  de  J.,  VI  (Brussels,  189.5). 

Edward  C.  Phillips. 

Piand  Carpine,  Giovanni  da,  b.  at  Plan  di  Carpine 
(now  called  della  Magione),  near  Perugia,  Umbria, 
1182;  d.  probably  in  1252.  Having  entered  the  Fran- 
ciscan Order  he  was  a  companion  of  Caesar  of  Spires, 
the  leader  of  the  second  mission  of  the  Franciscans  to 
Germany  in  1221.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  founding 
various  new  establishments  of  the  order,  and  was  sev- 
eral times  provincial  in  Saxony  and  once  in  Spain. 
In  1245  Innocent  IV,  in  compliance  with  the  resolu- 
tions passed  at  the  first  council  of  Lyons,  entrusted 
Carpine  with  an  embassy  to  the  princes  and  people  of 
Mongolia  or  Tatary  with  a  view  to  checking  the  inva- 
sions of  these  formidable  hordes  and  eventually  effect- 
ing their  conversion.  Carpine  set  out  early  in  1246; 
among  his  companions  were  Brothers  Stephen  of 
Bohemia  and  Benedict  of  Poland,  who  were  to  act  as 
interpreters.  They  were  hospitably  entertained  by 
Duke  Vasilico  in  Russia,  where  they  read  the  pope's 
letters  to  the  assembled  schismatic  bishops,  leaving 
them  favourably  disposed  towards  reunion.  They 
reached  K.anieff,  a  town  on  the  Tatar  frontier,  early  in 
February.  The  Tatar  officials  referred  them  to 
Corenza,  commander  of  the  advance  guards,  who  in 
his  turn  directed  them  to  Batu,  Khan  of  Kipchak  etc., 
then  encamped  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga.  Batu  com- 
missioned two  soldiers  to  escort  the  papal  envoys  to 
Karakorum,  the  residence  of  the  Great  Khan.  They 
reached  their  destination  in  the  middle  of  July  after  a 
journey  of  indescribable  hardships.  The  death  of  the 
Great  Khan  Okkodai  made  it  necessary  to  defer  nego- 
tiations till  the  end  of  August  when  Kuyuk,  his  suc- 
cessor, ascended  the  throne.  After  much  delay  Kuyuk 
finally  demanded  a  written  statement  of  the  pope's 
propositions.  His  letter  in  reply  is  still  preserved. 
Its  tone  is  dignified  and  not  unfriendly,  but  indepen- 
dent and  arrogant.  In  it  he  says  in  substance:  "If  you 
desire  peace,  come  before  me !  We  see  no  reason  why 
we  should  embrace  the  Christian  religion.  We  have 
chastised  the  Christian  nations  because  they  disobeyed 
the  commandments  of  God  and  Jenghiz  Khan.  The 
power  of  God  is  manifestly  with  us."  The  superscrip- 
tion reads:  "Kuyuk,  by  the  power  of  God,  Khan  and 
Emperor  of  all  men — to  the  Great  Pope!"  Carpine 
procured  a  translation  of  the  letter  in  Arabic  and  Latin. 
On  their  homeward  journey  the  en\-oys  halted  at  the 
former  stations,  arriving  at  Kieff  (Russia)  in  June,  1247. 
They  were  enthusiastically  received  everywhere,  espe- 
cially by  the  Dukes  Visilico  and  Daniel,  his  brother. 
Carpine's  proposals  for  reunion  had  been  accepted  in 
the  meantime,  and  special  envoys  were  to  accompany 
him  to  the  papal  Court.  From  a  political  and  religious 
aspect  the  mission  to  Tatary  proved  successful  only 


PIATTO 


72 


PIAZZI 


in  a  remote  sense,  but  tlio  ambassadors  brought  with 
them  invaluable  information  regarding  the  countries 
and  pcc)plcs  of  tlic  Far  East.  Carpine's  written  ae- 
<iiunt,  the  first  of  its  kind  and  remarkable  for  its 
aiTuraf)-,  was  exhaustively  drawn  upon  by  such 
writers  as  Cantu  and  Hue  ("Travels  in  Tatary, 
Thibet  and  China",  2  vols.,  18.")2).  It  has  been  pub- 
lished by  d'Azevac:  "Jean  de  Plan  de  Carpin,  Rela- 
lion  (Ics  Mongols  ou  Tart.ares"  in  "Reeueil  de  voy- 
atjos",  I\'  (Paris,  1839),  and  later  by  Kulb:  ['Ge- 
schichte  der  Missionsreisen  nach  der  Mongolei",  I 
(Ratisbon,  18(10),  1-129.  Salimbene,  who  met  Car- 
pine  in  France,  found  him  "a  pleasant  man,  of  lively 
wit,  eloquent,  well-instructed,  and  skilful  in  many 
things".  Innocent  IV  bestowed  upon  him  every 
mark  of  esteem  and  affection.  Having  been  sent  as 
pa])al  legate  to  St.  Louis,  King  of  France,  Carpine  was 
sh(jrtly  afterwards  named  Archbishop  of  Antivari  in 
Dalmatia. 

C'fiTonirii  Ft.  Jovfhuii  dd,  Jano  in  Annlrda  Frnnciscana  (Qua- 
rarohi,  ISX.", — ),  I,  ,H-18;  II,  71;  III,  2(i(;;  WADlirNO,  Scriptores 
(Home,  190fi},  s.  v.;  Sbaralea,  Supphmfntum  (Rome,  ISO(i), 
s.  v.;  DA  CiVEZZA,  Storia  universale  dclle  missione  francescane,  I 
(Rome,  1.S.J7),  324  sqq.;  IV  (Rome,  1860),  186;  Eubel.  CVvr/i. 
der  obirdf'iU>ichen  Minoritenpronm  (Wiirzburg,  1886),  4,  6,  9,  20, 
206;  Idem,  /3i>  Bifichofe  aus  dem  Minoritenorden  in  Rom.  Quarial- 
schrifl,  IV,  207,  n.  9;  VoiGT  in  Abhandlunt^ert  der  philolog.-histor. 
Klasse  der  konigl.  mchs.  Ge^etlsch.  d.  Wi-^^en^eh.,  V  (Leipzig,  1870), 
4(1.^  .sqq.;  Hue.  C/iri.-itiani/ij  in  China,  Tntarij  and  Thibet,  I, 
(Lr.,  New  Yorlt,  1S97),  v;  da  AIalignaxo,  The  LifrofSt.  Franri.t  of 
.l.s.sisi  anil  a  Sketch  of  the  Fraiiri^raa  Order  (tr.,  New  Yorlc,  1887). 
444  sqq.;  Viator  in  EtudeH  franciscaines,  V  (1901),  505  sqq.,  600 
sqq.;  GoLUBOvicH,  Biblioteca  bio-bib.  delta  Terra  Santa,  I 
(C^uaracchi,  1900),  190  sqq.  Schlager,  Mont/olenfahrlen  der 
Frami>^k<trirr  in  Au^  alien  Zonen  (Bilder  aus  den  Alis^ionen  der 
Franziskaner  in  Verg.  u.  Geijeiew.),  II,  1-43. 

Thomas  Plassmann. 

Piatto  cardinalizio,  an  allowance  granted  by  the 
pope  to  cardinals  residing  in  curia  or  otherwise  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  the  Church,  to  enable  them  to 
maintain  their  dignity  with  decorum.  It  was  not 
given  to  cardinals  supported  in  Rome  by  their  so\-er- 
eign,  nor  is  it  accepted  by  cardinals  of  noble  family. 
The  entire  allowance  was  not  always  granted.  If  the 
cardinal  had  other  revenues,  he  received  enough  to 
make  up  the  amount  of  the  allowance.  This  designa- 
tion jnallo  was  first  used  in  the  conclave  of  1458.  Paul 
II  fixed  the  sum  at  100  gold  florins  a  month  for  cardi- 
nals whose  revenues  were  not  more  than  4000  florins. 
This  sum  was  called  "the  poor  cardinal's  plate"  Leo 
XI  intended  to  provide  otherwise  for  the  needful 
re\'enues.  Paul  V  raised  the  -piatto  to  1500  sciidi  a 
year,  for  cardinals  whose  ecclesiastical  revenues  were 
less  than  6000  scudi.  Then  the  custom  was  introduced 
of  gi\'ing  6000  scudi  annually  to  cardinals  without  ec- 
clesiastical revenues.  This  sum  was  reduced  in  1726 
to  4000  scudi,  as  determined  in  14G4  and  1484,  the 
amount  allowed  to-day,  the  cardinals  renouncing 
their  ecclesiastical  benefices.  For  some  distinguished 
cardinals  the  amount  was  larger.  The  piatto  cardinali- 
zio is  reckoned  to-day  at  4000  Roman  scudi  (about 
$4000).  It  is  reduced  according  to  the  other  revenues 
of  the  cardinal. 

Moroni,  Dizionario,  LII,  274  sqq. 

TJ.  Benigni. 

Piauhy  (de  Piaijht),  Diocese  of  (Piahukensis), 
suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Belem  do  Para,  in  the 
State  of  Piauhy,  north-eastern  Brazil.  The  state  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Atlantic,  west  by 
Maranhao,  south  by  Bahia,  east  by  Pernambuco  and 
Ceara.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  river  Piauhy. 
Its  area  is  116, 21S  sq.  miles,  and  it  has  a  coast  line  of 
ten  miles.  Piauhy  is  one  of  the  poorest  of  the  Brazil- 
ian states.  It  has  a  small  trade  in  cotton  and  cattle. 
Frequent  periods  of  drought,  followed  by  famine  and 
typhus,  add  to  the  disadvantages  of  its  unhealthful 
climate.  Except  in  mount  ainous  districts,  vegetation 
is  scanty;  even  the  agricultural  products — sugar- 
cane, coffee,  tobacco — barely  support  the  population. 


Therezina  is  the  capital  and  Parnahyba  the  chief  port. 
Emigration  is  making  heavy  drains  on  the  population, 
and  attempts  to  colonize  by  immigration  have  proved 
unsuccessful.  The  Diocese  of  Piauhy,  formerly  in- 
cluded in  the  Diocese  of  Sao  Luiz  do  Maranhao,  was,  on 
11  August,  1902,  erected  by  Leo  XIII  into  a  separate 
diocese.  Its  jurisdiction  comprises  the  Piauhy  State, 
and  its  population  (1911)  is  425,000,  with  32  parishes. 
Its  first  bishop,  Mgr  de  Aranjo  Pereira  (b.  at  Limolira, 
4  Nov.,  1853),  was  consecrated  on  9  Nov.,  1903,  and 
the  present  bishop  Mgr  Joachim  Antonio  <ie  Almeida 
(b.  7  Aug.,  1868)  on  14  December,  1905. 

J.  Moreno-Lacalle. 

Piazza  Armerina,  Diocese  of  (Platiensis),  in 
the  province  of  Caltanissetta,  Sicily.  The  city 
of  Piazza  Armerina  is  situated  on  a  high  hill 
in  a  very  fertile  district.  Its  origin  is  obscure. 
Gulielmo  il  Malo  destroyed  it  in  1166  on  account 
of  a  rebellion,  and  Gulielmo  il  Buono  rebuilt  it,  to- 
gether with  the  church  of  I'Asunta,  now  the  cathedral, 
and  in  which  there  is  an  admirable  picture  of  the  As- 
sumption by  Paladino.  The  church  of  the  priory  of 
S.  Andrea  also  has  fine  paintings  and  frescoes.  The 
diocese,  taken  from  that  of  Catania  was  created  in 
1817,  its  first  prelate  was  Girolamo  Aprile  e  Benzi; 
it  is  a  suffragan  of  Syracuse,  has  23  parishes,  with  184,- 
500  inhabitants,  7  religious  houses  of  men  and  19  of 
women,  1  school  for  boys  and  7  for  girls,  and  1  Cath- 
olic weekly. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d'ltalia,  XXI. 

U.  Benigni. 

Piazzi,  Giuseppe,  astronomer,  b.  at  Ponte  in 
Valtellina,  16  July,  1746;  d.  at  Naples,  22  July,  1826. 
He  took  the  habit  of  the  Theatines  at  Milan  and  fin- 
ished his  novitiate  at  the  convent  of  San  Antonio. 
Studying  at  colleges  of  the  order  at  Milan,  Turin, 
Rome,  and  Genoa,  under  such  preceptors  as  Tirabos- 
chi,  Beccaria,  Le  Seur,  and  Jacquier,  he  acquired  a 
taste  for  matihematics  and  astronomy.  He  taught 
philosophy  for  a  time  at  Genoa  and  mathematics  at 
the  new  University  of  Malta  while  it  lasted.  In  1779, 
as  professor  of  dogmatic  theology  in  Rome,  his  col- 
league was  Chiaramonti,  later  Pius  VH.  In  17S0 
he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  higher  mathematics  at  the 
academy  of  Palermo.  There  he  soon  obtained  a  grant 
from  Prince  Caramanico,  Viceroy  of  Sicily,  for  an  ob- 
servatory. As  its  director  he  was  charged  to  get  the 
necessary  instruments.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1787  to 
study  with  Lalande,  to  England  in  1788  to  work  with 
Maskelyne  and  the  famous  instrument-maker  Rams- 
den.  A  large  vertical  circle  with  reading  microscopes, 
a  transit,  and  other  apparatus  were  sent  to  Palermo 
in  1789,  where  they  were  placed  on  top  of  a  tower  of 
the  royal  palace.     Observations  were  started  in  May, 

1791,  and  the  first  reports  were  published  as  early  as 

1792.  Soon  he  was  able  to  correct  errors  in  the  esti- 
mation of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  of  the  aberra- 
tion of  light,  of  the  length  of  the  tropical  year,  and  of 
the  parallax  of  the  fixed  stars.  He  saw  the  necessity 
for  a  revision  of  the  existing  catalogues  of  stars  and 
for  the  exact  determination  of  their  positions.  In 
1803  he  pubhshed  a  fist  of  67S4  stars  and  in  1814  a 
second  catalogue  containing  7646  stars.  Both  lists 
were  awarded  prizes  by  the  Institute  of  France. 

"While  looking  for  a  small  star  mentioned  in  one  of 
the  earlier  lists  he  made  his  great  discovery  of  the  first 
known  planetoid,  1  Jan.,  1801.  Locating  a  strange 
heavenly  body  of  the  eighth  magnitude  and  repeating 
the  observation  several  nights  in  succession,  he  found 
that  this  star  had  shifted  slightly.  Believing  it  to 
bo  a  comet,  he  announced  its  discovery.  These  few 
but  exact  measurements  enabled  Gauss  to  calculate 
the  orbit  and  to  find  that  this  was  a  new  planet,  be- 
tween  Mars   and   Jupiter.     Kepler   and   Bode   had 


PIBUSH 


73 


PICCOLOMINI 


called  attention  to  the  apparent  gap  between  these 
two,  so  that  the  placing  of  this  new  body  within  that 
space  caused  groat  excitement  among  astronomers. 
Piazzi  proposed  the  name  of  Ceres  Ferdinandea,  in 
honour  of  his  king.  Over  600  of  these  so-called  plane- 
toids have  since  been  located  within  the  same  space. 
The  king  desired  to  strike  a  gold  medal  with  Piazzi's 

effigy,  in  com- 
memoration, but 
the  astronomer 
requested  the  priv- 
ilege of  using  the 
money  for  the  pur- 
pose of  a  much- 
needed  equatorial 
telescope.  In  1812 
he  received  the 
commission  to  re- 
form the  weights 
and  measures  of 
Sicily  in  accord- 
ance with  the 
metric  system.  In 
1817  as  director- 
general  of  the  ob- 
servatories of  the 
J  Two  Sicilies  he  was 
GicsEPPE  Piazzi  charged  with   the 

plans  of  the  new  observatory  which  Murat  was  es- 
tablishing in  Naples.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emies of  Naples,  Tm'in,  Gottingen,  Berlin,  and  St. 
Petersburg,  foreign  associate  of  the  Institute  of  Milan 
etc.  Besides  the  numerous  memoirs  published  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  various  academies,  the  following 
works  may  be  mentioned:  "Delia  specola  astronomica 
di  Palermo  libri  quatro"  (Palermo,  1792);  "SuU' 
orologio  Italiano  e  I'Europeo"  (Palermo,  1798); 
"Delia  scoperta  del  nuovo  planeta  Cerere  Ferdi- 
nandea" (Palermo,  1802);  " Prsecipuarum  stellarum 
inerrantium  positiones  mediae  ineunte  seculo  XIX  ex 
observationibus  habitis  in  specula  Panormitana  at 
1793  ad  1802"  (Palermo,  1803,  1814);  "Codicemetrico 
siculo"  (Catane,  1812);  "Lezioni  di  astronomia" 
(Palermo,  1817;  tr.  Westphal,  Berlin  1822);  "Ragg- 
naglio  dal  rcale  osservatorio  d'Napoli     (Naples,  1821). 

Wolf,  Geschichte  der  A.^troiiomie  (Munich,  1877);  Maineri, 
L'Astronomo  Giovanni  Pinz:i  (Milan,  1871);  Cosmos  (Paris,  2 
March,  and  1.3  June,  1901);  Kneller,  Das  Christentum  (Frei- 
burg, 1904),  7.5-80. 

William  Fox. 

Pibush,  John,  Venerable,  English  martyr,  b.  at 
Thirsk,  Yorkshire;  d.  at  St.  Thomas's  Waterings, 
Camberwell,  18  February,  1600-1.  According  to 
Gillow  he  was  probably  a  son  of  Thomas  Pibush,  of 
Great  Fencott,  and  Jane,  sister  to  Peter  Danby  of 
Scotton.  He  came  to  Reims  on  4  August,  1580,  re- 
ceived minor  orders  and  subdiaoonate  in  Sept.,  and 
diaconate  in  Dec,  1586,  and  was  ordained  on  14 
March,  1587.  He  was  sent  on  the  English  mission 
on  3  Jan.,  1588-9,  arrested  at  Morton-in-Marsh, 
Gloucestershire,  in  1593,  and  sent  to  London,  where 
he  arrived  before  24  July.  The  Privy  Council  com- 
mitted him  to  the  Gatehouse  at  Westminster,  where 
he  remained  a  year.  He  was  then  tried  at  the 
Gloucester  Assizes  under  27  Eliz.,  c.  2,  for  being  a 
.priest,  but  not  sentenced,  and  was  returned  to  Glouces- 
ter gaol,  whence  he  escaped  on  19  February  (1594- 
5).  The  next  day  he  was  recaptured  at  Matson  and 
taken  back  to  Gloucester  gaol,  whence  he  was  sent 
to  the  Marshalsea,  London,  and  again  tried  under  the 
same  statute  at  Westminster  on  1  July,  1595.  He 
was  sentenced  to  suffer  the  penalties  of  high  treason 
at  St.  Thomas's  Waterings,  and  in  the  meantime  was 
to  be  returned  to  the  Marshalsea.  However,  by  the 
end  of  the  year  he  was  in  the  Queen's  Bench  prison, 
where  he  remained  for  more  than  five  years.  The 
sentence  was  carried  out  after  one  day's  notice. 


Knox,  Douay  Diaries  (London,  1878),  169,  179,  198,  212,  214, 
222;  Pollen,  Acts  of  the  English  Martyrs  (London,  1891),  33.5-6; 
English  Martyrs,  1684-160.1  (London  Cath.  Rec.Soc,  1908),  337- 
40;  GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Diet.  Entj.  Cath.  a.  v.;  Challoner,  Missionary 
Priests,  I,  n.  123;  Dasent,  Acts  of  the  Privy  Council  (London, 
1890-1907),  xxiv,  421. 

John  B.  Wainewbiqht. 

Picard,  Jean,  astronomer,  b.  at  La  Fleche,  21 
July,  1620;  d.  at  Paris,  12  Oct.,  1682.  He  was  a  priest 
and  prior  of  Rill6  in  Anjou.  As  a  pupil  of  Gassendi  he 
observed  with  him  the  solar  eclipse  of  25  Aug.,  1645. 
In  1655  he  succeeded  his  master  as  professor  of  astron- 
omy at  the  College  de  France.  His  principal  acliieve- 
ment  was  the  accurate  measurement  of  an  arc  of  a 
meridian  of  the  earth,  the  distance  from  Sourdon, 
near  Amiens,  to  Malvoisine,  south  of  Paris,  in  1669- 
70.  His  result,  57060  toises  (a  toise  =  about  6-4  ft.) 
for  the  degree  of  arc,  has  been  found  to  be  only  14 
toises  too  small.  He  applied  telescopes  and  microm- 
eters to  graduated  astronomical  and  measuring  in- 
struments as  early  as  1667.  The  quadrant  he  used 
had  a  radius  of  38  inches  and  was  so  finely  graduated 
that  he  could  read  the  angles  to  one  quarter  of  a  min- 
ute. The  sextant  employed  for  determining  the  me- 
ridian was  6  feet  in  radius.  In  1669  he  was  able  to  ob- 
serve stars  on  the  meridian  during  day-time  and  to 
measure  their  position  with  the  aid  of  cross-wires  at 
the  focus  of  his  telescope.  In  order  to  make  sure 
that  his  standard  toise  should  not  be  lost,  like  those 
used  by  others  before  him,  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
comparing  it  with  the  length  of  the  simple  pendulum 
beating  seconds  at  Paris,  and  thus  made  it  possible  to 
reproduce  the  standard  at  any  time. 

Picard  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  modem  as- 
tronomy in  France.  He  introduced  new  methods,  im- 
proved the  old  instruments,  and  added  new  devices, 
such  as  the  pendulum  clock.  As  a  result  of  Picard's 
work,  Newton  was  able  to  revise  his  calculations  and 
announce  his  great  law  of  universal  gravitation. 
The  discovery  of  the  aberration  of  light  also  became 
a  possibility  on  account  of  Picard's  study  of  Tycho 
Brahe's  observations.  In  1671  he  received  from  Bar- 
tholinus  at  Copenhagen  an  exact  copy  of  Tycho's 
records  and  then  went  with  Bartholinus  to  the  Island 
of  Hveen  in  order  to  determine  the  exact  position  of 
Tycho's  observatory  at  Uranienborg.  He  was  modest 
and  unselfish  enough  to  recommend  the  rival  Italian 
astronomer  Cassini  to  Colbert  and  Louis  XIV  for  the 
direction  of  the  new  observatory  at  Paris.  Cassini, 
on  the  contrary,  proved  envious,  ignoring  Picard's 
insistent  recommendations  of  amural  circle  for  accurate 
meridional  observations,  until  after  the  latter's  death. 

Picard  was  among  the  first  members  of  the  Acad- 
emy. He  also  started  the  publication  of  the  annual 
" Connaissance  des  temps"  in  1679  (Paris,  1678),  and 
continued  the  same  until  1683.  Since  then  it  has  been 
published  continuously.  His  "Mesure  de  la  terre" 
was  brought  out  in  1671,  Paris. 

Wolf,  Geschichte  der  Astronomie  (Munich,  1879) ;  Delambre, 
Hist,  de  I'astr.  mod.,  II  (Paris,  1821),  567-632, 

William  Fox. 

Piccolomini,  Alessandro,  litterateur,  philosopher, 
astronomer,  b.  13  June,  1508;  d.  12  March,  1578.  He 
passed  his  youth  in  the  study  of  literature  and  wrote 
several  comedies  ("Amor  costante",  "Alessandro", 
"Ortensio"),  translated  into  Italian  verse  Ovid's 
"Metamorphoses",  part  of  the  "jEneid",  Aristotle's 
"Poetics"  and  "Rhetoric",  composed  a  hundred 
sonnets  (Rome,  1549),  and  other  rhyme.  He  repu- 
diated in  later  years  "Raffaello"  or  "Dialogo  della 
creanza  donne  "  as  too  licentious.  In  1540  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Padua,  where  he  wrote 
"Istituzione  di  tutta  la  vita  dell'  uomo  nato  nobile 
e  in  citt^  libera",  "Filosofia  naturale"  in  which  he 
followed  the  theories  of  ancient  and  medieval  phi- 
losophers, while  in  his  "Trattato  della  grandezza 
della  terra  e  deU'  acqua"  (Venice,  1558),  he  combatted 


PICCOLOMINI 


74 


PICHLER 


the  Aristotelean  and  Ptolemaic  opinion  that  water 
was  more  extensive  than  land,  thereby  provoking, 
with  Antonio  Berga,  professor  at  Mondovi,  a  contro- 
\crsy,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Giambattista  Ben- 
nedctti.  In  astronomy  ("Sfera  del  mondo",  "Delle 
stelle  fisse",  " Spoculazioni  de'  pianeti")  he  adhered 
to  the  Ptolemaic  theory.  He  also  wrote  on  the  reform 
of  the  calendar  (157S),  and  a  commentary  on  the 
mechanics  of  Aristotle.  To  counteract  "RafTaella" 
he  wrote  his  "Orazione  in  lode  delle  donne"  (Rome, 
(l.')4!)).  His  fame  extended  beyond  Italy.  Gregory 
XIII,  in  1574,  appointed  him  titular  Bishop  of  Pa- 
tr;c  and  coadjutor  to  Francesco  Bandini,  Archbishop 
of  Siena,  who  survived  him. 

I'AUIAM,  Vita  (li  Alcsaandro  Piccolomini  (Siena,  1749  and  1759) ; 
TiRADOSCHi,  Storia  della  letteratura  italiana,  VII,  pt.  i. 

U.  Benigni. 
Piccolomini,  Enea  Silvio.     See  Pius  II,  Pope. 

Piccolomini- Ammannati,  Jacopo,  cardinal,  b.in 
the  Villa  Basilica  near  Lucca,  1422;  d.  at  San  Lorenzo 
near  Bolsena,  10  Sept.,  1479.  He  was  related  to  the 
Piccolomini  of  Siena.  His  literary  and  theological 
education  he  acquired  in  Florence.  Under  Nicholas  V 
he  went  to  Rome,  where,  for  a  while,  he  lived  in  ex- 
treme penury.  In  1450  he  became  private  secretary 
to  Cardinal  Domenico  Capranica ;  later  Calistus  III 
appoint  cd  him  secretary  of  Briefs.  He  was  retained 
in  this  office  by  Pius  II,  who  also  made  him  a  member 
of  the  pontifical  household,  on  which  occasion  he 
assumed  the  family  name  of  Piccolomini.  In  1460  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Pa  via  by  Pius  II,  and  throughout 
the  pontificate  of  the  latter  was  his  most  trusted  con- 
fidant and  ath'iser.  He  exhibited  paternal  solicitude 
in  the  government  of  his  diocese,  and  during  his  pro- 
longed absences  entrusted  its  affairs  to  able  vicars, 
with  whom  he  remained  in  constant  touch.  On  18 
December,  1401,  he  was  made  cardinal,  and  was  com- 
monly known  as  the  Cardinal  of  Pa^'ia.  He  accom- 
panied Pius  II  to  Ancona,  and  attended  him  in  his 
last  illness.  In  the  subsequent  conclave  he  favoured 
the  election  of  Paul  II,  whose  displeasure  he  after- 
ward incurred  liy  insisting  on  the  full  observance 
of  the  ante-election  capitulations  that  the  pope  had 
signed.  The  imprisonment  of  his  private  secretary 
by  Paul  II  on  a  charge  of  complicity  in  the  conspiracy 
of  the  "Accademici"  offended  Piccolomini  still  more, 
and  his  open  defence  of  the  secretary  aggravated  the 
pope's  ill-will.  The  disfavour  in  which  he  was  held 
by  Paul  II  did  not  exempt  his  episcopal  revenues  from 
sequestration  by  the  Duke  of  Milan,  Galeazzo  Maria. 
It  was  due  to  his  insistence  that  Paul  II  took  energetic 
measures  against  George  Podiebrad,  King  of  Bohemia. 
Sixtus  IV  was  scarcely  more  favourable  towards  Picco- 
lomini than  Paul  II. 

He  was  the  friend  of  students  and  scholars,  and  pro- 
tected Jacopo  de  Volterra.  In  1470  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Sec  of  Lucca  and  was  named  papal  envoy 
to  Umbria.  He  wrote  a  continuation  in  seven  books 
of  the  "Commentarii"  of  Pius  II.  His  style  is  elegant, 
but  he  is  not  always  impartial,  especially  apropos  of 
Paul  II  or  Sixtus  IV.  His  Commentaries,  neverthe- 
less, remain  an  important  source  for  contemporary 
histor>',  and  his  valuable  letters  have  been  collected 
and  published.  Ammannati  is  one  of  the  most  sym- 
pathetic personalities  of  the  ItaUan  Renaissance.  He 
enjoy  I'd  the  friendship  of  noted  prelates  and  human- 
ists, among  others.  Cardinals  Bessarion,  Carvajal, 
Roverella  etc.  Bessarion  (Pastor,  "Oeschichte  der 
Papste",  II,  731),  praises  his  executive  ability  and 
readiness,  his  charity  and  zeal. 

Epistolfr  ft  commentarii  Jncohi  Piccolomini  cardinali^  Prtpirn^is 
(Milan,  l.-iOr.),  added  also  to  the  Franlifort  cd.  of  the  r„m- 
maitarii  of  Pius  II  (Frankfort,  1614);  Pauu,  Disqui^i'ione 
iflorica  ddla  patria  c  compendia  della  vita  del  Card  Jacopo 
Ammannati  (Lucca,  1712);  Cardella,  Vile  del'  Cardinali,  III 
153.  ' 

U.  Benigni. 


Pichler,  a  renowned  Austrian  family  of  gem- 
cutters  who  lived  and  died  in  Italy. 

Antonio  (Johann  Anton)  b.  at  Brixen,  Tyrol,  12 
April,  1697;  d.  in  Rome,  14  Sept.,  1779.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  physician  and  had  been  a  merchant  until, 
travelling  in  Italy,  he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to 
art.  He  went  to  work  in  Naples  with  a  goldsmith  and 
engraver  of  precious  stones.  In  1743,  proficient  in 
his  new  calling,  he  moved  to  Rome  and  copied  many 
antiques.  He  attained  excellence  and  fame,  but  was 
somewhat  limited  in  his  field  for  want  of  early 
training  and  grounding  in  design. 

Giovanni  (Johann  Anton),  the  son  of  the  fore- 
going, was  b.  at  Naples,  1  Jan.,  1734;  d.  in  Rome, 
25  Jan.,  1791.  He  was  <.  painter,  gem-cutter,  and 
experimenter  in  encaustic  and  mosaic,  a  pupil  of  his 
father,  and  of  the  painter  Corvi.  His  scholarship 
and  knowledge  of  the  fine  arts  gave  him  unusual 
advantages.  Early  in  life  he  executed  a  series  of  his- 
torical paintings  for  the  Franciscans  at  Orioli,  and  the 
Augustinians  at  Braccian;  also  a  St.  Michael  for  the 
Pauline  nuns  in  Rome.  Later  he  demoted  himself 
wholly  to  intaglio;  he  wrought  gems  of  great  beauty 
and  finish,  which  resembled  the  classic  so  closely  in 
style  and  execution  that  A\'inckelmann  is  said  to  have 
thought  them  antiques.  He  was  held  in  high  regard 
and  received  innumerable  honours  and  lucrative  com- 
missions. Works:  Hercules  strangling  the  Lion; 
Leander  crossing  the  Hellespont;  Nemesis,  Leda, 
Galatea,  Venus,  Dancers,  the  Vestal  Tuccia,  Arethusa, 
Ariadne,  Antinous,  Sappho ;  portraits  of  Pius  VI 
and  the  Emperor  Joseph  II;  and  many  other  subjects. 
His  son  GiACO.MO  was  trained  to  be  a  gem-cutter  and 
executed  many  works  in  Milan,  whither  he  had  gone 
to  be  near  his  sister  Theresa,  married  to  the  poet 
Vincenzo  Monti.     He  died  in  early  manhood. 

Giuseppe  (Johann  Joseph),  b.  in  Rome,  1760; 
d.  there,  1820.  Hi'  was  a  son  of  Antonio  by  a  second 
marriage  and  half  brother  to  Giovanni,  who  taught 
him  the  family  art.  Among  his  works  are  the  por- 
trait of  Alexander  I  of  Russia;  the  Three  fi races  after 
Canova;  Achilles,  Bacchus,  Ceres,  lo.  Medusa,  Per- 
seus etc.  He  signs  in  Greek,  like  the  older  Pichlers 
niXAEP,  using  the  initial  *. 

LuiGi,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Pichler  family, 
was  b.  in  Rome  31  Jan.,  1773,  of  the  second  marriage 
of  Antonio;  d.  13  March,  1854.  Losing  his  father 
while  very  young,  he  was  indebted  to  his  half-brother, 
Giovanni,  for  his  careful  education  under  a  pri\'ate 
tutor  and  for  four  years  of  art  training  with  the 
painter  De  Angelis.  Almost  in  childhood  the  boy 
had  taken  to  himself  the  tools  of  the  gem-cutter  and, 
as  he  grew  older,  showed  a  special  liking  for  cameo. 
Giovanni  taught  him  their  common  art,  and  con- 
noisseurs esteem  that  Luigi's  incisions  have  even  more 
finish,  clearness,  and  light-gathering  quality  than 
those  of  his  brother.  He  received  many  commissions 
from  the  Vatican  and  the  Courts  of  France  and  Aus- 
tria, and  kept  a  splendid  house  where  music  and 
masques  were  frequently  given.  He  made  several 
trips  to  Vienna  and  was  asked  to  found  a  school  there. 
In  1818  he  copied  in  enamel  five  hundred  gems  of  the 
Vienna  Cabinet  which  the  emperor  wished  to  present 
to  the  pope.  For  the  same  city  he  made  a  complete 
collection  of  copies  of  the  intaglios  of  his  father  and 
brother,  adding  a  set  of  his  own,  thus  bringing  the- 
historical  collection  of  1400  antiques  up  to  modern 
times.  Venus,  Cupid  and  Psyche,  Apollo,  Head  of 
Julius  C^Tsar,  Mars,  Iris,  the  Day  and  Night  of 
Thorwaldsen;  and  two  exquisite  heads  of  Christ  are 
some  of  his  subjects;  besides  many  originals  and 
portraits,  including  Giovanni  Pichler's,  Winckel- 
mann's,  Joseph  II,  Pius  ^^II,  and  Gregory  XVI. 
Luigi  received  innumerable  honours  from  the  popes 
and  sovereigns  of  his  day.  His  last  gem,  a  head  of 
Ajax,  which  he  ^\ished  to  present  to  Pius  IX,  was 
placed  by  the  pope  in  a  gold  case  in  the  Vatican  coUec- 


PICHLER 


75 


PICQUET 


tion  with  the  signature  n.  A  or  niXAEP.  A.  The 
tomb  of  the  Pichlers  is  in  S.  Lorenzo  in  Lucina, 
Rome. 

Rossi,  Vita  del  Cat).  Giov.  Pichler  (Rome,  1792);  Mugna, 
/  tre  Pichler  (Vienna.  1844);  Rollett,  Die  drei  Meister  der 
Gemmoglypiik,  Antonio,  Giovanni  und  Luigi  Pichler  (Vienna, 
1874);  NAGLERin  Neues allgemeines Kii nstler Lex.  (Munich,  1841); 
BoccARDO  in  Nuova  Enciclopedia  Italiana  (Turin,  1884). 

M.  L.  Handley. 

Pichler,  Vitus,  distinguished  canonist  and  contro- 
versial writer,  b.  at  Grossberghofen,  24  May,  1670;  d. 
at  Munich,  15  Feb.,  1736.  He  studied  for  the  secular 
priesthood,  but  after  ordination  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  28  Sept.,  1696.  For  four  years  he  was  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Brigue  and  Dillingen.  He  was  then 
advanced  to  the  chair  of  theology,  controversial 
and  scholastic,  at  Augsburg.  He  acquired  fame  in 
the  field  of  canon  law,  which  he  taught  for  nineteen 
years  at  Dillingen,  and  at  Ingolstadt,  where  he  was 
the  successor  of  the  illustrious  canonist,  Fr.  Schmalz- 
grueber.  His  latest  employment  was  as  prefect  of 
higher  studies  at  Munich.  His  first  important  literary 
work  was  "Examen  polemioum  super  Augustana  Con- 
fessione"  (1708),  an  examination  of  the  Lutheran 
Augsburg  Confession.  Other  controversial  works  fol- 
lowed, generally  directed  against  Lutheranism,  such 
as  "Lutheranismus  constanter  errans"  (1709);  "Una 
et  vera  fides"  (1710);  "Theologia  polemica  particu- 
laris"  (1711).  In  his  "Cursus  theologise  polemicae 
universse"  (1713),  Pichler  devotes  the  first  part  to  the 
fundamentals  of  polemical  theology  and  the  second 
part  to  the  particular  errors  of  the  reformers.  It  is 
said  that  he  was  the  first  writer  to  lay  down,  clearly 
and  separately,  the  distinction  between  fundamental 
theology  and  other  divisions  of  the  science.  He  also 
wrote  an  important  work  on  papal  infallibility,  "  Papa- 
tus  nunquam  errans  in  proponendis  fidei  articulis" 
(1709).  Although  widely  renowned  as  a  polemical 
theologian,  Pichler  is  better  known  as  a  canonist.  He 
pubhshed  his  "Candidatus  juris  prudentise  sacrse"  in 
1722;  this  was  followed  by  "Summa  jurisprudentiae 
sacrae  universte"  in  1723  sqq.  He  also  issued  "Mani- 
pulus  casuum  jiridicorum"  and  several  epitomes  of  his 
larger  canonical  treatises.  Pichler's  controversial 
works  were  in  great  vogue  during  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, while  his  books  on  canon  law  were  used  as  text- 
books in  many  universities.  His  solutions  of  difficult 
cases  in  jurisprudence  gave  a  decided  impetus  to  the 
study  of  the  canons  and  afforded  a  key  to  the  intricate 
portions  of  the  "Corpus  juris  canonici".  Fourteen  of 
Pichler's  works,  excluding  the  many  editions  and  alter- 
ations, are  enumerated. 

HuRTER,  Nomenclator  literarius,  III  (Innsbruck,  1895) ;  SoM- 
MERVOGEL,  Bihliothkque  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  VI  (Brussels, 
1895) ;  De  Backer,  Biblioth^que  des  Scrivains,  S.  J.  (Li^ge,  1853— 

76).  William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Pickering,  Thomas,  Venerable,  lay  brother  and 
martyr,  a  member  of  an  old  Westmoreland  family,  b. 
c.  1621;  executed  at  Tyburn,  9  May,  1679.  He  was 
sent  to  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  Gregory  at 
Douai,  where  he  took  vows  as  a  lay  brother  in  1660. 
In  1665  he  was  sent  to  London,  where,  as  steward  or 
procurator  to  the  little  community  of  Benedictines 
who  served  the  queen's  chapel  royal,  he  became 
known  personally  to  the  queen  and  Charles  II ;  and 
when  in  1675,  urged  by  the  parliament,  Charles  issued 
a  proclamation  ordering  the  Benedictines  to  leave 
England  within  a  fixed  time,  Pickering  was  allowed  to 
remain,  probably  on  the  ground  that  he  was  not  a 
priest.  In  1678  came  the  pretended  revelations  of 
Titus  Gates,  and  Pickering  was  accused  of  conspiring 
to  murder  the  king.  No  evidence  except  Gates's 
word  was  produced  and  Pickering's  innocence  was  so 
obvious  that  the  queen  publicly  announced  her  belief 
in  him,  but  the  jury  found  him  guilty,  and  with  two 
others  he  was  condemned  to  be  hanged,  drawn,  and 
quartered.  The  king  was  divided  between  the  wish 
to  save  the  innocent  men  and  fear  of  the  popular 


clamour,  which  loudly  demanded  the  death  of  Gates's 
victims,  and  twice  within  a  month  the  three  prisoners 
were  ordered  for  execution  and  then  reprieved.  At 
length  Charles  permitted  the  execution  of  the  other 
two,  hoping  that  this  would  satisfy  the  people  and  save 
Pickering  from  his  fate.  The  contrary  took  place, 
however,  and,  26  April,  1679,  the  House  of  Commons 
petitioned  for  Pickering's  execution.  Charles  yielded 
and  the  long-deferred  sentence  was  carried  out  on  the 
ninth  of  May.  A  small  piece  of  cloth  stained  with 
his  blood  is  preserved  among  the  relics  at  Downside 
Abbey. 

The  Tryals  of  William  Ireland,  Thomas  Pickering  and  John 
Grove  for  conspiring  to  murder  the  king  .  (London,  1678) ; 

An  exact  abridgment  of  all  the  Trials  .  .  .  relating  to  the  popish 
and  pretended  protestant  plots  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  II  and  James 
II  (London,  1690),  464;  Dodd,  Church  History  of  England,  III 
(Brussels,  1742),  318;  Challoner,  Memoirs  of  Missionary 
Priests,  II  (London,  1742),  376;  Oliver,  Collections  illustrating 
the  History  of  the  Catholic  Religion  in  Cornwall,  Devon,  etc.  (Lon- 
don, 1857),  500;  Corker,  Rem,onstrance  of  piety  and  innocence 
(London,  1683) ;  Snow,  Necrology  of  the  English  Benedictines 
(London,  1883),  178;  Weldon,  Chronological  Notes  on  the  English 
Congregation  of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict,  ed.  DoLAN  (Worcester, 
1881),  219;  Downside  Review,  II  (London,  1883),  52-60. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Piconio,  Bbrnardine  a  (Henri  Bernardine  de 
Picquigny),  b.  at  Picquigny,  Picardy,  1633;  d.  in 
Paris,  8  December,  1709;  was  educated  at  Picquigny, 
and  joined  the  Capuchins  in  1649.  As  professor  of 
theology  he  shed  great  lustre  upon  his  order;  his  best- 
known  work  is  his  "Triplex  expositio  epistolarum 
sancti  Pauli"  (Paris,  1703  [French],  1706  [English, 
tr.  Prichard],  London,  1888),  which  has  ever  been 
popular  among  Scriptural  scholars.  Piconio  also 
wrote  "Triplex  expositio  in  sacrosancta  D.  N.  Jesu 
Christi  Evangelia"  (Paris,  1726),  and  a  book  of  moral 
instructions.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works,  "Opera 
omnia  Bernardini  a  Piconio",  was  published  at  Paris 
(1870-2). 

HuRTER,  Nomenclator  literarius,  II,  7S8. 

William  C.  Nevils. 

Picpus,  Congregation  of  the.  See  Sacred 
Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  Congregation  of  the. 

Picquet,  Francois,  a  celebrated  Sulpician  mission- 
ary in  Canada,  b.  at  Bourg,  Bresse,  France,  4  Dec, 
1708;  d.  at  Verjon,  Ain,  France,  in  1781.  He  entered 
the  Seminary  of  Lyons  (1727),  where  he  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1731.  At  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  in 
Paris,  after  winning  his  doctorate  at  the  Sorbonne, 
he  was  raised  to  the  priesthood,  and  became  a  Sul- 
pician. The  same  year  he  begged  to  be  sent  to  Can- 
ada, and  in  the  month  of  July  arrived  at  Montreal, 
where  for  five  years  (1734-9)  he  was  engaged  in  the 
ministry.  On  the  Indian  mission  of  the  Lac-des- 
Deux-Montagnes  (now  Oka),  he  acquired  the  Algon- 
quin and  Iroquois  tongues  so  perfectly  that  he 
surpassed  the  ablest  orators  of  these  tribes.  His  in- 
fluence enabled  him  to  win  a  large  number  of  these 
savages  to  the  true  Faith.  The  Lake  inission  became 
very  populous:  Nipissings,  Gutaouois,  Mohawks, 
and  Hurons  crowded  alongside  the  Algonquins  and 
Iroquois.  Picquet  fortified  this  Catholic  centre 
against  the  pagan  tribes,  and  erected  the  Calvary 
which  still  exists,  with  its  well-built  stations  stretch- 
ing along  the  mountain  side  facing  the  lake.  In  the 
intercolonial  war  between  France  and  England  (1743- 
8),  the  Indian  allies  of  these  two  powers  came  to  arms. 
Due  to  the  influence  of  their  missionary  the  Five 
Nations,  hitherto  allies  of  the  English,  remained 
neutral,  while  the  other  savages  carried  on  a  guerilla 
war  in  New  England  or  served  as  scouts  for  the  French 
troops.  When  peace  was  restored,  Picquet  volun- 
teered to  establish  an  Indian  post  on  the  Presentation 
River,  whence  he  spread  the  Gospel  among  the  Iro- 
quois nations,  as  far  as  the  Indians  of  the  West. 
Founded  on  1  June,  1749,  this  post  became  the  Fort 
of  the  Presentation  in  the  following  year;  from  it 
arose  the  town  of  Ogdensburg,  New  York. 


PICTS 


76 


PIEDMONT 


In  1751  Picquct  travelled  round  Lake  Ontario  to 
gather  into  his  mission  as  many  Iroquois  as  possible, 
and  succeeded  in  establishing  392  famihes  at  the 
Presentation.  In  1752  Mgr  de  Pontbriand,  the  last 
French  Bishop  of  Quebec,  baptized  132  of  them.  A 
banner,  preserved  in  the  church  of  Oka,  perpetuates 
the  sou\cnir  of  this  event,  and  the  memory  of  the 
fidelity  of  the  Fi\'o  Nations  to  the  cause  of  France, 
for,  in  the  course  of  the  Sc\'en  Years'  War,  it  floated 
side  by  side  with  the  Fleur-de-lis  on  many  a  battle- 
field. In  1753  Picquet  went  to  France  and  presented 
to  the  minister  of  the  Navy  a  well-documented 
memorandum  concerning  Canada,  in  which  he 
pointi'il  out  the  best  means  for  preserving  that  colony 
for  the  French  Crown.  Hardly  had  he  returned  to 
Canada  (1754)  when  hostilities  were  resumed.  He 
directed  his  savages  against  the  English,  whom  he 
considered  as  much  the  enemies  of  Cathohoism  as  of 
France,  and  for  six  years  accompanied  them  on  their 
expeditions  and  into  the  field  of  battle.  "Abbe 
Picquet  was  worth  several  regiments",  said  Governor 
Duquesne  of  him.  The  English  set  a  price  on  his 
head.  When  all  hope  of  the  cause  was  lost,  by  the 
order  of  his  superiors  who  feared  he  might  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  English,  Picquet  returned  to  France, 
passing  thither  through  Louisiana  (1760).  He  was 
engaged  in  the  ministry  in  Paris  till  1772.  He  then 
returned  to  his  homeland,  Bresse,  and  was  named 
canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Bourg,  where  he  died. 

Lcttri'^  I'rlifianies  et  riirjeu.^es  (Memoires  des  Indi'i),  XXVI 
(Paris,  I7s:3),  1-03;  Gobsblin,  Le  fondateur  de  la  Frf'^pntation, 
I'lihfjc  Plrijiict  in  Mrmoires  et  f!o7nptes-rendus  de  in  <S"n('t^  royale 
du  Cariiiilfi,  XII,  sect.  1  (ISOl);  Bertrand,  BihliotMque  sul-pi- 
cienne  ou  Ilisloire  hlliraire  de  la  f'ompafjnie  de  Saint-Sulpice,  I 
(Paris,  1900),  394-401;  Ch.vgny,  Un  difenseuT  de  la  Nomelle- 
France,  Francois  Picquet  "le  Canadien"  (Lyons,  1911). 

A.    FOURNET. 

Picts.     See  Scotland. 

Pie,  Louis-EDfiirABD-DEsrHE,  cardinal,  b.  at  Pont- 
gouin.  Diocese  of  Chartrcs,  1815;  d.  at  Angouleme, 
1880.  He  studied  at  the  Seminary  of  Chartrcs  and 
at  St.  Sulpice,  was  ordained  1839,  became  Vicar- 
General  of  Chartres,  1844,  and  Bishop  of  Poitiers, 
1,S49.  He  created  many  jiarishes,  established  in  his 
seminary  a  canonical  faculty  of  theology,  founded 
for  the  missions  of  the  diocese  the  Oblates  of  St. 
Hilary,  and  brought  the  Jesuits  to  Poitiers  and  the 
Benedictines  to  Solesmes  and  Ligug^.  To  his  initia- 
tive were  largely  due  the  resumption  of  the  provincial 
synods  in  France,  the  promotion  of  St.  Hilary's  cultus, 
and  the  erection  of  the  national  shrine  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  at  Montmartre.  He  is,  however,  best  known 
for  his  opposition  to  modern  errors,  and  his  cham- 
pionship of  the  rights  of  the  Church.  Regarding  as 
futile  the  compromises  accepted  by  other  Catholic 
leaders,  he  fought  alike  all  philosophical  theories  and 
political  arrangements  that  did  not  come  up  to  the 
full  traditional  Christian  standard.  His  stand  in 
matters  philosophical  was  indicated  as  early  as  1854- 
55  in  two  synodal  instructions  against  "the  errors  of 
the  present  day  and  of  philosophy". 

In  politics  a  staunch  follower  of  the  Comte  de 
Chambord,  he  trusted  but  little  the  other  regimes 
under  which  he  lived.  To  Napoleon  III,  who  had 
declared  untimely  certain  measures  suggested  by  the 
bishop.  Pic  said  one  day:  "Sire,  since  the  time  has  not 
come  for  Christ  to  reign,  then  the  time  has  not  come 
for  go\-ernment  to  last"  Such  was  the  vigour  with 
which  he  stigmatized  the  imperial  insincerity  regard- 
ing the  independence  of  the  Papal  Slates  that  he  was 
denounced  to  both  the  Council  of  State  and  the 
Holy  See.  The  former  pronounced  him  guilty  of 
abuse  of  power,  but  Cardinal  Antonelli  valiantly  stood 
by  him.  At  the  \'atican  Council  he  did  not  sign  the 
■posiulalion  petitioning  for  the  definition  of  papal  in- 
fallibility, but  once  it  was  placed  on  the  programme  of 
the  council,  he  pro\ed  one  of  the  best  exponents  and 
defenders  of  it.     As  a  reward  for  his  loyal  services, 


Leo  XIIT  made  him  cardinal,  1879.  Sincerely  at- 
tached to  his  diocese,  Mgr  Pie  had  refused  all  offers 
of  preferment:  a  seat  in  the  National  Assembly,  the 
Archbishopric  of  Tours,  and  even  the  primatial  See  of 
Lyons.  His  works,  full  of  doctrine  and  unction,  were 
published  serially  during  his  lifetime  at  Poitiers,  but 
were  later  collected  into  "(Euvres  ^piscopales ",  10 
vols.,  Paris,  s.  d.,  and  "CEuvres  sacerdotales",  2  vols. 
Paris,  s.  d. 

Baunard,  Histoire  du  Cardinal  Pie  (PoitifTS,  1893);  Besse, 
Le  Cardinal  Pie,  sa  vie,  son  action  religieuse  et  sociale  (Paris,  1903) ; 
Veuili.ot-Crosnieb,  Le  Cardinal  Pie  in  Le^  (irandrs  figures 
Catholiques  (Paris,  1895) ;  La  France  Catholique  (Paris,  1881)  ■ 
L' Episcopal  fraUQais,  1S0S-190B  (Paris,  1907),  s.  v.  Pudirrs. 

J.  F.  SOLLIER. 

Piedmont  (Ital.  Piemonte),  apart  (compartimento) 
of  northern  Italy,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Switzer- 
land, on  the  west  by  France,  on  the  south  by  Liguria, 
and  on  the  east  by  Lombardy.  It  includes  the  plain 
of  the  Ujjper  Po,  and  the  Alpine  valleys  that  descend 
towards  the  plain  from  the  south  side  of  the  Pennine 
Alps,  from  the  east  side  of  the  Graiian  and  Cottian, 
and  from  the  north  side  of  the  Maritime  Alps.  Its 
name,  pedes  montiiuii,  from  which  arose  Pedimontium, 
came  from  its  geographical  position,  enclosed  on  three 
sides  by  high  mountains.  At  the  present  time  it  in- 
cludes the  four  Italian  provinces  of  Turin,  Novara, 
Alessandria,  and  Cuneo.  In  the  Middle  Ages  and  in 
antiquity  the  country  was  important  chiefly  because 
it  contained  the  passes  over  the  Alps  which  led  from 
Italy  to  Gaul.  Until  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury Christianity  had  made  little  progress.  However, 
in  the  course  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  Chris- 
tianity spread  rapidly  among  the  people,  now  com- 
pletely Romanized.  The  earliest  episcopal  sees  were 
established  in  this  era,  namely  Turin,  Asti,  and  Aosta. 

In  the  early  Middle  Ages  various  petty  feudal 
states  were  formed  in  the  Piedmontese  country,  the 
most  important  of  which  were  the  Marquessates  of 
Ivrea,  Suso,  Saluzzo,  Montferrat,  and  the  Countship 
of  Turin.  The  counts  of  Savoy  early  made  successful 
attempts  to  establish  their  authority  in  this  region. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  Aosta  and 
the  territory  under  its  control  belonged  to  Count 
Humbert  I  of  Savoy.  His  son  Oddo  (Otto,  d.  1060) 
married  the  i\larchioness  Adelaide  of  Turin,  and  in 
this  way  became  possessed  of  the  Marquessate  of  Susa, 
with  the  towns  of  Turin  and  Pinerolo,  the  foundation 
of  the  later  Piedmont.  After  the  death  (1232)  of 
Thomas  I,  Count  of  Savoy,  this  marquessate  went  to  a 
younger  branch,  the  descendants  of  Thomas  II  (d. 
1259),  son  of  Thomas  I;  Amadous  V,  son  of  Thomas 
II,  is  the  ancestor  of  the  present  Italian  royal  family. 
These  rulers  called  themselves  Counts  of  Piedmont. 
On  account  of  the  position  of  their  territories  the 
Dukes  of  Savoy  had  a  large  share  in  the  wars  for 
supremacy  in  northern  Italy.  Besides  extending  their 
authority  into  Switzerland  in  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries,  they  also  gained  new  domains  in 
Italy:  the  lordships  of  Vercelli,  Asti,  and  Cava,  and 
the  feudal  suzerainty  over  Montferrat.  In  the  wars 
between  the  Emperor  Charles  V  and  Francis  I  of 
France,  Duke  Charles  III  (d.  1553)  of  Piedmont  lost 
the  greater  part  of  his  duchy.  In  the  Peace  of  CS,teau- 
Cambresis  (1559),  however,  his  son  Emmanuel  Phi- 
libert  (d.  1580)  regained  nearly  all  of  his  father's 
possessions,  and  obtained,  in  exchange  for  other  ter- 
ritories, the  Marquessate  of  Tenda  and  the  Princi- 
pality of  Oneglia. 

Emmanuel  Philibert's  successor,  Charles  Emmanuel 
I  (1580-1630),  acquired  the  Marquessate  of  Saluzzo 
and  a  large  part  of  Montferrat,  which  his  son  Victor 
Amadeus  I  (1630-37)  was  able  to  retain  by  conceding 
two  other  lordships  to  France.  During  the  regency  of 
the  widow  of  Victor  Amadeus  I,  the  French  Princess 
Christine,  the  influence  of  France  in  the  Duchy  of 
Savoy  was  greatly  increased.  Her  son  Charles  Emman- 


PIEDMONT 


n 


PIEDMONT 


uel  II  (d.  1675)  sought  in  vain  to  escape  this  dominat- 
ing control.  Victor  Amadeus  II  (1675-1730)  joined 
the  great  alliance  against  France  in  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.  By  the  victory  of  Turin  in  1706 
Prince  Eugene  drove  out  the  French  troops  that  had 
made  a  sudden  descent  upon  Piedmont,  thus  ridding 
the  duke  of  his  enemies.  As  a  reward  for  joining  the 
alliance  the  duke  received  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  of 
1713  the  Marquessate  of  Montferrat,  the  City  of  Ales- 
sandria, and  the  Districts  of  Val  Sesia  and  Lomellina, 
so  that  the  part  of  his  territories  situated  in  Italy  had 
essentially  the  same  extent  as  the  present  Department 
of  Piedmont.  (_)utside  of  these  new  territories  he  was 
granted  the  Island  of  Sicily,  which,  however,  he  lost 
again  when  Spanish  troops  attacked  the  island  in  1718. 
In  1720  as  compensation  for  this  loss  he  received  the 
Island  of  Sardinia.  He  now  assumed  the  title  of  King 
of  Sardinia;  besides  the  island,  the  kingdom  included 
Savoy  and  Piedmont  on  the  mainland.  In  the  Polish 
and  Austrian  wars  of  succession  the  next  king,  Charles 
Emmanuel  III  (as  king,  Charles  Emmanuel  I,  1730- 
73),  acquired  the  additional  Italian  districts  of  Tor- 
tona  and  Novara,  also  Anghiera,  Bobbio,  and  a  part 
of  the  principality  of  Pavia.  His  son  Victor  Amadeus 
III  (1773-96)  was  a  weak  man  of  little  importance. 
During  his  reign  the  storms  caused  by  the  French 
Revolution  swept  over  his  kingdom.  Napoleon's  vic- 
tories obliged  him  in  1796  to  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to 
France,  and  his  son  and  successor  Charles  Emmanuel 
II  (1796-1802)  lost  all  his  territories  on  the  mainland, 
which,  together  with  Liguria  and  Parma,  were  united 
to  France.  The  king  abdicated,  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  and  in  1802  resigned  the  crown  to  his  brother 
\'^ictor  Emmanuel  I.  At  first  the  latter  resided  in 
Sardinia. 

Until  the  seventeenth  century  the  position  of  the 
Church  in  Piedmont  was  a  satisfactory  one;  no  re- 
striction was  placed  upon  its  activities.  The  country 
contained  numerous  dioceses;  of  these  Aosta  was  a 
suffragan  of  Tarentaise,  Nice  of  Embrun,  and  the 
other  dioceses  on  Italian  soil  were  suffragans  of  Milan. 
In  1515  Turin,  where  the  Dukes  of  Savoy  lived,  was 
made  an  archdiocese  with  the  two  suffragan  sees  of 
Ivrea  and  Mondovi.  As  lord  chancellor  and  first  sec- 
retary of  state  the  Archbishop  of  Turin  was  by  law  a 
member  of  the  council  of  state.  The  ducal  family  was 
very  religious,  and  until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century  maintained  close  relations  with  the  Papal 
See,  which  had  established  a  permanent  nunciature  at 
Turin  in  the  sixteenth  century,  while  an  agent  of  the 
Government  of  Piedmont  resided  at  Rome.  For  some 
of  their  domains  the  dukes  were  vassals  of  the  Holy 
See,  but  this  relation  caused  no  difficulties.  There  was 
a  large  body  of  clergy,  and  monasteries  were  numerous. 
There  were  also  two  religious  orders  of  knights,  that 
of  St.  Lazarus,  an  order  or  hospitallers  for  the  care  of 
the  sick,  especially  lepers,  and  that  of  St.  Mauritius, 
which  had  been  founded  by  Amadeus  VIII  in  1434 
and  confirmed  in  1572  by  Gregory  XII.  The  same 
pope  confirmed  the  union  of  the  two  orders,  of  which 
the  duke  was  the  perpetual  grand  master.  The  orig- 
inal purpose  of  these  knightly  orders  was,  however, 
very  soon  lost  siglit  of;  in  recent  times  they  have  been 
changed  into  a  secular  decoration.  Duke  Charles 
Emmanuel  I  was  very  zealous  in  the  struggle  against 
Protestantism,  and  both  he  and  his  two  successors 
took  energetic  measures  against  the  growth  of  the 
Waldensians.  However,  Emmanuel  Pliilibert  made 
the  execution  of  the  judgments  of  the  ecclesiastical 
Inquisition  dependent  on  the  consent  of  the  senate 
and  judicial  investigation  by  the  Government. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
dukes,  who  had  become  absolute  rulers,  and  their 
administrative  officials  began  to  suppress  the  liberties 
of  the  Church  in  imitation  of  France.  They  even 
interfered  in  the  purely  ecclesiastical  government  of 
the  Church.    Thus  during  the  administration  of  Vic- 


tor Amadeus,  who  was  the  actual  ruler  from  1684, 
violent  dissensions  with  the  Holy  See  arose  and  se- 
riously injured  religious  life,  especially  because  large 
numbers  of  dioceses  and  higher  ecclesiastif^al  benefices 
remained  vacant  for  a  long  period.  Lengthy  negotia- 
tions were  carried  on  with  Rome.  An  edict  issued  by 
Victor  Amadeus  in  1694  for  the  benefit  of  the  Walden- 
sians was  rejected  at  Rome,  because  it  annulled  the 
old  law  for  the  protection  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  duke  took  the  most  severe  measures  against  this 
Roman  decree.  The  senate  forbade  its  publication 
under  heavy  penalties,  so  that  it  could  not  be  executed, 
and  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  of  Piedmont  lost 
nearly  all  its  importance.  The  Dioceses  of  Casale, 
Aoqui,  and  Ventimiglia  included  parts  of  the  territory 
of  Piedmont,  although  the  bishops  did  not  reside  in 
the  duchy;  this  was  regarded  as  a  great  grievance. 
The  duke  wished  to  force  these  bishops  to  appoint 
episcopal  vicars  for  the  supervision  of  those  of  his 
subjects  belonging  to  their  dioceses;  this  the  bishops 
refused  to  do.  Whereupon  the  landed  property  in 
Piedmont  belonging  to  the  Diocese  of  Nice  was  se- 
questrated; this  led  the  bishop,  after  three  years  of 
unsuccessful  negotiations,  to  excommunicate  the 
secular  officials  who  had  carried  out  the  ducal  decree. 
The  senate  forbade  the  recognition  of  the  sentence  of 
excommunication  under  the  severest  penalties,  for 
the  laity  the  penalty  of  death,  and  commanded  the 
priests  to  grant  the  sacraments  to  the  excommuni- 
cated. This  last  command,  however,  was  recalled  by 
the  duke  as  too  extreme  a  measure  against  ecclesias- 
tical authority. 

Victor  Amadeus  now  claimed  the  entire  right  of 
presentation  to  all  the  sees  and  to  all  the  abbeys  in  his 
territories  granted  by  the  pope  in  consistory,  on 
ground  of  a  privilege  conferred  by  Pope  Nicholas  V 
in  1451  upon  Duke  Louis  of  Savoy,  whereby  the  pope, 
before  filling  sees  and  abbacies,  would  ask  for  the 
opinion  and  consent  of  the  duke  in  regard  to  the  per- 
sons nominated.  This  privilege  had  been  confirmed 
on  various  occasions  during  the  sixteenth  century. 
Rome  was  not  willing  to  acknowledge  the  privilege 
in  this  enlarged  form.  The  duke  had  also  issued  an 
edict  by  which  a  secular  judge  was  not  to  grant  per- 
mission to  those  desiring  to  enter  the  clergy  until  he 
had  fully  informed  himself  concerning  the  ability  of 
the  candidate,  the  number  of  parishes  in  the  locality, 
and  of  the  priests  and  monks  there,  and  the  nature  of 
the  property  to  be  assigned  to  the  candidate  for  his 
support.  In  1700  a  bitter  dispute  arose  between  the 
Archbishop  of  Turin  and  the  ducal  delegation,  when 
the  archbishop  by  a  decree  declared  invalid  the  eccle- 
siastical arrangements  proposed  by  the  laity  against 
the  decrees  of  the  Apostolic  See.  However,  the  bish- 
ops, supported  by  the  nuncio,  followed  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  pope  in  all  ecclesiastical  questions.  Fur- 
ther disputes  also  arose  concerning  the  testamentary 
competency  of  regulars,  a  right  which  was  denied  the 
regular  clergy  by  the  Government,  and  as  to  the  rights 
of  the  pope  in  the  fiefs  of  the  Roman  Church  that 
were  possessed  by  the  dukes.  These  questions  were 
exhaustively  examined  at  Rome,  and  the  advocate  of 
the  consistory,  Sardini,  was  sent  to  Turin  to  negotiate 
the  matters;  but  the  agreement  adjusting  the  diffi- 
culty that  was  obtained  by  him  was  not  accepted  at 
Rome.  New  troubles  constantly  arose  when  the 
duke  confiscated  the  revenues  of  benefices  accruing 
during  their  vacancy  and  abrogated  the  spoliii  (prop- 
erty of  ecclesiastics  deceased  intestate)  of  ecclesias- 
tical benefices.  The  Government  appointed  an  ad- 
ministrator of  its  own  for  the  care  and  administration 
of  the  estates  of  vacant  benefices,  but  he  was  not  recog- 
nized by  the  bishops.  Secular  approval  of  ecclesias- 
tical acts  and  ordinances  was  made  necessary  in  a 
continually  increasing  number  of  cases.  New  negotia- 
tions, undertaken  in  1710  at  Rome  by  Count  de 
Gubernatis,  produced  no  results.    The  only  agreement 


PIEDMONT 


78 


PIEDMONT 


reached  was  in  regard  to  the  administrator  of  vacant 
benefices,  who  was  also  appointed  the  Apostolic  ad- 
ministrator for  this  purpose.  In  this  form  the  office  of 
the  Apostolic-royal  steward  continued  to  exist. 

When  the  Island  of  Sardinia  was  granted  to  Pied- 
mont in  1720  a  new  conflict  arose,  as  the  pope  claimed 
to  be  the  sovereign  of  the  island.  The  basis  of  this 
was  that  Boniface  VIII  had  invested  the  King  of 
Aragon  with  the  island  under  the  condition  that  it 
should  never  be  separated  from  the  Crown  of  Aragon. 
Consequently  the  demand  was  made  upon  the  new 
King  of  Sardinia  that  he  should  seek  papal  investiture. 
As  Victor  Amadeus  refused  to  do  this,  the  pope  re- 
jected the  arrangements  for  filUng  the  episcopal  sees 
and  ecclesiastical  benefices  made  by  the  king,  who  also 
claimed  all  the  rights  of  patronage  exercised  by  the 
Spanish  sovereign.  As  a  consequence  most  of  the  sees 
on  the  islands  were  without  incumbents,  which  in- 
creased the  difficulties.  Benedict  XIII  (1724-30) 
sought  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  in  order  to  put 
an  end  to  the  injury  inflicted  on  religious  life.  In 
Turin  the  necessity  of  an  accommodation  was  also 
realized,  and  the  king  sent  the  adroit  and  skilful 
Marquess  d'Ormea  to  Rome  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  negotiations.  The  peace-loving  pope  made  large 
concessions,  although  the  king  made  still  further  en- 
croachments upon  the  rights  of  the  Church.  The 
negotiations  were  carried  on  by  a  congregation  com- 
posed of  four  cardinals  and  the  prelate  Merlini.  Sev- 
eral points  were  adjusted,  especially  the  king's  right 
of  presentation  to  the  bishoprics  and  abbacies,  while 
others  were  discussed,  particularly  the  immunity  of 
the  Church,  the  right  of  the  pope  to  claim  the  spolia, 
also  the  right  to  charge  ecclesiastical  revenues  with 
pensions.  Most  of  the  difficulties  were  finally  ad- 
justed, and  an  agreement  was  signed  in  1727,  so  that 
the  vacant  sees  could  now  be  filled  and  ecclesiastical 
administration  resumed.  King  Charles  Emmanuel 
III  (1730-73)  made  new  conventions  with  Benedict 
XIV  (1740-59),  who  had  formerly  supported  the 
Marquess  d'Ormea  in  his  negotiations,  and  had  al- 
ways maintained  friendly  relations  with  him.  By  two 
conventions  made  in  1741  the  King  of  Sardinia  was 
granted  the  Apostolic  vicariate  for  the  papal  fiefs  on 
condition  of  paying  a  quit-rent,  and  the  questions  of 
the  ecclesiastical  benefices,  the  revenues  of  benefices 
during  vacancy,  and  the  administration  of  these  va- 
cant benefices  were  adjusted.  Notwithstanding  his 
friendliness,  the  papal  commissioner  had  a  very  difficult 
position  to  maintain  in  his  relations  with  the  president 
of  the  senate,  Caissotti.  Finally  on  6  Jan.,  1742,  the 
pope  issued  instructions  to  the  bishops,  in  which  laoth 
sides  had  concurred;  in  these  it  was  made  the  duty  of 
foreign  bishops  to  appoint  vicars  for  the  parts  of  their 
dioceses  in  the  territory  of  Piedmont,  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  was  curtailed,  and  the  landed  property  of 
the  Church  that  had  been  obtained  after  1620  was 
made  subject  to  the  ordinary  civil  taxes.  In  1750  the 
pope  resigned  various  revenues  that  the  Apostolic  See 
derived  from  Piedmont  in  return  for  a  very  small  in- 
demnity. Charles  Emmanuel  III  now  remained  on 
the  best  of  terms  with  Rome,  notwithstanding  isolated 
difficulties  and  disputes  which  stifl  arose.  Merlini 
was  once  more  received  at  Turin  as  nuncio,  and  the 
piously-incUned  king  sought  to  promote  the  interests 
of  religion,  to  protect  Christian  discipline,  and  to  sup- 
port the  rights  of  the  Church  in  other  countries. 

The  last  period  of  the  history  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Sardinia  began  after  the  Napoleonic  era.  In  1814-15 
Victor  Emmanuel  I  regained  Piedmont  with  the  terri- 
tories of  Genoa  (Liguria)  and  Grenoble.  The  Govern- 
ment again  sought  to  base  the  administration  on  the 
old  political  principles  of  the  period  before  the  French 
Revolution,  while  a  large  part  of  the  citizens  of  the 
country  were  filled  with  ideas  of  political  independence 
and  Liberalism,  and  the  revolutionary  secret  society, 
the  Carbonari,  was  at  work.    When  in  1821  a  military 


insurrection  broke  out,  the  king  abdicated  in  favour  of 
his  brother  Charles  Fefix  (1821-31).  Before  Charles 
Felix  arrived  the  country  was  administered  by 
Charles  Albert,  the  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne, 
who  was  a  member  of  the  Savoy-Carignan  branch  of 
the  family.  Charles  at  once  estabUshed  the  Spanish 
constitution  of  1812  and  summoned  a  Liberal  minis- 
try. However,  Charles  Felix  crushed  the  Liberal 
opposition  with  the  aid  of  Austrian  troops  and  re- 
established former  administrative  conditions.  At  his 
death  the  direct  line  of  the  dynasty  of  Savoy  was  ex- 
tinct, and  he  was  succeeded  by  Charles  Albert  of 
Savoy-Carignan  (1831-49).  This  king  gave  the  coun- 
try a  constitution  in  1848,  summoned  a  Liberal  min- 
istry, and  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  movement 
for  the  national  unity  of  Italy.  This  led  to  a  war  with 
Austria  in  which  he  was  defeated  at  Novara,  and  con- 
sequently was  obliged  to  abdicate  on  4  Nov.,  1849,  in 
favour  of  his  son  Victor  Emmanuel  II  (1849-78). 
Count  Camillo  de  Cavour  (d.  6  June,  1861)  was  soon 
made  the  head  of  the  administration.  Journeys  in 
France  and  England  had  imbued  Cavour  with  ideas 
of  political  and  parliamentary  freedom;  from  1848  he 
had  sought  to  spread  his  opinions  by  publishing  with 
the  aid  of  Balbo,  Santa  Rosa,  and  others  the  journal 
"II  Risorgimento "  On  4  Nov.,  1852,  he  was  made 
president  of  the  ministry;  he  now  sought  by  the  eco- 
nomic development  of  the  country  and  by  diplomatic 
relations,  especially  on  the  occasion  of  the  Crimean 
War,  and  at  the  Congress  of  Paris  in  1856,  where  the 
"Italian"  question  was  raised,  to  prepare  for  war 
with  Austria. 

In  a  secret  agreement  with  Napoleon  III  made  at 
Plombiferes  on  20  July,  1858,  he  gained  the  support  of 
the  French  emperor  by  promising  to  cede  Savoy  and 
Nice  to  France.  In  this  way  Victor  Emmanuel  II  was 
able  in  1859  to  begin  war  against  Austria  with  the 
aid  of  Napoleon,  and  the  two  allies  defeated  the  Aus- 
trian army  at  Magenta  (4  June)  and  at  Solferino  (24 
June).  At  the  same  time  a  revolution  broke  out  in 
central  Italy  that  had  been  planned  by  the  followers 
of  Mazzini,  and  the  national  union  founded  by  him  in 
Piedmont.  Tuscany,  the  duchies,  and  the  districts 
ruled  by  delegation  received  Piedmontese  adminis- 
trators. In  his  choice  of  means  the  only  principle  fol- 
lowed by  Cavour  was  to  use  whatever  might  prove 
advantageous  to  him.  His  connexion  with  men  like 
Mazzini,  Garibaldi,  and  others  shows  the  lack  of  prin- 
ciple in  his  conduct.  Piedmont  adopted  the  cause  of 
the  revolution.  In  the  Peace  of  Zurich,  10  Nov.,  1859, 
it  was  stipulated  that  Lombardy  would  be  given  to 
Piedmont.  In  1860  the  people  of  Savoy  and  Nice 
voted  for  union  with  France,  so  that  these  territories 
now  became  a  part  of  France,  and  the  royal  dynasty 
of  Piedmont  resigned  its  native  land  of  Savoy.  As 
compensation  for  this  loss  Piedmont  received  Tus- 
cany and  Emilia.  On  2  April,  1860,  the  "National 
Parliament"  was  opened  at  Turin;  the  parliament, 
asserting  the  principle  of  nationality,  demanded 
"Italy  for  the  Italians"  Soon  other  Italian  domains 
were  absorbed,  and  on  17  March,  1861,  Victor  Em- 
manuel II  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Italy  (see 
Italy),  whereby  Piedmont  and  the  Kingdom  of  Italy 
were  merged  into  the  united  Kingdom  of  Italy.  On 
29  March,  1861,  Cavour  announced  that  Rome  was 
the  future  capital  of  united  Italy. 

After  the  readjustment  of  ecclesiastical  conditions 
in  1817  there  were  seven  Church  provinces  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Sardinia  that  had  been  formed  and  en- 
larged in  the  period  following  the  Napoleonic  era. 
These  archdioceses  were:  in  Piedmont,  Turin  with  10 
suffragans,  to  which  in  1860  an  eleventh,  Aosta  (which 
had  belonged  to  Chambery),  was  added;  Veroelli 
with  5  suffragans;  in  Liguria,  Genoa  with  6  suffragans; 
in  Savoy,  Chambery  with  4  suffragans  (after  the  with- 
drawal of  Aosta  only  3) ;  on  the  Island  of  Sardinia  the 
three  Archdioceses  of  Cagliari,  Oristano,  and  Sassari, 


PIEL 


79 


PIERRi: 


with  8  suffragans.  Both  the  Liberal  movement  and 
the  intrigues  of  the  revolutionary  party  in  Piedmont 
were  in  every  way  inimical  to  the  Church.  In  March, 
1S4S,  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  was  begun  in  the 
harshest  manner.  In  October  a  law  regarding  instruc- 
tion was  issued  that  was  adverse  to  the  Church.  In 
the  next  year  began  the  hostilities  directed  against 
Archbishop  Luigi  Franconi  of  Turin  and  other  bish- 
ops. The  Archbishops  of  Turin  and  Sassari  were 
oven  imprisoned.  In  18.50  the  ecclesiastical  immuni- 
ties were  suppressed  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  was 
limited.  In  1S51  the  Government  regulated  theo- 
logical instruction  without  the  concurrence  of  the 
Church;  in  1852  civil  marriage  was  introduced;  in 
IS'i'i  the  office  of  the  Apostolic  royal  steward  was  com- 
pletely secularized ;  in  1854  laws  were  issued  directed 
against  the  monasteries;  in  1855  the  ecclesiastical 
academy  of  Superga  was  suppressed;  in  1856  and  the 
following  years  oppressive  measures  were  issued 
against  parish  priests  and  parish  administration,  such 
as  confiscation  of  the  greater  part  of  the  lands  of  the 
Church.  Using  the  party  cry  of  a  "free  Church  in  a 
free  state",  Cavour  and  his  confederates  robbed  the 
Church  in  many  directions  of  its  essential  rights  and 
freedom,  as  well  as  of  its  rightful  possessions.  The 
same  spirit  of  hostility  to  the  Church  was  shown 
towards  the  papacy;  the  nunciature  at  Turin  was 
suppressed.  Thus  the  union  of  Italy  was  carried  on, 
e\-enby  Piedmont,  that  had  allied  itself  to  revolution- 
ary elements  hostile  to  the  Church,  in  a  manner 
inimical  throughout  to  the  Church  and  religion.  This 
hostility  continued  to  control  the  official  measures  as 
well  as  the  entire  course  of  the  Italian  Government. 

Monumenta  hUtorice  patriae  I  sqq.  (Turin,  1836) ;  Cartjtti, 
R^oesta  comitum  Sabaudix,  marchionum  in  Italia,  usque  ad  an. 
1353  (Turin,  1889);  Cibrario,  Optrrllt:  e  frammenti  storici  (Flor- 
ence, 185G);  Idem,  Orujini  e  progressn  delle  isiituzioni  della  mo~ 
n'lrrhiu  di  Savoia  (2nd  ed.,  2  vols.,  Florence,  1869);  Carutti, 
Storia  del  regno  di  Vittorio  Amadeo  II  (Turin,  1856);  RicoTTi, 
Storia  della  monarchia  Piemot/leve  (6  vols.,  Florence,  1861-69); 
Gabotto,  Storia  del  Piemante  U9J-1349  (Rome,  1894);  Gal- 
LEN'G\,  History  of  Piedmont  (3  vols.,  London,  1854-55);  Brof- 
FERIO,  storia  del  Pitiaoide  dal  ISI4  oi  oiorni  nostri  (5  vols.,  Turin, 
1849-52):  Valla TjRi,  Storia  ddle  Universith  degli  studi  in  Pie- 
monle  (Turin,  l.S4o) ;  Savio,  Gli  antichi  vescovi  d' Italia:  I.  II 
Piemonte  (Turin,  1898) ;  AIetranesius,  Pedemontium  sacrum, 
I  sq.  (Turin.  1834 — ) ;  Hergenrotheb,  Piemonts  Unterhand- 
lantien  mit  dem  hi.  Stuhle  im  18.  Jahrh.  in  Katholische  Studien,  III 
(Wurzburg,  1876) ;  Colomi.\tti,  Msgre.  Luigi  dei  marchesi  Fran- 
coni, arcivescove  di  Torino  183^-1862  (Turin,  1902);  BlANCHI,  // 
csnUt  Carnillo  Cavour  (3rd  ed.,  Turin,  1863) ;  Kraus,  Cavour.  Die 
Erhebuni]  I/atiens  im  19.  Jahrh.  in  Weltgeschichte  in  Charakterbil- 
dern  (Mainz,  1902);  Manno,  Bibliograjia  storica  degli  stati  della 
moiiiirchia  di  Savoia  (8  vols.,  Turin,  1884-1908). 

J.    P.    KlESCH. 

Piel,  Peter,  a  pioneer  in  the  movement  for  reform 
of  church  music,  b.  at  Kessewick,  near  Bonn,  12  Aug., 
1835;  d.  at  Boppard,  on  the  Rhine,  21  Aug.,  1904. 
Educated  in  the  seminary  for  teachers  at  Kempen, 
he  was  instructed  in  music  by  Albert  Michael  Jop- 
ken  (1828-78),  and  became  professor  of  music  at  the 
Seminary  of  Boppard  in  1868,  a  position  which  he 
held  until  his  death.  During  all  the  years  of  his  in- 
cumbency Piel  displayed  extraordinary  activity  as 
composer,  teacher,  and  critic.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
masses,  both  for  equal  and  mixed  voices,  numerous 
motets,  antiphons  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary  for  four  and  eight  voices.  Magnificats  in  the 
eight  Gregorian  modes,  and  a  Te  Deum,  all  of  which 
have  enjoyed  great  vogue.  Piel's  compositions  reveal 
the  resourceful  contrapuntist,  and  are  of  classic 
purity  of  style.  His  trios,  preludes,  and  postludes  for 
the  organ  are  models  of  finish  and  smoothness.  It  is 
as  a  teacher,  however,  and  through  the  large  number 
of  distinguished  musicians  whom  he  formed  that 
Piel  exerted  the  greatest  influence.  His  "Harmonie- 
lehre"  has  passed  through  a  number  of  editions  and 
is  a  standard  book  of  instruction  in  liturgical  music. 
In  1887  he  received  from  the  German  Government 
the  title  of  Royal  Director  of  Music. 

HoEVELER,  Peter  Piel  (Diisaeldorf ,  1907) ;  Cdcilietiverein's 
Catalog  (Ratisbon,  1870).  JoSEPH  OttEN. 


Fienza.     See  Chiusi-Pienza,  Diocese  of. 

Pie  Pelicane,  Jesu,  Domine,  the  sixth  quatrain 
of  Adoro  Te  Devote  (q.  v.),  sometimes  used  as  a 
separate  hymn  at  Benediction  of  the  Most  Blessed 
Sacrament. 

Pierius,  priest  and  probably  head  master  of  the 
catechetical  school  at  Alexandria  conjointly  with 
Achillas,  flourished  while  Theonas  was  bishop  of  that 
city;  d.  at  Rome  after  309.  His  skill  as  an  exegetioal 
writer  and  as  a  preacher  gained  for  him  the  appel- 
lation, "Origen  the  Younger"-  Philip  of  Side,  Pho- 
tius,  and  others  assert  that  he  was  a  martyr.  How- 
e\'er,  since  St.  Jerome  assures  us  that  he  survived  the 
Diocletian  persecution  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
at  Rome,  the  term  "martyr  can  only  mean  that  he 
underwent  sufferings,  not  death,  for  his  Faith.  The 
Roman  Martyrology  commemorates  him  on  4  Novem- 
ber. He  wrote  a  work  (/Sijaxfoi/)  comprising  twelve 
treatises  or  sermons  (K6yoi),  in  some  of  which  he 
repeats  the  dogmatic  errors  attributed  by  some 
authors  to  Origen  (q.  v.),  such  as  the  subordination 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  the 
pre-existence  of  human  souls.  His  known  sermons  are : 
one  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  (els  t6  /card  Aou/cS;'); 
an  Easter  sermon  on  Osee  (eis  t6  trda-xa  Kal  rbv  'Uar){) ; 
a  sermon  on  the  Mother  of  God  {irepl  ttjs  deoTbmv)) 
a  few  other  Easter  sermons;  and  a  eulogy  on  St. 
Pamphilus,  who  had  been  one  of  his  disciples  (eis 
t6v  §lov  ToS  aylov  U.a/j.<l>l\ov) .  Only  some  fragments 
of  his  writings  are  extant.  They  were  edited  by 
Routh  in  "Rehquiaj  Sacrae",  III,  423-35,  in  P.  G., 
X,  241-6,  and,  with  newly  discovered  fragments,  by 
Boor  in  "Texte  und  Untersuchungen  zur  Geschichte 
der  altchristlichen  Literatur",  V,  ii  (  (Leipzig,  1888), 
165-184.  For  an  English  translation  see  Salmond  in 
"Ante-Nicene  Fathers"  (New  York,  1896),  1.57. 

Radford,  Three  Teachers  of  Alexandria  (Cambridge,  1908); 
Bardenhewer,  Gesch.  der  altchrist.  Lit.,  II  (Freiburg,  1903), 
198-203;  Idem,  Patrologie,  tr.  Shahan  (Freiburg,  1908),  158; 
Harnack,  Gesch.  der  altchrist.  Lit.,  I  (Leipzig,  1893),  439-44; 
Acta  SS.,    II  Nov.,  254-64. 

Michael  Ott. 

Pierleone,  Pieteo.    See  Anacletus  II,  Pope. 

Pierre  d'Ailly.     See  Ailly. 

Pierre  de  Castelnau,  Blessed,  b.  in  the  Diocese 
of  Montpellier,  Languedoc,  now  Department  of  He- 
rault,  France;  d.,  15  Jan.,  1208.  He  embraced  the  ec- 
clesiastical state,  and  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of 
Maguelonne  (now  Montpellier).  Pope  Innocent  III 
sent  him  (1199)  with  two  Cistercians  as  his  legate  into 
the  middle  of  France,  for  the  conversion  of  the  Al- 
bigenses.  Some  time  later,  about  1202,  he  received  the 
Cistercian  habit  at  Fontfroide,  near  Narbonne.  He 
was  again  confirmed  as  Apostolic  legate  and  first  inquis- 
itor. He  gfive  himself  untiringly  to  his  work,  strength- 
ening those  not  yet  infected  with  error,  reclaiming 
with  tenderness  those  who  had  fallen  but  manifested 
good  will,  and  pronouncing  ecclesiastical  censures 
against  the  obdurate.  Whilst  endeavouring  to  recon- 
cile Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  he  was,  by  order 
of  the  latter,  transpierced  with  a  lance,  crying  as  he 
fell,  "May  God  forgive  you  as  I  do."  His  feast  is  cele- 
brated in  the  Cistercian  order,  by  one  part  on  5  March, 
and  by  the  other  on  14  March.  He  is  also  honoured 
as  a  martyr  in  the  Dioceses  of  Carcassonne  and 
Treves.  His  relics  are  interred  in  the  church  of  the 
ancient  Abbey  of  St-Gilles. 

Breviarium  cistercicnse  (5  March) ;  Chalemot,  Series  sanctorum 
et  Beatorum  s.  a.  c.  (Paris,  1670) ;  Annus  cisterciensis  (Wettingen 
1682) ;   Hbnriquez,    Alenologium  cisterciense   (Antwerp,    1630) 
Cauvet,   Etude    historique    sur   Fontfroide    (Montpellier,    1875) 
Caretto,  Santorale  cisterciense,  II  (Turin,  1708). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Pierre  de  Maricourt,  surnamed  Peter  the 
Pilgrim  (Petrus  Peregrinus),  physician  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Under  the  name  of  "Magister  Petrus  de 
Maharne-curia,   Picardus",  he  is  quoted  by  Roger 


PIERRE 


80 


PIETISM 


Bacon  in  his  "Opus  Majus''  as  the  only  author  of  his 
time  who  possessed  an  exact  Icnowledge  of  perspec- 
tive. According  to  Bacon  he  came  from  Picardy,  and 
the  village  of  Maricourt  is  situated  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Somnie,  near  Pcronne.  He  has  left  a  re- 
markable treatise  on  the  magnet,  "Epistola  Petri 
PercKrini  de  iNIaricourt  ad  Sygerum  de  Foucaucourt, 
militem,  de  magneto";  Syger  de  Foucaucourt  was  a 
friend  and  neighbour  of  the  author,  his  domain  border- 
ing on  that  of  Maricourt.  It  is  dated  8  August,  1269, 
and  bi-ars  the  legend:  Actum  in  castris,  in  obsidione 
LurcriiF  (done  in  camp  during  the  siege  of  Luceria), 
whence  we  know  that  the  author  was  in  the  army  of 
Charles  of  Anjou,  who,  in  1269,  laid  siege  to  the  city 
of  Lueera  or  Nocera,  the  only  detail  of  his  life  known. 
The  sobriquet  "Pilgrim"  would  lead  us  to  suppose, 
in  addition,  that  he  was  a  crusader.  The  "Epistola 
de  magnet  e"  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first, 
a  model  of  inductive  reasoning  based  on  definite  ex- 
[leriences  correctly  interpreted,  sets  forth  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  magnetism.  His  part  seems  to  have 
been,  not  the  disco\ery  of  these  laws,  but  their  pres- 
entation in  logical  order.  In  the  second  division,  less 
admirable,  an  attempt  is  made  to  prove  that  with  the 
help  of  magnets  it  is  possible  to  realize  perpetual  mo- 
tion. From  medieval  times  the  work  was  exceedingly 
popular;  in  1326  Thomas  Bradwardine  quotes  it  in 
his  "Tractatus  de  proportionibus",  and  after  his  time 
the  masters  of  Oxford  University  make  frequent  use 
of  it.  The  manuscripts  containing  it  are  verj^  numer- 
ous, and  it  has  been  printed  a  number  of  times.  The 
first  edition  was  issued  at  Augsburg,  1.5.')S,  by  Achilles 
Gasser.  In  1.572  Jean  Taisner  or  Taisnier  published 
from  the  press  of  Johann  Birkmann  of  Cologne  a  work 
entitled  "Opusculum  perpetua  memoria  dignissimum, 
de  natura  magnetis  et  ejus  effectibus,  Item  de  motu 
continuo".  In  this  celebrated  piece  of  plagiarism 
Taisnier  presents,  as  though  from  his  own  pen,  the 
"Epistola  de  magneto"  of  Pierre  de  Maricourt  and  a 
treatise  on  the  fall  of  bodies  by  Gianbattista  Bene- 
detti.  The  "Epistola  de  magneto"  was  later  issued 
by  Libri  (Histoire  des  sciences  mathematiques  en 
Italic,  II,  Paris,  18.38;  note  v,  pp.  487-505),  but  this 
edition  was  full  of  defects;  correct  editions  were  pub- 
lished by  P.  D.  Timoteo  Bertelli  (in  "BuUetino  di 
bibliografia  e  di  storia  delle  scienze  matematiche  e 
fisiche  pubblicata  da  B.  Boncampagni",  I,  186S,  pp. 
70-80)  and  Ci.  Hellmann  ("Neudrucke  von  Schriften 
und  Kartcn  (Iber  Meteorologie  und  Erdmagnetismus, 
No.  10,  Rara  magnetica",  Berlin,  1898).  A  transla- 
tion into  English  has  been  made  by  Silvanus  P. 
Thompson  ("Peter  Peregrinus  of  Maricourt,  Epistle 
to  S.N-gerus  of  Foucaucourt,  Soldier,  concerning  the 
Magnet",  Chiswick  Press,  s.  d.),  also  by  Brother 
Arnold  ("The  Letter  of  Petrus  Peregrinus  on  the 
Magnet,  a.  d.  1269",  with  introductory  note  by 
Brother  Potamian,  New  York,  1904). 

Bf.rtelli,  S-nin,  Pirlro  Pcreiirino  di  M,iricouTi  e  la  sua  Epistola 
de  M,i(/fiilr  in  Bnllelmo  puhlicata  da  B.  Bonnimpagai,  I  (1868), 
l-:i2:  Idem,  Sulbi  Epistola  di  Pietro  Pi-refirino  iti  M'tiricourt  e 
soprn  alcimi  iTonati  e  teorie  magnetiche  del  secolo  XIII.  ibid., 
65-9<\  319-420;  Idem.  Intorno  a  due  codici  Vaticani  delta  Epistola 
de  maonete  di  Pirlro  Peregrino  di  Maricourt  rd  alle  prime  osser- 
vazioi/i  delta  deeliriazwne  mugiirthra,  Und.,  IV  (1871),  303-31- 
BoNCDMP.^GNi,  liiloni.0  nlle  edizioni  ditta  Epistola  de  maanete 
di  Pietro  Prreijrino  de  Maricourt,  ibid..  332-39. 

Pierre  Duhem. 

Pierre  Mathieu.     See  Liber  Septimus. 

Pierron,  .Iean,  missionary,  b.  at  Dun-sur-Meuse 
France,  28  Sejjt.,  16.31;  date  and  place  of  death  un- 
known. He  entere.l  the  Jesuit  novitiate  at  Nancy,  21 
Nov.,  16.')0,  and  after  studying  at  Pont-^-Mousson  he 
became  an  instructor  at  Reims  and  Verdun;  he  com- 
pleted the  curriculum  in  1665  and  spent  two  years 
more  as  an  instructor  at  Metz.  On  his  arrival  in 
Canada  in  June,  1667,  he  was  sent  to  the  Iroquois 
mission  of  Sainte-Marie.  In  a  letter  written  the  same 
year  he  described  his  impressions  of  the  country,  the 


characteristics  and  customs  of  the  savages,  and  ex- 
pressed an  admiration  for  the  Iroquois  language,  which 
reminded  him  of  Greek.  He  arrived  at  Tionontoguen, 
the  principal  village  of  the  Mohawks,  on  7  Oct.,  1668^ 
where  he  replaced  Father  Fremin.  These  people  were 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  of  the  Iroquois  nations, 
vahant  and  proud  warriors,  and  difficult  to  convert! 
Father  Pierron  made  use  of  pictures  which  he  painted 
himself  in  order  to  make  his  teachings  more  impres- 
sive, and  invented  a  game  by  means  of  whicli  the  In- 
dians learned  the  doctrines  and  devotions  of  the 
Church;  he  taught  the  children  to  read  and  write.  He 
spent  one  winter  in  Acadia  to  ascertain  if  it  were  pos- 
sible to  re-establish  the  missions  which  had  been  ex- 
pelled in  1655,  and  travelled  through  New  England, 
Maryland  (which  at  that  time  had  a  Catholic  gover- 
nor, Charles  Calvert),  and  Virginia;  returning  to  the 
Iroquois,  he  worked  among  them  until  1077  and  went 
to  France  in  the  following  year.  He  was  a  man  of 
rare  virtue,  and  during  all  his  missionary  career  fought 
against  a  natural  repugnance  to  the  Iroquois. 

Ed.  Thwaites,  Jesuit  Relations  (Cleveland,  1896-1901);  Casip- 
BELL,  Pioneer  Priests  of  North  America  (New  York,  1909). 

J.  Zevely. 

Pierson,  Philippe,  b.  at  Ath,  Hainaut  (Belgium), 
4  January,  1642;  d.  at  Lorette,  Quebec,  1688.  At 
the  age  of  eighteen  he  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  at 
Tournai,  and  pursued  his  studies  at  Louvain,  Lille, 
and  Douay.  He  was  an  instructor  at  Armentieres 
and  Bethune  before  he  went  to  Canada  in  1666,  where 
he  taught  grammar  in  the  college  at  Quebec,  and  pre- 
sented a  successful  Latin  play  on  the  Passion  of  Our 
Lord.  After  studying  theology  for  two  years  he  was 
ordained  in  1669,  then  worked  among  the  Indians  at 
Prairie  de  la  Madeleine  and  Sillery.  From  1673  to 
1683  he  did  excellent  work  by  spreading  Christianity 
among  the  Hurons  of  the  Makinac  mission.  In  a  letter 
from  St.  Ignace  he  described  how  his  church  increased 
in  numbers  and  grew  strong  in  faith.  Later,  from  1683 
he  was  a  missionary  among  the  Sioux  west  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  remained  as  such  until  his  death. 

Ed.  Thwaites,  Jesuit  Relations  (Cleveland,  1896-1901). 

J.  Zevely. 

Pietism,  a  movement  within  the  ranks  of  Protest- 
antism, originating  in  the  reaction  against  the  fruitless 
Protes1;ant  orthodo.xy  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
aiming  at  the  revival  of  devotion  and  practical  Chris- 
tianity. Its  appearance  in  the  German  Lutheran 
Church,  about  1670,  is  connected  with  the  name  of 
Spener.  Similar  movements  had  preceded  it  in  the 
Reformed  Church  of  the  Netherlands  (Gisbert 
Voetius,  Jodocus  von  Lodensteyn)  and  on  the  German 
Lower  Rhine  (Gerhard  Tersteegen).  Among  German 
Lutherans  the  mystics  Valentin  Weigel  and  Johannes 
Arndt  and  the  theologians  Johann  Gerhard,  Johann 
Matthias  Meyfart,  and  Theophilus  Grossgebauer  may 
be  regarded  as  precursors  of  Spener. 

Philipp  Jakob  Spener,  born  in  1635  at  Rappoltswciler 
in  Alsace,  had  been  from  his  earliest  years,  under  the 
influence  of  the  pious  Countess  Agathe  von  Rappolt- 
stein,  familiar  with  such  ascetical  works  as  Arndt's 
"Sechs  Biicher  vom  wahren  Christenthum"  At 
Geneva,  whither  he  went  as  student  in  1660,  he  was 
profoundly  impressed  by  Jean  de  Labadie,  then  active 
as  a  Reformed  preacher,  but  later  a  separatist  fanatic. 
Spener  found  his  first  sphere  of  practical  work  at 
Frankfort  on  the  Main,  where  he  was  appointed  pastor 
and  senior  in  1666.  His  sermons,  in  which  he  em- 
phasized the  necessity  of  a  lively  faith  and  the  sanc- 
tification  of  daily  Ijfe,  brought  him  many  adherents 
among  the  more  serious  of  his  hearers ;  but  recognizing 
the  impossibility  of  leading  the  people  at  large  to  the 
desired  degree  of  perfection,  he  concei\-ed  the  idea  of 
an  eccti'dola  in  vcclesia,  establisheil  in  1670  the  so- 
called  "Collegia  pietatis"  (whence  the  name  Pietists), 


PIETISM 


81 


PIETISM 


i.  e.  private  assemblios  in  his  own  house  for  pious  read- 
ing and  mutual  edification,  and  wrote  "Pia  desideria 
oder  herzliches  Verlangen  nach  gottgefalliger  Bessc- 
rung  der  wahren  evangelischen  Kirche ' '  (1675) .  After 
criticizing  the  pre\alent  abuses,  he  makes  six  sugges- 
tions for  the  irapro\'enient  of  ecclesiastical  conditions: 
In  view  of  the  inadequacy  of  sermons  for  the  purpose, 
private  gatherings  should  be  held  to  secure  among  the 
people  a  more  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  Word 
of  God ;  the  idea  of  a  universal  priesthood,  which  had 
not  attained  its  rightful  significanc^e  in  the  previous 
development  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  was  to  be  more 
fully  realized;  with  the  knowledge  of  Christianity  was 
to  be  closely  joined  the  exercise  of  charity  and  the 
spirit  of  forgiveness;  the  attitude  towards  unbelievers 
should  be  determined  upon  not  by  a  controversial 
spirit,  but  by  the  charitable  desire  of  winning  these 
souls;  the  theological  course  should  be  reformed  in 
order  to  spur  the  students  not  only  to  diligence,  but 
also  to  a  devout  life,  in  which  the  professors  should  set 
the  example;  in  preaching,  rhetoric  should  be  aban- 
doned and  stress  laid  upon  inculcating  faith  and  a 
living,  practical  Christianity.  Spener  further  de- 
fended his  ideas  of  a  universal  priesthood  in  "Das 
geistliche  Priesterthum,  aus  gottlichem  Wort  kilrzlich 
beschrieben"  (1677).  His  "Pia  Desideria"  won  him 
many  adherents,  but  also  aroused  violent  opposition 
among  Lutheran  theologians. 

A  wider  sphere  of  activity  opened  to  Spener  in  1686 
when  he  was  appointed  court  preacher  at  Dresden. 
During  the  same  year,  August  Hermann  Francke, 
Paul  Anton,  and  Johann  Kaspar  Schade  established 
at  Leipzig,  along  the  line  of  Spener' s  ideas,  the  "Col- 
legia philobibliea",  for  the  practical  and  devotional 
explanation  of  Holy  Scripture,  which  attracted  large 
numbers  of  masters  and  students.  The  Pietist  move- 
ment at  Leipzig,  however,  came  to  an  end  a  few  years 
later  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  theological  faculty, 
headed  by  Professor  Johajin  Benedict  Carpzov.  The 
Pietists  were  accused  of  false  doctrines,  contempt  for 
public  worship  and  the  science  of  theology,  and  sepa- 
ratistic  tendencies.  The  "Collegia  philobibliea"  was 
dissolved  in  1690  and  the  leaders  of  the  movement,  for- 
bidden to  lecture  on  theology,  left  Leipzig.  Spener, 
who  had  fallen  into  disfavour  with  the  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony, removed  in  1691  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed provost  to  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas  and 
counsellor  to  the  consistory.  Pietism  was  also  at- 
tacked in  Carpzov's  Easter  programme  of  1691  and 
the  anonymous  treatise  "Imago  Pietismi"  (1691), 
probably  the  work  of  Pastor  Roth  of  Halle.  A  lively 
exchange  of  controversial  pamphlets  ensued.  Spener's 
call  to  Berlin  was  of  great  significance  for  Pietism, 
as  he  here  enjoyed  the  full  confidence  of  Prince  Fred- 
erick III  (later  King  Frederick  I  of  Prussia)  and 
wielded  a  decisive  influence  in  the  selection  of  pro- 
fessors for  the  theological  faculty  of  the  recently 
founded  University  of  Halle.  Francke,  who  had  been 
working  at  Erfurt  since  his  departure  from  Leipzig, 
went  to  Halle  as  professor  and  pastor  in  January, 
1692;  his  friend,  Joachim  Justus  Breithaupt,  had  pre- 
ceded him  in  October,  1691,  as  first  professor  of  theol- 
ogy and  director  of  the  theological  seminary.  Some- 
what later  Paul  Anton,  formerly  a  colleague  of 
Francke's  at  Leipzig,  also  received  a  chair  at  Halle. 
Professors  in  other  faculties,  like  the  celebrated  jurist 
Christian  Thomasius,  organizer  of  the  new  university, 
were  at  least  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Pietist  theo- 
logians, even  if  they  did  not  share  their  religious  be- 
liefs. Thus  Halle  became  the  centre  of  the  Pietistic 
movement  in  Lutheran  Germany. 

Francke  ranks  high  also  in  the  history  of  education, 
owing  to  the  establishment  (1695)  of  his  orphan  asy- 
lum, around  which  he  grouped  various  institutions 
suited  to  the  needs  of  teachers  and  pupils.  He  also 
turned  his  attention  to  foreign  missions;  the  Pietists 
XII.— 6 


promoted  the  dissemination  of  the  Bible  through  the 
establishment  (1710),  by  Freiherr  von  Canstein,  of  a 
bible  house  at  the  Halle  orphan  asylum.  The  Pietists 
on  the  whole  preserved  the  doctrinal  content  of  Lu- 
theran dogma,  but  treated  systematic  theology  and 
philosophy  as  quite  secondary.  In  preaching  against 
the  prevalent  laxity  of  morals  they  relegated  to  the 
background  the  Lutheran  dogma  of  justification  by 
faith  alone  and  insisted  on  a  life  of  active  devotion, 
and  the  doctrine  of  repentance,  conversion,  and  regen- 
eration. The  Pietist  conventicles  sought  to  further 
the  "penitential  conflict"  leading  to  regeneration  by 
prayer,  devout  reading,  and  exhortations.  The  so- 
called  "adiaphora",  theatres,  dancing,  etc.,  were 
regarded  as  sinful.  After  the  foundation  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle  the  campaign  against  Pietism  was 
pursued  with  increased  vigour  by  the  orthodox  Lu- 
therans, notably  Samuel  Schelwig  at  Danzig,  Valen- 
tin Alberti  at  Leipzig,  and  the  theological  faculty  of 
Wittenberg,  with  Johann  Deutschmann  at  its  head. 
Later  came  Valentin  Ernst  Loscher  (d.  1747),  against 
whom  Pietism  was  defended  by  Joachim  Lange,  pro- 
fessor at  Halle.  During  these  struggles  the  founders 
of  Pietism  had  passed  away,  Spener  in  1705,  Francke 
in  1727,  Breithaupt  in  1732,  and  then  followed  the 
period  of  decline. 

Meanwhile,  despite  opposition,  the  influence  of 
Pietism  had  spread,  and  its  prestige,  with  the  support 
of  King  Frederick  I  and  Frederick  William  I,  sur- 
vived Francke's  death.  Frederick  William  I  decreed 
(1729)  that  all  theologians  desiring  appointments  in 
Prussia  should  study  at  Halle  for  two  years;  but  the 
favour  shown  the  Pietists  ceased  with  the  accession 
of  Frederick  II.  Besides  Halle,  the  Universities  of 
Konigsberg  and  Giessen  aided  in  the  spread  of  Piet- 
ism. It  had  also  a  powerful  patron  in  Frederick  IV, 
King  of  Denmark,  who  encouraged  the  movement  in 
his  country,  sent  Danish  students  of  theology  to  Halle, 
and  requested  Francke  to  recommend  missionaries 
for  the  Danish  East  Indian  possessions.  At  Wiirtem- 
berg  Pietism  took  on  a  special  character;  while  hold- 
ing in  essentials  to  the  ideas  of  Spener  and  Francke,  it 
was  more  moderate,  adhered  more  closely  to  the  or- 
ganization and  theology  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  kept 
clear  of  eccentricities,  had  more  scholarly  interests, 
and  flourished  longer  than  the  Pietism  of  Northern 
Germany.  Francke,  who  had  travelled  through  Wur- 
temberg  in  1717,  was  held  in  great  veneration,  while 
there  was  no  intercourse  at  all  with  the  later  repre- 
sentatives of  Pietism  in  Northern  Germany.  The 
leader  of  the  movement  at  Wiirtemberg  was  Johann 
Albrecht  Bengel  (d.  1752),  who,  like  many  other 
Wiirtemberg  theologians,  had  studied  at  Halle;  with 
him  were  associated  Eberhard  Weismann  and  Frie- 
drich  Christoph  Oetinger.  A  separatistic  community 
which  grew  out  of  Pietism  was  the  "Herrnhilter," 
whose  founder.  Count  von  Zinzendorf,  had  been  edu- 
cated in  Francke's  institutions  at  Halle.  In  Swit- 
zerland, Pietism  was  widespread,  especially  in  the 
cantons  of  Bern,  Zurich,  Basle,  and  Waadt. 

So  far  as  it  followed  the  paths  traced  by  Spener  and 
Francke,  Pietism  produced  some  beneficial  results. 
In  the  subjective  bias  of  the  whole  movement,  how- 
ever, there  lay  from  the  beginnning  the  danger  of  many 
abuses.  It  often  degenerated  into  fanaticism,  with 
alleged  prophecies,  visions,  and  mystical  states  (e.  g., 
bloody  sweats).  This  decadent  Pietism  led  to  the 
formation  of  various  independent  communities,  some 
fanatic  (Nillenarians,  etc.),  others  criminal,  indulging 
in  lewd  orgies  (e.  g.  the  Wittgenstein  scandals  and  the 
Buttlar  gang).  Among  the  theologians  who,  starting 
as  _  Pietists,  advanced  to  an  independent  position, 
quite  at  variance  with  organized  Protestantism,  the 
most  conspicuous  were  Gottfried  Arnold  (d.  1714), 
representative  of  a  fanatical  mysticism,  and  his  dis- 
ciple, Johann  Konrad  Dippel,  who  attacked  all  forms 


PIETRO 


82 


PIGNATELLI 


of  orthodox  Christianity.  Though  the  founders  of 
Pietism  had  no  idea  of  forsaking  the  basis  of  Lutheran 
dogma,  the  Pietistic  movement,  with  its  treatment  of 
dogma  as  a  secondary  matter  and  its  indifference  to 
variations  in  doctrine,  prepared  the  ground  for  the 
theological  rationalism  of  the  period  of  enlighten- 
ment. Johann  Salomo  Semler,  the  father  of  ration- 
alism, came  from  the  Halle  school  of  Pietism,  and  his 
appointment  as  professor  of  theology  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Halle  in  1752  opened  the  way  to  the  ascendancy 
of  rationalism,  against  which  the  devout  Pietists 
were  as  powerless  as  the  representatives  of  Protestant 
orthodoxy.  Pietism  revived  in  Protestant  Germany 
and  Protestant  Switzerland,  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  as  a  reaction  against  the  rationahstic  en- 
hghtenment  and  a  response  to  more  deeply  felt  reU- 
gious  needs.  A  far-reaching  activity  along  these  hnes 
was  exerted  in  many  parts  of  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land by  Freifrau  von  Kriidener  by  means  of  her  ser- 
mons on  penance.  Tract  societies  and  associations 
for  propagating  home  missions  did  much  to  promote 
the  spirit  of  Pietism.  On  the  other  hand,  along  with 
good  results,  this  movement  again  degenerated  into 
mystical  fanaticism  and  sectarianism  (e.  g.,  the 
"sanctimonious  hypocrites"  at  Konigsberg,  about 
1835;  the  adherents  of  Schonherr,  Ebel,  and  Diestel). 
There  are  also  connecting  links  between  the  subjectiv- 
ism of  the  Pietists  and  the  theological  liberalism  of 
Albrecht  Ritschl  and  his  school,  whose  insistence  on 
interior  religious  experience  in  the  form  of  feeling  is 
a  basic  idea  of  Pietism,  although  the  Ritschlian  school 
is  opposed  by  devout  Pietists  as  well  as  by  Orthodox 
Lutherans. 

ScHMiD,  Die  Gesch.  des  Pietismus  (Nordlingen,  1863) ;  Tholuck, 
Gesch,  des  Rationalismus.  I.  Gesch.  des  Pietismus  u.  des  ersten 
Stadiums  der  Aufklarung  (Berlin,  1865);  Ritschl,  Gesch.  des 
Pietismus  (Bonn,  1880-86) ;  Sachsse,  Ursprung  u.  Wesen  des 
Pietismus  (Wiesbaden,  1884) ;  Hubener,  Ueber  den  Pietismus  in 
Verhandlungen  der  25.  Jahresversammlung  der  Synode  der  ev.-luth, 
Freikirche  in  Sachsen  (Zwickau,  1901),  17-156;  Hadorn,  Gesch. 
des  Pietismus  in  den  schweizerischen  reformierten  Kirchen  (Con- 
stance, 1901) ;  Renner,  Lehensbilder  aus  der  Pieiistenzeit  (ISremen, 
1886);  HossBACH,  Ph.  J.  Spener  u.  seine  Zeit  (Berlin,  1828;  2nd 
ed.,  1853);  Ghunbehg,  Ph.  J.  Spener  (Gottingen,  1893-1906)- 
Niemeyer,  a.  H.  Francke  (Halle,  1794);  Guericke,  A.  H 
Francke  (Halle,  1827);  Kramer,  A.  H.  Francke  (Halle,  1880-2); 
Hartmann,  a.  H.  Francke  (Calw  and  Stuttgart,  1897);  Otto, 
A.  H.  Francke  (Halle,  1902);  Katser,  Christian  Thomasius  u. 
der  Pietismus,  supplement  to  Jahresbericht  des  Wilhelm  Gymna- 
siums in  Hamburg  (Hamburg,  1900), 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 


See  Celestine  V,  Saint, 


Pietro  di  Murrone. 
Pope. 

Pighius  (Pigghe),  Albert,  theologian,  mathema- 
tician, and  astronomer,  b.  at  Kampen,  Overyssel, 
Holland,  about  1490;  d.  at  Utrecht,  26  Dec,  1542! 
He  studied  philosophy  and  began  the  study  of  the- 
ology at  Louvain,  where  Adrian  of  Utrecht,  later  Pope 
Adrian  VI,  was  one  of  his  teachers.  Pighius  com- 
pleted his  studies  at  Cologne  and  received  in  1517  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology.  He  then  followed  his 
teacher  Adrian  to  Spain,  and,  when  the  latter  became 
pope,  to  Rome,  where  he  also  remained  during  the 
reigns  of  Clement  VII  and  Paul  III,  and  was  repeat- 
edly employed  in  ecolesiastico-politioal  embassies 
He  had  taught  mathematics  to  Cardinal  Alessandro 
Farnese,  afterwards  Paul  III;  in  15.35  Paul  III  ap- 
pointed him  provost  of  St.  John's  at  Utrecht,  where 
he  had  held  a  canonry  since  1524.  At  the  religious 
disputation  of  Ratisbon  in  1541  he  was  on  the  Catho- 
lic side. 

Among  his  writings  the  following  belong  to  the 
sphere  of  his  mathematioo-astronomical  studies:  "As- 
trologia>  defensio  adversus  prognosticatorum  vulgus 
qui  annuas  prsedictiones  edunt  et  se  astrologos  men- 
tiuntur"  (Paris,  151S);  also  the  treatise  addressed  to 
Leo  A  upon  the  reform  of  the  calendar,  "De  sequinoo- 
tiarum  solstitiorumque  inventione  et  de  ratione  pas- 
chahs  celebrationis  deque  restitutione  ecclesiastici 
Calendani  (Pans,  1520);  also  "Apologia  adversus  no- 


vam  Marci  Beneventani  astronomiam"  (Paris,  1522)  • 
and  "Defensio  Apologiae  adversus  Marci  Beneven- 
tani astronomiam"  (Paris,  1522).  As  a  theologian  he 
zealously  defended  the  authority  of  the  Church 
against  the  Reformers.  His  most  important  theologi- 
cal work  is  a  rejoinder  to  Henry  VIII  of  England  and 
is  entitled:  "Hierarchiae  ecclesiasticae  assertio"  (Co- 
logne, 1538,  dedicated  to  Paul  III ;  later  editions,  1544, 
1558,  1572).  In  reply  John  Leland  wrote  his  "Anti- 
philarchia";  cf.  "Diet.  Nat.  Biog."  (new  ed.,  London. 
1909) ,  XI,  893.  Pighius  also  wrote :  ' '  Apologia  indict! 
a  Paulo  III.  Concilii,  adversus  Lutheranas  confoe- 
derationes"  (Cologne,  1537;  Paris,  1538);  "DeUbero 
hominis  arbitrio  et  divina  gratia  libri  X"  (Cologne, 
1542),  against  Luther  and  Calvin;  " Controversiarum 
praecipuarum  in  Comitiis  Ratisponensibus  tracta- 
tarum  .  .  .  exphcatio  (Cologne,  1542).  To  this  were 
added  the  two  treatises:  "Qusestio  de  divortiatorum 
novis  coniugiis  et  uxorum  pluralitate  sub  lege  evange- 
lica"  and  "Diatriba  de  actis  VI.  et  VII.  Synodi" 
Other  theological  works  were:  "Ratio  componendo- 
rum  dissidiorum  et  garciendae  in  religione  concordis" 
(Cologne,  1542),  and  his  last  work,  "Apologia  adver- 
sus Martini  Buceri  calumnias"  (Mainz,  1543).  A 
treatise  "Adversus  Grsecorum  errores",  dedicated  to 
Clement  VII,  is  preserved  in  manuscript  in  the  Vati- 
can Library. 

Pighius  was  in  his  convictions  a  faithful  adherent  of 
the  Church  and  a  man  of  the  best  intentions,  but  on 
some  points  he  advanced  teachings  which  are  not  in 
harmony  with  the  Catholic  position.  One  was  his 
opinion  that  original  sin  was  nothing  more  than  the 
sin  of  Adam  imputed  to  every  child  at  birth,  without 
any  inherent  taint  of  sinfulness  being  in  the  child 
itself.  In  the  doctrine  of  justification  also  he  made 
too  many  concessions  to  Protestants .  He  originated  the 
doctrine  of  the  double  righteousness  by  which  man  is 
justified,  that  has  justly  been  characterized  as  "semi- 
Lutheranism ' '  According  to  this  theory,  the  imputed 
righteousness  of  Christ  is  the  formal  cause  of  the  jus- 
tification of  man  before  God,  while  the  individual 
righteousness  inherent  in  man  is  always  imperfect  and 
therefore  insufficient.  These  opinions  of  Pighius  were 
adopted  by  Johannes  Gropper  and  Cardinal  Con- 
tarini;  during  the  discussion  at  the  Council  of  Trent  of 
the  "Decretum  de  Justificatione "  they  were  main- 
tained by  Seripando,  but  the  Council,  with  due  regard 
for  the  ideas  that  were  justifiable  in  themselves,  re- 
jected the  untenable  compromise  theory  itself. 

Linsenmann,  Albertus  Pighius  und  sein  theologischer  Stand- 
punkt  in  Theol.  Quartalschrifl,  XLVIII  (1866),  571-644;  Pastor, 
Die  kirchlichen  Reunionsbestrehungen  wdhrend  der  Regierung 
ifarisF. (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1879),  167  sq.;  Dittrich,  Gasparo  Can- 
tarini  (Braunsberg,  1885),  660-69 ;  Hefele-Hergenrother,  Ccm- 
ciliengesch.,  IX  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1890),  936-38;  Hefner,  Die 
Entstehungsgesch.  des  Trienter  Rechtfertigungsdecretes  (Paderborn, 
1909),  165  aq.  His  correspondence  was  published  by  Friedens- 
BURG,  Beitrdge  zum  Briefviechsel  der  kathot.  Gelehrten  Deutschlands 
im  Reformationszeiialter  in  Zeitschrift  fur  Kirchengesch.,  XXHI 
(1902),  110-55. 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 

Fignatelli,  Venerable  Giuseppe  Maria,  b.  27 
December,  1737,  in  Saragossa,  Spain;  d.  11  Novem- 
ber, 1811.  His  family  was  of  Neapolitan  descent  and 
noble  lineage.  After  finishing  his  early  studies  in 
the  Jesuit  College  of  Saragossa,  he  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  (8  May,  1753)  notwithstanding  his  f amily  s 
opposition.  On  concluding  his  ecclesiastical  studies 
he  was  ordained,  and  taught  at  Saragossa.  In  1766 
the  Governor  of  Saragossa  was  held  responsible  for 
the  threatened  famine,  and  so  enraged  was  the  popu- 
lace against  him  that  they  were  about  to  destroy  his 
palace  by  fire.  Pignatelli's  persuasive  power  over 
the  people  averted  the  calamity.  Despite  the  letter 
of  thanks  sent  by  Charles  III  the  Jesuits  were  accused 
of  instigating  the  above-mentioned  riot.  Pignatelli's 
refutation  of  the  calumny  was  followed  by  the  decree 
of  expulsion  of  the  Fathers  of  Saragossa  (4  April, 
1767).     Minister  Aranda  offered  to  reinstate  Nicola 


PIKE 


83 


PILATE 


and  Giuseppe  Pignatelli,  providing  they  abandon  their 
order,  but  in  spite  of  Giuseppe's  ill-health  they  stood 
firm.  Not  permitted  by  Clement  III  to  land  at  Civitd, 
Vecchia,  with  the  other  Jesuits  of  Aragon,  he  repaired 
to  St.  Boniface  in  Corsica  where  he  displayed  singular 
ability  for  organization  in  providing  for  five  hundred 
fathers  and  students.  His  sister,  the  Duchess  of 
Acerra,  aided  him  with  money  and  provisions.  He 
organized  studies  and  maintained  regular  observance. 
When  France  assumed  control  of  Corsica,  he  was 
obliged  to  return  to  Genoa.  He  was  again  detailed  to 
secure  a  location  in  the  legation  of  Ferrara,  not  only 
for  the  fathers  of  his  own  province  of  Aragon,  but  also 
for  those  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  but  the  community  was 
dissolved  in  August,  1773.  The  two  PignateUi  brothers 
were  then  obliged  to  betake  themselves  to  Bologna, 
where  they  lived  in  retirement  (being  forbidden  to 
exercise  the  sacred  ministry).  They  devoted  them- 
selves to  study  and  Pignatelli  himself  collected  books 
and  manuscripts  bearing  on  the  history  of  the  Society. 
On  ascertaining  from  Pius  IV  that  the  Society  of 
Jesus  still  survived  in  White  Russia,  he  desired  to 
be  received  there.  For  various  reasons  he  was  obUged 
to  defer  his  departure.  During  this  delay  he  was 
invited,  on  the  instance  of  Ferdinand,  Duke  of  Parma, 
to  re-establish  the  Society  in  his  States;  and  in  1793, 
having  obtained  through  Catharine  II  a  few  fathers 
from  Russia,  with  other  Jesuits,  an  establishment  was 
made.  On  6  July,  1797,  Pignatelli  there  renewed 
his  vows.  In  1799  he  was  appointed  master  of 
novices  in  Colerno.  On  the  decease  of  the  Duke  of 
Parma,  the  States  of  Parma  were  placed  under  alle- 
giance to  France.  Notwithstanding  this  fact,  the 
Jesuits  remained  undisturbed  for  eighteen  months, 
during  which  period  Pignatelli  was  appointed  Pro- 
vincial of  Italy.  After  considerable  discussion  he  ob- 
tained the  restoration  of  the  Jesuits  in  Naples.  The 
papal  Brief  (30  July,  1804)  was  much  more  favourable 
than  that  granted  for  Parma.  The  older  Jesuits  soon 
asked  to  be  received  back;  many,  however,  engaged 
in  various  ecclesiastical  calfings,  remained  at  their 
posts.  Schools  and  a  college  were  opened  in  Sicily, 
but  when  this  part  of  the  kingdom  fell  into  Napoleon's 
power,  the  dispersion  of  the  Jesuits  was  ordered; 
but  the  decree  was  not  rigorously  executed.  Pigna- 
telli founded  colleges  in  Rome,  Tivoli,  and  Orvieto, 
and  the  fathers  were  invited  to  other  cities.  During 
the  exile  of  Pius  VII  and  the  French  occupation  the 
Society  continued  unmolested,  owing  largely  to  the 
prudence  and  the  merits  of  Pignatelli;  he  even 
managed  to  avoid  the  oaths  of  allegiance  to  Napo- 
leon. He  also  secured  the  restoration  of  the  Society 
in  Sardinia  (1807).  Under  Gregory  XVI  the  cause  of 
his  beatification  was  introduced. 

NoNELL,  El  V.  P.  Josh  M.  Pignatelli  ylaC.de  J. en  su  estinction 
y  Testablecimiento  (3  vols.,  Manresa,  1893-4) ;  Boero,  Istoria 
del  V.  Padre  Giua,  M.  Pignatelli  (Rome,  1856). 

U.  Benigni. 

Pike,  William,  Venerable,  martyr,  bom  in  Dor- 
setshire; died  at  Dorchester,  Dec,  1591.  He  was  a 
joiner,  and  lived  at  West  Moors,  West  Parley.  On 
his  way  from  Dorchester  to  his  home,  he  fell  in  with 
the  venerable  martyr  Thomas  Pilchard,  who  con- 
verted him,  probably  in  1586.  At  his  trial  for  being 
reconciled  with  the  See  of  Rome  "the  bloody  question 
about  the  Pope's  supremacy  was  put  to  him,  and  he 
frankly  confessed  that  he  maintained  the  authority 
of  the  Roman  See,  for  which  he  was  condemned  to 
die  a  traitor's  death".  When  they  asked  him  to  re- 
cant in  order  to  save  his  fife  and  his  family,  "he 
boldly  replied  that  it  did  not  become  a  son  of  Mr. 
Pilchard  to  do  so".  "Until  he  died,  Mr.  Pilchard's 
name  was  constantly  on  his  Ups. "  Being  asked  at 
death  what  had  moved  him  to  that  resolution  etc., 
he  said  "Nothing  but  the  smell  of  a  pilchard".  The 
date  of  his  death  is  not  recorded,  but  in  the  Menology 
his  name  is  under  22  Dec. 


Pollen,  Ads  of  the  English  Martyrs  (London,  1891),  267; 
English  Martyrs  1584-1803  (London,  1908),  289;  Challoner, 
Missionary  Priests,  I,  no.  89;  Stanton,  Menology  of  England  and 
Wales  (London,  1887),  606,  689. 

John  B.  Wainewriqht. 

Pilar,  Nuestra  Senora  del  (Our  Lady  of  the 
Pillar),  a  celebrated  church  and  shrine,  at  Saragossa, 
Spain,  containing  a  miraculous  image  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  which  is  the  object  of  very  special  devotion 
throughout  the  kingdom.  The  image,  which  is  placed 
on  a  marble  pillar,  whence  the  name  of  the  church, 
was  crowned  in  1905  with  a  crown  designed  by  the 
Marquis  of  Grini,  and  valued  at  450,000  pesetas 
(£18,750).  The  present  spacious  church  in  Baroque 
style  was  begun  in  1681.  According  to  an  ancient 
Spanish  tradition,  given  in  the  Roman  Breviary  (for 
12  October,  Ad.  mat.,  leot.  vi),  the  original  shrine 
was  built  by  St.  James  the  Apostle  at  the  wish  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  who  appeared  to  him  as  he  was  praying 
by  the  banks  of  the  Ebro  at  Saragossa.  There  has 
been  much  discussion  as  to  the  truth  of  the  tradition. 
Mgr  L.  Duchesne  denies,  as  did  Baronius,  the  coming 
of  St.  James  to  Spain,  and  reproduces  arguments 
founded  on  writings  of  the  Twelfth  fficumenical  Coun- 
cil, discovered  by  Loaisa,  but  rejected  as  spurious  by 
the  Jesuit  academician  Fita  and  many  others.  Those 
who  defend  the  tradition  adduce  the  testimony  of 
St.  Jerome  (P.  L.,  XXIV,  373)  and  that  of  the  Moz- 
arabic  Office.  The  oldest  written  testimony  of  devo- 
tion to  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  Saragossa  usually  quoted 
is  that  of  Pedro  Librana  (1155).  Fita  has  published 
data  of  two  Christian  tombs  at  Saragossa,  dating  from 
Roman  days,  on  which  the  Assumption  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  is  represented. 

Acta  SS.,  VI  July;  Fl6hez  y  Risco,  Espafla  sagrada.  III,  IV, 
XXX;  TolrA,  Venida  de  Santiago  d  Espafia  (Madrid,  1797); 
Natalis  Alexander,  Hist,  eccl..  Ill;  Duchesne,  Annates  du 
Midi  (1900) ;  RoDRf  guez  in  Appendix  to  Los  seis  primeros  siglos 
de  la  iglesia  (Span.  tr.  of  Ducheane's  work,  Barcelona,  1910) ;  Fita 
in  Razdn  y  Fe  (Madrid,  1901,  1902,  1904) ;  Noanis,  Hist.  crit. 
apol.  de  la  Virgen  del  Pilar  (Madrid,  1862);  Quadrado,  Espafla, 
sus  monumentos  .  .  .  Aragdn  (Barcelona,  1886) ;  Mensajero  del 
Corazdn  de  Jesus  (Madrid,  1905) ;  Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
(New  York,  1894). 

J.  M.  March. 

Pilate,  Acts  of.    See  Apocrypha,  sub-title  III. 

Pilate,  Pontius. — After  the  deposition  of  the  eld- 
est son  of  Herod,  Archelaus  (who  had  succeeded  his 
father  as  ethnarch),  Judea  was  placed  under  the  rule 
of  a  Roman  procurator.  Pilate,  who  was  the  fifth, 
succeeding  Valerius  Gratus  in  a.  d.  26,  had  greater 
authority  than  most  procurators  under  the  empire, 
for  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  duty  of  financial  ad- 
ministration, he  had  supreme  power  judicially.  His 
unusually  long  period  of  office  (a.  d.  26-36)  covers  the 
whole  of  the  active  ministry  both  of  St .  John  the  Baptist 
and  of  Jesus  Christ.  As  procurator  Pilate  was  neces- 
sarily of  equestrian  rank,  but  beyond  that  we  know 
little  of  his  family  or  origin.  Some  have  thought  that 
he  was  only  a  freedman,  deriving  his  name  from 
pileus  (the  cap  of  freed  slaves)  but  for  this  there  seems 
to  be  no  adequate  evidence,  and  it  is  unlikely  that  a 
freedman  would  attain  to  a  post  of  such  importance. 
The  Pontii  were  a  Samnite  gens.  Pilate  owed  his 
appointment  to  the  influence  of  Sejanus.  The  official 
residence  of  the  procurators  was  the  palace  of  Herod 
at  Caesarea;  where  there  was  a  military  force  of  about 
3,000  soldiers.  These  soldiers  came  up  to  Jerusalem 
at  the  time  of  the  feasts,  when  the  city  was  full  of 
strangers,  and  there  was  greater  dangerof  disturbances, 
hence  it  was  that  Pilate  had  come  to  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  of  the  Crucifixion.  His  name  will  be  forever 
covered  with  infamy  because  of  the  part  which  he 
took  in  this  matter,  though  at  the  time  it  appeared 
to  him  of  small  importance. 

Pilate  is  a  type  of  the  worldly  man,  knowing  the  right 
and  anxious  to  do  it  so  far  as  it  can  be  done  without 
personal  sacrifice  of  any  kind,  but  yielding  easily  to 


PILCHARD 


84 


PILGRIMAGE 


pressure  from  those  whose  interest  it  is  that  he  should 
act  otherwise.  He  would  gladly  have  acquitted 
Christ,  and  even  made  serious  efforts  in  that  direction, 
but  gave  way  at  once  when  his  own  position  was 
threat(>iic(l.  The  other  events  of  his  rule  are  not  of 
very  great  importance.  Philo  (Ad  CJaium,  oS)  speaks 
of  him  as  inflexible,  merciless,  and  obstinate.  The 
Jews  hated  him  and  his  administration,  for  he  was  not 
only  very  scverr,  but  showed  little  consideration  for 
their  susceptibilities.  Some  standards  bearing  the 
image  of  Tiberius,  which  had  been  set  up  by  him  in 
Jerusalem,  caused  an  outbreak  which  would  have 
ended  in  a  massacre  had  not  Pilate  given  way.  ^  At  a 
later  date  Tiberius  ordered  him  to  remove  certain  gilt 
shields,  which  he  had  set  up  in  Jerusalem  in  spite  of 
the  remonstrances  of  the  people.  The  incident  men- 
tioned in  St.  Luke,  xiii,  -1,  of  the  Galilseans  whose 
blood  Pilate  mingled  with  the  sacrifices,  is  not  else- 
where referred  to,  but  is  quite  in  keeping  with  other 
authentic  events  of  his  rule.  He  was,  therefore,  anx- 
ious that  no  further  hostile  reports  should  be  sent  to  the 
emperor  concerning  him.  The  tendency,  already  dis- 
cernible in  the  canonical  Gospels,  to  lay  stress  on  the 
efforts  of  Pilate  to  acquit  Christ,  and  thus  pass  as 
lenient  a  judgment  as  possible  upon  his  crime,  goes 
further  in  the  apocryphal  Gospels  and  led  in  later 
years  to  the  claim  that  he  actually  became  a  Christian. 
The  Abyssinian  Church  reckons  him  as  a  saint,  and 
assigns  25  June  to  him  and  to  Claudia  Procula,  his 
wife.  The  belief  that  she  became  a  Christian  goes 
back  to  the  second  century,  and  may  be  found  in 
Origen  (Horn.,  in  Mat.,  xxxv).  The  Greek  Church 
assigns  her  a  feast  on  27  October.  Tertullian  and 
Justin  Martyr  both  speak  of  a  report  on  the  Cruci- 
fixion (not  extant)  sent  in  by  Pilate  to  Tiberius,  from 
which  idea  a  large  amount  of  apocryphal  literature 
originated.  (Some  of  these  were  Christian  in  origin 
(Gospel  of  Xicodcmus),  others  came  from  the  heathen, 
but  these  have  all  perished. 

His  rule  was  brought  to  an  end  through  trouble 
which  arose  in  Samaria.  An  impostor  had  given  out 
that  it  was  in  his  power  to  discover  the  sacred  vessels 
which,  as  he  alleged,  had  been  hidden  by  Moses  on 
Mount  Gerizim,  whither  armed  Samaritans  came  in 
large  numbers.  Pilate  seems  to  have  thought  the 
whole  aff:ur  was  a  blind,  covering  some  other  more 
important  design,  for  he  hurried  forces  to  attack  them, 
and  many  were  slain.  They  appealed  to  Vitellius,  who 
was  at  that  time  legate  in  Syria,  saying  that  nothing 
political  had  been  intended,  and  complaining  of 
Pilate's  whole  administration.  He  was  summoned  to 
Rome  to  answer  their  charges,  but  before  he  could 
reach  the  city  the  Emperor  Tiberius  had  died.  That 
is  the  last  that  we  know  of  Pilate  from  authentic 
sources,  but  legend  has  been  busy  with  his  name.  He 
is  said  l)y  Eusebius  (H.  E.,  ii,  7),  on  the  authority  of 
earlier  writers,  whom  he  does  not  name,  to  have  fallen 
into  great  misfortunes  under  Caligula,  and  eventually 
to  have  committed  suicide.  Other  details  come  from 
less  respectable  sources.  His  body,  says  the  "Mors 
Pilati",  was  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  but  the  waters 
were  so  disturbed  by  evil  spirits  that  the  body  was 
taken  to  ^'ienne  and  sunk  in  the  Rhone,  where  a  monu- 
ment, failed  Pilate's  tomb,  is  still  to  be  seen.  As  the 
same  thing  occurred  there,  it  was  again  removed  and 
sunk  in  the  lake  at  Lausanne.  Its  final  disposition  was 
in  a  deep  and  lonely  mountain  tarn,  which,  according 
to  later  tradition,  was  on  a  mountain,  still  called 
Pilatus,  close  to  Lucerne.  The  real  origin  of  this  name 
is,  however,  to  be  sought  in  the  cap  of  cloud  which 
often  covers  the  mountain,  and  serves  as  a  barometer 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Lucerne.  There  are  many  other 
legends  about  Pilate  in  the  folklore  of  Germany,  but 
none  of  them  ha\'c  the  slightest  authority. 

MijLLER,  PuiiHus  P/l/itm  dur  filnfte  Prokurator  von  Judda 
(8tQttgart,  ISSS),  tri\rs  a  list  nf  earlier  writings  on  Pilate; 
RosiEREM.  Pnnce  Pilate  (Paris.  1N.'<3);  Waltjer,  Pontius  Pilatus, 
eene  studxe  (Amsterdam,   188y);    Ollivier,  Ponce   Pilate  ei  Us 


Pontiiin  Revue  Biblique,  V  (1896) ,  247-54,  .594-600;  Innes,  Trial  0/ 
Jesus  Christ  (London,  1899),  a  legal  monograph;  for  apocryphal 
literature  see  Lipsius,  Die  Pilatus  Aden  (Leipzig,  1871). 

Arthur  S.  Barnes. 

Pilchard  (Pilchee),  Thomas  Venerable,  mar- 
tyr, b.  at  Battle,  Sussex,  1.5.57;  d.  at  Dorchester,  21 
March,  1586-7.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1576,  and  took  the  degree  of  M.A.,  in 
1579,  resigning  his  fellowship  the  following  year.  He 
arrived  at  Reims  20  Nov.,  1581,  and  was  ordained 
priest  at  Laon,  March,  1583,  and  was  sent  on  the 
mission.  He  was  arrested  soon  after,  and  banished; 
but  returned  almost  immediately.  He  was  again 
arrested  early  in  March,  1586-7,  and  imprisoned  in 
Dorchester  Gaol,  and  in  the  fortnight  between  com- 
mittal to  prison  and  condemnation  converted  thirty 
persons.  He  was  so  cruelly  drawn  upon  the  hurdle 
that  he  was  fainting  when  he  came  to  the  place  of 
execution.  When  the  rope  was  cut,  being  still  alive 
he  stood  erect  under  the  scaffold.  The  executioner, 
a  cook,  carried  out  the  sentence  so  clumsily  that  the 
victim,  turning  to  the  sheriff,  exclaimed  "Is  this  then 
your  justice,  Mr.  Sheriff?"  According  to  another 
account  "the  priest  raised  himself  and  putting  out  his 
hands  cast  forward  his  own  bowels,  crying  '  Miserere 
mei '  " .  Father  Warlord  says :  ' '  There  was  not  a  priest 
in  the  whole  West  of  England,  who,  to  my  knowledge, 
was  his  etiual  in  virtue. " 

PoL,i.E>:.  Artsof  theEnolish  M,irtiir.-:  (London,  1891),  261-3,  320- 
1;  English  Martyrs  16S.',-16fJ3  \n  Cnth.  Rer.  Soc.  (London,  1908), 
288-9,  39.5;  Foster,  Alumni  Oxonirnaes  (Oxford,  1891);  Knox, 
Douay  Diaries  (London,  1878),  passim;  Challoner,  Missionary 
Priests,  I,  no.  42.  JoHN  B.  WaINEWRIGHT. 

Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  the  name  given  to  the  reli- 
gious rising  in  the  north  of  England,  1536.  The  cause 
of  this  great  popular  movement,  which  extended 
over  five  counties  and  found  sympathizers  all  over 
England,  was  attributed  by  Robert  Aske,  the  leader 
of  the  insurgents,  to  "spreading  of  heretics,  suppres- 
sion of  houses  of  religion  and  other  matters  touching 
the  commonwealth".  And  in  his  "Narrative  to  the 
King",  he  declared:  "In  all  parts  of  the  realm  men's 
hearts  much  grudged  with  the  suppression  of  abbeys, 
and  the  first  fruits,  by  reason  the  same  would  be  the 
destruction  of  the  whole  religion  in  England.  And 
their  especial  great  grudge  is  against  the  lord  Crum- 
well."  The  movement  broke  out  on  13  Oct.,  1536, 
immediately  following  the  failure  of  the  Lincoln- 
shire Rising;  and  Robert  Aske,  a  London  barrister  of 
good  Yorkshire  family,  who  had  been  to  some  extent 
concerned  in  the  Lincolnshire  rising,  putting  himself 
at  the  head  of  nine  thousand  insurgents,  marched  on 
York,  which  he  entered.  There  he  arranged  for  the 
expelled  monks  and  nuns  to  return  to  their  houses; 
the  king's  tenants  were  dri\-en  out  and  religious  ob- 
servance resumed.  The  subsequent  success  of  the 
rising  was  so  great  that  the  royal  leaders,  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk  and  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  opened  negotia- 
tions with  the  insurgents  at  Doncaster,  where  Aske 
had  assembled  between  thirty  and  forty  thousand 
men.  As  a  result  of  this,  Henry  authorized  Norfolk 
to  promise  a  general  pardon  and  a  Parliament  to  be 
held  at  York  within  a  year.  Aske  then  dismissed  his 
followers,  trusting  in  the  king's  promises.  But  these 
promises  were  not  kept,  and  a  new  rising  took  place  in 
Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  and  was  spreading  to 
Yorkshire.  Upon  this,  the  king  arrested  Aske  and 
several  of  the  other  leaders,  who  were  all  convicted 
of  treason  and  executed.  The  loss  of  the  leaders  en- 
abled Norfolk  to  crush  the  rising.  The  king  avenged 
himself  on  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland  by  a  series 
of  massacres  under  the  form  of  martial  law.  Though 
Aske  had  tried  to  prevent  the  rising  he  was  put  to 
death.  Lord  Darcy,  Sir  Henry  Percy,  and  several 
other  gentlemen,  together  with  the  four  Abbots  of 
Fountains,  Jervaulx,  Barlings,  and  Sawley,  who  were 
executed  at  Tyburn,  have  been  reckoned  by  Catholic 


PILGRIMAGES 


85 


PILGRIMAGES 


writers  as  martyrs  for  the  Faith,  and  their  names  in- 
serted in  martyrologies,  but  they  have  not  been  in- 
cluded in  the  cause  of  beatification  of  English  martyrs. 

Gasquet,  Henrij  VIII.  and  the  English  Monasteries,  II  (Lon- 
don, 1888),  ii-iv,  and  state  papers  iHenry  VIII.)  therein  referred 
to:  TlERNEY-DoDD,  ChuTch  History,  I  (London,  1839);  Linc;\rd, 
Hidory  of  England,  V  (London,  1883) ;  for  non-Catholic  accounts, 
the  standard  authorities  on  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  (q.  v.),  such 
as  Gairdner,  Dixon,  and  the  Cambridge  Modern  History. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Pilgrimages  (Mid.  Eng.  pilgrime,  Old  Fr.  pelegrin, 
derived  from  Lat.  peregrinum,  supposed  origin,  per 
and  agcr — with  idea  of  wandering  over  a  distance) 
may  be  defined  a.s  journey.s  made  to  some  place  with 
the  purpose  of  venerating  it,  or  in  order  to  ask  there 
for  supernatural  aid,  or  to  discharge  some  religious 
obligation. 

Origin. — The  idea  of  a  pilgrimage  has  been  traced 
back  by  some  (Littledale  in  "Encyc.  Brit.",  1SS5, 
XIX,  00;  "New  Internat.  Encyc",  New  York,  1910, 
XVI,  20,  etc.)  to  the  primitive  notion  of  local  deities, 
that  is,  that  the  divine  beings  who  controlled  the  move- 
ments of  men  and  nature  could  exercise  that  control 
only  over  certain  definite  forces  or  within  set  boun- 
daries. Thus  the  river  gods  had  no  power  over  those 
who  kept  away  from  the  river,  nor  could  the  wood 
deities  exercise  any  influence  over  those  who  lived  in 
deserts  or  clearings  or  on  the  bare  mountain-side. 
Similarly  there  were  gods  of  the  hills  and  gods  of  the 
plains  who  could  only  work  out  their  designs,  could 
only  favour  or  destroy  men  within  their  own  locality 
(III  Kings,  XX,  23).  Hence,  when  some  man  belonging 
to  a  mountain  tribe  found  himself  in  the  plain  and  was 
in  need  of  divine  help,  he  made  a  pilgrimage  back  again 
to  the  hills  to  petition  it  from  his  gods.  It  is  therefore 
the  broken  tribesmen  who  originate  pilgrimages. 

Without  denying  the  force  of  this  argument  as  sug- 
gesting or  extending  the  custom,  for  it  has  been  ad- 
mitted as  plausible  by  distinguished  Catholics  (cf. 
Lagrange,  "Etudes  sur  les  relig.  s6mit.,  VIII,  Paris, 
1905,  295,  301),  we  may  adhere  to  a  less  arbitrary  solu- 
tion by  seeking  its  cause  in  the  instinctive  motion  of 
the  human  heart.  For  pilgrimages  properly  so  called 
are  made  to  the  places  where  the  gods  or  heroes  were 
born  or  wrought  some  great  action  or  died,  or  to  the 
shrines  where  the  deity  had  already  signified  it  to  be 
his  pleasure  to  work  wonders.  Once  theophanies  are 
localized,  pilgrimages  necessarily  follow.  The  Incar- 
nation was  bound  inevitably  to  draw  men  across 
Europe  to  visit  the  Holy  Places,  for  the  custom  itself 
arises  spontaneously  from  the  heart.  It  is  found  in  all 
religions.  The  Egyptians  journeyed  to  Sekket's 
shrine  at  Bubastis  or  to  Ammon's  oracle  at  Thebes; 
the  Greeks  sought  for  counsel  from  Apollo  at  Delphi 
and  for  cures  from  Asclepius  at  Epidaurus;  the  Mexi- 
cans gathered  at  the  huge  temple  of  Quetzal;  the 
Peruvians  massed  in  sun-worship  at  Cuzco  and  the 
Bolivians  in  Titicaca.  But  it  is  evident  that  the  reli- 
gions which  centred  round  a  single  character,  be  he 
god  or  prophet,  would  be  the  most  famous  for  their 
pilgrimages,  not  for  any  reason  of  tribal  returns  to  a 
central  district  where  alone  the  deity  has  power,  but 
rather  owing  to  the  perfectly  natural  wish  to  visit  spots 
made  holy  by  the  birth,  life,  or  death  of  the  god  or 
prophet.  Hence  Buddhism  and  Mohammedanism  are 
especially  famous  in  inculcating  this  method  of  devo- 
tion. Huge  gatherings  of  people  intermittently  all  the 
year  round  venerate  Kapilavastu  where  Gaukama 
Buddha  began  his  life,  Benares  where  he  opened  his 
sacred  mission,  Kasinagara  where  he  died;  and  Mecca 
and  Medina  have  become  almost  bywords  in  English 
as  the  goals  of  long  aspirations,  so  famous  are  they 
for  their  connexion  with  the  prophet  of  Islam. 

Granting  then  this  instinctive  movement  of  human 
nature,  we  should  expect  to  find  that  in  Christianity 
God  would  Himself  satisfy  the  craving  He  had  first 
Himself  created.     The  story  of  His  appearance  on 


earth  in  bodily  form  when  He  "dwelt  amongst  us" 
could  not  but  be  treasured  up  by  His  followers,  and 
each  city  and  site  mentioned  become  a  matter  of  grate- 
ful memory  to  them.  Then  again  the  more  famous  of 
His  disciples,  whom  we  designate  as  saints,  themselves 
began  to  appeal  to  the  devotion  of  their  fellows,  and 
round  the  acts  of  their  lives  soon  clustered  a  whole 
cycle  of  venerated  shrines.  Especially  would  this  be 
felt  in  the  case  of  the  martyrs;  for  their  passion  and 
death  stamped  more  dramatically  still  the  exact 
locality  of  their  triumph.  Moreover,  it  seems  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  yet  another  influence  worked  to 
the  same  end.  There  sprang  up  in  the  early  Church 
a  curious  privilege,  accorded  to  dying  martyrs,  of 
granting  the  remission  of  canonical  penances.  No 
doubt  it  began  through  a  generous  acceptance  of  the 
relation  of  St.  Stephen  to  St.  Paul.  But  certain  it  is 
that  at  an  early  date  this  custom  had  become  so  highly 
organized  that  there  was  a  Ubellus,  or  warrant  of 
reconciliation,  a  set  form  for  the  readmittance  of 
sinners  to  Christian  fellowship  (Batiffol,  "Etudes 
d'hist.  et  de  tUol  posit.",  I,  Paris,  1906,  112-20). 
Surely  then  it  is  not  fanciful  to  see  how  from  this  came 
a  further  development.  Not  only  had  the  martyrs  in 
their  last  moments  this  power  of  absolving  from  eccle- 
siastical penalties,  but  even  after  their  deaths,  their 
tombs  and  the  scenes  of  their  martyrdom  were  con- 
sidered to  be  capable  also — if  devoutly  venerated — of 
removing  the  taints  and  penalties  of  sin.  Accordingly 
it  came  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  purifying  act  to  visit 
the  bodies  of  the  saints  and  above  all  the  places  where 
Christ  Himself  had  set  the  supreme  example  of  a 
teaching  sealed  with  blood. 

Again  it  may  be  noted  how,  when  the  penitential 
system  of  the  Church,  which  grouped  itself  round  the 
sacrament  of  the  confessional,  had  been  authorita- 
tively and  legally  organized,  pilgrimages  were  set 
down  as  adequate  punishments  inflicted  for  certain 
crimes.  The  hardships  of  the  journey,  the  penitential 
garb  worn,  the  mendicity  it  entailed  made  a  pilgrim- 
age a  real  and  efficient  penance  (Beazley,  "Dawn  of 
Modern  Geography",  II,  139;  Furnivall,  "The  Sta- 
cions  of  Rome  and  the  Pilgrim's  Sea  Voyage",  Lon- 
don, 1867,  47) .  To  quote  a  late  text,  the  following  is 
one  of  the  canons  enacted  under  King  Edgar  (959-75) : 
"It  is  a  deep  penitence  that  a  layman  lay  aside  his 
weapons  and  travel  far  barefoot  and  nowhere  pass  a 
second  night  and  fast  and  watch  much  and  pray  fer- 
vently, by  day  and  by  night  and  willingly  undergo 
fatigue  and  be  so  squalid  that  iron  come  not  on  hair 
or  on  nail"  (Thorpe,  "Ancient  Laws",  London,  1840, 
411-2;  cf.  44,  410,  etc.).  Another  witness  to  the  real 
difficulties  of  the  wayfaring  palmer  may  be  cited  from 
"Syr  Isenbras",  an  early  English  ballad: — 
"They  bare  with  them  no  maner  of  thynge 

That  was  worth  a  farthynge 
Cattell,  golde,  ne  fe; 

But  mekely  they  asked  theyre  meate 

Where  that  they  myght  it  gette. 
For  Say  net  Chary  tie. " 
(Utterson,  "Early  Popular  Poetry",  I,  London,  1817, 
83) .  And  the  Earl  of  Arundel  of  a  later  date  obtained 
absolution  for  poaching  on  the  bishop's  preserves  at 
Hoghton  Chace  only  on  condition  of  a  pilgrimage  to 
the  shrine  of  St.  Richard  of  Chichester  ("Archa'O- 
logia",XLV,  176;  cf. Chaucer,  "Works",  ed.  Morris, 
III,  266).  And  these  are  but  late  descriptions  of  a 
practice  of  penance  which  stretches  back  beyond  the 
legislation  of  Edgar,  and  the  organization  of  St.  Theo- 
dore to  the  sub-Apostolic  age.  Finally  a  last  influence 
that  made  the  pilgrimage  so  popular  a  form  of  devo- 
tion was  the  fact  that  it  contributed  very  largely  to 
ease  the  soul  of  some  of  its  vague  restlessness  in  an  age 
when  conditions  of  life  tended  to  cramp  men  down  to 
certain  localities.  It  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
real  help  to  the  establishment  of  a  perfectly  controlled 
character.    It  took  its  place  in  the  medieval  manuals 


PILGRIMAGES 


86 


PILGRIMAGES 


of  psychology.  So  John  de  Burg  in  1385  (Pupilla 
ocuU,  fol.  LXIII),  "contra  acediam,  opera  laboriosa 
bona  ut  sunt  peregrinationes  ad  looa  sancta. " 

History  in  General, — In  a  letter  written  towards 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century  by  Sts.  Paula  and 
Eustochium  to  the  Roman  matron  Marcella  urging 
her  to  follow  them  out  to  the  Holy  Places,  they  insist 
on  the  universality  of  the  custom  of  these  pilgrimages 
to  Palestine: — "Whosoever  is  noblest  in  Gaul  comes 
hither.  And  Britain  though  divided  from  us  yet  has- 
tens from  her  land  of  sunset  to  these  shrines  known  to 
her  only  through  the  Scriptures."  They  go  on  to  enu- 
merate the  various  nationalities  that  crowded  round 
these  holy  places,  Armenians,  Persians,  Indians,  Ethio- 
pians, and  many  others  (P.  L.,  XXII;  Ep.  xlvi,  489- 
90).  But  it  is  of  greater  interest  to  note  how  they 
claim  for  this  custom  a  continuity  from  Apostolic  days. 
From  the  Ascension  to  their  time,  bishops,  martjrrs, 
doctors,  and  troops  of  people,  say  they,  had  flocked  to 
see  the  sacred  stones  of  Bethlehem  and  of  wherever 
else  the  Lord  had  trod  (489) .  It  has  been  suggested 
that  this  is  an  exaggeration,  and  certainly  we  can  offer 
no  proof  of  any  such  uninterrupted  practice.  Yet 
when  the  first  examples  begin  to  appear  they  are  repre- 
sented to  us  without  a  word  of  astonishment  or  a  note 
of  novelty,  as  though  people  were  already  fully  accus- 
tomed to  like  adventures.  Thus  in  Eusebius,  "His- 
tory" (tr.  Crus6,  London,  1868,  VI,  xi,  215),  it  is  re- 
marked of  Bishop  Alexander  that  "he  performed  a 
journey  from  Cappadocia  to  Jerusalem  in  consequence 
of  a  vow  and  the  celebrity  of  the  place. "  And  the  date 
given  is  also  worthy  of  notice,  A.  d.  217.  Then  again 
there  is  the  story  of  the  two  travellers  of  Placentia, 
John  and  Antoninus  the  Elder  (Acta  SS.,  July,  II,  18), 
which  took  place  about  303-4.  Of  course  with  the 
conversion  of  Constantine  and  the  visit  to  Jerusalem 
of  the  Empress  St.  Helena  the  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy 
Land  became  very  much  more  frequent.  The  story  of 
the  finding  of  the  Cross  is  too  well  known  to  be  here 
repeated  (cf.  P.  L.,  XXVH,  1125),  but  its  influence 
was  unmistakable.  The  first  church  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion was  built  by  Eustathius  the  Priest  (loc.  cit.,  1 164) . 
But  the  flow  of  pilgrimages  began  in  vigour  four  years 
after  St.  Helena's  visit  (Acta  SS.,  June,  III,  176;  Sept., 
Ill,  56).  Then  the  organization  of  the  Church  that 
partly  caused  and  partly  resulted  from  the  Council  of 
NicEea  continued  the  same  custom. 

In  333  was  the  famous  Bordeaux  Pilgrimage  ("Pal- 
estine Pilgrim  Text  Society",  London,  1887,  preface 
and  notes  by  Stewart).  It  was  the  first  of  a  whole 
series  of  pilgrimages  that  have  left  interesting  and 
detailed  accounts  of  the  route,  the  peoples  through 
which  they  passed,  the  sites  identified  with  those  men- 
tioned in  the  Gospels.  Another  was  the  still  better- 
known  "  Peregrinatio  Silviae"  (ed.  Barnard,  London 
1891,  Pal.  Pilg.  Text  Soc;  cf.  "Rev.  des  quest,  hist." 
1903,  367,  etc.).  Moreover,  the  whole  movement 
was  enormously  increased  by  the  language  and 
action  of  St.  Jerome,  whose  personality  at  the  close 
of  the  fourth  century  dominated  East  and  West. 
Slightly  earlier  St.  John  Chrysostbm  emphasized  the 
efficacy  in  arousing  devotion  of  visiting  even  the  "life- 
less spots"  where  the  saints  had  lived  (In  Phil.,  702-3 
in  P.  G.,  LXII).  And  his  personal  love  of  St.  Paul 
would  have  unfailingly  driven  him  to  Rome  to  see  the 
tomb  of  the  Apostles,  but  for  the  burden  of  his  episco- 
pal office.  He  says  (In  Ephes.  hom.  8,  ii,  57,  in  P.  G., 
LXII),  "If  I  were  freed  from  my  labours  and  my  body 
were  in  sound  health  I  would  eagerly  make  a  pilgrim- 
age merely  to  see  the  chains  that  had  held  him  captive 
and  the  prison  where  he  lay."  While  in  another  pas- 
sage of  extraordinary  eloquence  he  expres.ses  his  long- 
ing to  gaze  on  the  dust  of  the  great  Apostle,  the  dust 
of  the  lips  that  had  thundered,  of  the  hands  that  had 
been  fettered,  of  the  eyes  that  had  seen  the  Master; 
even  as  he  speaks  he  is  dazzled  by  the  splendour  of  the 
metropolis  of  the  world  lit  up  by  the  glorious  tombs  of 


the  twin  prince  Apostles  (In  Rom.  hom.  32,  iii  678 
etc.,  in  P.  G.,  LX).  Nor  in  this  is  he  advocating  a  new 
practice,  for  he  mentions  without  conment  how  many 
people  hurried  across  the  seas  to  Arabia  to  see  and 
venerate  the  dunghill  of  Job  (Ad  pop.  Antioch,  hom. 
5,  69,  in  P.  G.,  XLIX).  St.  Jerome  was  cramped  by 
no  such  official  duties  as  had  kept  St.  Chrysostom  to 
his  diocese.  His  conversion,  following  on  the  famous 
vision  of  his  judgment,  turned  him  from  his  studies  of 
pagan  classics  to  the  pages  of  Holy  Writ,  and,  uniting 
with  his  untiring  energy  and  thoroughness,  pushed  him 
on  to  Palestine  to  devote  himself  to  the  Scriptures  in 
the  land  where  they  had  been  written.  Once  there  the 
actual  Gospel  scenes  appealed  with  supreme  freshness 
to  him,  and  on  his  second  return  from  Rome  his  enthu- 
siasm fired  several  Roman  matrons  to  accompany  him 
and  share  his  labours  and  his  devotions.  Monasteries 
and  convents  were  built  and  a  Latin  colony  was  estab- 
lished which  in  later  times  was  to  revolutionize  Europe 
by  inaugurating  the  Crusades. 

From  the  Holy  Land  the  circle  widens  to  Rome,  as 
a  centre  of  pilgrimages.  St.  Chrysostom,  as  has  been 
shown,  expressed  his  vehement  desire  to  visit  it.  And 
in  the  early  church  histories  of  Eusebius,  Zosimus, 
Socrates,  and  others,  notices  are  frequent  of  the  jour- 
neyings  of  celebrated  princes  and  bishops  of  the  City 
of  the  Seven  Hills.  Of  course  the  Saxon  kings  and 
royal  families  have  made  this  a  familiar  thing  to  us. 
The  "Ecclesiastical  History"  of  St.  Bede  is  crowded 
with  references  to  princes  and  princesses  who  laid  aside 
their  royal  diadems  in  order  to  visit  the  shrine  of  the 
Apostles;  and  the  "Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle"  after  his 
death  takes  up  the  same  refrain.  Then  from  Rome 
again  the  shrines  of  local  saints  begin  to  attract  their 
votaries.  In  the  letter  already  cited  in  which  Paula 
and  Eustochium  invite  Marcella  to  Palestine  they 
argue  from  the  already  established  custom  of  visiting 
the  shrines  of  the  martyrs:  "Martyrum  ubique  sepul- 
chra  veneramur"  (Ep.  xlvi,  488,  in  P.  L.,  XXII).  St. 
Augustine  endeavours  to  settle  a  dispute  by  sending 
both  litigants  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Fehx 
of  Nola,  in  order  that  the  saint  may  somehow  or  other 
make  some  sign  as  to  which  party  was  telling  the  truth. 
He  candidly  admits  that  he  knows  of  no  such  miracle 
having  been  performed  in  Africa;  but  argues  to  it  from 
the  analogy  of  Milan  where  God  had  made  known  His 
pleasure  through  the  relics  of  Sts.  Gervasius  and 
Protasius  (Ep.  Ixxvii,  269,  in  P.  L,,  XXXIII) ,  Indeed, 
the  very  idea  of  relics,  which  existed  as  early  as  the 
earliest  of  the  catacombs,  teaches  the  essential  worth 
of  pilgrimages,  i.  e.,  of  the  journeying  to  visit  places 
hallowed  by  events  in  the  lives  of  heroes  or  of  gods 
who  walked  in  the  guise  of  men  (St.  Aug.,  "Deciv. 
Dei",  XXII,  769,  in  P.  L.,  XXXVIII). 

At  first  a  mere  question  of  individual  travelling,  a 
short  period  was  sufficient  to  develop  into  pilgrimages 
properly  organized  companies.  Even  the  "  Peregrina- 
tio Silviae"  shows  how  they  were  being  systematized. 
The  initiators  were  clerics  who  prepared  the  whole 
route  beforehand  and  mapped  out  the  cities  of  call. 
The  bodies  of  troops  were  got  together  to  protect  the 
pilgrims.  Moreover,  Christian  almsgiving  invented  a 
method  of  participation  in  the  merits  of  a  pilgrimage 
for  those  unable  actually  to  take  part  in  them;  it 
established  h  /spices  along  the  line  (Ordericus  Vitalis, 
"Hist,  eccle.s.",  ed.  Le  Provost,  Soc.  hist.  France,  II, 
64,  53;  Toulmin  Smith,  "English  Guilds",  passim). 
The  conversion  of  the  Hungarians  amplified  this 
system  of  halts  along  the  road;  of  St.  Stephen,  for 
example,  we  read  that  "he  made  the  way  very  safe  for 
all  and  thus  allowed  by  his  benevolence  a  countless 
multitude  both  of  noble  and  common  people  to  start 
for  Jerusalem"  (Glaber,  "Chron,",  III,  C.  I.  Mon. 
Germ.  Hist.,  VII,  62).  Thus  these  pious  journeys 
gradually  harden  down  and  become  fixed  and  definite. 
They  are  allowed  for  by  laws,  civil  and  ecclesiastical. 
Wars  are  fought  to  insure  their  safety,  crusades  are 


PILGRIMAGES 


87 


PILGRIMAGES 


begun  in  their  defence,  pilgrims  are  everywhere 
granted  free  access  in  times  alike  ot  peace  and  war. 
By  the  "Consuetudines"  of  the  canons  of  Hereford 
cathedral  we  see  that  legislation  was  found  to  be 
necessary.  No  canon  was  to  make  more  than  one 
pilgrimage  beyond  the  seas  in  his  own  lifetime.  But 
each  year  three  weeks  were  allowed  to  enable  any  that 
would  to  visit  shrines  within  the  kingdom.  To  go 
abroad  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Denis,  seven  weeks  of  ab- 
sence was  considered  legal,  eight  weeks  to  the  body  of 
St.  Edmund  at  Pontigny,  sixteen  weeks  to  Rome,  or  to 
St.  James  at  Compostella,  and  a  year  to  Jerusalem 
(Archueol.,  XXXI,  251-2  notes). 

Again  in  another  way  pilgrimages  were  bemg  re- 
garded as  part  of  normal  life.  In  the  registers  of  the 
Inquisition  at  Carcassonne  (Waterton,  "Pietas  Mari- 
ana Britannica",  112)  we  find  the  four  following  places 
noted  as  being  the  centres  of  the  greater  pilgrimages 
to  be  imposed  as  penances  for  the  graver  crimes,  the 
tomb  of  the  Apostles  at  Rome,  the  shrine  of  St.  James 
at  Compostella,  St.  Thomas's  body  at  Canterbury, 
and  the  relics  of  the  Three  Kings  at  Cologne.  Natu- 
rally with  all  this  there  was  a  great  deal  of  corruption. 
Even  from  the  ear- 
liest times  the  Fa- 
thers perceived  how 
liable  such  devotions 
were  to  degenerate 
into  an  abuse.  St. 
John  Chrysostom,  so 
ardent  in  his  praise 
of  pilgrimages,  found 
it  necessary  to  ex- 
plain that  there  was 
"need  for  none  to 
cross  the  seas  or  fare 
upon  a  long  journey; 
leteachofusathome 
invoke  God  earnest- 
ly and  He  will  hear 
ourprayer"  (Adpop. 
Antioch.  hom.  iii,  2, 
49,  in  P.  G.,  XLiX; 
cf.  hom.  iv,  6,  68). 
St.  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen  is  even  stronger 
inhiscondemnation.  Hehasashortletterin  which  he 
speaks  of  those  who  regard  it  as  an  essential  part  of  piety 
to  visit  Jerusalem  and  see  the  traces  of  the  Passion  of 
Christ.  This,  he  says,  the  Master  has  never  com- 
manded, though  the  custom  is  not  therefore  without 
merit.  But  still  he  knows  that  in  many  cases  the  jour- 
ney has  proved  a  scandal  and  caused  serious  harm. 
He  witnesses,  therefore,  both  to  the  custom  and  the 
abuse,  evidently  thinking  that  the  latter  outweighed 
the  former  (Ep.  ii,  1009,  in  P.  G.,  XLVI).  So  again 
St.  Jerome  writes  to  Paulinus  (Ep.  Ixvlii  in  P.  L., 
XXII)  to  explain,  in  an  echo  of  Cicero's  phrase,  that 
it  is  not  the  fact  of  living  in  Jerusalem,  but  of  living 
there  well,  that  is  worthy  of  praise  (579);  he  instances 
countless  saints  who  never  set  foot  in  the  Holy  Land; 
and  dares  not  tie  down  to  one  small  portion  of  the 
Earth  Him  whom  Heaven  itself  is  unable  to  contain. 
He  ends  with  a  sentence  that  is  by  now  famous,  "  et  de 
Hierusolymis  et  de  Britannia  aequaliter  patet  aula 
coelestis"  (581). 

Another  well-quoted  passage  comes  from  a  letter 
of  St.  Augustine  in  which  he  expounds  in  happy  para- 
dox that  not  by  journeying  but  by  loving  we  draw 
nigh  unto  God.  To  Him  who  is  everywhere  present 
and  everywhere  entire  we  approach  not  by  our  feet 
but  by  our  hearts  (Ep.  civ,  672,  in  P.  L.,  XXXII). 
For  certainly  pilgrimages  were  not  always  undertaken 
for  the  best  of  motives.  Glaber  (ed.  Prou,  Paris,  1886, 
107)  thinks  it  necessary  to  note  of  Lethbald  that  he 
was  far  from  being  one  of  those  who  were  led  to  Jeru- 
salem simply  from  vanity,  that  they  might  have  won- 


PlLGEIMS   ENTERING  BETHLEHEM  AT  CHRISTMAS 


derful  stories  to  tell,  when  they  came  back.  Thus,  as 
the  centuries  pass,  we  find  human  nature  the  same  in 
its  complexity  of  motives.  Its  noblest  actions  are 
found  to  be  often  caused  by  petty  spites  or  vanity  or 
overvaulting  ambition;  and  even  when  begun  in  good 
faith  as  a  source  of  devotion,  the  practices  of  piety  at 
times  are  degraded  into  causes  of  vice.  So  the  author 
of  the  "Imitation  of  Christ"  raises  his  voice  against 
overmuch  pilgrimage-making:  "Who  wander  much 
are  but  little  hallowed."  Note  too  the  words  of  the 
fifteenth-century  English  Dominican,  John  Bromyard 
("Summa  Prffidicantium " ,  Tit.  Feria  n.  6,  fol.  191, 
Lyons,  1522): — "There  are  some  who  keep  their  pil- 
grimages and  festivals  not  for  God  but  for  the  devil. 
They  who  sin  more  freely  when  away  from  home  or 
who  go  on  pilgrimage  to  succeed  in  inordinate  and 
foolish  love — those  who  spend  their  time  on  the  road 
in  evil  and  uncharitable  conversation  may  indeed  say 
peregrinamur  a  Domino — they  make  their  pilgrimage 
away  from  God  and  to  the  devil." 

But  the  most  splenetic  scorn  is  to  be  found  in  the 
pages  of  that  master  of  satire,  Erasmus.  His  "Reli- 
gious Pilgrimage"  ("Colloquies"  ed.  Johnson,  Lon- 
don, 1878,  11,^  1-37) 
is  a  terrible  indict- 
ment of  the  abuses 
of  his  day.  Exag- 
gerated no  doubt  in 
its  expressions,  yet 
revealing  a  sufficient 
modicum  of  real  evil, 
it  is  a  graphic  picture 
from  the  hand  of  an 
intelligent  observer. 
There  is  evident  sign 
that  pilgrimages 
were  losing  in  popu- 
larity, not  merely 
because  the  charity 
of  many  was  growing 
cold,  but  because  of 
the  excessive  credu- 
lity of  the  guardians 
of  the  shrines,  their 
overwrought  insist- 
ence on  the  necessity 
of  pilgrimage-making,  and  the  fact  that  many  who 
journeyed  from  shrine  to  shrine  neglected  their  do- 
mestic duties.  These  three  evils  are  quaintly  ex- 
pressed in  the  above  mentioned  dialogue,  with  a 
liberty  of  speech  that  makes  one  astonished  at  Rome's 
toleration  in  the  sixteenth  century.  With  all  these 
abuses  Erasmus  saw  how  the  spoiler  would  have  ready 
to  hand  excuses  for  suppressing  the  whole  system  and 
plundering  the  most  attractive  treasures.  The  wealth 
might  well  be  put,  he  suggested,  to  other  uses;  but 
the  idea  of  a  pilgrimage  contained  in  it  nothing  op- 
posed to  the  enlightened  opinions  of  this  prophet  of 
"sweet  reasonableness"  "If  any  shall  do  it  of  their 
own  free  choice  from  a  great  affection  to  piety,  I  think 
they  deserve  to  be  left  to  their  own  freedom"  (op. 
cit.,  35).  This  was  evidently  the  opinion  also  of 
Henry  VIII,  for,  though  in  the  Injunctions  of  1536 
and  1538  pilgrimages  were  to  be  discouraged,  yet  both 
in  the  bishop's  book  (The  Institution  of  the  Christian 
Man,  1537)  and  the  king's  book  (The  Necessary  Doc- 
trine and  Erudition  of  the  Christian  Man,  1543),  it  is 
laid  down  that  the  abuse  and  not  the  custom  is  repre- 
hensible. What  they  really  attack  is  the  fashion  of 
"putting  differences  between  image  and  image,  trust- 
ing more  in  one  than  in  another"  (cf.  Gairdner, 
"LoUardy  and  the  Reformation",  II,  London,  1908, 
IV,  ii,  330,  etc.).  All  this  shows  how  alive  Christen- 
dom has  been  to  evils  which  Reformers  are  forever 
denouncing  as  inseparable  from  Catholicism.  It  ad- 
mits the  danger  but  does  not  allow  it  to  prejudice  the 
good  use  ("Diayloge  of  Syr  Thomas  More",  London, 


PILGRIMAGES 


88 


PILGRIMAGES 


1529) .  Before  dealing  with  each  pilgrimage  in  particu- 
lar one  further  remark  should  be  made.  Though  not 
properly  included  under  a  list  of  abuses,  a  custom 
must  be  noted  of  going  in  search  of  shrines  utterly  at 
haphazard  and  wdthout  any  definite  notion  of  where 
the  journey  was  to  end  (Waterton,  "Piet.  Mar. 
Britt.",  London,  1S79,  III,  107;  "Anglo-Sax.  Chron.", 
tr.  Thorpe  in  R.  S.,  London,  1861,  II,  69;  Beazley, 
"Dawn  of  Mod.  Geog.",  London,  1897-1906, 1,  174-5; 
Tobl.  Bibl.  Geog.  Pal.  26,  ed.  of  1876). 

History  in  Particular. — It  will  be  necessary  to 
mention  and  note  briefly  the  chief  places  of  Catholic 
pilgrimage,  in  early  days,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in 
modern  times. 

Aachen,  Rhenish  Prussia. — This  celebrated  city 
•iwfs  its  fame  as  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  to  the  extraor- 
dinary list  of  precious  relics  which  it  contains.    Of 


EiNsiEDELN — The  Shrine  seen  from  the  Gallery 
OF  the  Church 

their  authenticity  there  is  no  need  here  to  speak,  but 
they  include  among  a  host  of  others,  the  swaddling 
clothes  of  the  child  Jesus,  the  loin-cloth  which  Our 
Lord  wore  on  the  Cross,  the  cloth  on  which  the  Bap- 
tist's head  lay  after  his  execution,  and  the  Blessed 
Mrgin's  cloak.  These  relics  are  exposed  to  public 
veneration  every  seven  years.  The  number  of  pil- 
grims in  1S81  was  158,968  (Champagnac,  "Diet,  des 
pelcrinages",  Paris,  1S,')9,  I,  78). 

Akt,  Limoux,  France,  contains  a  shrine  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  dating  traditionally  from  the  twelfth 
century.  The  principal  feast  is  celebrated  on  8  Sep- 
tember, when  there  is  still  a  great  concourse  of  pil- 
grims from  the  neighbourhood  of  Toulouse.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  confraternity  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary  founded  for  the  conversion  of  sinners,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  exceed  several  thousands  (Champagnac 
II,  SO).  ' 

Amhrininij,  Burgundy,  France,  an  ancient  shrine  of 
the  Blessed  \'irgin,  dating  back  to  the  seventh  century. 
It  is  still  a  centre  of  pilgrimage. 

Amorgos,  or  Morgo,  in  the  Greek  Archipelago,  has 
a  quaint  picture  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  painted  on  wood 
which  is  reputed  to  have  been  profaned  and  broken  at 
Cyprus  and  then  miraculously  rejoined  in  its  present 
shrine.  Near  by  is  enacted  the  pretended  miracle  of 
the  Ume,  so  celebrated  in  the  Archipelago  (Cham- 
pagnac, I,  129). 


Ancona,  Italy. — The  Cathedral  of  St.  Cyriacus 
contains  a  shrine  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  which  became 
famous  only  in  1796.  On  25  June  of  that  year,  the 
eyes  of  the  Madonna  were  seen  filled  with  tears,  which 
was  later  interpreted  to  have  prefigured  the  calamities 
that  fell  on  Pius  VI  and  the  Church  in  Italy  owing  to 
Napoleon.  The  picture  was  solemnly  crowned  by 
Pius  VII  on  13  May,  1814,  under  the  title  "Regina 
Sanctorum  Omnium"  (Champagnac,  I,  133;  Anon. 
"Pelerinages  aux  sanct.  de  la  mire  de  Dieu",  Paris' 
1840). 

Anges,  Seine-et-Oise,  France. — The  present  chapel 
only  dates  from  1808;  but  the  pilgrimage  is  really 
ancient.  In  connexion  with  the  shrine  is  a  spring  of 
miraculous  water  (Champagnac,  I,  146). 

Arcachon,  Gironde,  France. — It  is  curious  among 
the  shrines  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  containing  an 
alabaster  statue  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Pius  IX 
granted  to  this  statue  the  honour  of  coronation  in 
1870,  since  which  time  pilgrimages  to  it  have  greatly 
increased  in  number  and  in  frequency. 

Ardilliers,  Saumur,  France. — A  chapel  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  founded  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 
monastery.  It  has  been  visited  by  famous  French 
pilgrims  such  as  Anne  of  Austria,  Louis  XIII,  Henri- 
etta Maria,  etc.  The  sacristy  was  built  by  Cesare, 
Duke  of  Vendome,  and  in  1634  Cardinal  Richelieu 
added  a  chapel  (Champagnac,  I,  169). 

Argenieuil,  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  is  one  of  the 
places  which  boasts  of  possessing  the  Holy  Coat 
of  Jesus  Christ.  Its  abbey  was  also  well  known  as 
having  had  as  abbess  the  famous  Heloise.  A\'liate\'er 
may  be  thought  of  the  authenticity  of  the  relic,  the 
antiquity  of  pilgrimages  drawn  to  its  ^'eneration  dates 
from  its  presentation  to  St.  Louis  in  1247.  From  the 
pilgrimage  of  Queen  Blanche  in  1255  till  our  own  day 
there  has  been  an  almost  uninterrupted  floip  of  visi- 
tors. The  present  ch&sse  was  the  gift  of  the  Duchess 
of  Guise  in  1680  (Champagnac,  I,  171-223). 

Aubervilles,  Seine,  France,  an  ancient  place  of  pil- 
grimage from  Paris.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Calendars 
of  that  diocese  under  the  title  of  Notre-Dame-des- 
Vertus,  and  its  feast  was  celebrated  annually  on  the 
second  Tuesday  in  May.  An  early  list  of  miraculous 
cures  performed  under  the  invocation  of  this  Madonna 
was  printed  at  Paris  in  1617  (Champagnac,  I,  246). 

Auriesville,  Montgomery  Co.,  New  York,  U.  S.  A., 
is  the  centre  of  one  of  the  great  pilgrimages  of  the  New 
World.  It  is  the  scene  of  martyrdom  of  three  Jesuit 
missionaries  by  Mohawk  Indians;  but  the  chapel 
erected  on  the  spot  has  been  dedicated  to  Our  Lady 
of  Martyrs,  presumably  because  the  cause  of  the 
beatification  of  the  three  fathers  is  as  yet  uncompleted. 
15  August  is  the  chief  day  of  pilgrimage;  but  the  prac- 
tice of  visiting  Auriesville  increases  yearly  in  fre- 
quency, and  lasts  intermittently  throughout  the  whole 
summer  (Wynne,  "A  Shrine  in  the  Mohawk  Valley", 
New  York,  1905;  Gerard  in  "The  Month",  March, 
1874,  306). 

Bailleul-le-Soc,  Oise,  France,  possesses  a  chapel 
dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  dating  from  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.  It  has  received  no  e}iiscopal  authoriza- 
tion, and  in  fact  was  condemned  by  the  Bishop  of 
Beauvais,  Mgr  de  Saint-Aignan,  24  February,  1716. 
This  was  in  consequence  of  the  pilgrimage  which 
sprang  up,  of  visiting  a  well  of  medicinal  waters. 
Owing  to  its  health-giving  properties,  it  was  called 
Saine-Fontaiii.e,  but,  by  the  superstition  of  the  people, 
who  at  once  invented  a  legend  to  account  for  it,  this 
was  quickly  changed  to  Sainle-Fontninc.  It  is  still  a 
place  (if  veneration;  and  pilgrims  go  to  drink  the 
waters  of  the  so-called  holy  well  (Champagnac,  I,  264). 

Betharram,  Basses-Pyrenees,  France,  one  of  the 
oldest  shrines  in  all  France,  the  very  name  of  which 
dates  from  the  Saracenic  occupation  of  the  country. 
A  legend  puts  back  the  foundation  into  the  fourth 
century,  but  this  is  certainly  several  hundred  years 


PILGRIMAGES 


89 


PILGRIMAGES 


too  early.  In  much  iiioie  recent  times  a  calvary,  with 
various  stations,  has  been  erected  and  has  brought 
back  the  flow  of  pilgrims.  The  Basque  population 
round  about  knows  it  as  one  of  its  most  sacred  centres 
(ChampaRnac,  I,  302-11). 

Boher,  near  Leith  Abbey,  King's  Co.,  Ireland,  con- 
tains the  relics  of  St.  Manchan,  probably  the  abbot 
who  died  in  664.  The  present  shrine  is  of  twelfth- 
century  work  and  is  very  well  preserved  considering 
its  great  age  and  the  A'arious  calamities  through  which 
it  has  passed.  Pilgrimages  to  it  are  organized  from 
time  to  time,  but  on  no  very  considerable  scale  (Wall, 
"Shrines  of  British  Saints",  S3-7). 

Bonarin,  Sardinia,  is  celebrated  for  its  statue  of  Our 
Lady  of  Mercy.  It  is  of  Italian  workmanship,  prob- 
ably about  1370,  and  came  miraculously  to  Bonaria, 
floating  on  the  waters.  E\-ery  Saturday  local  pilgrim- 
ages were  organized;  but  to-day  it  is  rather  as  an 
object  of  devotion  to  the  fisherfolk  that  the  shrine  is 
popular  (Champagnac,  I,  1130-1). 

Boulogne,  France,  has  the  remains  of  a  famous 
statue  that  has  been  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  for  many 
centuries.  The  earh'  history  of  the  shrine  is  lost  in 
the  legends  of  the  se^'enth  century.  But  whatever 
was  the  origin  of  its  foundation  there  has  always  been 
a  close  connexion  between  this  particular  shrine  and 
the  seafaring  population  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel. 
In  medicA-al  France  the  pilgrimage  to  it  was  looked 
upon  as  so  recognized  a  form  of  devotion  that  not  a 
few  judicial  sentences  are  recorded  as  having  been 
commuted  into  visits  to  Notre-Dame-de-Boulogne^ 
sur-mer.  Besides  se\'eral  French  monarchs,  Henry 
III  visited  the  shrine  in  1255,  the  Black  Prince  and 
John  of  Gaunt  in  1360,  and  later  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy.  So,  too,  in  1814  Louis  XVIII  gave  thanks 
for  his  restoration  before  this  same  statue.  The  devo- 
tion of  Our  Lady  of  Boulogne  has  been  in  France  and 
England  increased  by  the  official  recognition  of  the 
.\rcliconfraternity  of  Our  Lady  of  Compassion,  estab- 
lished at  this  shrine,  the  object  of  which  is  to  pray  for 
the  return  of  the  English  people  to  the  Faith  (Cham- 
pagnac, I,  342-62;  Hales  in  "Academy",  22  April, 
1882,  287). 

Bruges,  Belgium,  has  its  famous  relic  of  the  Holy 
Blood  which  is  the  centre  of  much  pilgrimage.  This 
was  brought  from  Palestine  by  Thierry  of  Alsace  on 
his  return  from  the  Second  Crusade.  From  7  April, 
1150,  this  relic  has  been  venerated  with  much  devo- 
tion. The  annual  pilgrimage,  attended  by  the  Flemish 
nobility  in  their  quaint  robes  and  thousands  of  pil- 
grims from  other  parts  of  Christendom,  takes  place 
on  the  Monday  following  the  first  Sunday  in  May, 
when  the  relic  is  carried  in  procession.  But  every 
Friday  the  relic  is  less  solemnly  exposed  for  the  ven- 
eration of  the  faithful  (Smith,  "Bruges",  London, 
1901,  passim;   cf.  "Tablet",  LXXXIII,  817). 

Buglose,  Landes,  France,  was  for  long  popular  as 
a  place  of  pilgrimage  to  a  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin; 
but  it  is  perhaps  as  much  visited  now  as  the  birthplace 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  The  house  where  he  was  born 
and  where  he  spent  his  boyhood  is  still  shown  (Cham- 
pagnac, I,  374-90). 

Canterbury,  Kent,  England,  was  in  medieval  times 
the  most  famous  of  English  shrines.  First  as  the 
birthplace  of  Saxon  Christianity  and  as  holding  the 
tomb  of  St.  Augustine;  secondly  as  the  scene  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas  Becket,  it  fitly  represented 
the  ecclesiastical  centre  of  England.  But  even  from 
beyond  the  island,  men  and  women  trooped  to  the 
shrine  of  the  "bhssful  martyr",  especially  at  the  great 
pardons  or  jubilees  of  the  feast  every  fifty  years  from 
1220  to  1520;  his  death  caused  his  own  city  to  be- 
come, what  Winchester  had  been  till  then,  the  spiritual 
centre  of  England  (Belloc,  "The  Old  Road",  London, 
1904,  43).  The  spell  of  his  name  in  his  defence  of  the 
spirituality  lay  so  strongly  on  the  country  that  Henry 
VIII  had  to  make  a  personal  attack  on  the  dead  saint 


before  he  could  hope  to  arrogate  himself  full  eccle- 
siastical authority.  The  poetry  of  Chaucer,  the 
wealth  of  England,  the  crown  jewels  of  France,  and 
marble  from  ruins  of  ancient  Carthage  (a  papal  gift) 
had  glorified  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  beyond  com- 
pare; and  the  pilgrim  signs  (see  below)  which  are 
continually  being  discovered  all  over  England  and 
even  across  the  Channel  ("Guirle  to  Mediaival  Room, 
British  Museum",  London,  1907,  69-71)  emphasize 
the  popularity  of  this  pilgrimage.  The  precise  time 
of  the  year  for  visiting  Canterbury  seems  difficult  to 
determine  (Belloc,  ibid.,  54),  for  Chaucer  says  spring, 
the  Continental  traditions  imply  winter,  and  the  chief 
gatherings  of  which  we  have  any  record  point  to  the 
summer.  It  was  probably  determined  by  the  feasts 
of  the  saint  and  the  seasons  of  the  year.  The  place  of 
the  martyrdom  has  once  more  become  a  centre  of  devo- 


Faqade,  Basilica  of  Notre-Dame,  Le  Puy 
(See  article  Le  Puy,  Vol.  IX) 

tion,  mainly  through  the  action  of  the  Guild  of  Ran- 
som (Wall,  "Shrines",  152-171;  Belloc,  op.  cit.; 
Danks,  "Canterbury",  London,  1910). 

Carmel,  Palestine,  has  been  for  centuries  a  sacred 
mountain,  both  for  the  Hebrew  people  and  for  Chris- 
tians. The  Mohammedans  also  regard  it  with  devo- 
tion, and  from  the  eighteenth  century  onwards  have 
joined  with  Christians  and  Jews  in  celebrating  the 
feast  of  Elias  in  the  mountain  that  bears  his  name. 

Ceylon  may  be  mentioned  as  possessing  a  curious 
place  of  pilgrimage,  Adam  Peak.  On  the  summit  of 
this  mountain  is  a  certain  impression  which  the  Mo- 
hammedans assert  to  be  the  footprint  of  Adam,  the 
Brahmins  that  of  Rama,  the  Buddhists  that  of  Buddha, 
the  Chinese  that  of  Fo,  and  the  Christians  of  India 
that  of  St.  Thomas  the  Apostle  (Champagnac,  I,  44()). 

Charlres  is  in  many  respects  the  most,  wonderful 
sanctuary  in  Europe  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
as  it  boasts  of  an  uninterrupted  tradition  from  the 
times  of  the  druids  who  dedicated  there  a  statue 
virgini  parilui-as.  This  wooden  statue  is  said  to  have 
been  still  exist;ing  in  1793,  but  to  liave  been  destroyed 
during  the  Revolution.  Moreover,  to  enhance  the 
sacredness  of  the  place  a  relic  was  preserved,  presented 
by  Charlemagne,  viz.,  the  chemise  or  veil  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.     Whatever  may  be  the  history  or 


PILGRIMAGES 


90 


PILGRIMAGES 


authenticity  of  the  relic  itself,  it  certainly  is  of  great 
antiquity  and  resembles  the  veils  now  worn  by  women 
in  the  East.  A  third  source  of  devotion  is  the  present 
stone  image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  inaugurated  with 
great  pomp  in  1857.  The  pilgrimages  to  this  shrine 
at  Chartres  have  naturally  been  frequent  and  of  long 
continuance.  Amongst  others  who  have  taken  part  in 
these  visits  of  devotion  were  popes,  kings  of  France 
and  England,  saints  like  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  An- 
selm  of  Canterbury,  Thomas  Becket,  Vincent  de  Paul, 
and  Francis  de  Sales,  and  the  hapless  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots.  There  is,  moreover,  an  annual  procession  to  the 
shrine  on  15  March  (Champagnac,  I,  452-60;  North- 
cote,  "Sanct. of  the  Madonna",  London,  1868,  IV,  169- 
77;  Chabarmes,  "Hist,  de  N.-D.  de  Chartres",  Char- 
tres, 1873). 

Chichester,  Sussex,  England,  had  in  its  cathedral  the 
tomb  of  St.  Richard,  its  renowned  bishop.  The 
throng  of  pilgrims  to  this  shrine,  made  famous  by  the 
devotion  of  Edward  I,  was  so  great  that  the  body  was 
dismembered  so  as  to  make  three  separate  stations. 
Even  then,  in  1478, 
Bishop  Storey  had  to 
draw  up  stringent 
rules  so  that  the 
crowd  should  ap- 
proach in  a  more 
seemly  manner.  Each 
parish  was  to  enter 
at  the  west  door  in 
the  prescribed  order, 
of  which  notice  had 
to  be  given  by  the 
parish  priests  in  their 
churches  on  the  Sun- 
day preceding  the 
feast.  Besides 3  April, 
another  pilgrimage 
was  made  on  W'hit- 
Sunday  (Wall,  126- 
31). 

Cologne,  Rhenish 
Germany,  as  a  city 
of  pilgrimage  centres 
round  the  shrine  of 
the  Three  Kings.  The 
relics  are  reputed  to  have  been  brought  by  St.  Helena 
to  Constantinople,  to  have  been  transferred  thence  to 
Milan,  and  evidently  in  the  twelfth  century  to  have 
been  carried  in  triumph  by  Frederick  Barbarossa  to 
Cologne.  The  present  chdsse  is  considered  the  most 
rernarkable  example  extant  of  the  medieval  gold- 
smith's art.  Though  of  old  reckoned  as  one  of  the 
four  greater  pilgrimages,  it  seems  to  have  lost  the 
power  of  attracting  huge  crowds  out  of  devotion; 
though  many,  no  doubt,  are  drawn  to  it  by  its  splen- 
dour (Champagnac,  I,  482). 

Compostella,  Spain,  has  long  been  famous  as  con- 
taining the  shrine  of  St.  James  the  Greater  (q.  v., 
where  the  authenticity  of  the  relics  etc.  is  discussed 
at  some  length).  In  some  senses  this  was  the  most 
renowned  medieval  pilgrimage;  and  the  custom  of 
those  who  bore  back  with  them  from  Galicia  scallop 
shells  as  proofs  of  their  journey  gradually  extended  to 
every  form  of  pilgrimage.  The  old  feast-day  of  St. 
James  (5  August)  is  still  celebrated  by  the  boys  of 
London  with  their  grottos  of  oyster  shells.  The 
earliest  records  of  visits  paid  to  this  shrine  date  from 
the  eighth  century;  and  even  in  recent  years  the 
custom  has  been  enthusiastically  observed  (cf .  Rymer 
"Fcedera",  London,  1710,  XI,  371,  376,  etc.). 

Concrpciou,  Chile,  has  a  pilgrimage, to  a  shrine  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  that  is  perhaps  unique,  a  rock- 
drawn  figure  of  the  Mother  of  God.  It  was  discovered 
by  a  child  in  the  eighteenth  century  and  was  for  long 
popular  among  the  Chihans. 

Cordova,  Spain,  possesses  a  curious  Madonna  which 


LoHETo — Interior  of  the  Holt  House 


was  originally  venerated  at  Villa  Viciosa  in  Portugal 
Because  of  the  neglect  into  which  it  had  fallen,  a  pious 
shepherd  carried  it  off  to  Cordova,  whence  the  Por- 
tuguese endeavoured  several  times  to  recover  it,  being 
frustrated  each  time  by  a  miraculous  intervention 
(Champagnac,  I,  525). 

Cracow,  Poland,  is  said  to  possess  a  miraculous 
statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  brought  to  it  by  St. 
Hyacinth,  to  which  in  times  past  pilgrimages  were 
often  made  (Acta  SS.,  Aug.,  Ill,  317^1). 

Croyland,  Lincolnshire,  England,  was  the  centre  of 
much  pilgrimage  at  the  shrine  of  St.  Guthlac,  due 
principally  to  the  devotion  of  King  Wiglaf  of  Mercia 
(Wall,  116-8). 

Czenstochowa,  Poland,  is  the  most  famous  of  Polish 
shrines  dedicated  to  the  Mother  of  God,  where  a  pic- 
ture painted  on  cypress-wood  and  attributed  to  St. 
Luke  is  publicly  venerated.  This  is  reputed  to  be  the 
richest  sanctuary  in  the  world.  A  copy  of  the  picture 
has  been  set  up  in  a  chapel  of  St.  Roch's  church  by  the 
Poles  in  Paris  (Champagnac,  I,  540). 

._ D  ownpatrick. 

County  Down,  Ire- 
land, is  the  most 
sacred  city  of  Ireland 
in  that  the  bodies  of 
Ireland's  highest 
saints  were  there  in- 
terred. 

"In  the  town  of 
Down,  buried  in  one 
grave 

Bridget,  Patrick, 
and  the  pious  Co- 
lumba." 

Nothing  need  be  said 
here  about  the  relics 
of  these  saints;  it  is 
sufficient  merely  to 
hint  at  the  pilgrim- 
ages that  made  this 
a  centre  of  devotion 
(Wall,  31-2). 

Drum  lane,  Ire- 
land, was  at  one 
time  celebrated  as 
containing  the  relics  of  S.  Moedoc  in  the  famous  Breac 
Moedoc.  This  shrine  was  in  the  custody  of  the  local 
priest  till  1846,  when  it  was  borrowed  and  sold  to  a 
Dublin  jeweller,  from  whom  in  turn  it  was  bought  by 
Dr.  Petrie.  It  is  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy  (Wall,  80-3). 

Dunfermline,  Fife,  Scotland,  was  the  resort  of 
countless  pilgrims,  for  in  the  abbey  was  the  shrine  of 
St.  Margaret.  She  was  long  regarded  as  the  most 
popular  of  Scottish  saints  and  her  tomb  was  the  most 
revered  in  all  that  kingdom.  Out  of  devotion  to  her, 
Dunfermline  succeeded  lona  as  being  the  burial  place 
of  the  kings  (Wall,  48-50). 

Durham,  England,  possessed  many  relics  which 
drew  to  it  the  devotion  of  many  visitors.  But  its  two 
chief  shrines  were  those  of  St.  Cuthbert  and  St.  Bede. 
The  former  was  enclosed  in  a  gorgeous  reliquary, 
which  was  put  in  its  finished  state  by  John,  Lord 
Nevill  of  Raby,  in  1372.  Some  idea  may  be  had  of 
the  number  of  pilgrims  from  the  amount  put  by  the 
poorer  ones  into  the  money-box  that  stood  close  by. 
The  year  1385-6  yielded  £63  17s.  8d.  which  would  be 
equivalent  in  our  money  to  £1277  13s.  4d.  A  dispute 
rages  round  the  present  relics  of  St.  Cuthbert,  and 
there  is  also  some  uncertainty  about  the  body  of  St. 
Bede  (Wall,  176-207,  110-6). 

Edmundshury,  Suffolk,  England,  sheltered  in  its 
abbey  church  the  shrine  of  St.  Edmund,  king  and 
martyr.  Many  royal  pilgrims  from  King  Canute  to 
Henry  VI  knelt  and  made  offerings  at  the  tomb  of  the 
saint;  and  the  common  people  crowded  there  in  great 


COMPOSTET.A-FAgADE    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    SANTIAGO    (ST.    JAMES) 


PILGRIMAGES 


91 


PILGRIMAGES 


numbers  because  of  the  extraordinary  miracles  worked 
by  the  holy  martyr  (Wall,  216-23;  Mackinlay,  "St. 
Edmund  King  and  Martyr",  London,  1893;  Snead- 
Cox,  "Life  of  Cardinal  Vaughan",  London,  1910,  II, 
287-94). 

Einsiedeln,  Schwyz,  Switzerland,  has  been  a  place 
of  pilgrimage  since  Leo  VIII  in  954.  The  reason  of 
this  devotion  is  a  miraculous  statue  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  brought  by  St.  Meinrad  from  Zurich.  The 
saint  was  murdered  in  861  by  robbers  who  coveted  the 
rich  offerings  which  already  at  that  early  date  were 
left  by  the  pilgrims.  The  principal  days  for  visiting 
the  shrine  are  14  Sept.  and  13  Oct.;  it  is  calculated 
that  the  yearly  number  of  pilgrims  exceeds  150,000. 
Even  Protestants  from  the  surrounding  cantons  are 
known  to  have  joined  the  throng  of  worshippers 
(Northcote,  "Sanctuaries",  122-32). 

Ely,  Cambridgeshire,  England,  was  the  centre  of  a 
pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  St.  Etheldreda.  One  of 
her  hands  is  still  preserved  in  a  shrine  in  the  (pre- 
Reformation)  Catholic  church  dedicated  to  her  in 
London  (Wall,  55-6). 

Ephesus,  Asia  Minor,  is  the  centre  of  two  devotions, 
one  to  the  mythical  Seven  Sleepers,  the  other  to  the 
Mother  of  God,  who  lived  here  some  years  under  the 
care  of  St.  John.  Here  also  it  was  that  the  Divine 
maternity  of  Our  Lady  was  proclaimed,  by  the  Third 
(Ecumenical  Council,  a.  d.  491  ("  Pelerinages  aux 
sanct.  de  la  mferedeDieu",  Paris,  1840, 119-32;  Cham- 
pagnac,  I,  608-19). 

Evreux,  Eure,  France,  has  a  splendid  cathedral 
dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  but  the  pilgrimage  to  it 
dates  only  from  modern  times  (Champagnac,  I,  641). 
Faviers,  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  is  the  centre  of  a 
pilgrimage  to  the  church  of  St.  Sulpice,  where  there 
are  relics  of  the  saint.  St.  Louis  IX  paid  his  homage 
at  the  shrine;  and  even  now,  from  each  parish  of  St. 
Sulpice  (a  common  dedication  among  French  churches) 
deputies  come  here  annually  on  pilgrimage  for  the 
three  Sundays  following  the  feast  which  occurs  on  27 
August  (Champagnac,  I,  646-7). 

Garaison,  Tarbes,  France,  was  the  scene  of  an  ap- 
parition of  Our  Lady  to  a  shepherdess  of  twelve  years 
old,  Aglese  de  Sagasan,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  sanctuary  was  dedicated  afresh  after  the  Revolu- 
tion and  is  once  more  thronged  with  pilgrims.  The 
chief  festival  is  celebrated  on  8  September  (Cham- 
pagnac, I,  95-9). 

Genezzano,  Italy,  contains  the  miraculous  picture 
of  Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel  which  is  said  to  have 
been  translated  from  Albania.  It  has,  since  its  arrival 
25  April,  1467,  been  visited  by  popes,  cardinals,  kings, 
and  by  countless  throngs  of  pilgrims;  and  devotion  to 
the  shrine  steadily  increases  (Northcote,  "Sanctua- 
ries", 15-24). 

Glastonbury,  Somerset,  England,  has  been  a  holy 
place  for  many  centuries  and  round  it  cluster  legends 
and  memories,  such  as  no  other  shrine  in  England  can 
boast.  The  Apostles,  St.  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  Sts. 
Patrick  and  David,  and  King  Arthur  begin  the  aston- 
ishing cycle  which  is  continued  by  names  like  St. 
Dunstan,  etc.  The  curious  thorn  which  blossomed 
twice  yearly,  in  May  and  at  Christmastide,  also 
proved  an  attraction  for  pilgrims,  though  the  story  of 
its  miraculous  origin  does  not  seem  to  go  back  much 
before  the  sixteenth  century.  A  proof  of  the  devotion 
which  the  abbey  inspired  is  seen  in  the  "Pilgrim's 
Inn,"  a  building  of  late  fifteenth  century  work  in  the 
Perpendicular  style  yet  standing  in  the  town  (Marson, 
"Glastonbury.  TheEnglish  Jerusalem",  Bath,  1909). 
Grace,  Lot-et-Garonne,  France,  used  to  be  the  seat 
of  an  ancient  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  which  en- 
tered the  town  in  a  miraculous  fashion.  It  was  en- 
shrined in  a  little  chapel  perched  on  the  bridge  that 
spans  the  river  Lot.  Hence  its  old  name,  Nostro  Damo 
del  cap  del  Fount.  Even  now  some  pilgrimages  are 
made  to  the  restored  shrine  (Champagnac,  I,  702-5). 


Grottaferrata,  Campagna,  Italy,  a  famous  monas- 
tery of  the  Greek  Rite,  takes  its  name  (traditionally) 
from  a  picture  of  the  Madonna  found,  protected  by  a 
grille,  in  a  grotto.  It  is  still  venerated  in  the  abbey 
church  and  is  the  centre  of  a  local  pilgrimage  (Cham- 
pagnac, I,  714-15). 

GuadaluTpe,  Estradamura,  Spain,  is  celebrated  for 
its  wonder-working  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  But 
it  has  been  outshone  by  another  shrine  of  the  same 
name  in  Mexico,  which  has  considerably  gained  in 
importance  as  the  centre  of  pilgrimage.  As  a  sanc- 
tuary the  latter  takes  the  place  of  one  dedicated  to  an 
old  pagan  goddess  who  was  there  worshipped.    The 


GoA — Shrine  of  St.  Francis  Xavier 
Church  of  the  Bom  Jesus 

story  of  the  origin  of  this  shrine  (see  Guadalupe, 
Shrine  of)  is  astonishing. 

Hal,  Belgium,  contains  a  wooden  statue  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  which  is  decorated  with  a  golden  crown. 
It  has  been  described  by  Justus  Lipsius  in  his  "Diva 
Virgo  Hallensis"  ("Omnia  Opera",  Antwerp,  1637, 
III,  687-719) ;  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  it  has  been  fa- 
mous in  all  Europe  and  has  received  gifts  from  many 
noble  pilgrims.  The  monstrance  given  by  Henry  VIII 
was  lent  for  use  during  the  Eucharistic  Congress  in 
London  in  1909.  The  miracles  recorded  are  certainly 
wonderful. 

Holywell,  North  Wales,  still  draws  large  bodies  of 
pilgrims  by  its  wonderful  cures.  It  has  done  so  con- 
tinuously for  over  a  thousand  years,  remaining  the  one 
active  example  of  what  were  once  very  common  (Holy 
Wells.  Chalmers,  "Book  of  Days",  II,  6-8).  The 
well  is  dedicated  to  St.  Winefride  and  is  said  to  mark 
the  spot  of  her  martyrdom  in  634  (Maher,  "Holy- 
well in  1894"  in  "The  Month",  February,  1895, 
153). 

lona,  Scotland,  though  not  properly,  until  recently, 
a  place  of  pilgrimage,  can  hardly  be  omitted  with 
propriety  from  this  list.  The  mention  of  it  is  sufficient 
to  recall  memories  of  its  crowded  tombs  of  kings, 
chieftains,  prelates,  which  witness  to  the  honour  in 
which  is  was  held  as  the  Holy  Island  (Trenholme, 
"Story  of  lona",  Edinburgh^  1909). 

Jerusalem,  Palestine,  was  in  many  ways  the  origin 


PILGRIMAGES 


92 


PILGRIMAGES 


of  all  pilgrimages.  It  is  the  first  spot  to  which  the 
Christian  turned  with  longing  eyes.  The  earliest 
recorded  pilgrimages  go  back  to  the  third  eentiiry  with 
the  mention  of  Bishop  Alexander;  then  in  the  fourth 
century  came  the  great  impulse  given  by  the  Empress 
Helena  who  was  followed  by  the  Bordeaux  Pilgrims 
and  the  "  Peregrinatio  Silvix"  and  others  (cf.  ActaSS., 
June,  III,  17ti;  Sept.,  Ill,  56).  The  action  of  St. 
Jerome  and  his  aristocratic  lady  friends  made  the 
custom  fashionable  and  the  Latin  colony  was  estab- 
lished by  them  which  made  it  continuous  (Gregory  of 
Tours,  "Hist.  Franc",  Palis,  ISSO,  ed.  by  Omont,  II, 
t)S;  \',  ISl;  etc.).  So  too  comes  the  visit  of  Arculf, 
cited  by  St.  Bede  ("Eccl.  Hist.",  V,  xv,  26.3,  ed.  Giles, 
London,  1S47)  from  the  writings  of  Adamnan;  of 
Cad<ic  tlhc  Welsh  bishop  mentioned  below  (cf.  St. 
A/iitrriiw) ;  of  Probus  sent  by  (Gregory  I  to  establish  a 
hos])ice  in  Jerusalem  (.Vcta  SS.,  March,  II,  §  '2;->,  150, 
l.'iSa,  etc.).  There  are  also  the  legendary  accounts  of 
King  Arthur's  pilgrimage,  and  that  of  Charlemagne 
(Paris,  "Romania", 
IS.SO,  1-.50;  l<)n2, 
404,  til6,  61,S).  A  few 
notices  oc(-ur  of  the 
same  custom  in  the 
tenth  century  (Beaz- 
ley,  II,  123),  but 
there  is  a  lull  in 
these  \'isits  to  Jeru- 
salem till  the  ele\- 
enth  century.  Then, 
at  once,  a  new  stream 
begins  to  pour  over 
to  the  East  at  times 
in  small  numbers,  as 
Foulque  of  Nerra  in 
1011,  Meingoz  took 
with  him  only  Simon 
the  Hermit,  and  Vi- 
ne, later  prior  of  Zell, 
was  ai'Comi)anied  by 
one  who  could  chant 
the  psalms  with  him ; 
at  times  also  in  huge  forces  as  in  1026  under  Richard  II 
of  Normandy,  in  1033  a  record  number  (Cilubcr,  Paris, 
lss(i,n',(;,106,  ed.  Prou),in  1035  another  under  Robert 
the  Devil  (ibid.,  128),  and  most  famous  of  all  in  1065 
that  under  Gunther,  Bishop  of  Bamberg,  with  twehx 
thousand  pilgrims  (Lambert  of  Gersfield,  "Mon.Germ. 
Hist.",  Hanover,  1.S44,  V,  169).  This  could  only  lead 
to  the  Crusades  which  stamped  the  Holy  Land  on  the 
memory  and  heart  of  Christendom.  The  number  who 
took  the  Cross  seems  f  abulous(cf .  Giraldus  Cambrensis, 
"Itin.  Cambria;",  II,  xiii,  147,  in  R.  S.,  ed.  Dimock, 
l.StiS);  and  many  who  could  not  go  themselves  left 
instructions  for  their  hearts  to  be  buried  there  (cf. 
Hovenden,  "Annals",  ed.  Stubbs,  1869,  in  R.  S.,  II, 
270;  "Chron.  de  Froissart",  Bouchon,  1853,  Paris, 
1S53,  I,  47;  of.  35-7).  So  eager  were  men  to  take  the 
Cross,  that  some  c\-en  branded  or  cut  its  mark  upon 
them  ("iNIiracula  s.  Thoma;",  by  Abbot  Benedict,  ed. 
Giles,  18(i)  or  "with  a  shar])e  knyfe  he  share,  A  crosse 
upon  his  shoulder  bare"  ("Svr  Isenbras"  in  LTtterson, 
"Early  Pop.  Poetry",  London,  1817,  I,  83).  From 
the  twelfth  century  onwarils  the  flow  is  uninterrupted, 
Russians  (Beazley,  II,  156),  Northerners  (II,  174), 
.lews  (218-74),  etc.  And  the  end  is  not  yet  ("Itinera 
hienisolymitana  sa'culi  IV-\'1II",  ed.  Gever  in  the 
"Corp.  script.  (>(■<■!.  iat.",  :;'.),  MeTuia,,  1S9S;'  Palestine 
Pilg.  Text  Soe.,  London,  lNS4sqq.;  "Deutsche  Pil- 
gerreisen  iiach  deiri  heiligen  Lande",  II,  Innsl)ruck, 
1900,  etc.;  Brehier,  "L'eglisc  et  I'Oricut  au  moyen- 
age",  Paris,  1(107,  10-15,  42-50). 

Kaniaer,  Guelders,  is  u,  daughter-shrine  to  the 
Madonna  of  Luxemburg,  a  copy  of  which  was  here 
enshrined  in  1642  and  continues  to  attract  pilgrims 
(Champagnac,  I,  875). 


Mariazell — Corpus  Christi  Procession,  1897 


La  Qurrcin,  Viterbo,  Italy,  is  celebrated  for  its 
quaint  shrine,  ^\'ithin  the  walls  of  a  church  built  by 
Bramante  is  a  tabernacle  of  marble  that  enfolds  the 
wonder-working  image,  painted  of  old  by  Batiste 
Juzzante  and  hung  up  for  protection  in  an  oak.  A  part 
of  the  oak  still  survives  within  the  shrine,  which  boasts, 
as  of  old,  its  pilgrims  (Mortier,  "Notre  Dame  de  la 
(Querela",  Florence,  1904). 

La  Salelle,  Dauphiny,  France,  is  one  of  the  places 
where  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  said  to  have  appeared  in 
the  rniddle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  This  is  no  place 
to  discuss  the  authenticity  of  the  apparition.  As  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  it  dates  from  19  Sept.,  1846,  imme- 
diately after  which  crowds  began  to  flock  to  the  shrine. 
The  annual  number  of  visitors  is  computed  to  be  about 
30,000  (Northcotc,  "Sanctuaries",  178-229). 

La  Sarte,  Huy,  Belgium,  boasts  a  shrine  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  that  dominates  the  surrounding  coun- 
try. Perched  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  past  a  long  avenue  of 
wayside  chapels,  is  the  statue  found  by  chance  in  1621. 

Year  by  year  during 
May  countless  pil- 
grims organized  in 
parishes  climb  the 
steep  ascent  in  in- 
creasing numbers 
(Halflants,  "Hist.de 
N.-D.  de  la  Sarte", 
Huy,  1871). 

Laiis,  Hautes- 
Alpes,  France,  is  one 
of  the  many  seven- 
tee  nth-century 
shrines  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  There  is  the 
familiar  story  of  an 
apparition  to  a  shep- 
herdess with  a  com- 
mand to  found  a 
church.  So  popular 
has  this  shrine  be- 
come that  the  an- 
nual number  of 
pilgrims  is  said  to  be  close  on  80,000.  The  chief 
pilgrimage  times  are  Pentecost  and  throughout  Oc- 
tober (Northcotc,  "Sanctuaries",  146-59). 

Le  Puy,  Haute-Loire,  France,  boasts  the  earliest 
scene  of  any  of  the  Blessed  Virgin's  apparitions.  Its 
legend  begins  about  the  year  50.  After  the  Crusades 
had  commenced,  Puy-Not re-Dame  became  famous  as 
a  sanctuary  of  the  Blessed  \'irgin  throughout  all 
Christendom.  Its  great  bishop,  Adhemar  of  Montheil, 
was  the  first  to  take  the  Cross,  and  he  journej-ed  to 
Jerusalem  with  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  as  legate  of  the 
Holy  See.  The  "Salve  Regina"  is  by  some  attributed 
to  him,  and  was  certainly  often  known  as  the  "Anthem 
of  Puy"  Numberless  French  kings,  princes,  and 
nobles  have  venerated  this  sanctuary;  St.  Louis  IX 
presented  it  with  a  thorn  from  the  Sacred  Crown. 
The  pilgrimages  that  we  read  of  in  connexion  with  this 
shrine  must  have  been  veritable  pageants,  for  the 
ciowds,  even  as  late  as  1853,  exceeded  300,000  in  num- 
ber (Northcotc,  "Sanctuaries",  160-9). 

Lichfield,  Staffordshire,  England,  is  one  of  the  places 
of  pilgrimage  which  has  ceased  to  be  a  centre  of  devo- 
tion; for  the  relics  of  SI,.  Chad,  cast  out  of  their  tomb 
by  Protestant  fanaticism,  have  now  found  a  home  in 
a  Catholic  church  (the  Birmingham  cathedral),  and 
it  is  to  the  new  shrine  that  the  i)ilgrims  turn  (Wall, 
97-102). 

L/c.s.sv,  Picardy,  France,  was  before  the  rise  of 
Lourdes  the  most  famous  centre  in  France  of  pilgrim- 
age to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  date  of  its  foundation 
is  pushed  back  to  the  twelfth  century  and  the  quaint 
story  of  its  origin  connects  it  with  Christian  captives 
during  the  Crusades.  Its  catalogue  of  pilgrims  reads 
like  an  "Almanach  de  Gotha";   but  the  numberless 


PILGRIMAGES 


93 


PILGRIMAGES 


unnamed  pilgrims  testify  even  more  to  its  popularity. 
It  is  still  held  in  honour  (Champagnac,  I,  918-22). 

Lincoln,  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  its  splendid  ca- 
thedral guarded  the  relics  of  its  bishop,  St.  Hugh.  At 
the  entombment  in  1200,  two  kings  and  sixteen  bishops, 
at  the  translation  in  1280,  one  king,  two  qui'ens,  and 
many  prelates  took  part.  The  inflow  of  pilgrims  was 
enormous  every  year  till  the  great  spoliation  under 
Henry  VIII  (Wall,  130-40). 

Loges,  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  was  a  place  much  fre- 
quented by  pilgrims  beeauHO  of  the  shrine  of  St. 
Fiacre,  an  Irish  solitary.  In  1615  it  bc>came,  after  a 
lapse  of  some  three  centuries,  once  more  popular,  for 
Louis  XIII  paid  several  visits  there.  Among  other 
famous  worshippers  were  James  II  and  his  queen  from 
their  place  of  exile  at  St. -Germain.  The  chief  day  of 
pilgrimage  was  the  feast  of  St.  St(>plien,  ijrotomartyr 
(26  December).  It  was  suppressed  in  1744;  (Champa- 
gnac, I,  934-.5). 

Loreto,  Ancona,  Italy,  owing  to  the  ridicule  of  one 
half  of  the  world  and  the  devotion  of  the  other  half,  is 
too  well-known  to  need  more  than  a  few  words.  Nor 
is  the  authenticity  of  the  shrine  to  be  here  at  all  dis- 
cussed. As  a  place  of  pilgrimage  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
note  that  Dr.  Stanley,  an  eyewitness,  pronounced  it  to 
be  "undoubtedly  the  most  frequented  shrine  in  Chris- 
tendom" (Northcote,  "Sanctuaries",  65-106;  Dolan 
in  "The  Month",  August,  1894,  545;  cf.  ibid.,  Febru- 
ary, 1867,  178-83). 

Lourdes,  Pyrenees,  France,  as  a  centre  of  pilgrimage 
is  without  a  rival  in  popularity  throughout  the  world. 
A  few  statistics  are  all  that  shall  be  recorded  here. 
From  1867  to  1903  inclusively  4271  pilgrimages 
passed  to  Lourdes  numbering  some  387,000  pilgrims; 
the  last  seven  years  of  this  period  average  150  pilgrim- 
ages annually.  Again  within  thirty-six  years  (1868  to 
1904)  1643  bishops  (including  63  cardinals)  have  vis- 
ited the  grotto;  and  the  Southern  Railway  Company 
reckon  that  Lourdes  station  receives  over  a  million 
travellers  every  year  (Bertrin,  "Lourdes",  tr.  Gibbs, 
London,  1908;  "The  Month",  October,  1905,  359; 
February,  1907,  124). 

Luxemhurg  possesses  a  shrine  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
under  the  title  of  "Consoler  of  the  Afflicted".  It  was 
erected  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  and  has  become  much 
frequented  by  pious  pilgrims  from  all  the  country 
round.  The  patronal  feast  is  the  first  Sunday  of  July, 
and  on  that  day  and  the  succeeding  octave  the  chapel 
is  crowded.  Whole  villages  move  up,  headed  by  their 
parish  priests;  and  the  number  of  the  faithful  who 
frequent  the  sacraments  here  is  sufficient  justification 
for  the  numerous  indulgences  with  which  this  sanc- 
tuary is  enriched  (Champagnac,  I,  985-95). 

Lyons,  Rhone,  France,  boasts  a  well-known  pilgrim- 
age to  Notre-Dame-de-Fourvieres.  This  shrine  is 
supposed  to  have  taken  the  place  of  a  statue  of  Mer- 
cury in  the  forum  of  Old  Lugdunum.  But  the  earliest 
chapel  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  Calvinists  in  the 
sixteenth  century  and  again  during  the  Revolution. 
The  present  structure  dates  from  the  reinauguration 
by  Pius  VII  in  person,  19  April,  1805.  It  is  well  to 
remember  that  Lyons  was  ruled  by  St.  Irenaeus  who 
was  famed  for  his  devotion  to  the  Mother  of  God 
(Champagnac,  I,  997-1014). 

Malacca,  Malay  Peninsula,  was  once  possessed  of  a 
shrine  set  up  by  St.  Francis  Xavier,  dedicated  under 
the  title  Our  Lady  of  the  Mount.  It  was  for  some 
years  after  his  death  (and  he  was  buried  in  this  chapel, 
before  the  translation  of  his  relics  to  Goa,  cf.  "The 
Tablet",  31  Dec,  1910,  p.  1055),  a  centre  of  pilgrim- 
age. When  Malacca  passed  from  Portuguese  to  Dutch 
rule,  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  was  forbidden, 
and  the  sanctuary  became  a  ruin  (Champagnac,  I, 
102.3-5). 

Mantua,  Lombardy,  Italy,  has  outside  the  city 
walls  a  beautiful  church,  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie,  dedi- 
cated by  the  noble  house  of  Gonzaga  to  the  Mother  of 


God.  It  enshrines  a  picture  of  the  Madonna  painted 
on  wood  and  attributed  to  St.  Luke.  Pius  II,  Charles 
V,  the  Constable  of  Bourbon  are  among  the  many 
pilgrims  who  have  visited  this  sanctuary.  The  chief 
season  of  pilgrimage  is  about  the  feast  of  the  Assump- 
tion (15  August),  when  it  is  computed  that  over  one 
hundred  thousand  faithful  have  some  years  attended 
file  devotions  (Champagnac,  I,  1042). 

MariuSlein,  near  Basle,  Switzerland,  is  the  centre 
of  a  pilgrimage.  An  old  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
no  doubt  the  treasure  of  some  unknown  hermit,  is 
famed  for  its  miracles.  To  it  is  attached  a  Benedictine 
monastery — a  daughter-house  to  Einsiedeln  (Cham- 
pagnac, I,  1044). 

Mariazell,  Styria,  a  quaint  village,  superbly  situated 
but  badly  built,  possesses  a  tenth-century  statue  of 
the  Madonna.  To  it  have  come  almost  all  the  Habs- 
burgs  on  pilgrimage,  and  Maria  Theresa  left  there, 
after  her  visit,  medallions  of  her  husband  and  her 
children.  From  all  the  country  round,  from  Carinthia, 
Bohemia,  and  the  Tyrol,  the  faithful  flock  to  the  shrine 
during  June  and  July.  The  Government  used  to  de- 
cree the  day  on  which  the  pilgrims  from  Vienna  were 
to  meet  in  the  capital  at  the  old  Cathedral  of  SI,. 
Stephen  and  set  out  in  ordered  bands  for  their  four 
days'  pilgrimage  (Champagnac,  I,  1045-7). 

Marseilles,  France,  as  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  has 
a  noble  shrine,  Notre-Dame-de-la-Garde.  Its  chapel, 
on  a  hill  beyond  the  city,  dominates  the  neighbourhood, 
where  is  the  statue,  made  by  Channel  in  1836  to  take 
the  place  of  an  older  one  destroyed  during  the  Revolu- 
tion (Champagnac,  I,  1055). 

Mauriac,  Cantal,  France,  is  visited  because  of  the 
thirteenth-century  shrine  dedicated  to  Notre-Dame- 
des-Miracles.  The  statue  is  of  wood,  quite  black. 
The  pilgrimage  day  is  annually  celebrated  on  9  May 
(Champagnac,  I,  1062). 

Messina,  Sicily,  the  luckless  city  of  earthquake,  has 
a  celebrated  shrine  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  It  was 
peculiar  among  all  shrines  in  that  it  was  supposed  to 
contain  a  letter  written  or  rather  dictated  by  the 
Mother  of  God,  congratulating  the  people  of  Messina 
on  their  conversion  to  Christianity.  During  the 
destruction  of  the  city  in  1908,  the  picture  was 
crushed  in  the  fallen  cathedral  (Thurston  in  "The 
Tablet",  23  Jan.,  1909,  123-5). 

Montaigu,  Belgium,  is  perhaps  the  most  celebrated 
of  Belgian  shrines  raised  to  the  honour  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  All  the  year  round  pilgrimages'  are  made  to 
the  statue;  and  the  number  of  offerings  day  by  day 
is  extraordinary. 

Monlmartre,  Seine,  France,  has  been  for  centuries  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  as  a  shrine  of  the  Mother  of  God. 
St.  Ignatius  came  here  with  his  first  nine  companions 
to  receive  their  vows  on  15  Aug.,  1534.  But  it  is 
famous  now  rather  as  the  centre  of  devotion  to  the 
Sacred  Heart,  since  the  erection  of  the  National 
Basilica  there  after  the  war  of  1870  (Champagnac,  I, 
1125-46). 

Montpellier,  Herault,  France,  used  to  possess  a 
famous  statue  of  black  wood — Notre-Dame-des- 
Tables.  Hidden  for  long  within  a  silver  statue  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  life-size,  it  was  screened  from  public 
view,  till  it  was  stolen  by  the  Calvinists  and  has  since 
disappeared  from  history.  From  1189  the  feast  of 
the  Miracles  of  Mary  was  celebrated  with  special 
Office  at  Montpelfier  on  1  Sept.,  and  throughout  an 
octave  (Champagnac,  I,  1147). 

Mont  Si-Michel,  Normandy,  is  the  quaintest,  most 
beautiful,  and  interesting  of  shrines.  For  long  it  was 
the  centre  of  a  famous  pilgrimage  to  the  great  arch- 
angel, whose  power  in  times  of  war  and  distress  was 
earnestly  implored.  Even  to-day  a  few  bands  of 
peasants,  and  here  and  there  a  devout  i^ilgrim,  come 
amid  the  crowds  of  visitors  to  honour  St.  Michael  as 
of  old  (Champagnac,  I,  1151). 

Montserrat,  Spain,  lifts  itself  above  the  surrounding 


PILGRIMAGES 


94 


PILGRIMAGES 


country  in  the  same  way  as  it  towers  above  other 
Spanish  centres  of  pilgrimage  to  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
Its  existence  can  be  traced  to  the  tenth  century,  but 
it  was  not  a  centre  of  much  devotion  till  the  thir- 
teenth. The  present  church  was  only  consecrated  on 
2  Feb.,  1562.  It  is  still  much  sought  after  in  pilgrim- 
age (Champagnac,  I,  1152-73). 

Naples,  Italy,  is  a  city  which  has  been  for  many 
centuries  and  for  many  reasons  a  centre  of  pilgrimage. 
Two  famous  shrines  there  are  the  Madonna  del 
Carmine  and  Santa  Maria  della  Grotta  (Northcote, 
"Sanctuaries",  107-21;  see  also  Januarius,  Saint). 

Oostacker,  Ghent,  Belgium,  is  one  of  the  famous 
daughter-shrines  of  Lourdes.  Built  in  imitation  of 
that  sanctuary  and  having  some  of  the  Lourdes  water 
in  the  pool  of  the  grotto,  it  has  almost  rivalled  its 
parent  in  the  frequency  of  its  cures.  Its  inauguration 
began  with  a  body  of  2000  pilgrims,  29  July,  1875, 
since  which  time  there  has  been  a  continuous  stream 
of  devout  visitors.  One  has  only  to  walk  out  there 
from  Ghent  on  an  ordinary  afternoon  to  see  many 
worshippers,  men,  women,  whole  parishes  with  their 
cures,  etc.  kneeling  before  the  shrine  or  chanting 
before  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  the  church  (Scheer- 
linck,  "Lourdes  en  Flandre",  Ghent,  1876). 

Oxford,  England,  contained  one  of  the  premier 
shrines  of  Britain,  that  of  St.  Frideswide.  Certainly 
her  relics  were  worthy  of  grateful  veneration,  espe- 
cially to  Oxford  dwellers,  for  it  is  to  her  that  the  city 
and  university  alike  appear  to  owe  their  existence. 
Her  tomb  (since  restored  at  great  pains,  1890)  was 
the  resort  of  many  pilgrims.  Few  English  kings  cared 
to  enter  Oxford  at  all;  but  the  whole  university,  twice 
a  year,  i.  e.  mid-Lent  and  Ascension  Day,  headed  by 
the  chancellor,  came  in  solemn  procession  to  offer 
their  gifts.  The  Cathohcs  of  the  city  have  of  late 
years  reorganized  the  pilgrimage  on  the  saint's  feast- 
day,  19  Oct.  (Wall,  63-71). 

Padua,  Italy,  is  the  centre  of  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
relics  of  St.  Anthony.  In  a  vast  choir  behind  the  sanc- 
tuary of  the  church  that  bears  his  name  is  the  treasury 
of  at.  Anthony;  but  his  body  reposes  under  the  high 
altar.  Devotion  to  this  saint  has  increased  so  enor- 
mously of  late  years  that  no  special  days  seem  set 
apart  for  pilgrimages.  They  proceed  continuously  all 
the  year  round  (CWrance,  "St.  Anthony  of  Padua", 
tr.  London,  1900). 

Pennant  Melangell,  Montgomery,  Wales,  to  judge 
from  the  sculptured  fragments  of  stone  built  into  the 
walls  of  the  church  and  lych  gate,  was  evidently  a 
place  of  note,  where  a  shrine  was  built  to  St.  Mel- 
angell, a  noble  Irish  maiden.  The  whole  structure  as 
restored  stands  over  eight  feet  high  and  originally 
stood  in  the  Cell-y-Bedd,  or  Cell  of  the  Grave,  and 
was  clearly  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  (Wall,  48). 

Pontigny,  Yvonne,  France,  was  for  many  centuries 
a  place  of  pilgrimage  as  containing  the  shrine  of  St. 
Edmund  of  Canterbury.  Special  facilities  were  al- 
lowed by  the  French  king  for  Enghsh  pilgrims.  The 
Huguenots  despoiled  the  shrine,  but  the  relics  were 
saved  to  be  set  up  again  in  a  massive  chasse  of  eigh- 
teenth-century workmanship.  In  spite  of  the  troubles 
in  France  the  body  remains  in  its  old  position,  and  is 
even  carefully  protected  by  the  Government  (Wall, 
171-5). 

Puche,  Valencia,  Spaip,  is  the  great  Spanish  sanc- 
tuary dedicated  to  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  in  honour  of 
whom  the  famous  Order  of  Mercy  came  into  being 
through  Spanish  saints.  The  day  of  pilgrimage  was 
the  feast  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  24  Sept.  (Chamna- 
gnac,  II,  488-92). 

Rocamadour,  Lot,  France,  was  the  centre  of  much 
devotion  as  a  shrine  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  Amongst 
its  pilgrims  may  be  named  St.  Dominic;  and  the 
heavy  mass  of  iron  hanging  outside  the  chapel  wit- 
nesses to  the  legendary  pilgrimage  of  Roland,  whose 
good  sword  Durendal  was  deposited  there  till  it  was 


stolen  with  the  other  treasures  by  Henry  II's  turbulent 
eldest  son,  Henry  Court  Mantel  (Drane  "Hist  of 
St.  Dominic",  London,  1891,302-10;  Laporte,  "Guide 
du  pelerin  £l  Rocamadour",  Rocamadour,  1862). 

Rocheville,  Toulouse,  France. — The  legend  of  its 
origin  fixes  the  date  of  its  apparition  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  as  1315.  Long  famous,  then  long  neglected,  it 
has  once  more  been  restored.  During  the  octave' of 
the  Nativity  of  Our  Lady  (8-15  Sept.)  it  is  visited  by 
quite  a  large  body  of  devout  pilgrims  (Champagnac 
II,  101).  t-  e,      . 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  contains  a  sanctuary  dedi- 
cated to  Our  Lady  of  Travel.  This  statue  is  in  a 
convent  of  nuns  situated  just  outside  the  city,  on 
the  east  of  the  bay.  It  is  devoutly  venerated  by  the 
pious  people  of  Brazil,  who  invoke  the  protection  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  on  their  journeys  (Champagnac, 
II,  517-8). 

Rome,  Italy,  has  had  almost  as  much  influence  on 
the  rise  of  Christian  pilgrimages  as  the  Holy  Land. 
The  sacred  city  of  the  Christian  world,  where  lay  thn 
bodies  of  the  twin  prince  Apostles,  attracted  the  love 
of  every  pious  Christian.  We  have  quoted  the  words 
of  St.  Chrysostom  who  yearned  to  see  the  rehcs  of  St. 
Paul;  and  his  desire  has  been  expressed  in  action  in 
every  age  of  Christian  time.  The  early  records  of 
every  nation  (of  the  histories  of  Eusebius,  Zosimus, 
Socrates,  Bede,  etc.  passim)  give  name  after  name  of 
bishop,  king,  noble,  priest,  layman  who  have  jour- 
neyed to  visit  as  pilgrims  the  limina  Apostolorum. 
Full  to  repletion  as  the  city  is  with  relics  of  Christian 
holiness,  the  "rock  on  which  the  Church  is  built"  has 
been  the  chief  attraction;  and  Bramante  has  well 
made  it  the  centre  of  his  immortal  temple.  Thus  St. 
Marcius  came  with  his  wife  Martha  and  his  two  sons 
all  the  way  from  Persia  in  269;  St.  Paternus  from 
Alexandria  in  253;  St.  Maurus  from  Africa  in  284. 
Again  Sts.  Constantino  and  Victorian  on  their  arrival 
at  Rome  went  straight  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter,  where 
soldiers  caught  them  and  put  them  to  death.  So  also 
St.  Zoe  was  found  praying  at  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter  and 
martyred.  Even  then  in  these  early  days  the  practice 
of  pilgrimages  was  in  full  force,  so  that  the  danger  of 
death  did  not  deter  men  from  it  (Barnes,  "St.  Peter  in 
Rome",  London,  1900,  146).  Then  to  overleap  the 
centuries  we  find  records  of  the  Saxon  and  Danish 
kings  of  England  trooping  Romewards,  so  that  the 
very  name  of  Rome  has  become  a  verb  to  express  the 
idea  of  wandering  (Low  Lat.,  romerus;  Old  Fr., 
romieu;  Sp.,  romero;  Port.,  romeiro;  A.  S.,  romaign; 
M.  E.,  romen;  Modern,  roam).  And  of  the  Irish, 
the  same  uninterrupted  custom  has  held  good  till  our 
own  day  (Ulster  ArchEeolog.  Jour.,  VII,  238-42).  Of 
the  other  nations  there  is  no  need  to  speak. 

It  is  curious,  however,  to  note  that  though  the  chief 
shrine  of  Rome  was  undoubtedly  the  tomb  of  the 
Apostles — to  judge  from  all  the  extant  records — yet 
the  pilgrim  sign  (see  below)  which  most  commonly  be- 
tokened a  palmer  from  Rome  was  the  "vernicle"  or 
reproduction  of  St.  Veronica's  veil.  Thus  Chaucer 
(Bell's  edition,  London,  1861,  105)  describes  the 
pardoner : — 

"That  strait  was  comen  from  the  Court  of  Rome 
A  vernicle  had  he  served  upon  his  cappe" 
However,  there  was  besides  a  medal  with  a  reproduc- 
tion of  the  heads  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  and  another 
with  the  crossed  keys.  These  pilgrimages  to  Rome,  of 
which  only  a  few  early  instances  have  been  given,  have 
increased  of  late  years,  for  the  prisoner  of  the  Vatican, 
who  cannot  go  out  to  his  children,  has  beconj*,  since 
1870,  identified  with  the  City  of  the  Seven  Hills  in  a 
way  that  before  was  never  for  long  experienced.  Hence 
the  pope  is  looked  upon  as  embodying  in  his  person 
the  whole  essence  of  Rome,  so  that  to-day  it  is  the 
pope  who  is  the  living  tomb  of  St.  Peter.  AH  this  has 
helped  to  increase  the  devotion  and  love  of  the  Cath- 
olic world  for  its  central  city  and  has  enormously 


PILGRIMAGES  95 

multiplied  the  annual  number  of  pilgrims.  Within 
the  city  itself,  mention  must  just  be  made  of  the  cele- 
brated pilgrimage  to  the  seven  churches,  a  devotion 
so  dear  to  the  heart  of  St.  Philip  (Capecelatro,  "Life 
of  St.  Philip",  tr.  Pope,  London,  1894,  I,  106,  238, 
etc.).  His  name  recalls  the  great  work  he  did  for  the 
pilgrims  who  came  to  Rome.  He  established  his  Con- 
gregation of  the  Trinitd,  dei  Pellegrini  (ibid.,  1, 138-54), 
the  whole  work  of  which  was  to  care  for  and  look  after 
the  thronging  crowds  who  came  every  year,  more  espe- 
cially in  the  years  of  jubilee.  Of  course,  many  such 
hospices  already  existed.  The  English  College  had 
originally  been  a  home  for  Saxon  pilgrims;  and  there 
were  and  are  many  others.  But  St.  Philip  gave  the 
movement  a  new  impetus. 

St.  Albans,  Hertford,  England,  was  famous  over 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages.  This  is  the  more  curious 
as  the  sainted  martyr  was  no  priest  or  monk,  but  a 
simple  layman.  The  number  of  royal  pilgrims  prac- 
tically includes  the  whole  list  of  English  kings  and 
queens,  but  especially  devoted  to  the  shrine  were 
Henry  HI,  Edward  I,  Edward  II,  Richard  II.  During 
the  last  century  the  broken  pieces  of  the  demolished 
shrine  (to  the  number  of  two  thousand  fragments) 
were  patiently  fitted  together,  and  now  enable  the 
present  generation  to  picture  the  beauty  it  presented 
to  the  pilgrims  who  thronged  around  it  (Wall,  II, 
35-43). 

St.  Ayidrews,  Fife,  Scotland. — Though  more  cele- 
brated as  a  royal  burgh  and  as  the  seat  of  Scotland's 
most  ancient  university,  its  earher  renown  came  to  it 
as  a  centre  of  pilgrimage.  Even  as  far  back  as  the 
year  500  we  find  a  notice  of  the  pilgrimages  made  by 
the  Welsh  bishop,  Cadoc.  He  went  seven  times  to 
Rome,  thrice  to  Jerusalem,  and  once  to  St.  Andrews 
(Acta  SS.,  Jan.,  Ill,  219). 

>S(.  David's,  Pembrokeshire,  Wales,  was  so  cele- 
brated a  place  of  pilgrimage  that  Wilham  I  went  there 
immediately  after  the  conquest  of  England.  The  im- 
portance of  this  shrine  and  the  reverence  in  which  the 
relics  of  St.  David  were  held  may  be  gathered  from 
the  papal  Decree  that  two  pilgrimages  here  were  equal 
to  one  to  Rome  (Wall,  91-5). 

<Sie  Anne  d'Auray,  Vannes,  Brittany,  a  centre  of 
pilgrimage  in  one  of  the  holiest  cities  of  the  Bretons, 
celebrated  for  its  pardons  in  honour  of  St.  Anne.  The 
principal  pilgrimages  take  place  at  Pentecost  and  on 
26  July. 

Ste  Anne  de  Beaupre,  Quebec,  Canada,  has  be- 
come the  most  popular  centre  of  pilgrimage  in  all 
Canada  within  quite  recent  years.  A  review,  or  pious 
magazine,  "Les  Annales  de  la  Bonne  S.  Anne",  has 
been  founded  to  increase  the  devotion  of  the  people; 
and  the  zeal  of  the  Canadian  clergy  has  been  displayed 
in  organizing  parochial  pilgrimages  to  the  shrine. 
The  Eucharistic  Congress,  held  at  Montreal  in  1910, 
also  did  a  great  deal  to  spread  abroad  the  fame  of 
this  sanctuary. 

Sainte-Baume. — S.  Maximin,  Toulouse,  France,  is 
the  centre  of  a  famous  pilgrimage  to  the  supposed 
relics  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene.  The  historical  evidence 
against  the  authentication  of  the  tombs  is  extraordi- 
narily strong  and  has  not  been  really  seriously  answered. 
The  pilgrimages,  however,  continue;  and  devout 
worshippers  visit  the  shrine,  if  not  of,  at  least,  dedi- 
cated to,  St.  Mary  Magdalene.  The  arguments 
against  the  tradition  have  been  marshalled  and  fully 
set  out  by  Mgr  Duchesne  ("Fastes  ^piscopaux  de 
I'ancienne  Gaul",  Paris,  1894-1900)  and  appeared 
in  English  form  in  "The  Tablet",  XCVI  (1900),  88, 
282,  323,  365,  403,  444. 

<S/.  Patrick's  Purgatory,  Donegal,  Ireland,  has  been 
the  centre  of  a  pilgrimage  from  far  remote  days.  The 
legends  that  describe  its  foundation  are  full  of  Dan- 
tesque  episodes  which  have  won  for  the  shrine  a  place 
in  European  literature.  It  is  noticed  by  the  medieval 
chroniclers,  found  its  way  into  Italian  prose,  was 


PILGRIMAGES 


dramatized  by  Calder6n,  is  referred  to  by  Erasmus, 
and  its  existence  seems  implied  in  the  remark  of  Ham- 
let concerning  the  ghost  from  purgatory:  "Yes  by  St. 
Patrick  but  there  is,  Horatio"  (Act  I,  so.  V).  Though 
suppressed  even  before  the  Reformation,  and  of  course 
during  the  Penal  Times,  it  is  still  extraordinarily  popu- 
lar with  the  Irish  people,  for  whom  it  is  a  real  peni- 
tential exercise.  It  seems  the  only  pilgrimage  of  mod- 
ern times  conducted  like  those  of  the  Middle  Ages 
(Chambers,  "Book  of  Days",  London,  I,  725-8;Leslie 
in  "The  Tablet",  1910). 

Saragassa,  Aragon,  Spain,  is  celebrated  for  its 
famous  shrine  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  under 
the  title  Nuestra  Seiiora  del  Pilar.  Tradition  asserts 
that  the  origin  of  this  statue  goes  back  to  the  time  of 


Padua — Basilica  of  St.  Anthony 

St.  James,  when,  in  the  hfetime  of  the  Mother  of 
God,  it  was  set  up  by  order  of  the  Apostle.  This  was 
approved  by  Callistus  III  in  1456.  It  is  glorious  on 
account  of  the  many  miracles  performed  there,  and  is 
the  most  popular  of  all  the  shrines  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  in  the  Peninsula  and  the  most  thronged  with 
pilgrims  (Acta  SS.,  July,  VII,  880-900). 

Savona,  Genoa,  Italy,  claims  to  possess  the  oldest 
sanctuary  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  all  Italy, 
for  to  it  Constantine  is  said  to  have  gone  on  pilgrim- 
age. The  statue  was  solemnly  crowned  by  Pius  VII, 
not  while  spending  his  five  years  of  captivity  in  the 
city,  but  later,  i.  e.,  on  10  May,  1815,  assisted  by  King 
Victor  Emmanuel  and  the  royal  family  of  Savoy 
(Champagnac,  II,  852-7). 

Teneriffe,  Canary  Islands,  has  a  statue  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  which  tradition  asserts  was  found  by 
the  pagan  inhabitants  and  worshipped  as  some  strange 
deity  for  a  hundred  years  or  so.  For  some  time  after 
the  conversion  of  the  islanders  it  was  a  centre  of  pil- 
grimage (Champagnac,  II,  926-7). 

Toledo,  New  Castile,  Spain,  in  its  gorgeous  cathedral 
enshrines  a  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  a  chapel 
of  jasper,  ornamented  with  magnificent  and  unique 
treasures.  This  centre  of  devotion  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  which  draws  to  it  annually  a  great  number  of 
pilgrims,  is  due  to  the  tradition  of  the  apparition  to 
St.  Ildephonsus  (Champagnac,  II,  944-6). 

Tortosa,  Syria,  was  in  the  Middle  Ages  famous  for  a 


PILGRIMAGES 


96 


PILGRIMAGES 


shrine  of  the  Blfssed  Virgin,  which  claimed  to  be  the 
most  ancient  in  Christendom.  There  is  a  quaint  story 
about  a  miracle  there  told  by  Joinville  who  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  the  shrine,  when  he  accompanied  St. 
Louis  to  the  East  (Champagnac,  II,  951). 

T(i«;-.s,  Indre-ct-Loire,  France,  has  long  been  cele- 
brated for  the  tomb  i>f  St.  Martin,  to  which  countless 
pilgrims  journeyed  before  the  Rc\'olution  (Goldie  in 
"The  ]Month",'Nov.,  1880,  331). 

Trier,  Rhenish  Prussia,  has  boasted  for  fifteen  cen- 
turies of  the  possession  of  the  Holy  Coat.  This  relic, 
brought  back  by  St.  Helena  from  the  Holy  Land,  has 
been  the  centre  of  pilgrimage  since  that  date.  It  has 
been  several  times  exposed  to  the  faithful  and  each 
time  has  drawn  countless  pilgrims  to  its  veneration. 
In  1.512  the  custom  of  an  exposition  taking  place  every 
seven  years  was  begun,  but  it  has  been  often  inter- 
rupted. The  last  occasion  on  which  the  Holy  Coat 
was  exhibited  for  public  veneration  was  in  1891,  when 
1,9(10,000  of  the  faithful  in  a  continual  stream  passed 
before  the  relic  (Clarke,  "A  Pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Coa.t  of  Treves",  London,  1892). 

Turin,  Piedmont,  Italy,  is  well  known  for  its 
extraordinary  relic  of  the  Holy  "Winding-Sheet  or 
Shroud.  Whatever  may  be  said  against  its  authen- 
ticity, it  is  an  astonishing  relic,  for  the  impression 
which  it  bears  in  negative  of  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ 
could  with  difficulty  have  been  added  by  art.  The 
face  thereon  impressed  agrees  remarkably  with  the 
traditional  portraits  of  Christ.  Naturally  the  exposi- 
tions of  the  sacred  relic  are  the  occasions  of  numerous 
pilgrimages  (Thurston  in  "The  Month",  January, 
1903,  17;   February,  162). 

Valloinhrosa,  Tuscany,  Italy,  has  become  a  place 
of  pilgrimage,  even  though  the  abbey  no  longer  con- 
tains its  severe  and  picturesque  throng  of  monks.  Its 
romantic  site  has  made  it  a  ceaseless  attraction  to 
minds  like  those  of  Dante,  Ariosto,  Milton,  etc. ;  and 
Ben  venuto  Cellini  tells  us  that  he  too  made  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  shrine  of  the  Blessed  A'irgin  there  to  thank  her 
for  the  many  beautiful  works  of  art  he  had  composed; 
and  as  he  went  he  sang  and  prayed  (Champagnac, 
II,  1033-7). 

Walsingham,  Norfolk,  England,  contained  England's 
greatest  shrine  of  the  Bles.scd  \'irgin.  The  chapel 
dates  from  1061,  almost  from  which  time  onward  it 
was  the  most  frequented  Madonna  sanctuary  in  the 
island,  both  by  foreigners  and  the  English.  Many  of 
the  English  kings  went  to  it  on  pilgrimage;  and  the 
destruction  of  it  weighed  most  heavily  of  all  his  mis- 
deeds on  the  conscience  of  the  dying  Henry  VIII. 
Erasmus  in  his  "Religious  Pilgrimage"  ("Colloquies",' 
London,  1S7S,  II,  1-37)  has  given  a  most  detailed 
account  of  the  shrine,  though  his  satire  on  the  whole 
devotion  is  exceptionally  caustic.  Once  more,  annu- 
ally, pilgrimages  to  the  old  chapel  have  been  revived; 
and  the  pathetic  "Lament  of  W'alsingham"  is  ceasing 
to  be  true  to  actual  facts  ("The  Month",  Sept.,  1901, 
236;  Bridgett,  "Dowry  of  ]\lary",  London,  1875! 
303-9). 

We.slminsler,  London,  England,  contained  one  of  the 
seven  incorrupt  bodies  of  saints  of  England  (Acta  SS., 
Aug.,  I,  276),  i.  e.,  that  of  St.  Edward  the  Confessorj 
the  only  unc  which  yet  remains  in  its  old  shrine  and  is 
still  the  centre  of  pilgrimage.  From  immediately  after 
the  king's  death,  his  tomb  was  carefully  tended,  espe- 
cially by  the  Norman  kings.  At  the  suggestion  of  St. 
Thomas  Becket  a  magnificent  new  shrine  was  pre- 
pared by  Henry  II  in  1163,  and  the  body  of  the  saint 
there  translated  on  13  Oct.  At  once  pilgrims  began  to 
flock  to  the  tomb  for  miracles,  and  to  return  thanks  for 
favours,  as  did  Richard  I,  after  his  c:ipti\-ity  (Radulph 
Coggeshall,  "Chron.  Angl.",  in  R.  S.,  ed.  Stevenson, 
1S75,  63).  So  popular  was  this  last  canonized  Enghsh 
king,  that  on  the  rebuilding  of  the  abbey  by  Henry 
III  St.  Edward's  tomb  really  overshadowed  the  pri- 
mary dedication  to  St.  Peter.    The  pilgrim's  sign  was 


a  kmg  s  head  surmountmg  a  pin.  The  step  on  which 
the  shrine  stands  was  deeply  worn  by  the  kneeling 
pilgrims,  but  it  has  been  relaid  so  that  the  hollows  are 
now  on  the  inner  edge.  Once  more  this  sanctuary,  too 
has  become  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  (Stanley,  "Mem.  of 
Westminster",  London,  1869,  passim;  Wall,  223-35) 
Garb.— In  older  ages,  the  pilgrim  had  a  special  garb 
which  betokened  his  mission.  This  has  been  prac- 
tically omitted  in  modern  times,  except  among  the 
Mohammedans,  with  whom  ihram  still  distinguishes 
the  Hallal  and  Hadj  from  the  rest  of  the  people.  As 
far  as  one  can  discover,  the  dress  of  the  medieval 
pilgrim  consisted  of  a  loose  frock  or  long  smock,  over 
which  was  thrown  a  separate  hood  with  a  cape,  much 
after  the  fashion  of  the  Dominican  and  Servile  habit. 
On  his  head,  he  wore  a  low-crowned,  broad-brimmed 
hat,  such  as  is  familiar  to  us  from  the  armorial  bear- 
ings of  cardinals.  This  was  in  wet  and  windy  weather 
secured  under  his  chin  by  two  strings,  but  strings  of 
such  length  that  when  not  needed  the  hat  could  be 
thrown  off  and  hang  behind  the  back.  Across  his 
breast  passed  a  belt  from  which  was  suspended  his 
wallet,  or  script,  to  contain  his  relics,  food,  money,  and 
what-not.  In  some  illuminations  it  may  be  noted  as 
somehow  attached  to  his  side  (cf .  blessing  infra).  In  one 
hand  he  held  a  staff,  composed  of  two  sticks  swathed 
tightly  together  by  a  withy  band.  Thus  in  the  grave 
of  Bishop  Mayhew  (d.  1516),  which  was  opened  a 
few  years  ago  in  Hereford  cathedral,  there  was  found 
a  stock  of  hazel-wood  between  four  and  five  feet  long 
and  about  the  thickness  of  a  finger.  As  there  were 
oyster  shells  also  buried  in  the  same  grave,  it  seems 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  this  stick  was  the  bishop's 
pilgrim  staff;  but  it  has  been  suggested  recently  that 
it  represents  a  crosier  of  a  rough  kind  used  for  the 
burial  of  prelates  (Cox  and  Harvey,  "Church  Furni- 
ture", London,  1907,  55).  Occasionally  these  staves 
were  put  to  uses  other  than  those  for  which  they  were 
intended.  Thus  on  St.  Richard's  day,  3  April,  1487, 
Bishop  Storey  of  Chichester  had  to  make  stringent 
regulations,  for  there  was  such  a  throng  of  pilgrims 
to  reach  the  tomb  of  the  saint  that  the  struggles  for 
precedence  led  to  blows  and  the  free  use  of  the  staves 
on  each  other's  heads.  In  one  case  a  death  had  re- 
sulted. To  prevent  a  recurrence  of  this  disorder,  ban- 
ners and  crosses  only  were  to  be  carried  (Wall,  128). 
Some,  too,  had  bells  in  their  hands  or  other  instruments 
of  music :  ' '  some  others  pilgrimes  will  have  with  them 
baggepipes;  so  that  everie  towne  that  they  came 
through,  what  with  the  noice  of  their  singing  and  with 
the  sound  of  their  piping  and  with  the  jangling  of 
their  Canterburie  bells,  and  with  the  barking  out  of 
dogges  after  them,  that  they  make  more  noice  then  if 
the  King  came  there  away  with  all  his  clarions  and 
many  other  minstrels"  (Fox,  "Acts",  London,  1596, 
493). 

This  distinctive  pilgrim  dress  is  described  in  most 
medieval  poems  and  stories  (cf.  "Renard  the  Fox", 
London,  1886,  13,  74,  etc.;  "Squyr  of  Lowe  Degree", 
ed.  Ritson  in  "Metrical  Romancees",  London,  1802, 
III,  151),  most  minutely  and,  of  course,  indirectly,  and 
very  late  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh: — 

"Give  me  my  scallop-shell  of  quiet. 

My  staff  of  faith  to  walk  upon. 
My  scrip  of  joy,  immortal  diet. 

My  bottle  of  Salvation, 
My  gown  of  glory  (hope's  true  gage), 

And  then  I'll  take  my  pilgrimage." 
(Cf.  Furnivall,  "The  Stacions  of  Rome  and  the  Pil- 
grim's Sea  Voyage".)  In  penance  they  went  alone 
and  barefoot.  jEneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini  tells  of  his 
walking  without  .shoes  or  stockings  through  the  snow 
to  Our  Lady  of  Whitekirk  in  East  Lothian,  a  tramp 
of  ten  miles;  and  he  remembered  the  intense  cold  of 
that  pilgrimage  to  his  life's  end  (Paul,  "Royal  Pil- 
grimages in  Scotland"  in  "Trans,  of  Scottish  Eccle- 
siological  Soc",   1905),  for  it  brought  on  a  severe 


PILGRIMAGES 


97 


PILGRIMAGES 


attack  of  gout  (Boulting,  "jEneas  Sylvius",  London, 
1908,  60). 

Pilgrim  Signs. — A  last  part  of  the  pilgrim's  attire 
must  be  mentioned,  the  famous  pilgrim  signs.    These 
were  badges  sewn  on.  to  the  hat  or  hung  round  the  neck 
or  pinned  on  the  clothes  of  the  pilgrim. 
' '  A  boUe  and  a  bagge 

He  bar  by  his  syde 

And  hundred  ampulles; 

On  his  hat  seten 

Signes  of  Synay, 

And  Shelles  of  Galice, 

And  many  a  conche 

On  his  cloke. 

And  keys  of  Rome, 

And  the  Vernycle  bi-fore 

For  men  sholde  knowe 

And  se  bi  hise  signes 

Whom  he  sought  hadde" 


Peter  and  Paul  or  the  keys  or  the  vemicle  (this  last 
also  might  mean  Genoa  where  there  was  a  rival  shrine 
of  St.  Veronica's  veil);  to  St.  James  of  Compostella 
the  scallop  or  oyster  shell;  to  Canterbury,  a  bell  or 
the  head  of  the  saint  on  a  brooch  or  a  leaden  ampulla 
filled  with  water  from  a  well  near  the  tomb  tinctured 
with  an  infinitesimal  drop  of  the  martyr's  blood  ("  Mat. 
for  Hist,  of  Thomas  Beckett",  1878  in  R.  S.,  II,  269; 
III,  152,  187);  to  Walsingham,  the  virgin  and  child; 
to  Amiens,  the  head  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  etc. 
Then  there  was  the  horn  of  St.  Hubert,  the  comb  of 
St.  Blaise,  the  axe  of  St.  Olave,  and  so  on.  And  when 
the  tomb  was  reached,  votive  offerings  were  left  of 
jewels,  models  of  limbs  that  had  been  miraculously 
cured,  spears,  broken  fetters,  etc.  (Rock,  "Church  of 
our  Fathers",  London,  1852,  III,  463). 

Effects. — Among  the  countless  effects  which  pil- 
grimages produced  the  following  may  be  set  down: — 

Towns. — Matthew  Paris  notes   ("Chron.   major." 


Saragossa — Facade  of  the  Church  of  Nuestra  Senora  del  Pilar 


(Piers  Plowman,  ed.  Wright,  London,  1856,  I,  109). 
There  are  several  moulds  extant  in  which  these  signs 
were  cast  (cf.  British  Museum;  Mus6e  de  Lyon; 
Mus^e  de  Cluny,  Paris;  etc.),  and  not  a  few  signs 
themselves  have  been  picked  up,  especially  in  the  beds 
of  rivers,  evidently  dropped  by  the  pilgrims  from  the 
ferry-boats.  These  signs  protected  the  pilgrims  from 
assault  and  enabled  them  to  pass  through  even  hostile 
ranks  ("Paston  Letters",  I,  85;  Forgeais,  "Coll.  de 
plombs  histories",  Paris,  1863,  52-80;  "Archaeol. 
Jour.",  VII,  400;  XIII,  105),  but  as  the  citation  from 
Piers  Plowman  shows,  they  were  also  to  show  "whom 
he  sought  hadde"  Of  course  the  cross  betokened  the 
crusader  (though  one  could  also  take  the  cross  against 
the  Moors  of  Spain,  Simeon  of  Durham,  "Hist,  de 
gestis  regum  Anglise",  ed.  Twysden,  London,  1652,  I, 
249),  and  the  colour  of  it  the  nation  to  which  he  be- 
longed, the  Enghsh  white,  the  French  red,  the  Flemish 
green  (Matthew  Paris,  "Chron.  majora",  ed.  Luard, 
London,  1874,  II,  330,  an.  1199,  in  R.  S.);  the  pilgrim 
to  Jerusalem  had  two  crossed  leaves  of  palm  (hence 
the  name  "palmer");  to  St.  Catherine's  tomb  on 
Mount  Sinai,  the  wheel;  to  Rome,  the  heads  of  Sts. 
XIL— 7 


in  R.  S.,  I,  3,  an.  1067)  that  in  England  (and  the  same 
thing  really  applies  all  over  Europe)  there  was  hardly 
a  town  where  there  did  not  lie  the  bodies  of  martyrs, 
confessors,  and  holy  virgins,  and  though  no  doubt  in 
very  many  cases  it  was  the  importance  of  the  towns 
that  made  them  the  chosen  resting-places  of  the 
saint's  reUcs,  in  quite  as  many  others  the  importance 
of  the  saint  drew  so  many  religious  pilgrims  to  it  that 
the  town  sprang  up  into  real  significance.  So  it  has 
been  noted  that  Canterbury,  at  least,  outshone  Win- 
chester, and  since  the  Reformation  has  once  more 
dwindled  into  insignificance.  Bury  Saint  Edmunds, 
St.  Albans,  Walsingham,  Compostella,  Lourdes,  La 
Salette  have  arisen,  or  grown,  or  decayed,  accordingly 
as  the  popularity  among  pilgrims  began,  advanced, 
declined. 

Roads  were  certainly  made  in  many  cases  by  the 
pilgrims.  They  wore  out  a  path  from  the  sea-coast 
to  Canterbury  and  joined  Walsingham  to  the  groat 
centres  of  English  life  and  drove  tracks  and  paths 
across  the  Syrian  sands  to  the  Holy  City.  And  men 
and  women  for  their  soul's  sake  made  benefactions  so 
as  to  level  down  and  up,  and  to  straighten  out  the 


PILGRIMAGES 


98 


PILGRIMAGES 


wandering  ways  that  led  from  port  to  sanctuary  and 
from  shrine  to  shrine  (Digby,  "Compituna",  London, 
1851,  I,  408).  Thus  they  hoped  to  get  their  share  also 
in  the  merits  of  the  pilgrim.  The  whole  subject  has 
been  illuminated  in  a  particular  instance  by  a  mono- 
graph of  Hilaire  Belloc  in  the  "Old  Road"  (London, 
1904). 

Geography  too  sprang  from  the  same  source.  Each 
pilgrim  who  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels  for  the 
instruction  and  edification  of  his  fellows  was  uncon- 
sciously lajdng  the  foundations  of  a  new  science ;  and 
it  is  astonishing  how  very  early  these  written  accounts 
begin.  The  fourth  century  saw  them  rise,  witnessed 
the  publication  of  many  "  Peregrinationes "  (cf. 
Palestine  Pilg.  Text  Soc,  passim),  and  started  the 
fashion  of  writing  these  day-to-day  descriptions  of  the 
countries  through  which  they  journeyed.  It  is  only 
fair  to  mention  with  especial  praise  the  names  of  the 
Dominicans  Ricoldo  da  Monte  Cruce  (1320)  and 
Burchard  of  Mount  Sion  (Beazley,  II,  190,  383),  the 

latter  of  whom 
has  given  meas- 
urements of  sev- 
eral Biblical  sites, 
the  accuracy  of 
which  is  testified 
to  by  modern 
travellers.  Again 
we  know  that 
Roger  of  Sicily 
caused  the  famous 
work  "The  Book 
of  Roger,  or  the 
Delight  of  whoso 
loves  to  make  the 
Circuit  of  the 
World"  (1154)  to 
be  compiled,  from 
information  gath- 
ered from  pilgrims 
and  merchants, 
who  were  made  to  appear  before  a  select  committee  of 
Arabs  (Symonds,  "Sketches  in  Italy",  Leipzig,  1883,1, 
249) ;  and  we  even  hear  of  a  medieval  Continental  guide- 
book to  the  great  shrines,  prefaced  by  a  list  of  the 
most  richly  indulgenced  sanctuaries  and  containing  de- 
tails of  where  money  could  be  changed,  where  inns 
and  hospitals  were  to  be  found,  what  roads  were  safest 
and  best,  etc.  ("The  Month",  March,  1909,  295; 
"Itineraries  of  William  Wey",  ed.  for  Roxburgh  Club, 
London,  1857;  Thomas,  "De  passagiis  in  Terram 
Sanctam",  Venice,  1879;  Bounardot  and  Longnon, 
"Le  saint  voyage  de  Jherusalem  du  Seigneur  d'Au- 
glure",  Paris,  1878). 

Crusades  also  naturally  arose  out  of  the  idea  of 
pilgrimages.  It  was  these  various  "peregrinationes 
made  to  the  Sepulchre  of  Jesus  Christ  that  at  all 
familiarized  people  with  the  East.  Then  came  the 
huge  columns  of  devout  worshippers,  growing  larger 
and  larger,  becoming  more  fully  organized,  and  well 
protected  by  armed  bands  of  disciplined  troops.  The 
most  famous  pilgrimage  of  all,  that  of  1065,  which 
numbered  about  12,000,  under  Gunther,  Bishop  of 
Bamberg,  assisted  by  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  and 
the  Bishops  of  Ratisbon  and  Utrecht,  was  attacked  by 
Bedouins  after  it  had  left  Cffisarea.  The  details  of 
that  Homeric  struggle  were  brought  home  to  Europe 
(Lambert  of  Gersfield,  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.",  1844,  V, 
169)  and  at  once  gave  rise  the  Crusades. 

Miracle  Plays  are  held  to  be  derived  from  returning 
pilgrims.  This  theory  is  somewhat  obscurely  worked 
out  by  Pere  Menestrier  (Representations  en  musique 
anc.  et  modernes;  cf.  Champagnac,  I,  9).  But  he 
bases  his  conclusions  on  the  idea  that  the  miracle  plays 
begin  by  the  story  of  the  Birth  or  Death  of  Christ 
and  holds  that  the  return  to  the  West  of  those  who 
had  visited  the  scenes  of  the  life  of  Christ  naturally 


Pilgrim's  Sign;  St.  Thomas  of 
Canterbury 


led  them  to  reproduce  these  as  best  they  could  for 
their  less  fortunate  brethren  (St.  Aug.,  "De  civ.  Dei" 
in  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  764).  Hence  the  miracle  plays 
that  deal  with  the  story  of  Christ's  Passion  were  im- 
ported for  the  benefit  of  those  who  were  unable  to 
visit  the  very  shrines.  But  the  connexion  between 
the  pilgrimages  and  these  plays  comes  out  much  more 
clearly  when  we  realize  that  the  scene  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  the  saint  or  some  legend  concerning  one  of  his 
miracles  was  not  uncommonly  acted  before  his  shrine 
or  during  the  pilgrimage  that  was  being  made  to  it. 
It  was  performed  in  order  to  stimulate  devotion,  and 
to  teach  the  lessons  of  his  life  to  those  who  probably 
knew  little  about  him.  It  was  one  way  and  the  most 
effective  way  of  seeing  that  the  reason  for  visiting  the 
shrine  was  not  one  of  mere  idle  superstition,  but  that 
it  had  a  purpose  to  achieve  in  the  moral  improvement 
of  the  pilgrim. 

International  Communications  owed  an  enormous 
debt  to  the  continual  interchange  of  pilgrims.  Pil- 
grimages and  wars  were  practically  the  only  reasons 
that  led  the  people  of  one  country  to  visit  that  of 
another.  It  may  safely  be  hazarded  that  an  exceed- 
ingly large  proportion  of  the  foreigners  who  came  to 
England,  came  on  purpose  to  venerate  the  tomb  of 
the  "Holy  blissful  Martyr",  St.  Thomas  Becket. 
Special  enactments  allowed  pilgrims  to  pass  unmo- 
lested through  districts  that  were  in  the  throes  of  war. 
Again  facilities  were  granted,  as  at  Pontigny,  for 
strangers  to  visit  the  shrines  of  their  own  saints  in 
other  lands.  The  result  of  this  was  naturally  to  in- 
crease communications  between  foreign  countries. 
The  matter  of  road-making  has  been  already  alluded 
to  and  the  establishment  of  hospices  along  the  lines 
of  march,  as  the  ninth-century  monastery  at  Mont 
Cenis,  or  in  the  cities  most  frequented  by  pilgrims, 
fulfilled  the  same  purpose  (Acta  SS.,  March,  II,  150, 
157;  Glaber,  "Chron."  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script, 
VII,  62).  Then  lastly  it  may  be  noted  that  we  have 
distinct  notices,  scattered,  indirect,  and  yet  all  the 
more  convincing,  that  pilgrims  not  unfrequently  acted 
as  postmen,  carrying  letters  from  place  to  place  as 
they  went;  and  that  people  even  waited  with  their 
notes  written  till  a  stray  pilgrim  should  pass  along  the 
route  (Paston  Letters,  II,  62). 

Religious  Orders  began  to  be  founded  to  succour  the 
pilgrims,  and  these  even  the  most  famous  orders  of  the 
medieval  Church.  The  Knights  Hospitallers,  or 
Knights  of  St.  John,  as  their  name  implies,  had  as  their 
office  to  guard  the  straggling  bands  of  Latin  Chris- 
tians; the  Knights  of  Rhodes  had  the  same  work  to 
carry  out;  as  also  had  the  Knights  Templars.  In  fact 
the  seal  of  these  last  represented  simply  a  knight 
rescuing  a  helpless  pilgrim  (compare  also  the  Trinity 
dei  Peregrini  of  St.  Philip). 

Scandals  eifected  by  this  form  of  devotion  are  too 
obvious  and  were  too  often  denounced  by  the  saints 
and  other  writers  from  St.  Jerome  to  Thomas  a  Kem- 
pis  to  need  any  setting  out  here.  The  "Canterbury 
Tales"  of  Chaucer  are  sufficient  evidence.  But  the 
"Colloquy"  of  Erasmus  briefly  mentions  the  more 
characteristic  ones:  (i)  excessive  credulity  of  the 
guardian  of  the  shrine ;  (ii)  insistence  upon  the  obliga- 
tion of  pilgrimages  as  though  they  were  necessary  for 
salvation;  (iii)  the  neglect  on  the  part  of  too  many  of 
the  pilgrims  of  their  own  duties  at  home  in  order  to 
spend  more  time  in  passing  from  one  sanctuary  to 
another;  (iv)  the  wantonness  and  evil-living  and  evil- 
speaking  indulged  in  by  the  pilgrims  themselves  in 
many  cases.  Not  as  though  these  abuses  invalidated 
the  use  of  pilgrimages.  Erasmus  himself  declares  that 
they  did  not;  but  they  certainly  should  have  been 
more  stringently  and  rigorously  repressed  by  the 
church  rulers.  The  dangers  of  these  scandals  are  evi- 
dently reduced  to  a  minimum  by  the  speed  of  modem 
travel;  yet  from  time  to  time  warnings  need  to  be  re- 
peated lest  the  old  evils  should  return. 


PILIGRIM 


99 


PILLAR 


Blessing. — To  complete  this  article,  it  will  be  well 
to  give  the  following  blessings  taken  from  the  Sarum 
Missal  (London,  1868,  595-6).  These  should  be  com- 
pared with  Mohammedan  formularies  (Champagnac, 
II,  1077-80,  etc.)  :— 

Blessing  of  Scrip  and  Staff. 

^.  The  Lord  be  with  you. 

I^.  And  with  thy  spirit. 
Let  us  pray.  O  Lord  Jesus  Christ  who  of  Thy  un- 
speakable mercy  at  the  bidding  of  the  Father  and  by 
the  Co-operation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  wast  willing  to 
come  down  from  Heaven  and  to  seek  the  sheep  that 
was  lost  by  the  deceit  of  the  devil,  and  to  carry  him 
back  on  Thy  shoulders  to  the  flock  of  the  Heavenly 
Country;  and  didst  commend  the  sons  of  Holy 
Mother  Church  by  prayer  to  ask,  by  holy  living  to 
seek,  by  persevering  to  knock  that  so  they  may  the  more 
speedily  find  the  reward  of  saving  life;  we  humbly 
call  upon  Thee  that  Thou  wouldst  be  pleased  to  bless 
these  scrips  (or  this  scrip)  and  these  staves  (or  this 
staff)  that  whosoever  for  the  love  of  Thy  name  shall 
desire  to  wear  the  same  at  his  side  or  hang  it  at  his 
neck  or  to  bear  it  in  his  hands  and  so  on  his  pilgrimage 
to  seek  the  aid  of  the  Saints  with  the  accompaniment 
of  humble  prayer,  being  protected  by  the  guardian- 
ship of  Thy  Right  Hand  may  be  found  meet  to  attain 
unto  the  joys  of  the  everlasting  vision  through  Thee, 
O  Sa\iour  of  the  World,  Who  livest  and  reignest  in 
the  unity  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  God  for  ever  and  ever. 
Amen. 

Here  hi  the  scrip  be  sprinkled  vnth  Holy  Water  and 
let  the  Priest  put  it  round  each  pilgrim's  neck,  saying: 
In  the  Name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  receive  this 
scrip,  the  habit  of  thy  pilgrimage,  that  after  due  chas- 
tisement thou  mayest  be  found  worthy  to  reach  in 
safety  the  Shrine  of  the  Saints  to  which  thou  desirest 
to  go;  and  after  the  accomplishment  of  thy  journey 
thou  mayest  return  to  us  in  health.     Through,  etc. 

Here  let  him  give  the  Staff  to  the  Pilgrim,  saying: 
Receive  this  staff  for  thy  support  in  the  travail  and 
toil  of  thy  pilgrimage,  that  thou  mayest  be  able  to 
overcome  all  the  hosts  of  the  enemy  and  reach  in 
safety  the  Shrine  of  the  Saints  whither  thou  desirest 
to  go;  and  having  obediently  fulfilled  thy  course 
mayest  return  again  to  us  with  joy.    Through,  etc. 

The  Blessing  of  the  Cross  for  one  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem. 

f .  The  Lord  be  with  you. 

I^.  And  with  thy  spirit. 
Let  us  pray.  O  God,  whose  power  is  invincible  and 
pity  cannot  be  measured,  the  aid  and  sole  comfort  of 
pilgrims;  who  givest  unto  Thy  servants  armour  which 
cannot  be  overcome;  we  beseech  Thee  to  be  pleased 
to  bless  this  dress  which  is  humbly  devoted  to  Thee, 
that  the  banner  of  the  venerated  Cross,  the  figure 
whereof  is  upon  it,  may  be  a  most  mighty  strength  to 
Thy  servants  against  the  wicked  temptations  of  the 
old  enemy ;  a  defence  by  the  way,  a  protection  in  Thy 
house,  and  a  security  to  us  on  every  side.  Through, 
etc. 

Here  let  the  garment  marked  vnth  the  Cross  he 
sprinkled  with  Holy  Water  and  given  to  the  pilgrim,  the 
priest  saying: 

Receive  this  dress  ■whereupon  the  sign  of  the  Cross 
of  the  Lord  Our  Saviour  is  traced,  that  through  it 
safety,  benediction  and  strength  to  journey  in  pros- 
perity, may  accompany  thee  to  the  Sepulchre  of  Him, 
who  with  God  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  liveth 
and  reigneth  one   God,  world  without  end.    Amen. 

Marx,  Das  Wallfahren  in  der  hatholischen  Kircke  (Trier,  1842) ; 
SrvRY  AND  Champagnac,  Dictionu.  des  pUerinages  (Paris, 
1859);  Rock,  The  Church  of  Our  Fathers  (London,  1852);  Lh 
Roy,  Hist,  des  pUer.  de  la  sainte  Vierge  en  France  (Paris,  1875); 
Waterton,  Pietas  Mariana  Britannica  (London,  1879) ;  Cham- 
bers, Book  of  Days  (London,  s.  d.);  Jusseband,  tr.  Smith,  Eng- 
lish Wayfaring  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages  (London,  1892) ;  ItinSraires 
frarK^ais  XI'^-XIII"  sikcles,  ed.  Michelant  and  Raynaud 
(1882 — ):  Palestine  Pilgrim  Text  Society  (London,  1884 — ); 
Deutsche  Pilgerreisen  nach  dem  heiligcn  Lande  (Innsbruclc,  1900) ; 


Beazlet,  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography  (London,  1897-1906); 
Wall,  Shrines  of  British  Saints  (London,  1905) ;  Br:6hieb. 
L'iglise  et  I'Orient  au  moyen-dge  (Paris,  1907);  Camm,  Forgotten 
Shrines  (London,  1910);  Revue  de  I'Orient  latin  (Paris,  1893 — ); 
Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (New  York,  1892-9),  passim. 

Bede  Jaeeett. 

Filigrim,  Bishop  of  Passau,  date  of  birth  unknown; 
d.  20  May,  991.  He  was  educated  at  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Niederaltaioh,  and  was  made  bishop  in 
971.  To  him  are  attributed  some,  if  not  all,  of  the 
"Forgeries  of  Loroh",  a  series  of  documents,  espe- 
cially Bulls  of  Popes  Symmachus,  Eugene  II,  Leo  VII, 
and  Agapetus  II,  fabricated  to  prove  that  Passau  was 
a  continuation  of  a  former  archdiocese  named  Lorch. 
By  these  he  attempted  to  obtain  from  Benedict  VI 
the  elevation  of  Passau  to  an  archdiocese,  the  re- 
erection  of  those  dioceses  in  Pannonia  and  Moesia 
which  had  been  suffragans  of  Lorch,  and  the  pallium 
for  himself.  While  Piligrim  was  ambitious,  he  also 
had  at  heart  the  welfare  of  the  captive  Christians  in 
Hungary  and  the  Christianization  of  that  country. 
There  is  extant  an  alleged  Bull  of  Benedict  VI  granting 
Piligrim's  demands;  but  this  is  also  the  work  of  Pili- 
grim, possibly  a  document  drawn  up  for  the  papal 
signature,  which  it  never  received.  Apart  from  these 
forgeries,  common  enough  at  the  time,  Piligrim  was 
a  good  and  zealous  bishop,  and  converted  numerous 
heathens  in  Hungary,  built  many  schools  and  churches, 
restored  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  in  Niederaltaich, 
transferred  the  relics  of  St.  Maximilian  from  Getting 
to  Passau,  and  held  synods  (983-91)  at  Ennsburg 
(Lorch),  Mautern,  and  Mistelbach.  In  the  "Niebel- 
ungenhed"  he  is  lauded  as  a  contemporary  of  the 
heroes  of  that  epic. 

DuMMLER,  Piligrim  von  Passau  und  das  Erzbisthum  Lorch 
(Leipzig,  1854) ;  Idem  in  Berliner  Sitzungsberichte  (1898),  758-75; 
Uhlirz,  Die  Urkundenftilschung  zu  Passau  im  zcliuten  Jahrhundert 
in  Mittheilungen  des  Instituts  fiir  dsterreichische  Geschichtsfor- 
schung.  III  (Vienna,  1882),  177-228;  Idem,  ihirl.,  supplementary 
vol.,  II  (1888),  548  sq.;  Heuwieser,  Sind  die  Bischofe  von  Passau 
Nachfolger  der  Bischdfe  von  Lorch?  in  Theologisch-praktische 
Monats-Schrift,  XXI  (Passau,  1910),  13-23,  85-90;  Mittermul- 
ler.  War  Bischof  Piligrim  von  Passau  ein  Urkundenfdlscherf  in 
Der  Katholik,  XLVII  (Mainz,  1867),  337-62. 

Michael  Ott. 

Pillar  of  Cloud  (Pillar  op  Fiee),  a  cloud  which 
accompanied  the  Israelites  during  their  wandering. 
It  was  the  same  as  the  pillar  of  fire,  as  it  was  luminous 
at  night  (cf.  Ex.,  xiv,  19,  20,  24;  Num.,  ix,  21,  22). 
The  name  "pillar"  is  due  to  the  columnar  form  which 
it  commonly  assumed.  It  first  appeared  while  the 
Israelites  were  marching  from  Socoth  to  Etham,  and 
vanished  when  they  reached  the  borders  of  Chanaan 
(Ex.,  xiii,  20-22;  xl,  36).  It  was  a  manifestation  of 
God's  presence  among  His  people  (Ex.,  xiv,  24  sqq.; 
xxxiii,  9;  Num.,  xi,  25;  xii,  5;  Deut.,  xxxi,  15;  Ps. 
xcviii,  7).  During  encampment  it  rested  over  the  tab- 
ernacle of  the  covenant,  after  it  was  built,  and  before 
that  time  probably  over  the  centre  of  the  camp.  It 
rose  as  a  signal  that  camp  was  to  be  broken,  and  during 
the  march  it  preceded  the  people,  stopping  when  they 
were  to  pitch  their  tents  (Ex.,  xl,  34,  35;  Num.,  ix,  17 
sqq.;  Deut.,  i,  33).  At  the  crossing  of  the  Red  Sea 
it  rested  between  the  Israelites  and  the  Egyptians, 
being  bright  on  the  side  of  the  former  and  dark  on 
the  other  (Ex.,  xiv,  19,  20).  During  the  marches  it  lit 
the  way  at  night,  and  by  day  protected  the  people 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun  (Num.,  x,  34;  Deut.,  i,  33; 
II  Esd.,  ix,  12;  Wis.,  x,  17;  xviii,  3;  Ps.  civ,  39). 
It  may  be  doubted  whether  it  covered  the  camp  by 
day,  as  many  commentators  maintain.  Num.,  x,  34, 
speaks  only  of  the  march,  and  Wis.,  xix,  7,  does  not 
necessarily  refer  to  the  whole  camp.  St.  Paul  (I  Cor., 
X,  1,  2,  6)  considers  it  as  a  type  of  baptism,  and  the 
Fathers  regard  it  as  the  figure  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
leading  the  faithful  to  the  true  Promised  Land.  The 
rationalistic  explanation  which  sees  in  the  pillar  only 
a  torch  carried  on  a  pole,  such  as  is  used  even  now  by 


PIMA 


100 


PIMA 


caravans  in  Arabia,  fails  to  take  the  data  of  the  Bible 
into  consideration. 

Palis,  in  Vigotjroux,  Did.  de  la  Bib.,  a.  v.  Colonne  de  NuSe; 
and  commentaries  on  the  texts  cited. 

F.  Bechtel. 

Pima  Indians,  an  important  tribe  of  southern  Ari- 
zona, centring  along  the  Middle  Gila  and  its  affluent, 
the  Salt  River.  Linguistically  they  belong  to  the 
Piman  branch  of  the  widely-extended  Shoshonean 
stock,  and  their  language,  with  dialectic  variation,  is 
the  same  as  that  spoken  also  by  the  Pdpago  and  ex- 
tinct Sobaipuri  of  southern  Arizona,  and  by  the 
Nevome  of  Sonora,  Mexico.  In  Spanish  times  the 
tribes  of  the  Arizona  group  were  known  collectively 
as  Pimas  Altos  (Upper  Pima),  while  those  of  Sonora 
were  distinguished  as  Pimas  Bajos  (Lower  Pima),  the 
whole  territory  being  known  as  the  Pimerla.  The 
tribal  name  Pima  is  a  corruption  of  their  own  word 
for  "no",  mistaken  by  the  early  missionaries  for  a 
proper  name.  They  call  themselves,  simply  'Aatam, 
"people",  or  sometimes  for  distinction  'Aatam- 
akimiilt,  "river-people".  Notwithstanding  their  im- 
portance as  a  tribe,  the  Pima  have  not  been  prominent 
in  history,  owing  to  their  remoteness  from  military 
and  missionary  activity  during  the  Spanish  period, 
and  to  their  almost  unbroken  peaceable  attitude 
towards  the  whites.  It  was  at  one  time  claimed  that 
they  were  the  authors  of  the  ruined  pueblos  in  their 
country,  notably  the  celebrated  Casa  Grande,  but 
later  investigation  confirms  the  statement  recorded 
by  Father  Garces  as  early  as  1780  that  they  were  built 
by  a  previous  people  connected  with  the  Hopi. 

The  real  history  of  the  Pima  may  be  said  to 
begin  with  the  German  Jesuit  missionary  explorer, 
Father  Eusebio  Kino  (Kuhn),  who  in  1687  estab- 
lished a  mission  headquarters  at  Dolores,  near  the 
present  Cucurpe,  northern  Sonora,  Mexico,  from 
which  point  until  his  death  in  1711  he  covered  the 
whole  Pimeria  in  his  missionary  labours.  In  1694,  led 
by  Indian  reports  of  massive  ruins  in  the  far  north,  he 
penetrated  alone  to  the  Gila,  and  said  Mass  in  the  Casa 
Grande.  In  1097  he  accompanied  a  military  explora- 
tion of  the  Pima  country,  under  Lieutenant  Bernal 
and  Captain  Mange,  baptizing  nearly  a  hundred  In- 
dians. In  1701  he  made  the  earliest  map  of  the  Gila 
region.  He  found  the  Pima  and  their  cousins  the 
Pdpago  most  anxious  for  teachers.  "They  were, 
above  all,  desirous  of  being  formed  into  regular  mis- 
sion communities,  with  resident  padres  of  their  own; 
and  at  many  rancherias  they  built  rude  but  neatly 
cared-for  churches,  planted  fields,  and  tended  herds 
of  live  stock  in  patient  waiting  for  missionaries,  who, 
in  most  cases,  never  came"  (Bancroft).  From  1736 
to  1750  Fathers  Keller  and  Sedelmair  several  times 
visited  the  Pima,  but  no  missions  were  established  in 
their  country,  although  a  number  of  the  tribe  attached 
themselves  to  the  Piipago  missions.  The  revolt  of  the 
southern  tribes  in  1750  caused  a  suspension  of  the 
work,  but  the  missions  were  resumed  some  years 
later  and  continued  under  increasing  difficulties  until 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1767,  at  which  time 
the  whole  number  of  neophytes  in  Arizona,  chiefly 
Pdpago,  was  about  1200.  In  the  next  year  the  Ari- 
zona missions  were  turned  over  to  Franciscans  of  the 
College  of  Queretaro,  who  continued  the  work  with 
some  success  in  spite  of  constant  inroads  of  the 
Apache.  Although  details  are  wanting,  it  is  probable 
that  the  number  of  neophytes  increased.  The  most 
noted  of  these  later  workers  was  Father  Francisco 
Garces,  in  charge  of  the  Pd,pago  at  San  Xavier  del  Bac 
(1708-76).  In  1828,  by  decree  of  the  revolutionary 
government  of  Mexico,  all  the  missions  were  confis- 
cated, the  Spanish  priests  expelled,  and  all  Christian- 
izing effort  came  to  an  end. 

About  1840  the  Pima  were  strengthened  by  the 
Maricopa  from  the  lower  Gila,  who  moved  up  to 


escape  the  attacks  of  the  Yuma,  the  common  enemv 
of  both.  Both  tribes  continue  to  live  in  close  alliance 
although  of  entirely  different  language  and  origin' 
Their  relations  with  the  United  States  Government 
began  in  1846,  when  General  Kearney's  expedition 
entered  their  territory,  and  met  with  a  friendly  recep- 
tion. Other  expeditions  stopped  at  their  villages 
within  the  next  few  years,  all  meeting  with  kind  treat- 
ment. With  the  influx  of  the  Cahfornia  gold  hunters 
about  1860  there  set  in  a  long  period  of  demoraliza- 
tion, with  frequent  outrages  by  the  whites  which 
several  times  almost  provoked  an  outbreak.  In  1850 
and  1857  the  hostile  Yuma  were  defeated.  The 
Apache  raids  were  constant  and  destructive  until  the 
final  subjugation  of  that  tribe  by  the  Government. 
In  all  the  Apache  campaigns  since  1864  the  Pima 
have  served  as  willing  and  efficient  scouts.  In  1857  a 
non-resident  agent  was  appointed,  and  in  1859  a 
reservation  was  surveyed  for  the  two  tribes,  and 
$10,000  in  goods  distributed  among  them  as  a  recog- 
nition of  past  services.  In  1870  the  agency  was  estab- 
lished at  Sacaton  on  the  reservation,  since  which  time 
they  have  been  regularly  under  Government  super- 
vision. The  important  problem  of  irrigation,  upon 
which  the  future  prosperity  of  the  tribes  depends,  is 
now  in  process  of  satisfactory  solution  by  the  Govern- 
ment. As  a  body  the  Indians  are  now  civihzed,  in- 
dustrious as  farmers  and  labourers,  and  largely  Chris- 
tian, divided  between  Presbyterian  and  Catholic. 
Presbyterian  work  was  begun  in  1870.  The  Catholics 
re-entered  the  field  shortly  afterwards,  and  have  now 
a  flourishing  mission  school,  St.  John  Baptist,  at  Gila 
Crossing,  built  in  1899,  in  charge  of  Franciscan 
Fathers,  with  several  small  chapels,  and  a  total  Cath- 
olic population  of  600  in  the  two  tribes,  including 
fifty  Maricopa.  The  5000  or  more  Pdpago  attached 
to  the  same  agency  have  been  practically  all  Cathohc 
from  the  Jesuit  period. 

In  their  primitive  condition  the  Pima  were  agricul- 
tural and  sedentary,  living  in  villages  of  lightly-built 
dome-shaped  houses,  occupied  usually  by  a  single 
family  each,  and  cultivating  by  the  help  of  irrigation 
large  crops  of  corn,  beans,  pumpkins,  and  native  cot- 
ton, from  which  the  women  spun  the  simple  clothing, 
consisting  of  a  breech-cloth  and  head-band  for  the 
man,  and  a  short  skirt  for  the  women,  with  sandals  or 
moccasins  for  special  occasion  and  a  buckskin  shirt 
in  extreme  cold  weather.  They  also  prepared  clothing 
fabrics  from  the  inner  bark  of  the  willow.  The  heav- 
ier labour  of  cultivation  was  assumed  by  the  men. 
Besides  their  cultivated  foods,  they  made  use  of  the 
fruit  of  the  sagnaro  cactus,  from  which  also  they  pre- 
pared the  intoxicating  tizwin,  and  the  mesquite  bean, 
besides  the  ordinary  game  of  the  country.  They 
painted  and  tattooed  their  faces  and  wore  their  hair 
at  full  length.  The  women  were  not  good  potters,  but 
they  excelled  as  basket  makers.  Their  arms  were  the 
bow,  the  club,  and  the  shield,  fighting  always  on  foot. 
Their  allies  were  the  Pdpago  and  Maricopa,  their 
enemies  the  Apache  and  Yuma.  The  killing  of  an 
enemy  was  followed  by  an  elaborate  purification  cere- 
mony closing  with  a  victory  dance.  There  was  a  head 
tribunal  chief,  with  subordinate  village  chiefs.  Po- 
lygamy was  allowed,  but  not  frequent.  Descent  was 
in  the  male  line.  Unlike  Indians  generally,  they  had 
large  families  and  welcomed  twins.  Also  unlike  their 
neighbours,  they  buried  in  the  ground  instead  of  cre- 
mating their  dead.  Deformed  infants  were  killed  at 
birth,  as  were  also  in  later  times  the  infants  born  of 
white  or  Mexican  fathers.  They  had,  and  still  re- 
tain, many  songs  of  ceremony,  war,  hunting,  gaming, 
love,  medicine,  and  of  childhood. 

According  to  their  elaborate  genesis  myth,  the 
earth  was  formed  by  "Earth  Doctor",  who  himself 
evolved  from  a  dense  cloud  of  darkness.  He  made  the 
plants  and  animals,  and  a  race  of  never-dying  humans, 
who  by  their  increase  so  crowded  the  earth  that  he 


FINARA 


101 


PINEDA 


destroyed  his  whole  creation  and  made  a  new  world 
with  a  new  race  subject  to  thinning  out  by  death. 
Another  hero  god  is  "Elder  Brother",  and  prominent 
place  is  assigned  to  Sun,  Moon,  Night,  and  Coyote. 
The  myth  also  includes  a  deluge  story.  Although  the 
linguistic  relations  of  the  Pima  are  well  known,  all 
that  is  recorded  in  the  language  is  comprised  chiefly 
in  a  few  vocabularies,  none  exceeding  200  words,  sev- 
eral of  which  in  manuscript  are  in  the  keeping  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.  (See  Kino;  Pa- 
PAGO  Indians.) 

Bancroft,  Hist.  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  (San  Francisco, 
1889):  Idem,  Hist.  Mexican  States  and  Texas  (2  vols.,  San  Fran- 
cisco, 1886) :  Bartlett,  Personal  Narrative  XX  of  Boundary 
Commission  (2  vols..  New  York,  1S54) ;  Browne,  Adventures  in  the 
Apache  Country  (New  Yorlc,  1869) ;  Catholic  Indian  Missions,  Bu- 
reau of,  annual  reports  of  Director  of  (Washington) ;  Commissioner 
of  Indian  Affairs,  annual  reports  of  (Washington) ;  Diary  and  Itin- 
erary of  Francisco  Garces,  ed.  Cones  (2  vols..  New  York,  1900); 
Documenios  para  Historia  de  Mexico  (20  vols.,  Mexico,  1853-57), 
includes  Bernal,  Relaci&n  de  la  Pimeria.  Mange,  Hist.  Pimeria, 
etc.;  Emery,  Notes  of  a  Mihtary  Reconnaissance  (Washington, 
i848) ;  RudSELL,  The  Pima  Indians  in  Twenty-sixth  Rept.  Bur. 
Am.  Ethnology  (Washington,  1908);  Whipple,  Rept.  of  Expedi- 
tion from  San  Diego  to  the  Colorado  (one  of  official  Pacific  Railroad 
Repts.,  Ex.  Doc.  19,  Slst  Cong.,  2nd  sess.,  Washington,  1891). 

James  Mooney. 

Pinara,  titular  see  in  Lyoia,  suffragan  of  Myra. 
Pinara  was  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Lycian  con- 
federation. The  LycianherOjPandarus,  was  held  there 
in  great  honour.  It  was  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  Pinarus,  who  embarked  with  the  first  Cre- 
tans. According  to  another  tradition,  it  was  a  colony 
of  Xanthus  and  was  first  called  Artymnessus.  As 
in  Lycian  Pinara  signifies  "round  hill",  the  city  being 
built  on  a  hill  of  this  nature  would  have  derived  its  new 
name  from  this  fact.  It  is  now  the  village  of  Minara  or 
Minareh  in  the  vilayet  of  Koniah.  It  contains  magnif- 
icent ruins:  walls,  a  theatre,  an  acropolis,  sarcophagi 
and  tombs,  rare  inscriptions  (often  Lycian),  and  the 
remains  of  a  church.  Five  bishops  of  Pinara  are 
known:  Eustathius,  who  signed  the  formula  of  Aca- 
cius  of  Caesarea  at  the  Council  of  Selencia  in  359; 
Heliodorus,  who  signed  the  letter  from  the  bishops  of 
Lycia  to  the  Emperor  Leo  (458) ;  Zenas,  present  at  the 
TruUan  Council  (692);  Theodore,  at  the  Council  of 
Nicaea  (787) ;  Athanasius,  at  the  Photian  Council  of 
Constantinople  (879). 

Le  Quien,  Oriens  christ..  I,  975;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Roman  geog.,  s.  v.;  Fellows,  Lycia,  i39;  Spratt  and  Forbes, 
Travels  in  Lycia,  I,  1  sqq. 

S.    PflTRIDtlS. 

Pinar  del  Rio,  Diocese  op  (Pinetensis  ad  Flu- 
men),  in  Cuba,  erected  by  the  Brief  "Actum  prae- 
clare"  of  Leo  XIII,  20  Feb.,  1903.  The  boundaries 
of  the  diocese  are  those  of  the  civil  province;  it  oc- 
cupies the  western  part  of  the  island  and  has  an  area 
of  2867  square  miles.  Its  first  bishop  was  Braulio  de 
Orne  y  Vivanco,  consecrated  at  Havana,  28  October, 
1903,  died  the  following  year.  The  present  bishop  is 
Manuel  Ruiz  y  Rodriguez,  consecrated  at  Cienfuegos, 
11  June,  1907.  The  diocese  contains  27  parishes  with 
19  secular  priests.  There  is  a  boys'  school  con- 
ducted by  the  Piarist  Fathers,  and  a  girls'  school 
under  the  care  of  religious  women. 

Fehmin  Fkaga  Barro. 

Pindemonte,  Ippolito,  an  ItaUan  poet  of  noble 
birth,  b.  at  Verona,  13  Nov.,  1753;  d.  there,  18  Nov., 
1828.  He  received  his  training  at  the  Collegio  di  San 
Carlo  in  Modena.  As  a  result  of  much  travelling  in 
Italy  and  foreign  lands  he  acquired  a  wide  acquaint- 
ance, and  formed  close  relations  with  many  men  of 
letters.  He  witnessed  the  beginnings  of  the  Revolu- 
tion in  Paris,  and  poetized  thereupon  in  his  "Fran- 
cia".  Thence  he  went  to  London,  Berlin,  and  Vienna. 
In  1791  he  returned  to  Verona,  with  health  impaired 
and  saddened  at  the  failure  of  his  hopes  for  the  regen- 
eration and  aggrandizement  of  Italy,  and  devoted  his 


last  years  to  study  and  religious  practices.  The  chief 
poetical  works  of  Pindemonte  are  the  "Poesie"  and 
"Prose  campestri",  the  "Sepolcri"  and  his  version  of 
the  Odyssey.  The  "Poesie"  and  "Prose  campestri" 
were  published  between  1788  and  1794;  the  most  ad- 
mired portions  are  those  entitled  "Alia  Luna",  "Alia 
Salute",  "La  Melanoonia",  and  "La  Giovinezza" 
They  evince  his  reading  of  the  English  descriptive 
poets.  The  "Sepolcri"  is  in  the  form  of  a  letter  and  is 
largely  a  response  to  the  similarly  named  poem  of 
Fosoolo,  with  whose  views,  respecting  the  patriotic 
and  other  emotions  evoked  by  the  aspect  of  the  tombs 
of  the  well-deserving,  he  sympathizes;  he  rebukes 
Foscolo,  however,  for  having  neglected  to  recount, 
among  the  other  emotions,  that  of  the  comfort  brought 
to  us  by  religious  considerations.  The  influence  of  the 
English  poet  Gray  is  noticeable  in  this  work.  Upon 
his  version  of  the  Odyssey  he  seems  to  have  laboured 
fifteen  years,  and  is  quite  faithful  to  the  letter  and 
spirit  of  the  original.  It  appeared  in  print  in  1822. 
His  lesser  work  sinclude  among  others  several  trag- 
edies, the  "Ulisse",  the  "Geta  e  Caracalla",  the 
"Eteocle  e  Polinice",  and  especially  the  "Arminio", 
composed  in  1804  and  revealing  the  influence  exerted 
upon  him  by  the  Ossianic  matter.  In  prose  he  pro- 
duced the  "Clementina",  and  a  short  story,  "Aba- 
ritte",  which  imitates  Johnson's  "Rasselas".  He  left 
a.  large  correspondence  exchanged  with  noted  persons 
of  his  time  and  a  few  minor  documents. 


Poesie  originali  di  I.  Pindemonte  (Florence,  1858-9) ; 
ed.  LoNZOGus,  Sansoni;  Tohraca,  /.  Sepolcri  di  I.  Pindemonte 
in  Discussioni  (Leghorn,  1888) ;  Montanari,  Storia  delta  vita  de 
opere  di  I.  P.  (Venice,  1855) ;  Zanella,  /.  Pindemonte  e  gli 
Inglesi  in  Paralleli  letterari  (Verona,  1885). 

J.  D.  M.  FoHD. 

Pineda,  John  de,  b.  in  Seville,  1558;  d.  there,  27 
Jan.,  1637.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1572, 
taught  philosophy  and  theology  five  years  in  Seville 
and  Cordova,  and  specialized  in  Scripture,  which  he 
taught  for  eighteen  years  at  Cordova,  Seville,  and 
Madrid.  He  held  the  posts  of  Provost  of  the  pro- 
fessed house  and  rector  of  the  college  of  Seville. 
He  was  consultor  to  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  and,  in 
this  capacity,  visited  the  chief  libraries  of  Spain.  The 
result  of  his  visits  was  the  "Index  Librorum  Prohi- 
bitorum"  (1612),  which  won  the  appreciation  of  the 
Inquisition  and  of  the  chief  inquisitor.  Cardinal 
Sandoval,  Archbishop  of  Toledo;  it  was  re-edited 
(1632)  for  Cardinal  Zapata.  His  learning  is  evidenced 
by  the  nineteen  printed  works  and  six  manuscripts, 
chiefly  on  exegetical  subjects,  which  remain  to  us  of 
his  writings:  (1)  " Commentariorum  in  Job  Libri 
tredecim"  (Madrid,  1597-1601).  Each  chapter  is 
paraphrased  and  fully  commented  upon.  These  two 
folios  were  often  re-issued  in  Madrid,  Cologne,  Se- 
ville, Venice,  and  Paris.  Seven  indexes  served  as 
guides  to  the  student.  Both  Catholic  and  Protestant 
exegetes  still  praise  this  colossal  storehouse  of  erudi- 
tion. The  archaeology,  textual  criticism,  comparison 
of  various  interpretations,  use  of  historical  data  from 
profane  writers,  all  show  Pineda  to  have  been  far 
ahead  of  his  time  in  scientific  criticism  of  the  Bible; 
(2)  "Praelectio  sacra  inCanticaCanticorum"  (Seville, 
1602),  issued  as  a  greeting  to  Cardinal  de  Guevera, 
Archbishop  of  Seville,  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to 
the  Jesuit  college  there;  (3)  "Salomon  prtevius,  sive 
de  rebus  Salomonis  regis  libri  octo"  (foL,  pp.  587; 
Lyons,  1609;  Mainz,  1613).  The  fife,  kingdom,  wis- 
dom, wealth,  royal  buildings,  character,  and  death 
of  Solomon  are  treated  in  scholarly  fashion;  five  in- 
dexes are  added  as  helps  to  the  student.  (4)  "De  C. 
Plinii  loco  inter  eruditos  controverso  ex  lib.  VII. 
Atque  etiam  morbus  est  aliquis  per  sapientiam  mori" 
Considerable  controversy  resulted  from  his  interpreta- 
tion of  Pliny  (see  Sommervogel,  infra).  (5)  "Com- 
mentarii  in  Ecclesiasten,  liber  unus"  (fol.,  pp.  1224; 
Seville,  1619),  appeared  in  various  editions,  as  did  the 


PINEROLO 


102 


PINNA 


commentary  on  Solomon.  The  fame  he  won  by  his 
erudition  and  sanctity  is  attested  in  many  ways.  On 
a  visit  to  the  University  of  Evora  he  was  greeted  by  a 
Latin  speech,  and  a  memorial  tablet  was  set  up  with 
the  legend:  Hie  Pineda  fuit.  What  astounds  one 
most  in  the  writings  of  this  exegete  of  the  old  school 
is  his  vast  knowledge  not  merely  of  Latin,  but  of 
Greek  and  Hebrew. 

NiEREMBERG,  VaToucs  Ilustres  de  la  C,  de  /.,  VII  (Bilbao, 
1891),  19.5:  SOMMEHTOQEL,  BibUotheque  de  la  C.  de  J.  (Paris, 
1895),  VI,  796;  IX,  772;  Guilheemy,  Minologe  de  la  C.  de  J. 
Assistance  d'Espagne,  I  (Paris,  1902),  178. 

Walter  Drum. 

Pinerolo,  Diocese  of  (Pineroliensis),  in  the 
province  of  Turin,  in  Piedmont,  Northern  Italy, 
suffragan  of  Turin.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  city  of 
Pinerolo  was  one  of  the  keys  of  Italy,  and  was  there- 
fore one  of  the  principal  fortresses  of  the  dukes  of 
Savoy.  It  is  now  the  seat  of  a  mihtary  school.  Those 
of  its  churches  deserving  mention  are  the  cathedral 
(which  dates  from  the  ninth  century,  and  has  a  beau- 
ful  campanile)  and  San  Maurizio,  a  beautiful  Gothic 
church,  from  the  belfry  of  which  there  is  a  superb 
view  of  the  Alps  and  of  the  sub-Alpine  plain.  The 
earliest  mention  of  Pinerolo  is  in  the  tenth  century; 
it  belonged  to  the  Marca  di  Torino  (March  of  Turin) 
and  was  governed  by  the  abbots  of  Pinerolo,  even 
after  the  city  had  established  itself  as  a  commune 
(1200).  From  1235,  however,  Amadeus  IV  of  Savoy 
exercised  over  the  town  a  kind  of  protectorate  which, 
in  124.3,  became  absolute,  and  was  exercised  there- 
after either  by  the  house  of  Savoy,  or  of  Savoy- 
Acaia.  A\'hen  the  French  invaded  Piedmont  (1536), 
Pinerolo  fell  into  their  hands  and  they  remained  in 
possession  until  1574.  However,  by  the  treaty  of 
Cherasco  it  again  fell  to  France  (1630),  and  it  re- 
mained under  French  rule  until  restored  by  the  treaty 
of  Turin  to  Savoy.  The  latter  state,  at  the  same  time, 
withdrew  from  the  league  against  Louis  XIV.  Piner- 
olo was  originally  an  abbey  nullius.  It  was  founded 
in  1064  by  Adelaide,  Princess  of  Susa,  and  was  made 
a  diocese,  in  1748,  at  the  request  of  Charles  Emman- 
uel, its  first  prelate  being  G.  B.  d'Orh^.  In  1805, 
conformably  with  the  wish  of  Napoleon,  the  diocese 
was  united  with  that  of  Saluzzo,  but,  in  1817,  was 
re-established  as  an  independent  see.  Within  its 
territory  is  the  famous  fortress  of  Fenestrelle.  It  has 
68  parishes,  16,200  inhabitants,  3  religious  houses  of 
women,  and  3  educational  institutes  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia  (Venice,  1857);  Carutti, 
Storia  di  Pinerolo  (Pinerolo,  1893).  U.    BeNIGNI. 

Pingre,  Alexandre  Guy,  b.  in  Paris  11  September, 
1711;  d.  1  May,  1796.  He  was  educated  in  Senlis 
at  the  college  of  the  Genovefan  fathers.  Regulars 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine,  which  he  entered  at 
sixteen.  In  1735  he  was  made  professor  of  theology 
there.  About  1749  he  accepted  the  professorship 
of  astronomy  in  the  newly-founded  academy  at 
Rouen.  Already  famous  for  detecting  an  error  of 
four  minutes  in  Lacaille's  calculation  of  the  lunar 
eclipse  of  23  December,  1749,  in  1753  he  further  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  the  observation  of  the  transit 
of  Mercury  and  was  consequently  appointed  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Acaddmie  des  Sciences. 
Later  he  was  made  librarian  of  Ste-Genevieve  and 
chancellor  of  the  university.  He  built  an  observatory 
in  the  Abbey  of  Ste-Genevieve  and  there  spent  forty 
years  of  strenuous  labour.  He  compiled  in  1753  the 
first  nautical  almanac  for  the  year  1754,  and  subse- 
quently for  175.5-57,  when  Lalande  was  charged  with 
the  publication.  Lacaille  had  calculated  for  his 
treatise,  "L'art  de  v(5rifier  les  dates",  the  eclipses  of 
the  first  nineteen  centuries  of  the  Christian  era; 
Pingre  in  a  second  edition  took  up  his  calculations 
and  extended  them  over  ten  centuries  before  Christ. 
In  1760  he  joined  an  unsuccessful  expedition  to  the 
Island  Rodriguez  in  the  Pacific  to  observe  the  transit 


of  Venus  on  6  June,  1761.  More  satisfactory  re- 
sults were  obtained  from  an  expedition  to  the  French 
Cape  on  Haiti  where  the  next  transit  was  observed 
on  3  June,  1769.  About  1757  he  became  engrossed  in 
the  history  of  comets,  and  in  his  "Cometographie  ou 
Traite  historique  et  th6orique  des  cometes"  (2  vols. 
Paris,  1783-4),  the  material  contained  in  all  the 
ancient  annals  and  more  recent  publications  is  me- 
thodically arranged  and  critically  sifted.  In  1756  he 
pubhshed  a  "Projet  d'une  histoire  d'astronomie  du 
dix-septieme  siecle",  completed  in  1786.  Through 
Lalande's  influence  the  National  Assembly  granted 
three  thousand  francs  to  defray  the  expenses  of  pub- 
lication, but  it  proceeded  slowly  and  at  Pingr6's 
death  was  discontinued.  In  1901  the  whole  work  was 
re-edited  by  Bigourdan  under  the  title:  "Annales 
c61estes  du  dix-septieme  siecle".  Pingr§  also  pub- 
lished "Manuale  Astronomicon  libri  quinque  et 
Arati  Phaenomena,  cum  interpretatione  Gallica  et 
notis"  (2  vols.,  1786),  and  numerous  astronomical 
observations  in  the  "Memoires  de  I'lnstitut"  (1753- 
87),  in  the  "Journal  de  Tr^voux",  in  the  "Phil. 
Trans."  etc. 

In  encyclopedic  works  it  is  commonly  asserted 
that  Pingre  took  an  active  part  in  Jansenistic  quar- 
rels, and  hence  was  relegated  to  provincial  towns  and 
colleges.  Consequently  he  is  often  said  to  have  fallen 
a  victim  to  Roman  intolerance.  The  fact  is  that  during 
his  earlier  career  Pingr6  seems  to  have  been  imbued 
with  Jansenistic  views,  as  is  borne  out  by  the  "Nou- 
velles  Eccl^siastiques",  the  great  Jansenist  organ. 
In  1737  Mgr  de  Salignac,  Bishop  of  Pamiers,  active 
against  Jansenism,  summoned  Pingr(5,  who  was 
severely  rebuked  and  finally  had  to  submit  to  an 
examen  by  some  Jesuit  fathers.  He  expressed  him- 
self willing  to  condemn  the  five  propositions,  de  emm- 
et d'esprit,  at  the  same  time  maintaining  that  he 
could  not  condemn  them  as  propositions  of  Jansenius, 
as  they  were  not  to  be  found  in  his  works.  (It  should 
be  remembered  that  in  1653  and  1656  the  popes  had 
declared  repeatedly  that  the  propositions  were  de 
faeto  contained  in  the  "  Augustinus".)  In  1745  a  gen- 
eral chapter  of  the  fathers  of  Ste-Genevieve  was 
convened;  by  order  of  the  king  Father  Chambroy 
was  elected  superior  general.  Strict  orders  had  been 
issued  to  the  superiors  of  the  conventual  establish- 
ments that  only  such  members  should  be  deputed  as 
were  willing  to  subscribe  to  the  papal  Bulls  and  espe- 
cially "  Unigenitus " .  This  measure  excited  opposi- 
tion. Father  Pingrfi,  then  living  at  Senlis,  and  some 
of  his  fellow  religious  entered  a  vehement  protest 
against  the  proceedings  of  the  chapter.  Father 
ScofBer,  one  of  the  most  determined  opponents  of 
the  election,  was  removed  from  Senlis.  A  similar 
disciplinary  punishment  was  inflicted  on  Pingr^, 
then  professor  of  theology.  According  to  an  in- 
troductory notice  prefaced  to  the  memoirs  of  the 
Jansenist  Abb6  Arnauld  d'Andilly,  in  the  collection 
"M(5moires  sur  I'histoire  de  France  de  Michaud  et 
Poujoulat"  (2nd  series,  IX),  Pingr6  is  their  editor 
(Leyden,  1756).  He  was  therefore  an  active  Jan- 
senist, at  least  until  1747;  his  influence,  however, 
never  became  serious  nor  lasting.  In  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal history  of  the  eighteenth  century,  especially  in 
the  "Memoires  pour  servir  &  I'histoire  eccl&iastique 
pendant  le  18"  siecle  "of  Picot,  his  name  is  not  men- 
tioned. 

Prony,  Notice  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages  d^ Alexandre  Gui  PingrS 
in  Memoiresde  I'lnstitut,  I;  Lalande,  Hist,  de  l' Astronomic  pour 
1796,  pp.  773-8;  Delambre,  Hist,  de  V Astronomie  au  XVIII'. 
siecle,  pp.  664-87 ;  Ventenat,  Notice  sur  la  vie  du  citoyen  Pingri, 
lue  d  txi  s&ance  puhlique  du  Lycee  des  Arts  in  Magasin  Encyclo- 
pMique,  I,  342;  Table  raisonnee  et  alphabHique  des  nouvclles 
Ecclesiastiques  depuis  1728  jusqu'en  1760  inclusivement  (1767), 
s.  w.  Pingr^;   Salignac;    Chanoines  R&guliers  de  Ste-Genevihe. 

J.  Stein. 

Pinna  da  Encarnagao,  Mattheus,  writer  and 
theologian,  b.  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  23  Aug.,  1687;    d. 


PINTO 


103 


PINTURICCHIO 


there,  18  Dec,  1764.    On  3  March,  1703,  he  became  a  page  of  his  book,  several  times  shipwrecked,  taken 

Benedictine  at  the  Abbey  of  Nossa  Senhora  do  Mont-  prisoner  many  times  and  sold  as  a  slave.    He  was  the 

serrate  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  whore  he  also  studied  the  first  to  make  known  the  natural  riches  of  Japan,  and 

humanities  and  philosophy  under  the  learned  Josd  founded  the  first  settlement  near  Yokohama,  in  1548. 


da  Natividade.  After  studying 
theology  at  the  monastery  of 
Bahia  he  was  ordained  priest  24 
March,  1708,  and  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  the- 
ology. Along  with  Caspar  da 
Madre  de  Deus  (d.  about  1780), 
Antonio  de  Sao  Bernardo  (d. 
1774)  and  a  few  others,  he  was 
the  most  learned  Benedictine  of 
his  province  and  his  contempo- 
raries considered  him  the  great- 
est theologian  in  Brazil.  He  was 
likewise  highly  esteemed  for  his 
piety  and  charity  towards  the 
poor,  the  sick,  and  the  neglected. 
In  1726  he  was  elected  abbot  of 
the  monaster)'  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
but  soon  after  his  election  in- 
curred the  displeasure  of  Luiz 
\'^ahia  Monteiro,  the  Governor  of 
Brazil,  who  banished  him  from 
his  monastery  in  1727.  Soon 
afterwards  he  escaped  to  Portu- 


In  1558,  tired  of  wandering,  he 
returned  to  Portugal  where  he 
married,  settling  in  the  town  of 
Almada.  The  first  account  of 
his  travels  is  to  be  found  in  a 
collection  of  Jesuit  letters  pub- 
lished in  Venice  in  1565,  but  the 
best  is  his  own  "PeregrinaQao", 
the  first  edition  of  which  ap- 
peared in  Lisbon  in  1614.  The 
work  is  regarded  as  a  classic  in 
Portugal,  where  Pinto  is  consid- 
ered one  of  their  best  prose  writ- 
ers. In  other  countries,  it  has 
been  enthusiastically  read  by 
some,  by  others  characterized  as 
a  highly  coloured  romance.  But 
it  has  an  element  of  sincerity 
which  is  convincing,  and  its  sub- 
stantial honesty  is  now  generally 
admitted.  It  is  probable  that, 
having  written  it  from  memory, 
he  put  down  his  impressions, 
rather  than  events  as  they  actu- 
ally occurred.  The  Spanish 
edition  by  Francisco  de  Herrara 
appeared  in  1620,  reprinted  in 
The   French   translation   is  by 


COGAN,  Travels  of  Fernando 
Mendes  Pinto,  tr.  (London, 
1891). 

V.    FUENTES. 


gal,  became  very  influential   at 

Court   and    was   restored  to  his  Porthait  of  Pintusicchio  by  Himself 

monastery  by  Cardinal  Motta  in  '^^''"'^  °'  ^-  ^'■"'-  Maggiore,  Spello 

1729.     He  held  the  office  of  abbot  repeatedly  there-     1627,    1645,    1664 

after,  both  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  (1729-31  and  1739)  Figuier  (Paris,  1628,  and  1630).  There  are  three 
and  at  Bahia  in  1746.  In  1732  he  was  elected  pro-  English  editions  by  Cogan  (London,  1663,  1692,  and 
vincial  abbot,  in  which  capacity  he  visited  even  the  1891),  the  last  abridged  and  illustrated, 
most  distant  monasteries 
of  Brazil,  despite  the  great 
difficulty  of  travel.  He 
was  again  elected  provin- 
cial abbot  in  1752,  but  this 
time  he  declined  the  hon- 
our, preferring  to  spend 
his  old  age  in  prayer  and 
retirement .  His  works  are : 
' '  Def  ensio  S .  Matris  Ecole- 
siae"  (Lisbon,  1729),  an 
extensive  treatise  on  grace 
and  free  will  against  Ques- 
nel,  Baius,  Jansenius,  etc. ; 
"Viridario  Evangelico" 
(Lisbon,  1730-37),  four 
volumes  of  sermons  on 
the  Gospels;  "Theologia 
Scholastica  Dogmatica", 
in  six  volumes,  which  he 
did  not  complete  entirely 
nor  was  it  published. 

Dieiario  do  Mosteiro  de  N.  S, 
do  Montserratedo Riode  Janeiro, 
preserved  in  MS.  at  the  Monas- 
tery Library  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
69-74,312-18;  Ramiz  Galvao, 
Apontamentos  historicos  sobre 
a  Ordem  Benedictino  em  general, 
e  em  particular  sobre  o  Modciro 
de  N.  S.  do  Monserrate  do  Rio 
de  Janeiro  in  Revista  Trimensal 
do  Inshtutohistorico,  geographico 
e  ethnographiro  do  Brasil  (Rio 
de  Janeiro,  1872J,  249  sq. 

Michael,  Ott. 


Pinto,  Fernao  Men- 
des, Portuguese  traveller, 
b.  at  JMontemor-o-Velho  near  Coimbra,  c.  1509;  d.  at 
Almada  near  Lisbon,  8  July,  1583.  After  serving  as 
page  to  the  Duke  of  Coimbra,  he  went  to  the  East 
Indies  in  1537,  and,  for  twenty-one  years,  travelled, 
chiefly  in  the  Far  East.  In  the  course  of  his  adven- 
turous career  at  sea,  he  was,  as  he  tells  on  the  title 


St.  Catherine,  Detail  from  "La  Disputa'' 
Pinturicchio,  Appartamento  Borgia,  Rome 


Pinturicchio  (Bernar- 
dino Di  Betto,  surnamed 
Pinturicchio),  b.  at  Ve- 
rona, about  1454;  d.  at  Si- 
ena, 11  December,  1513. 
He  studied  under  Fiorenzo 
di  Lorenzo;  and  his  fellow 
students,  perhaps  because 
of  his  great  facility,  sur- 
named him  Pinturicchio 
(the  dauber).  Pinturic- 
chio did  an  immense 
amount  of  work.  His 
principal  easel  pictures 
are:  "St.  Catherine" 
(National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don); a  "Madonna"  (Ca- 
thedral of  Sanseverino), 
with  the  prothonotary, 
Liberato  Bartello,  kneel- 
ing;"  Portrait  of  a  Child  " 
(Dresden  Gallery); 
"Apollo  and  Marsyas" 
(the  Louvre),  attributed 
to  Perugino,  Francia,  and 
even  Raphael;  the  "Ma- 
donna enthroned  between 
saints",  an  altar-piece 
(Pinacotheca  of  Perugia) ; 
the  "Madonna  of  Monte- 
oliveto"  (communal  palace 
of  San  Gimignano) ;  a  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin ' '  (Pin- 
acotheca of  the  Vatican);  the  "Return  of  Ulysses _ 
(National  Gallery,  London) ;  the  "Ascent  of  Calvary  , 
a  splendid  miniature  (Borromeo  Palace,  Milan).  He 
was  chiefly  a  frescoist,  following  principally  the  process 
of  distemper  {tempera) .   There  are  frescoes  of  his  in  the 


pinz6n 


104 


PIOMBO 


Sistine  Chapel,  in  the  decoration  of  which  he  assisted 
Perugino  in  1480,  Ara  Cceh,  the  Appartamento  Borgia, 
Spello,  Siena,  and  Sta  Maria  del  Popolo.  Modern 
critics  agree  in  recognizing  as  his  two  frescoes  in  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  tlie  "Baptism  of  Jesus"  and  "Moses 
journeying  to  Egypt".  The  Bufahni  commissioned 
him  to  paint  the  hfe  of  St.  Bernardine  for  the  chapel 
at  the  Ara  Coeli;  but  his  chief  work  was  the  decoration 
of  the  Borgia  apartment  entrusted  to  himby  Alexander 
VI.  His  compositions  begin  in  the  Hall  of  Mysteries, 
so  called  because  it  contains  the  "Annunciation",  the 
"Visitation",  the  "Crib",  the  "Resurrection",  the 
"Pentecost",  the  "Ascension";  that  of  the  "Resur- 
rection" contains  a  splendid  portrait  of  Alexander 
VI.  In  the  Hall  of  Saints,  the  most  beautiful  of  all, 
he  has  outlined  with  much  grace  and  brilliancy  the 
histories  of  various  martyrs:  St.  Susanna,  St.  Bar- 
bara, Disputation  of  St.  Catherine,  Visit  of  St. 
Anthony  to  St.  Paul  the  Hermit,  and  the  Martyr- 
dom of  St.  Sebastian.  The  next  hall  is  devoted 
to  the  representation  of  the  Liberal  Arts.  Critics 
generally  deny  that  the  decoration  of  the  last  two 
rooms  is  the  work  of  Pinturicchio,  but  the  three 
large  rooms  which  he  certainly  decorated  form  an 
exquisite  museum.  Following  the  Sienese  school 
Pinturicchio  enlivened  his  paintings  by  making  use  of 
sculptured  reliefs  glistening  with  gold  which  he  mixed 
with  his  frescoes.  In  1501  he  decorated  the  chapel  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  St.  Mary  Major  at  Spello. 
On  the  ceiling  he  painted  four  Sibyls  and  on  the  walls 
the  Annunciation,  the  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds  and 
the  Arrival  of  the  Magi,  and  Jesus  in  the  midst  of  the 
Doctors.  He  had  a  special  love  for  these  pictures  for 
in  them  he  placed  his  own  portrait.  In  1502  Cardinal 
Francisco  Piccolomini  commissioned  him  to  depict  the 
life  of  his  uncle,  Pius  II,  in  ten  large  compositions  on 
the  side  walls  of  the  Piccolomini  library  at  Siena. 
These  frescoes  are  fifteenth-century  tableaux  vivanls  in 
which  people  of  all  conditions  are  represented.  Above 
the  altar  erected  at  the  entrance  to  the  Library  is  seen 
the  Coronation  of  Pius  III.  Pinturicchio,  again  sum- 
moned to  Rome  by  Julius  II,  painted  on  the  ceiling 
of  the  choir  of  Sta  Maria  del  Popolo  splendid  Sibyls 
and  Doctors  of  the  Church,  in  stucco  frames  separated 
by  graceful  arabesques. 

Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  A  new  history  of  painting  in  Italy, 
III  (London,  1866),  2.56;  Burckhakdt  and  Bode,  Le  Cicerone 
tr.  GifiRAHD,  11  (Paris,  1892),  588-91;  Ehrle  and  Stevenson,  Gl'i 
affreschi  del  Pinturicchio  nelV  appartamento  Borgia  (Rome,  1897)  ■ 
Steimann,  Pinturicchio  (Bielefeld,  1898) ;  Boyer  d'Agen,  Pin- 
turicchio in  Siena  (Berlin,  1903);  Ricci,  Pinturicchio,  tr.  into 
French  (Paris,  1903);  Sortais,  Pinturicchio  et  I'Ecole  ombrienne 
in  Excursions  artistiques  et  litteraires  (Paris,  1903),  2nd  series,  1- 
89:  GoFFiN,  Pm(urtccMo  (Paris,  1906);  P£R\Ti,  Pinturicchio  in 
Hist,  de  I'Art  d'Andri  Michel,  IV  (Paris,  1909),  317-29. 

Gaston  Sortais. 

Pinzon,  MartIx  Alonso,  Spanish  navigator  and 
companion  of  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage  to  the  New 
World,  b.  at  Palos  de  Moguer,  1441;  d.  there  at  the 
convent  of  La  Rdbida,  1493.  Sprung  from  a  family  of 
seamen,  he  became  a  hardy  sailor  and  skilful  pilot. 
According  to  Parkman  and  other  historians,  he  sailed 
under  Cousin,  a  navigator  from  Dieppe,  to  the  eastern 
coa.st  of  Africa,  whence  they  were  carried  far  to  the 
south-west.  They  there  discovered  an  unknown  land 
and  a  mighty  river.  Pinz6n's  conduct  on  this  voyage 
was  so  mutinous  that  Cousin  entered  a  complaint  to 
the  admiralty-  on  their  return  home,  and  had  him  dis- 
missed from  the  maritime  service  of  Dieppe.  Re- 
turning to  Spain  Pinz6n  became  acquainted  with 
Columbus  through  Fray  Juan  Perez  de  Marchina, 
prior  of  the  convent  of  La  Rdbida,  and  became  an 
enthusiastic  promoter  of  the  scheme  of  the  great 
navigator.  Other  historians  account  differently  for 
the  origin  of  Pinz6n's  interest  in  Columbus's  project. 
According  to  these,  he  heard  of  the  scheme  se\eral 
years  after  he  had  retired  from  active  life  as  a  sailor, 
and  established  with  his  brothers  a  shipbuilding  firm 


in  his  native  town.  During  a  visit  to  Rome  he  learned 
from  the  Holy  OfRce  of  the  tithes  which  had  been  paid 
from  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  from  a 
country  named  Vinland,  and  examined  the  charts  of 
the  Norman  explorers.  On  his  return  home  he  sup- 
ported the  claims  of  Columbus,  when  his  opinion  was 
sought  by  Queen  Isabella's  advisers  concerning  the 
proposed  voyage.  It  was  he  who  paid  the  one-eighth 
of  the  expense  demanded  from  Columbus  as  his  share, 
and  built  the  three  vessels  for  the  voyage.  Through 
his  influence  also  Columbus  secured  the  crews  for  the 
transatlantic  journey.  Pinz6n  commanded  the 
"Pinta",  and  his  brother  Vicente  Yanez  the  "Nina". 
On  21  November,  1492,  he  deserted  Columbus  off 
Cuba,  hoping  to  be  the  first  to  discover  the  imaginary 
island  of  Osabeque.  He  was  the  first  to  discover 
Haiti  (Hispaniola),  and  the  river  where  he  landed 
(now  the  Porto  Caballo)  was  long  called  after  him 
the  River  of  Martin  Alonso.  He  carried  off  thence 
four  men  and  two  girls,  intending  to  steal  them  as 
slaves,  but  he  was  compelled  to  restore  them  to  their 
homes  by  Columbus,  whom  he  rejoined  on  the  coast 
of  Haiti  on  6  January,  1493.  It  was  during  this 
absence  that  the  flagship  was  driven  ashore,  and 
Columbus  compelled  to  take  to  the  "Nina".  In 
excuse  for  his  conduct,  Pinz6n  afterwards  alleged 
stress  of  weather.  Off  the  coast  of  the  Azores  he 
again  deserted,  and  set  sail  with  all  speed  for  Spain, 
hoping  to  be  the  first  to  communicate  the  news  of  the 
discovery.  Driven  by  a  hurricane  into  the  port  of 
Bayonne  in  Galicia,  he  sent  a  letter  to  the  king  asking 
for  an  audience.  The  monarch  refusing  to  receive 
anj'one  but  the  admiral,  Pinz6n  sailed  for  Palos,  which 
he  reached  on  the  same  day  as  Columbus  (15  March, 
1493).  Setting  out  immediately  for  Madrid  to  make 
a  fresh  attempt  to  see  the  king,  he  was  met  by  a 
messenger  who  forbade  him  to  appear  at  court.  Anger 
and  jealousy,  added  to  the  privations  of  the  voyage, 
undermined  his  health,  and  led  to  his  death  a  few 
months  later. 

In  addition  to  the  various  biographies  of  Columbus,  consult 
especially  Ascensio,  Martin  Alonso  Pinzdn,  estudio  histdrico 
(Madrid,    1892) ;     Fernandez   Duro,    Coldn,    Pinzdn    (Madrid, 

1883).  Thomas  Kennedy. 

Piombo,  Sebastian  del,  more  correctly  known  as 
Sebastian  Luciani,  Venetian  portrait  painter,  b.  at 
Venice,  1485;  d.  in  Rome,  1547.  He  was  known  as 
del  Piombo,  from 


the  office,  con- 
ferred upon  him 
by  Clement  VII, 
of  keeper  of  the 
leaden  seals.  He 
was  a  pupil  of 
Giovanni  Bellini, 
and  later  on  of 
Giorgione.  His 
first  idea  was  to 
become  a  religious 
or  an  ecclesiastic, 
and  it  is  probable 
that  he  t  ook  minor 
orders  and  had 
every  intention  of 
proceeding  to  the 
priesthood,  but  he 
was  strongly  in- 
terested in  music, 
devoted  consider- 
able time  to  study- 
ing that  art,  and  in  so  doing  became  acquainted  with 
Giorgione,  a  clever  musician,  who  it  appears  induced 
him  to  delay  his  procedure  towards  the  priesthood  and 
give  some  attention  to  painting.  It  was  on  Giorgione's 
recommendation  that  he  entered  the  studio  of  Bellini 
and,  later,  worked  with  Giorgione  in  his  own  studio. 
From  the  time  of  his  acquaintance  with  him,  we  hear 


fH\  ^n^AiTI^No  dii.  piombo 

,     III  loph  \LM,/J\\')  ,    , 


PIONIUS 


105 


PIONIUS 


no  more  of  his  intention  to  embrace  an  ecclesiastical 
career.  His  earlier  paintings  were  executed  in  Venice, 
but  he  was  invited  to  Rome  by  Agostino  Chigi,  who 
was  then  building  the  Farnesina  Palace,  and  some  of 
the  decoration  of  the  rooms  was  put  in  the  hands  of 
Luciani.  His  work  attracted  the  attention  of  Michel- 
angelo, and  the  two  men  became  warm  friends.  A 
little  later  Raphael  saw  his  work  and  praised  it 
highly,  but  they  were  never  friends  because  of  the 
jealousy  existing  between  Michelangelo  and  Raphael 
and  the  friendship  between  Luciani  and  Michel- 
angelo. The  works  which  Luciani  executed  in  Rome 
and   at   Viterbo   betrayed   the   strong    influence   of 


%^'.    •••X ^^           •    W 

M^^M^:'^-.A 

Tht3  Raising  of  Lazaetts 
Sebastiano  del  Piombo,  National  Gallery,  London 

Michelangelo.  Their  grandeur  of  composition 
could  have  come  from  no  other  artist  of  the  time, 
but  their  magnificence  of  colour  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  great  sculptor,  and  is  the  result  of  Luciani's 
genius.  A  special  event  in  Luciani's  career  is  con- 
nected with  the  commission  given  to  Raphael  to 
paint  the  picture  of  the  Transfiguration.  Cardinal 
de'  Medici,  who  commissioned  the  picture,  desired 
at  the  same  time  to  give  an  altar-piece  to  his  titular 
cathedral  at  Narbonne,  and  commissioned  a  painting 
to  be  called  the  "Raising  of  Lazarus",  and  to  be  of 
the  same  size  as  Raphael's  "Transfiguration".  The 
two  works  were  finished  at  about  the  same  time,  and 
were  exhibited.  It  was  perfectly  evident  that  Luciani 
owed  a  great  deal  to  the  influence  and  the  assistance 
of  Michelangelo,  but  the  colouring  was  so  magnifi- 
cent, and  the  effect  so  superb,  that  it  created  great 
excitement  in  Rome;  notwithstanding  that  the 
"Transfiguration"  by  Raphael  was  regarded  as  the 
greater  picture,  Luciani's  work  was  universally 
admired.  The  picture  is  now  in  the  English  National 
Gallery. 

Luciani  painted  a  great  many  portraits,  one  of 
Cardinal  de'  Medici,  another  of  Aretino,  more  than 
one  portrait  of  members  of  the  Doria  family,  of  the 
Famese,  and  of  the  Gonzaga  famihes,  and  a  clever 
one  of  Baccio  Bandinelli  the  painter.     His  painting 


was  marked  by  vigour  of  colouring,  sweetness,  and 
grace;  his  portraits  are  exceedingly  true  and  lifelike, 
the  draperies  well  painted,  and  well  drawn,  but  the 
feature  of  his  work  is  the  extraordinary  quality  of  his 
colour  and  the  atmosphere  with  all  the  delicate 
subtleties  of  colour  value  which  it  gives.  In  many  of 
his  pictures  the  colouring  is  as  clear  and  fresh  to-day 
as  it  was  when  it  was  first  painted,  and  this  more  espe- 
cially applies  to  the  carnations,  in  other  men's  work 
the  first  to  fade.  After  the  death  of  Raphael,  he 
was  regarded  as  the  chief  painter  in  Rome,  and  it 
was  then  that  he  acquired  his  position  as  keeper  of 
the  lead  seals,  an  office  which  was  lucrative  and  im- 
portant, and  which  enabled  him  to  have  more  leisure 
than  hitherto  had  been  at  his  disposal.  His  death 
took  place  at  the  time  that  he  was  painting  the  chapel 
of  the  Chigi  family,  a  work  which  was  to  be  finished 
by  Salviati.  His  pictures  can  be  studied  in  Florence, 
Madrid,  Naples,  Parma,  8t.  Petersburg,  and  Tra- 
vesio,  three  of  his  most  notable  portraits  being  those 
at  Naples  and  Parma,  and  the  fine  portrait  of  Cardi- 
nal Pole,  now  at  St.  Petersburg. 

See  Vasari's  Lidcs  of  the  Painters,  various  editions;  and  a  work 
by  Claudio  Tolomei,  cited  by  Lanzi,  and  known  as  Pitturi  di 
Lendinara. 

George  Charles  Willia.mson. 

Pionius,  Saint,  martyred  at  Smyrna,  12  March, 
250.  Pionius,  with  Sabina  and  Asclepiades,  was  ar- 
rested on  23  February,  the  anniversary  of  8t.  Poly- 
carp's  martyrdom.  They  had  passed  the  previous 
night  in  prayer  and  fasting.  Knowing  of  his  impend- 
ing arrest,  Pionius  had  fastened  fetters  round  the 
necks  of  himself  and  his  companions  to  signify  that 
they  were  already  condemned.  People  seeing  them 
led  off  unbound  might  suppose  that  they  were  pre- 
pared, like  so  many  other  Christians  in  Smyrna,  the 
bishop  included,  to  sacrifice.  Early  in  the  morning, 
after  they  had  partaken  of  the  Holy  Bread  and  of 
water,  they  were  conducted  to  the  forum.  The  place 
was  thronged  with  Greeks  and  Jews,  for  it  was  a  great 
Sabbath  and  therefore  a  general  holiday  in  the  city — 
an  indication  of  the  importance  of  the  Jews  in  Smyrna. 
Pionius  harangued  the  multitude.  He  begged  the 
Greeks  to  remember  what  Homer  bad  said  about  not 
mocking  the  corpse  of  an  enemy.  Let  them  refrain 
therefore  from  mocking  those  Christians  who  had 
apostatized.  He  then  turned  to  the  Jews  and  quoted 
Moses  and  Solomon  to  the  same  effect.  He  ended 
with  a  vehement  refusal  to  offer  sacrifice.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  usual  interrogatories  and  threats,  after 
which  Pionius  and  his  companions  were  relegated  to 
prison,  to  await  the  arrival  of  the  proconsul.  Here 
they  found  other  confessors,  among  them  a  Montanist. 
Many  pagans  visited  them,  and  Christians  who  had 
sacrificed,  lamenting  their  fall.  The  latter  Pionius  ex- 
horted to  repentance.  A  further  attempt  before  the 
arrival  of  the  proconsul  was  made  to  force  Pionius  and 
his  companions  into  an  act  of  apostasy.  They  were 
carried  off  to  a  temple  where  every  effort  was  made  to 
compel  them  to  participate  in  a  sacrifice.  On  12 
March,  Pionius  was  brought  before  the  proconsul  who 
first  tried  persuasion  and  then  torture.  Both  having 
failed,  Pionius  was  condemned  to  be  burnt  alive.  He 
suffered  in  company  with  Metrodorus,  a,  Marcionite 
priest.  His  feast  is  kept  by  the  Latins  on  1  Feb. ;  by 
the  Greeks  on  11  March.  The  true  day  of  his  martyr- 
dom, according  to  the  Acts,  was  12  March.  Eusebius 
("H.E.",  IV,  xv;  "Chron.",  p.  17,  ed.  Schoene)  places 
the  martyrdom  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus.  His  mis- 
take was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  he  found  the 
martyrdom  of  Pionius  in  a  volume  containing  the 
Acts  of  Martyrs  of  an  earlier  date.  Possibly  his  AIS. 
lacked  the  chronological  note  in  our  present  ones. 
For  the  Life  of  Polycarp  by  Pionius,  see  Polycarp, 
Saint.  Did  Pionius  before  his  martyrdom  celebrate 
with  bread  and  water?  We  know  from  St.  Cyprian 
(Ep.  63)  that  this  abuse  existed  in  his  time.    But  note 


PIOUS 


106 


PIOUS 


(1)  the  bread  is  spoken  of  as  Holy,  but  not  the  water; 

(2)  it  is  unlikely  that  Pionius  would  celebrate  with 
only  two  persons  present.  It  is  more  likely  therefore 
that  we  have  here  an  account,  not  of  a  celebration, 
but  of  a  private  Communion  (see  Funk,  "Abhand- 
lungen",  I,  2S7). 

The  Acts  of  Piuniua  exist  in  two  Latin  translations,  one  pub- 
lished b>'  SuRius  and  the  Bollandists  (Feb.,  1),  the  other  by 
RuiNART.  The  Greek  original  was  first  published  by  Gebhabdt 
inArchiBfiir  davxscke  Philolooie,  XVIII(Berlin,  1896),  reprinted 
in  his  Aria  -mart u rum  selecia  (Berlin,  1902)  and  in  Knopf,  ^usge- 
wahlte  Mfirtyraclr.n  (Tubingen,  1901).  See  also  Leclercq,  Les 
marti/T!^.  II.  17  sqq.;  Allaro,  Hist,  des  persecutions,  II,  375  sqq.; 
Zahn,  Fiirbchungen  zur  Gcscti.  des  neutest.  Kanons,  IV,  271  sqq. 

J.  F.  Bacchus. 
Pious  Bequests.     See  Legacies. 

Pious  Fund  of  the  Californias,  The  (Fondo 
PiADOso  DE  LAS  Californias),  had  its  origin,  in  1697, 
in  voluntary  donations  made  by  individuals  and  reli- 
gious bodies  in  Mexico  to  members  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  to  enable  them  to  propagate  the  Catholic  Faith 
in  the  territory  then  known  as  California.  The  early 
contributions  to  the  fund  were  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  missionaries,  the  most  active  of  whom  were  Juan 
Maria  Salvatierra  and  Francisco  Eusebio  Kino.  The 
later  and  larger  donations  took  the  form  of  agreements 
by  the  donors  to  hold  the  property  donated  for  the 
use  of  the  missions  and  to  devote  the  income  therefrom 
to  that  purpose.  In  1717  the  capital  sums  of  prac- 
tically all  of  the  donations  were  turned  over  to  the 
Jesuits,  and  from  that  year  until  the  expulsion  of  the 
members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  from  Mexico  the 
Pious  Fund  was  administered  by  them.  In  1768,  with 
the  expulsion  of  all  members  of  the  Society  from  Span- 
ish territory  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Charles  III 
of  Spain,  the  Crown  of  Spain  assumed  the  administra- 
tion of  the  fund  and  retained  it  until  Mexican  inde- 
pendence was  achieved  in  1821.  During  this  period 
(17t'iS-l,S21)  missionary  labours  in  California  were 
divided,  the  territory  of  Upper  California  being  con- 
fided to  the  Franciscans,  and  that  of  Lower  California 
to  the  Dominicans.  Prior  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits  thirteen  missions  had  been  founded  in  Lower 
California,  and  by  the  year  1823  the  Franciscans  had 
established  twenty-one  missions  in  Upper  California. 
In  1S21  the  newly  established  Government  of  Mexico 
assumed  the  administration  of  the  fund  and  continued 
to  administer  it  until  1840. 

In  1SU6  Mexico  passed  an  Act  authorizing  a  petition 
to  the  Holy  Sec  for  the  creation  of  a  bishopric  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  declaring  that  upon  its  creation  "the 
property  belonging  to  the  Pious  Fund  of  the  Califor- 
nias shall  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  new  bishop 
and  his  successors,  to  be  by  them  managed  and  em- 
ployed for  its  objects,  or  other  similar  ones,  always 
respecting  the  wishes  of  the  founders".  In  response 
to  this  petition,  Gregory  XVI,  in  1840,  erected  the 
Californias  into  a  diocese  and  appointed  Francisco 
Garcia  Diego  (then  president  of  the  missions  of  the 
Californias)  as  the  first  bishop  of  the  diocese.  Shortly 
after  his  consecration,  Mexico  delivered  the  properties 
of  the  Pious  Fund  to  Bishop  Diego,  and  they  were 
held  and  administered  by  him  until  1842,  when  General 
Santa  Ana,  President  of  Mexico,  promulgated  a  decree 
repealing  the  above-quoted  provision  of  the  Act  of 
1836,  and  directing  that  the  Government  should  again 
assume  charge  of  the  fund.  The  properties  of  the 
fund  were  surrendered  under  compulsion  to  the  Mexi- 
can Government  in  April,  1842,  and  on  24  October  of 
that  year  a  decree  was  promulgated  by  General  Santa 
Ana  directing  that  the  properties  of  the  fund  be 
sold,  and  the  proceeds  incorporated  in  the  national 
treasury,  and  further  providing  that  the  sale  should 
be  for  a  sum  representing  the  annual  income  of  the 
properties  capitalized  at  six  per  cent  per  annum.  The 
decree  provided  that  "the  pubhc  treasury  will  ac- 
knowledge an  indebtedness  of  six  per  cent  per  annum 
on  the  total  proceeds  of  the  sales",  and  specially 


pledged  the  revenue  from  tobacco  for  the  payment  of 
that  amount  "to  carry  on  the  objects  to  which  said 
fund  is  destined". 

By  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  2  Feb.,  1848, 
Upper  California  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by 
Mexico,  and  all  claims  of  citizens  of  the  United  States 
against  the  Republic  of  Mexico  which  had  theretofore 
accrued  were  discharged  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty. 
After  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  (and  indeed 
for  some  years  before)  Mexico  made  no  payments 
for  the  benefit  of  the  missions.  The  archbishop  and 
bishops  of  California  claimed  that,  as  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  they  were  entitled  to  demand  and  re- 
ceive from  Mexico  for  the  benefit  of  the  missions 
within  their  dioceses  a  proper  proportion  of  the  sums 
which  Mexico  had  assumed  to  pay  in  its  legislative 
decree  of  24  October,  1S42.  By  a  convention  between 
the  United  States  and  Mexico,  concluded  4  July,  1868, 
and  proclaimed  1  February,  1S69,  a  Mexican  and 
American  Mixed  Claims  Commission  was  created  to 
consider  and  adjudge  the  validity  of  claims  held  by 
citizens  of  either  country  against  the  Government  of 
the  other  which  had  arisen  between  the  date  of  the 
Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  and  the  date  of  the 
convention  creating  the  commission.  To  this  com- 
mission the  prelates  of  Upper  California,  in  1869,  pre- 
sented their  claims  against  Mexico  for  such  part  of 
twenty-one  years'  interest  on  the  Pious  Fund  (accrued 
between  1848  and  1869)  payable  under  the  terms  of 
the  Santa  Ana  decree  of  October,  1842,  as  was  prop- 
erly apportionable  to  the  missions  of  Upper  Califor- 
nia (Lower  California  having  remained  Mexican 
territory). 

Upon  the  submission  of  this  claim  for  decision  the 
Mexican  and  American  commissioners  disagreed  as 
to  its  proper  disposition,  and  it  was  referred  to  the 
umpire  of  the  commission,  Sir  Edward  Thornton,  then 
British  Ambassador  at  '\\'ashington.  On  11  Nov., 
1875,  the  umpire  rendered  an  award  in  favour  of  the 
archbishop  and  bishops  of  California.  By  that  award 
the  value  of  the  fund  at  the  time  of  its  sale  under  the 
decree  of  1842  was  finally  fixed  at  $1,435,033.  The 
annual  interest  on  this  sum  at  six  per  cent  (the  rate 
fixed  by  the  decree  of  1842)  amounted  to  $86,101.98 
and  for  the  twenty-one  years  between  1848  and  1869 
totalled  $1,808,141.58.  The  umpire  held  that  of  this 
amount  one-half  should  equitably  be  held  apportion- 
able to  the  missions  in  Upper  California,  located  in 
American  territory,  and  therefore  awarded  to  the 
United  States  for  the  account  of  the  archbishop  and 
bishops  of  California,  $904,070.79.  This  judgment 
was  paid  in  gold  by  Mexico  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  the  Convention  of  1868,  in  thirteen  annual 
instalments.  Mexico,  however,  then  disputed  its  ob- 
ligations to  pay  any  interest  accruing  after  the  period 
covered  by  the  award  of  the  Mixed  Claims  Commis- 
sion (that  is,  after  1869),  and  diplomatic  negotiations 
were  opened  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
with  the  Government  of  Mexico,  which  resulted,  after 
some  years,  in  the  signing  of  a  protocol  between  the 
two  Governments,  on  22  May,  1902,  by  which  the 
question  of  INIexico's  liability  was  submitted  to  the 
Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration  at  The  Hague.  This 
was  the  first  International  controversy  submitted  to 
that  tribunal.  By  the  terms  of  the  protocol  the 
Arbitral  Court  was  to  decide  first  whether  the  liability 
of  Mexico  to  make  annual  payments  to  the  United 
States  for  the  account  of  the  Roman  Catholic  prelates 
of  California  had  been  rendered  res  judicnta  by  the 
award  of  the  Mixed  Claims  Commission  and,  second, 
if  not,  whether  the  claim  of  the  United  States,  that 
Mexico  was  bound  to  continue  such  payments,  was 
just. 

On  14  October,  1902,  the  tribunal  at  The  Hague 
made  an  award  adjudging  that  the  liability  of  Mexico 
was  established  by  the  principle  of  res  jitilicata,  and 
by  virtue  of  the  arbitral  sentence  of  Sir  Edward 


PIOUS 


107 


PIRANESI 


Thornton,  as  umpire  of  the  Mixed  Claims  Commis- 
sion; that  in  consequence  the  Mexican  Government 
w!is  bound  to  pay  to  the  United  States,  for  the  use  of 
the  Roman  Cathohc  archbishop  and  bishops  of  Cali- 
fornia, the  sum  of  $1,420,682.67,  in  extinguishment  of 
the  annuities  which  had  accrued  from  1869  to  1902, 
and  was  under  the  further  obligation  to  pay  "per- 
petually" an  annuity  of  $43,050.99,  in  money  having 
legal  currency  in  Mexico.  The  Government  of  Mexico 
has  since  the  date  of  The  Hague  award  complied  with 
its  provisions,  and  annually  pays  to  the  Government 
of  the  United  States,  in  Mexican  silver,  for  the  use  of 
the  Catholic  prelates  of  California,  the  sum  adjudged 
to  be  due  from  it  as  a  "perpetual"  annuity. 

Transcript  of  Record  of  Proceedings  before  the  Mexican  and 
American  Mixed  Claims  Commission  with  Relation  to  .  .  . 
Claim  Xo.  493,  American  Docket  (Washington,  1902);  Diplomatic 
Correspondence  Relalii'e  to  ''The  Pious  Fund  of  the  Californias" 
(Washington,  1902);  United  States  vs.  Mexico,  .  .  .  Senate 
Document  No.  28,  57th  Congress,  Second  Session  (Washington, 
1902). 

Garret  W.  McEnbrney. 

Pious  Society  of  Missions,  The,  founded  by  Ven. 
Vincent  Mary  Pallotti  in  1835.  The  members  of  the 
society  are  generally  called  Pallottini  Fathers.  Its  ob- 
ject is  to  preserve  the  Faith  among  Catholics,  espe- 
cially among  emigrants,  who  are  exposed  to  many 
grave  dangers,  and  to  propagate  the  Faith  among 
non-Catholics  and  infidels.  The  Society  of  Missions 
embraces  three  classes :  (1)  priests,  clerics,  and  lay- 
brothers;  (2)  sisters,  who  help  the  priests  in  their  mis- 
sionary works  as  teachers  and  catechists,  and  who 
care  for  the  temporal  necessities  of  their  churches  and 
houses;  (3)  affihated  ecclesiastics  and  lay  people.  The 
sisters  live  a  community  life,  and  follow  the  Rule  of 
St .  Francis.  They  dedicate  themselves  to  the  spiritual 
and  temporal  welfare  of  their  sex.  They  are  espe- 
cially engaged  in  missionary  work  among  the  emigrants 
in  America,  and  the  infidels  in  Africa  and  Australia. 
The  third  class  consists  of  both  the  secular  and  regu- 
lar clergy  and  the  laity  who  are  affiliated  with  the 
Society  of  Missions  and  help  by  their  prayers,  works, 
and  financial  aid  the  propagation  of  the  Faith. 

The  founder  prescribed  that  his  society  should  be  a 
medium  between  the  secular  and  the  regular  clergy. 
He  desired  to  foster  the  work  of  the  Catholic  Apos- 
tolate.  This  desire  of  his  was  strikingly  symbolized  by 
the  annual  celebration  of  the  octave  (which  he  inau- 
gurat  ed  in  1836)  and  the  feast  of  Epiphany  in  Rome  (see 
Pallotti,  Vincent  Mary,  Venerable).  He  gave  to 
his  society  the  name  of  "Catholic  Apostolate",  after- 
wards changed  by  Pius  IX  to  the  "Pious  Society  of 
Missions".  The  word  Pious  isto  be  taken  in  the  sense 
of  the  Latin  pia,  i.  e.,  devoted  or  dedicated  to  God. 
On  9  Jan.,  1835,  Pallotti  conceived  the  plan  of  his  in- 
stitute and  submitted  it  to  the  Apostolic  See,  and  re- 
ceived the  required  approbation  through  the  cardinal 
vicar,  Odescalchi,  on  4  April,  1835,  as  again  by  an- 
other rescript  on  29  May,  and  finally  by  Pope  Gregory 
XVI  on  14  July  of  the  same  year.  Nearly  all  religious 
orders  and  communities  favoured  the  newly-created 
institute  with  a  share  in  all  their  spiritual  works  and 
indulgences.  In  the  first  years  of  its  existence  the 
Pious  Society  of  Missions  had  among  its  affiliated 
members,  twenty-five  cardinals,  many  bishops,  Ro- 
man princes,  and  religious  communities  and  societies, 
as  also  men  known  in  that  time  as  great  apostles. 
Blessed  Caspar  del  Buffalo,  the  founder  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Most  Precious  Blood  and  Maria  Clausi  of 
the  Order  of  St.  Francis  of  Paula.  For  a  time  the  So- 
ciety of  the  Propagation  of  Faith  in  Lyons  feared  that 
the  new  society  would  interfere  with  its  special  work. 
Pallotti  satisfied  the  Holy  See  that  the  purpose  of  his 
society  was  different  from  that  of  the  Propagation. 
As  the  name,  "Catholic  Apostolate",  occasioned  ob- 
jections in  some  quarters,  it  was  changed  to  the 
"Pious  Society  of  Missions". 

At  the  Camaldolese  convent  near  Frascati,  he  wrote 


the  constitution  and  rules  for  the  society,  which  Pius 
IX  approved  ad  tempus,^  1846.  According  to  them, 
the  members  of  the  society  should,  after  two  years' 
novitiate,  promise  four  things,  poverty,  chastity, 
obedience,  and  refusal  of  any  ecclesiastical  dignity, 
except  by  obedience  to  the  Holy  See.  Pope  Pius  X 
approved  ad  experiendum  the  newly-revised  rules 
and  constitutions,  December,  1903,  for  six  years,  and 
gave  the  final  approbation  on  5  Nov.,  1909.  The 
mother-house  is  in  the  Via  Pettinari  57,  Rome,  at- 
tached to  the  church  of  San  Salvatore.  Pallotti  sent 
his  first  missionary  fathers  to  London  in  1844,  to 
take  care  of  Italian  emigrants  in  the  Sardinian  Ora- 
tory. Rev.  D.  Marquese  Joseph  Fak  di  Bruno 
built  the  church  of  St.  Peter  in  Hatton  Garden 
which  is  the  principal  church  of  the  Italians  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  one  of  the  generals  of  the  society,  and 
wrote  "Catholic  Belief",  a  clear  and  concise  exposi- 
tion of  Catholic  doctrine,  especially  intended  for  non- 
Catholics.  Over  one  million  copies  of  this  book  were 
sold,  and  it  was  translated  into  Italian  by  the  author. 
Under  his  generalate,  the  society  extended  its  activ- 
ity beyond  Rome,  Rocca  Priora,  and  London  to  other 
countries.  He  received  from  Leo  XIII  the  church  of 
S.  Silvestre  in  Capite  in  Rome  for  the  use  of  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking colony  there.  In  Masio  in  northern 
Italy,  he  established  an  international  college,  a  mission 
at  Hastings,  England,  and  in  London  (St.  Boniface's) 
for  the  German  colony;  in  Limburg,  Ehrenbreitstein, 
and  Vallemdar  there  are  flourishing  colleges  for  the 
missions  in  Kamerun,  West  Africa.  These  missions 
have,  now  a  vicar  Apostolic  and  12  houses,  with  70 
schools  belonging  to  it.  In  South  America  there  are 
establishments  at  Montevideo,  Mercedes,  Saladas, 
and  Suipacha;  14  missions  of  the  society  in  Brazil  em- 
brace a  territory  three  times  the  size  of  the  State  of 
New  York.  Rev.  Dr.  E.  Kirner  started  the  first  Ital- 
ian Mission  in  New  York  City  in  1883,  afterwards  one 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Newark,  N.  J.,  Hammondton,  N. 
J.,  and  Baltimore,  Md.  In  North  America  the  Pallot- 
tini Fathers  have  at  present  over  100,000  Italian  em- 
igrants under  their  spiritual  care.  The  society,  in 
the  year  1909,  was  divided  into  four  provinces,  the 
Itahan,  American,  English,  and  German. 

John  Vogel. 

Piperno.  See  Terracina,  Sezze,  and  Piperno, 
Diocese  of. 

Firanesi,  Giambattista,  an  Italian  etcher  and 
engraver,  b.  at  Venice,  1720;  d.  in  Rome,  9  Nov., 
1778.  His  uncle  Lucchesi  gave  him  lessons  in  drawing, 
until  in  1738  his  father,  a  mason,  sent  him  to  Rome  to 
study  architecture  under  Valeriani  and  engraving 
under  Vasi.  He  did  not  return  except  for  a  brief  visit 
to  his  family.  In  1741  he  brought  out  a  work  on 
arches,  bridges,  and  other  remains  of  antiquity,  a 
notable  monument  of  black  and  white  art;  thereafter 
he  opened  a  gallery  for  the  sale  of  prints,  chiefly  his 
own.  He  was  a  rapid  and  facile  worker  and  etched 
more  than  2000  large  plates,  full  of  detail,  vigour,  and 
brilliancy.  As  a  rule  he  drew  directly  on  copper,  and 
hence  his  work  is  bold,  free,  and  spirited  to  a  marked 
degree;  his  shadows  are  luminous,  but  at  times  there 
is  too  much  chiaroscuro.  The  result  is  a  dramatic 
alternation  of  black  and  white,  and  of  light  and  shade, 
which  deservedly  won  for  him  the  name  of  "the  Rem- 
brandt of  architecture". 

Skilful  and  artistic  printing  lent  an  added  charm  to 
his  proofs,  and  the  poor  impressions  that  exist  in  west- 
ern Europe  come  from  plates  that  were  captured  by 
British  warships  during  the  Napoleonic  wars.  Some 
of  the  etchings  in  his  twenty-nine  folio  volumes  are  on 
double-elephant  paper,  ten  feet  in  length.  While  he 
achieved  a  work  of  magnitude  in  pictorial  records  of 
Roman  monuments  of  antiquity  and  of  the  Renais- 
sance, and  gave  immense  archaeological,  antiquarian, 
and  topographical  value  to  this  work,  the  artistic 


PIRHING 


108 


PIRKHEIMER 


1 

quality  always  predominates.  He  was  fond  of  peo- 
pling his  ruins  with  Callot-like  figures,  and  "likeCallot 
makes  great  use  of  the  swelling  line"  (Hind).  His 
plates  ultimately  came  into  the  possession  of  the  pope. 
Although  not  eminent  as  an  architect  he  repaired 
among  other  edifices  the  church  of  S.  Maria  del 
Popolo,  and  the  Priory  of  Malta,  in  which  is  a  life-size 
statue  to  his  memory.  Piranesi  married  a  peasant, 
and  his  children,  Francesco  and  Laura,  were  of  great 
assistance  to  him  towards  the  end  of  his  laborious  life. 
Laura's  touch  strongly  resembles  that  of  her  father. 
He  was  decorated  with  the  Order  of  Christ  and  was 
made  a  member  of  the  London  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
His  works  are:  "Ro- 
man Antiquities" 
(220  plates);  Views 
of  Rome  (130  plates); 
Antique  Statues, 
^'ases  and  Busts  (350 
plates  )  ;  Magnifi- 
cence of  the  Romans 
(47  plates). 

DELABORDE.Ln  Gmvure 
(tr.  London,  ISSfi) ;  Hind, 
A  Short  History  of  En- 
gravifiQ  and  Etching  (Lon- 
don, 190S);  HUNEKER, 
Promi'tut'ies  of  an  Impres- 
sionist (New  York,  1910). 

Leigh  Hunt. 

Pirhing,  Ernri- 
cus,  b.  at  Sigarthin, 
near  Passau,  1606; 
d.  between  1(378  and 
1681.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-two  he  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus,  where  he  gave  instruction 
in  the  Sacred  Sciences.  He  taught  canon  law  and 
Scripture  for  tweh'e  years  at  Dillingen,  where  he  was 
still  living  in  1675.  His  "Jus  canonicum  in  V  libros 
Decretalium  distributum"  (5  vols.,  Dillingen,  1674- 
77;  4  vols.,  Dilhngen,  1722;  5  vols., Venice,  1759)  marks 
a  progress  in  canonical  science  in  Germany,  for  al- 
though he  maintains  the  classical  divisions  of  the 
"Corpus  Juris",  he  gives  a  complete  and  synthetic 
explanation  of  the  canonical  legislation  of  the  matters 
which  he  treats.  He  published  also,  under  the  form  of 
theses,  seven  pamphlets  on  the  titles  of  the  first  book 
of  the  Decretals,  which  were  resumed  in  his  "Jus 
Canonicum";  and  an  "Apologia"  against  two  ser- 
mons of  the  Protestant  Balduinus  (Ingolstadt,  1652; 
Munich,  1653).  After  his  death  one  of  his  colleagues 
published  a  "Synopsis  Pirhingana",  or  resum^  of  his 
"Jus  Canonicum"  (Dillingen,  1695;  Venice,  1711). 

De  Backer-Sommervogel,  Bibliotheque  des  ecrivains  de  la 
C.  de  J.  (LiSge,  1872),  II,  1999;  Schulte,  Die  Gcsch.  der  Quellen 
u.  LiteratuT  des  kanonischen  Rechts  (Stuttgart,  1880),  III,  143. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Pirkheimer,  Charitas,  Abbess  of  the  Convent  of 
St.  Clara,  of  the  Poor  Clares,  in  Nuremberg,  and  sis- 
ter of  the  celebrated  Humanist  Willibald  Pirkheimer, 
b.  in  Nuremberg,  21  March,  1466;  d.  there  19 
August,  15.'i2.  At  the  age  of  twelve  she  obtained 
a  remarkable  spiritual  formation  in  the  cloister  of  St. 
Clara.  It  is  not  known  when  she  entered  the  religious 
life.  She  found  a  friend  in  Apollonia  Tucher,  whom 
her  nephew,  Christoph  Scheurl,  entitles  "The  crown 
of  her  convent,  a  mirror  of  virtue,  a  model  of  the  sis- 
terhood," and  who  became  prioress  in  1494.  She  also, 
toward  the  end  of  the  century,  became  a  friend  of  the 
cousin  of  Apollonia,  the  provost,  Sixtus  Tucher.  This 
friendship  finds  expression  in  thirty-four  letters  of 
Tucher  addressed  to  the  two  nuns,  treating  principally 
of  spiritual  subjects  and  of  the  contemplative  life. 

Charitas,  who  in  1500  was  a  teacher  and  perhaps 
also  mistress  of  novices,  was  chosen  on  20  Decem- 
ber, 1503,  as  abbess.     The  first  twenty  years  of  her 


The  Temple  of  Concord  in  the  Roman  Fortjm 
Etching  bj-  Giambattista  Piranesi 


tenure  of  ofl5ce  she  passed  in  the  peace  of  contemplative 
life.  She  was  able  to  read  the  Latin  authors,  and 
thereby  acquired  a  classic  style.  The  works  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  especially  of  St.  Jerome, 
were  her  favourite  reading.  In  her  studies  her 
brother  Willibald  was  her  guide  and  teacher.  He 
dedicated  to  her  in  1513  his  Latin  translation  of 
Plutarch's  Treatise  "On  the  Delayed  ^'engeance  of 
the  Deity"  and  praises  in  the  preface  her  education 
and  love  for  study,  against  which  Charitas,  "moie 
disturbed  than  astonished",  protested,  claiming  that 
she  was  not  a  scholar,  but  only  the  friend  of  learned 
men.     In  1519  he  dedicated  to  his  sisters,  Charitas 

and  Clara,  who  since 

1494  had  also  been  a 
Poor  Clare,  the  works 
of  St.  Fulgentius,and 
in  1521  he  translated 
for  them  the  sermons 
of  St.  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus.  Several 
of  Pirkheimer's  hu- 
manist friends  be- 
came acquainted 
with  the  highly  cul- 
tivated abbess.  Con- 
rad Celtcs  presented 
her  with  his  edition 
of  the  works  of  the 
nun  Hrotsvit  (Ros- 
witha)  of  Gander- 
sheim,  and  his  own 
poems,  and,  in  a  eu- 
logy, praises  her  as  a 
rare  adornment  of 
the  German  Father- 
land. Charitas  thanked  him,  but  advised  him  frankly 
to  rise  from  the  study  of  pagan  writings  to  that 
of  the  Sacred  Books,  from  earthly  to  heavenly 
pursuits.  Christoph  Scheurl  dedicated  to  her  in 
1506  his  "Utilitates  missEe"  (Uses  of  the  Mass);  in 
1515  he  published  the  letters  of  Tucher  to  Charitas 
and  Apollonia.  She  was  highly  esteemed  by  Georg 
Spalatin,  Kiliam  Leib,  Johannes  Butzbach,  and  the 
celebrated  painter,  Durer.  But  all  the  praise  she  re- 
ceived excited  no  pride  in  Charitas;  she  remained 
simple,  affable,  modest  and  independent,  uniting  in 
perfect  harmony  high  education  and  deep  piety.  It 
was  thus  she  resisted  the  severe  temptations  which 
hung  over  the  last  ten  years  of  her  life. 

When  the  Lutheran  doctrines  were  brought  into 
Nurembei'g,  the  peace  of  the  convent  ceased.  Charitas 
had  already  made  herself  unpopular  by  a  letter  to 
Eraser  (1522)  in  which  she  thanked  him  for  his  valiant 
actions  as  "The  Powerful  Defender  of  the  Christian 
Faith".  Since  1524  the  governor  had  sought  to  re- 
form the  cloister  and  to  acquire  possession  of  its 
property.  He  assigned  to  the  convent  of  the  Poor 
Clares  Lutheran  preachers  to  whom  the  nuns  were 
forced  to  listen.  The  acute  and  bigoted  inspector, 
Niitzel,  tirelessly  renewed  his  attempts  at  perversion, 
while  outside  the  people  rioted,  threw  stones  into 
the  church  and  sang  scandalous  songs.  Three  nuns, 
at  the  request  of  their  parents  and  in  spite  of  their  re- 
sistance, were  taken  out  of  the  convent  by  violence. 
On  the  other  hand  Melanchthon,  during  his  residence 
in  Nuremberg  in  1525,  was  very  friendly  to  them,  and 
the  diminution  of  the  persecution  is  attributable  to 
him.  Nevertheless,  the  con\'ent  was  deprived  of  the 
care  of  souls,  was  highly  taxed  and,  in  fine,  doomed  to 
a  slow  death.  With  constant  courage  and  resourceful 
superiority,  Charitas  defended  her  rights  against  the 
attacks  and  wiles  of  the  town-council,  the  abusive  words 
of  the  preachers,  and  the  shameful  slanders  of  the  peo- 
ple. Her  memoirs  illuminate  this  period  of  suffering 
as  far  as  1528.  Her  last  experience  of  earthly  happi- 
ness was  the  impressive  celebration  of  her  jubilee  at 


PIRO 


109 


PIRO 


Easter,  1529.  At  last  a  peaceful  death  freed  her  from 
bodily  sufferings  and  attacks  of  the  enemies  of  her 
convent.  Her  sister,  Clara,  and  her  niece,  Katrina, 
daughter  of  Willibald,  succeeded  her  as  abbess.  The 
last  abbess  was  Ursula  Muffel.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  century  the  convent  was  closed. 

CiiAKlTAS  PiRKHEiMER,  DenkwUrdigheilcn.  ed.  Hofleh  (Bam- 
berg, 18.513) ;  Loo.se,  Aus  dem  Leben  der  Charitas  Pirkkeimer 
(Dresden,  1S70);  Binder,  Charilas  Pirkheimer  (2nd  ed.,  Frei- 
burg, 1878). 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Pirkheimer,  Willibald,  German  Humanist,  b.  at 
Eichstatt,  5  December,  1470;  d.  at  Nuremberg,  22 
December,  1530.  He  was  the  son  of  the  episcopal 
councillor  and  distinguished  lawyer,  Johannes  Pirk- 
heimer, whose  family  came  from  Nuremberg,  which 
Willibald  regarded  as  his  native  place.  He  studied 
jurisprudence,  the  classics,  and  music  at  the  Universi- 
ties of  Padua  and  Pavia  (1489-95).  In  1495  he  mar- 
ried Crescentia  Rieter  (d.  1504),  by  whom  he  had  five 
daughters.  From  1498  to  1523,  when  he  voluntarily 
retired,  he  was  one  of  the  town  councillors  of  Nurem- 
berg, where  he  was  the  centre  of  the  Humanistic 
movement,  and  was  considered  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished representatives  of  Germany.  His  house 
stood  open  to  everyone  who  sought  intellectual  im- 
provement, and  was  celebrated  by  Celtis  as  the  gath- 
ering place  of  scholars  and  artists.  His  large  corre- 
spondence shows  the  extent  of  his  literary  connexions. 
In  1499,  with  the  aid  of  a  capable  soldier,  he  led  the 
Nuremberg  contingent  in  the  Swiss  war,  his  classical 
history  of  which  appeared  in  1610  and  won  for  him  the 
name  of  the  German  Xenophon.  Maximilian  ap- 
pointed him  imperial  councillor.  He  owes  his  fame 
to  his  many-sided  learning,  and  few  were  as  widely 
read  as  he  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  literatures.  He 
translated  Greek  classics,  e.  g.,  Euclid,  Xenophon, 
Plato,  Ptolemy,  Plutarch,  Lucian,  and  the  Church 
Fathers  into  Latin.  Like  Erasmus,  he  paid  less  atten- 
tion to  a  literal  rendering  than  to  the  sense  of  his  trans- 
lations, and  thus  produced  works  which  can  be  com- 
pared with  the  best  of  the  translated  literature  of  that 
period.  He  also  wrote  a  work  on  the  earliest  history 
of  Germany,  and  was  interested  in  astronomy,  math- 
ematics, the  natural  sciences,  numismatics,  and  art. 
Albert  Durer  was  one  of  his  friends  and  has  painted 
his  characteristic  portrait.  He  defended  Reuchlin  in 
the  latter's  dispute  with  the  theologians  of  Cologne. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  he  took  sides 
with  Luther,  whose  able  opponent,  Johann  Eck,  he 
attacked  in  the  coarse  satire  "  Eckius  dedolatus"  (Eck 
planed  down).  On  behalf  of  Luther  he  also  wrote  a 
second  bitter  satire,  in  an  unprinted  comedy,  called 
"Schutzschrift".  Consequently  his  name  was  in- 
cluded in  the  Bull  of  excommunication  of  1520,  and 
in  1521  he  was  absolved  "not  without  painful  personal 
humiliation",  was  required  to  acknowledge  Luther's 
doctrine  to  be  heresy,  and  denounce  it  formally  by 
oath.  Nevertheless,  up  to  1525  his  sympathies  were 
with  the  Reformation,  but  as  the  struggle  went  on, 
like  many  other  Humanists,  he  turned  aside  from  the 
movement  and  drew  towards  the  Church,  with  which 
he  did  not  wish  to  break.  In  Luther,  whom  he  had  at 
first  regarded  as  a  reformer,  he  saw  finally  a  teacher  of 
false  doctrines,  "completely  a  prey  to  delusion  and  led 
by  the  evil  fiend".  Luther's  theological  ideas  had 
never  been  matters  of  conscience  to  him,  hence  the 
results  of  the  changes,  the  decay  of  the  fine  arts,  the 
spread  of  the  movement  socially  and  economically, 
the  religious  quarrels,  and  the  excesses  of  zealots 
repelled  him  as  it  did  his  friend  Erasmus  who  was  in 
intellectual  sympathy  with  him.  His  sister,  Charitas, 
was  the  Abbess  of  the  Convent  of  St.  Clara  at  Nurem- 
berg, where  another  sister,  Clara,  and  his  daughters, 
Katharina  and  Crescentia,  were  also  nuns.  From 
1524  they  were  troubled  by  the  petty  annoyances  and 
"efforts  at  conversion"  of  the  city  council  that  had 


become  Lutheran.  This  afifected  him  deeply  and  aided 
in  extinguishing  his  enthusiasm  for  the  Reformation. 
His  last  literary  labour,  which  he  addressed  to  the 
council  in  1530,  was  on  behalf  of  the  convent;  this 
was  the  "Oratio  apologetica  moniahum  nomine",  a 
master-piece  of  its  kind. 

Pirkheimer,  Opera  (Frankfort,  1610);  Roth,  Willibald  Pirk- 
heimer (Halle,  1887);  Hagen,  Pirkheimer  in  neinem  Verhdltnis 
zum  riumanismus  und  zuT  Reformation  (Nuremberg,  1882^ ; 
Drews,  Pirkheimers  Stellung  zur  Reformatiun  (Leipzig,  1887) ; 
Reimann,  Pirkheimersludien  (Berlin,  1900). 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Piro  Indians,  a  tribe  of  considerable  importance 
ranging  by  water  for  a  distance  of  three  hundred 
miles  along  the  upper  Ucayali  (Tambo)  River,  and 
its  affluents,  the  Apurimac  and  Urubamba,  Depart- 
ment of  Loreto,  in  northeastern  Peru.  Their  chief 
centre  in  the  last  century  was  the  mission  town  of 
Santa  Rosa  de  los  Piros,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Tambo  and  Urubamba  (Santa  Ana).  To  the  Qui- 
chua-speaking  tribes  of  Peru  they  are  known  as 
Chontaquiro,  nearly  equivalent  to  "Black  Teeth", 
from  their  former  custom  of  staining  their  teeth  and 
gums  with  a  black  dye  from  the  chonta  or  black-wood 
palm  (peperonia  linctorioides) .  They  are  also  known 
as  Simirinches.  They  belong  to  the  great  Arawakan 
linguistic  stock,  to  which  also  belong  the  warlike 
Campa  of  the  extreme  upper  Ucayali  and  the  cele- 
brated Moxos  (q.  v.)  of  Bolivia,  whose  main  territory 
was  about  the  lower  Orinoco  and  in  the  West  Indies. 
The  Piro  excel  all  the  other  tribes  of  the  Ucayali  both 
in  strength  and  vitality,  a  fact  which  may  be  due  to 
the  more  moderate  temperature  and  superior  health- 
fulness  of  their  country.  As  contrasted  with  their 
neighbours  they  are  notably  jovial  and  versatile,  but 
aggressively  talkative,  inclined  to  bullying,  and  not 
always  dependable.  They  are  of  quick  intelligence 
and  have  the  Indian  gift  for  languages,  many  of  them 
speaking  Quichua,  Spanish,  and  sometimes  Portu- 
guese,inaddition  to  theirown.  Like  most  of  the  tribes 
of  the  region  they  are  semi-agricultural,  depending 
chiefly  upon  the  plantain  or  banana  and  the  maguey 
(manhiol),  which  produce  abundantly  almost  without 
care.  The  preparation  from  these  of  the  intoxicating 
masalo  or  chicha,  to  which  they  are  given  to  excess, 
forms  the  principal  occupation  of  the  women  in  all 
the  tribes  of  the  Ucayali  country.  They  also  make 
use  of  fish  and  the  oil  from  turtle  eggi.  Their  houses 
are  light,  open  structures  thatched  with  palm  leaves, 
with  sleeping  hammocks,  hand-made  earthen  pots, 
and  the  wooden  masalo  trough  for  furniture.  Their 
dress  is  a  sort  of  shirt  for  the  men  and  a  short  skirt 
for  the  women,  both  of  their  own  weaving  from  native 
cotton  and  dyed  black.  They  wear  silver  nose  pen- 
dants and  paint  their  faces  black.  The  men  are  splen- 
did and  daring  boatmen,  in  which  capacity  their  ser- 
vices are  in  constant  requisition.  In  their  primitive 
condition  the  Piro  used  the  bow,  lance,  and  blowgun 
with  poisoned  arrows.  They  were  polygamiots  and 
made  constant  raids  upon  the  weaker  tribes  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  off  women.  They  buried  their 
dead,  without  personal  belongings,  in  canoes  in  the 
earthen  floor  of  the  house.  Their  principal  divinities 
were  a  benevolent  creative  spirit  or  hero-god  called 
Huyacali,  and  an  evil  spirit,  Saminchi,  whom  they 
greatly  feared.  They  had  few  dances  or  other  cere- 
monies. 

The  first  missions  on  the  upper  Ucayali  were  under- 
taken in  1673  under  Fr.  Biedma,  of  the  Franciscan 
Convent  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  in  Peru,  who  had 
already  been  at  work  on  the  Huallaga  since  1631.  In 
1674  the  warlike  Campa  attacked  and  destroyed  the 
mission  established  among  them  and  massacred  four 
missionaries  together  with  an  Indian  neophyte.  In 
1687  Fr.  Biedma  himself  was  killed  by  the  Piro. 
Others  were  murdered  or  sank  under  the  climate  until 
in  1694,  when  Frs.  Valero,  Huerta,  and  Zavala  were 


PISA 


110 


PISA 


killed,  the  Uoayali  missions  were  abandoned.  They 
were  renewed  after  some  years  with  a  fair  degree  of 
success,  but  in  1742  were  again  wiped  out  and  all  the 
missionaries  brutally  butchered  in  a  terrible  rising 
headed  by  the  Campa,  under  the  leadership  of  an 
apostate  Indian,  Juan  Santos,  who  took  the  name  of 
Atahualpa,  claiming  to  be  a  descendant  of  the  last  of 
the  Incas.  In  1747  Fr.  Manuel  Albaran,  descending 
the  Apurimac,  was  killed  by  the  Piro.  In  1767  another 
general  rising  resulted  in  the  death  of  all  but  one  of 
sixteen  missionaries  of  the  Franciscan  college  of 
Ocopa,  Peru,  which  had  taken  over  the  work  in  1754. 
In  1790  the  Franciscans  again  had  eighteen  missions 
in  operation  in  the  upper  Ucayali  and  Huallaga 
region,  with  a  total  population  of  3494  souls.  In  1794 
an  attempt  to  gather  the  Piro  into  a  mission  was  de- 
feated by  an  epidemic,  which  caused  them  to  scatter 
into  the  forests.  In  1799  (or  1803-Raimondi)  the 
attempt  was  successfully  carried  out  by  Fr.  Pedro 
Garcia  at  the  mission  of  Nuestra  Seflora  del  Pilar  de 
Bepuano.  In  1815  the  principal  and  last  mission  for 
the  tribe  was  established  by  Fr.  Manuel  Plaza  under 
the  name  of  Santa  Rosa  de  Lima  de  los  Piros.  After 
the  revolution,  which  made  Peru  a  separate  govern- 
ment, the  missions  were  neglected,  most  of  the  mis- 
sionaries were  withdrawn,  the  neophytes  sought  em- 
ployment at  the  river  ports  or  in  the  rubber  forests, 
or  rejoined  their  wild  kindred,  and  in  1835  only 
one  mission  station,  Sarayacu,  remained  upon  the 
Ucayali.  The  Piro,  however,  still  rank  among  the 
important  tribes,  although,  on  account  of  their  wan- 
dering habit,  their  true  number  is  unknown.  Hervas 
gives  the  Piro  language  three  dialects,  and  states  that 
Fr.  Enrique  Richter  (c.  1685)  prepared  a  vocabulary 
and  catechism  in  it  and  in  several  other  languages. 
Castelnau  and  Marcoy  also  give  vocabularies.  ■ 

BniNTON,  The  American  Race  (New  York,  1891);  Castelnat', 
Expedition  dans  les  parties  centrales  de  V Am^ique  du  Sud,  IV 
(6  vols.,  Paris,  1850-1);  Galt,  Indians  of  Peru  in  Smithsonian 
Repl.  for  1877  (Washington,  1878);  Herndon,  Exploration  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Amazon  (Wasliington,  1853) ;  Hervas,  Catdlogo  de 
las  Lenguas,  I  (Madrid,  1800) ;  Labre  Report  in  Scottish  Geog, 
Mag.,  VI  (Edinburgh,  1890);  Markham,  Tribes  in  Ihf  Valley  of 
the  Amazon  in  Jour.  Anth.  Inst.,  XXIV  (London,  1895) ;  Marcoy, 
Voyage  a  travers  V.Amerigue  du  Sud  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1869);  Or- 
dinaire, Les  Sauvages  du  Perou  in  Revue  d^ Ethnographic,  VI 
(Paris,  1SS7);  Orton,  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon  (3rd  ed..  New 
York,  l.STO) ;  Raimondi,  Apuntes  sobre  la  Provincia  literal  de 
Loreto  (Lima,  1862) ,  in  part  tr.  by  Bollaeht  in  Anthropological 
Review,  I  (London,  1863) ;  Reclus,  South  America,  I  (New  York, 
1894) ;   Smyth  and  Lowe,  Journey  from  Lima  to  Para  (London, 

1836).  James  Moonby. 

Pisa,  Archdiocese  of  (Pis^),  in  Tuscany,  central 
Italy.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  Arno,  six  miles  from 
the  sea,  on  a  fertile  plain,  while  the  neighbouring  moun- 
tains yield  marble,  alabaster,  copper,  and  other  min- 
eral products;  mineral  waters  abound  in  the  province. 
The  famous  duomo,  or  cathedral,  begun  (1063)  Ijy 
Buschetto  and  consecrated  by  Gelasius  II  (1118),  is  a 
basilica  in  the  shape  of  a  Latin  cross,  with  five  naves, 
the  columns  of  which  are  of  oriental  granite.  The 
upper  portion  of  the  fa5ade  is  formed  by  five  rows  of 
columns,  one  above  the  other;  the  bas-reliefs  of  the 
four  bronze  doors  were  executed  by  Domenico  Parte- 
giani  and  Augusto  Serrano,  after  the  designs  of  Giam- 
bologna  and  others.  The  cupola  was  painted  by 
Orazio  Riminaldi  and  INIichele  Cinganelli;  the  altars 
are  all  of  Luna  marble.  Among  the  notable  objects 
in  this  cathedral  are  the  octagonal  pulpit,  the  urn  of 
St.  Ranieri,  and  the  lamp  of  Possenti  da  Pietrasanta, 
under  which  Galileo  studied  the  isochronism  of  the 
pendulum.  In  front  of  the  duomo  is  the  baptistery,  a 
round  structure,  with  a  cupola  surmounted  by  a  statue 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist;  it  was  erected  in  1152.  Be- 
side the  duomo  is  the  celebrated  leaning  campanile. 
The  camposanto  (begun  in  1278,  completed  in  1464) 
is  a  real  museum  of  painting  and  of  medieval  sculp- 
ture; its  architect  was  Giovanni  Pisano,  by  whom  also 
are  six  statues  placed  o\-er  one  of  the  entrances.  The 
frescoes  are  by  Giotto,  Orcagna,  Benozzo  Gozzoli, 


Spinello  Aretino,  Simone  Memmi,  and  Pietro  Laurati. 
It  contains  the  tomb  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VIL 
Other  churches  are  Santa  Maria  della  Spina  (1230- 
1323);  San  Nicola,  dating  from  about  1000;  the 
church  of  the  Knights  of  S.  Stefano  (1555),  a  work  of 
Vasari;  S.  Francesco  (thirteenth  century);  S.  Cate- 
rina  (1253),  which  belongs  to  the  seminary  and  con- 
tains the  mausoleums  of  Bishop  Saltarelh  and  of 
Gherardo  Compagni;  S.  Anna  has  two  canvasses  by 
Ghirlandajo;  S.  Michele  (1018);  S.  Frediano  (ninth 
century);  S.  Sepolcro  (1150);  S.  Paolo  (805?)  called 
the  old  dnomo;  S.  Pietro  in  Grado,  which  dates  from 
the  fifth  century,  and  was  restored  in  the  ninth.  The 
episcopal  residence,  of  the  twelfth  century,  has  im- 
portant archives.  Other  buildings  of  interest  are  the 
Loggia  dei  mercanti,  by  Bountalenti,  and  the  univer- 
sity (1105-1343),  with  which  were  united  several 
colleges,  as  the  Puteano,  Ferdinando,  Vittoriano,  and 
Ricci.  Outside  the  city  are  the  Certosa  di  Caici,  the 
Bagni  di  Pisa,  ancient  baths  which  were  restored  by 
Countess  Matilda,  and  the  Villa  Reale  di  S.  Rossore. 
Pisa  is  the  ancient  Pisae,  in  antiquity  held  to  be  a 


V^UURTYARD    OF    THE    ARCHIEPISCOPAL    PaLACE,    PiSA 

(XV  Century) 

colony  of  Pisae  in  Elis.  Later,  it  probably  belonged 
to  the  Etruscans,  though  often  troubled  by  the  Ligu- 
rians.  The  people  devoted  themselves  to  commerce 
and  to  piracy.  From  225  B.  c,  they  were  in  amicable 
relations  with  the  Romans,  who  used  the  port  of  Pisae 
in  the  Punic  War,  and  against  the  Ligurians,  in  193. 
By  the  Julian  law,  if  not  earlier,  the  town  obtained 
Roman  citizenship.  Little  mention  is  made  of  it  in 
the  Gothic  War.  In  553  it  submitted  to  Narses,  of  its 
own  accord;  after  the  Lombard  invasion,  it  seems  to 
have  enjoyed  a  certain  independence,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  eighth  century  that  Pisa  had  a  Lombard  dux, 
while,  in  the  ninth  century,  it  alternated  with  Lucca 
as  the  seat  of  the  Marquis  of  Tuscany.  The  war  be- 
tween Pisa  and  Lucca  (1003)  was  the  first  war  be- 
tween two  Italian  cities.  In  1005,  the  town  was  sacked 
by  the  Saracens,  under  the  famous  Musetto  (Mugheid 
al  Ameri),  who,  in  turn,  was  vanquished  by  the  Pisans 
and  Genoese,  in  Sardinia.  In  1029,  the  Pisans  block- 
aded Carthage;  and  in  1050,  Musetto  having  again 
come  to  Sardinia,  they  defeated  him  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Genoa  and  of  the  Marquis  of  Lunigiana;  but 
the  division  of  the  conquered  island  became  a  source 
of  dissension  between  the  allied  cities,  and  the  discord 
was  increased  when  Urban  II  invested  the  Pisans  with 
the  suzerainty  of  Corsica,  whose  petty  lords  (1077) 
had  declared  their  wish  to  be  fiefs  only  of  the  Holy  See. 
In  1126,  Genoa  opened  hostilities  by  an  assault  on 
Porto  Pisano,  and  only  through  the  intervention  of 
Innocent  II  (1133)  was  peace  re-established.  Mean- 
while, the  Pisans,  who  for  centuries  had  had  stations 
in  Calabria  and  in  Sicily,  had  extended  their  com- 
merce to  Africa  and  to  Spain,  and  also  to  the  Levant. 


PISA 


111 


PISA 


The  Pisans  obtained  great  concessions  in  Palestine  and 
in  the  principality  of  Antioch  by  lending  their  ships 
for  the  transportation  of  crusaders  in  1099,  and  there- 
after people  of  all  nations  were  to  be  found  in  their 
city.  In  1063  they  had  made  an  attempt  against 
Palermo,  and  in  1114  led  by  the  consul,  Azzo  Marig- 
nani,  conquered  the  Balearic  Islands.  Pisa  supported 
the  emperors  at  an  early  date,  and  Henry  IV,  in  1084, 
confirmed  its  statutes  and  its  maritime  rights.  With 
its  fleet,  it  supported  the  expedition  of  Lothair  II  to 
Calabria,  destroying  in  1137  the  maritime  cities  of 
Ravello,  La  Scala,  la  Fratta,  and  above  all,  Amalfi, 
which  then  lost  its  commercial  standing.  The  Pisans 
also  gave  their  assistance  to  Henry  IV  in  the  conquest 
of  Sicily,  and  as  reward  lost  the  advantages  that  they 
had  then  enjoyed. 

The  reprisals  of  Innocent  III  in  Sardinia  led  the 
Pisans  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Otto  IV  and  that  of 
Frederick  II,  and  Pisa  became  the  head  and  refuge  of 
the  Ghibellines  of  Tuscany,  and,  accordingly,  a  fierce 
enemy  of  Florence.  The  victory  of  Montaperti  (1260) 
marks  the  culmination  of  Pisan  power.  Commercial 
jealousy,  political  hatred,  and  the  fact  that  Pisa  ac- 
corded protection  to  certain  petty  lords  of  Corsica, 
who  were  in  rebellion  against  Genoa,  brought  about 
another  war,  in  which  one  hundred  and  seven  Genoese 
ships  defeated  one  hundred  and  three  ships  of  the 
Pisans,  at  La  Meloria,  the  former  taking  ten  thousand 
prisoners.  All  would  have  been  lost,  if  Ugolino  della 
Gherardesca,  capitano  del  popolo  and  podesta,  had  not 
providently  taken  charge  of  the  Government.  But  as 
he  had  protected  the  Guelphs,  Archbishop  Ruggieri 
degU  Ubaldini  took  up  arms  against  him,  and  shut  him 
up  (1288)  in  the  tower  of  the  Gualandi,  where  with  his 
sons  he  starved  to  death  (Inferno,  XXXIII,  13).  At 
the  peace  of  1290,  Pisa  was  compelled  to  resign  its 
rights  over  Corsica  and  the  possession  of  Sassari  in 
Sardinia.  The  Pisans  hoped  to  retrieve  themselves  by 
inviting  Henry  VII  to  establish  himself  in  their  city, 
offering  him  two  million  florins  for  his  war  against 
Florence,  and  their  fleet  for  the  conquest  of  Naples; 
but  his  death  in  1313  put  an  end  to  these  hopes. 
Thereupon  they  elected  (1314)  Uguccione  della  Fa- 
giuola  of  Lucca  as  their  lord;  but  they  rid  themselves 
of  him  in  the  same  year.  At  the  approach  of  Louis  the 
Bavarian,  they  besought  that  prince  not  to  enter 
Pisa;  but  Castruccio  degh  Antelminelli  incited  Louis 
to  besiege  the  city,  with  the  result  that  Pisa  surren- 
dered in  1327,  and  paid  a  large  sum  of  money  to  the 
victor.  In  1329  Louis  resided  there  again,  with  the 
antipope,  Pietro  di  Corvara.  Internal  dissensions  and 
the  competition  of  Genoa  and  Barcelona  brought 
about  the  decay  of  Pisan  commerce.  To  remedy 
financial  e\'ils,  the  duties  on  merchandise  were  in- 
creased, which,  however,  produced  a  greater  loss,  for 
Florence  abandoned  the  port  of  Pisa.  In  1400 
Galeazzo  Visconti  bought  PisafromGherardoAppiani, 
lord  of  the  city.  In  140.5,  Gabriele  M .  Visconti  havmg 
stipulated  the  sale  of  Pisa  to  the  Florentmes,  the 
Pisans  made  a  supreme  effort  to  oppose  that  humilia- 
tion; the  town,  however,  was  taken  and  its  principal 
citizens  exiled.  The  expedition  of  Charies  VIII  re- 
stored its  independence  (1494-1509) ;  but  the  city  was 
unable  to  rise  again  to  its  former  prosperity.  Under 
Cosimo  de'  Medici,  there  were  better  times,  especially 
for  the  university. 

Among  the  natives  of  Pisa  were:  B.  Pellegrmo 
(seventh  century);  B.  Chiara  (d.  in  1419),  and  B. 
Pietro,  founder  of  the  Hermits  of  St.  Jerome  (d.  in 
1435);  B.  Giordano  da  Pisa,  O.P.  (d.  in  1311);  and 
Gregory  X.  Connected  with  the  church  of  San  Pietro 
in  Grado  there  is  a  legend  according  to  which  St.  Peter 
landed  at  Pisa,  and  left  there  his  disciple  St.  Pierinus. 
The  first  known  bishop  was  Gaudentius,  present  at  the 
Council  of  Rome  (313).  Other  bishops  were  St.  Senior 
(410),  who  consecrated  St.  Patrick;  Joannes  (493); 
one,  name  unknown,  who  took  part  in  the  schism  of 


the  Three  Chapters  (556) ;  Alexander  (648) ;  Mauri- 
anus  (680);  one,  name  unknown,  taken  prisoner  by 
Charlemagne  at  the  siege  of  Pavia  (774) ;  Oppizo  ( 1039) , 
the  founder  of  the  Camaldolite  convent  of  S.  Michele; 
Landulfus  (1077),  sent  by  Gregory  VII  as  legate  to  Cor- 
sica; Gerardus  (1080),  an  able  controversialist  against 
the  Greeks;  Diabertus  (1085),  the  first  archbishop,  to 
whom  Urban  II  gave  the  sees  of  Corsica  as  suffragans 
in  1099,  the  first  Latin  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem;  Pietro 
Moriconi  (1105).  In  1121,  on  account  of  the  jealousy 
of  Genoa,  the  bishops  of  Corsica  were  made  immedi- 
ately dependent  upon  the  Holy  See,  but  Honorius  II 
(1126)  restored  the  former  status  of  Pisa  as  their  met- 
ropolitan; in  1133,  however.  Innocent  II  divided  them 
between  Pisa  and  Genoa  which  was  then  made  an 
archdiocese.  Thereafter,  Pisa  received  for  suffragans 
also  Populonia  and  two  sees  in  Sardinia.  Other 
bishops  were:  Cardinal  Uberto  Lanfranchi  (1132), 
who  often  served  as  pontifical  legate;  Cardinal  Vil- 
lano  Gaetani  (1145),  compelled  to  flee  from  the  city 


Sepulchral  Aionument  op  the  Empehor  Henry   \  U 
Tino  da  Camaino,  Campo  Santo,  Pisa 

on  account  of  his  fidelity  to  Alexander  III  (1167); 
Lotario  Rosari  (1208),  also  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem 
(1216);  Federico  Visconti  (1254),  who  held  provincial 
synods  in  1258,  1260,  and  1262;  Oddone  della  Sala 
(1312)  had  litigations  with  the  republic,  and  later  be- 
came Patriarch  of  Alexandria;  Simone  Saltorelli ;  Gio- 
vanni Scarlatti  (1348),  who  had  been  legate  to  Armenia 
and  to  the  emperor  at  Constantinople ;  Lotto  Gamba- 
corta  (1381),  compelled  to  flee,  after  the  death  of  his 
brother  Pietro,  tyrant  of  Pisa  (1392)  ;AlamannoAdinari 
(1406),  a  cardinal  who  had  an  important  part  in  the 
conciliabulum.of  Pisa  and  in  the  Council  of  Constance; 
Cardinal  Francesco  Salviati  Riario  (1475),  hung  at 
Florence  in  connexion  with  the  conspiracy  of  the 
Pazzi;  in  1479  he  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
Rafaele  Riario,  who  narrowly  escaped  being  a  victim 
of  the  same  conspiracy;  Cesare  Riario  (1499);  Car- 
dinal Scipione  Rebita  (1556);  Cardinal  Giovanni  de' 
Medici  (1560),  a  son  of  Cosimo;  Cardinal  Angelo 
Niccolini  (1564);  Carlo  Antonio  Pozzi  (1582),  founder 
of  the  Puteano  college,  and  author  of  works  on  canon 
and  on  civil  law;  Giulio  de'  Medici  (1620),  served  on 
missions  for  the  duke,  founded  the  seminary,  intro- 
duced wise  reforms,  and  evinced  great  charity  during 
the  pest  of  1629;  Cardinal  Scipione  Pannocchieschi 
(1636);  Cardinal  Cosimo  Corsi  (18.53-70).  Important 
councils  have  been  in  1135,  against  Anacletus  II  and 
the  heretic  Enrico,  leader  of  the  Petrobrusiani  in 
1409,  which  increased  the  schism  by  the  deposition  of 
Gregory  XII  and  of  Benedict  XIII,  and  by  the  elec- 
tion of  Alexander  V;  in  1511,  brought  about  by  a  few 
schismatic  cardinals  and  French  bishops  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Louis  XII  against  Julius  II. 

Leghorn,  Pescia,  Pontremoli,  and  Volterra  are  the 
suffragans  of  Pisa;   the  archdiocese  has  136  parishes; 


PISA 


112 


PISA 


190,000  inhabitants;  10  religious  houses  of  men,  and 
29  of  women;  6  educational  establishments  for  boys, 
and  13  for  girls;  1  Catholic  daily  paper. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Odesc  d' Italia.  XVI;  Tronci,  Annuali  Pisani 
(Pisa,  ls(JS-71);  dal  Borgo,  Diasertazioni  sulla  storia  pisana 
(Pisa,  1701-68);  Chirone  Epidaurico,  Naiiqazione  e  commercio 
pi^aiio  (Pisa,  1797);  Fedeli,  I  documenti  pontificii  Hguardanti 
I'  Unirrrsitd  di  Pisa  (Pisa,  1908) ;  Sdpino,  Pisa  in  Italia  Artistica, 
XVI  (Bergamo,  1905). 

U.  Benigni. 

UxivEKSiTY  OF  PiSA. — In  the  eleventh  century 
there  were  many  jurisconsults  at  Pisa  who  lectured 
on  law;  prominent  among  them  were  Opitone  and 
Sigerdo.  There  also  was  preserved  a  codex  of  the 
Pandects,  dated,  it  was  said,  from  Justinian.  Four 
professors  of  the  Law  School  of  Bologna,  Bulgarus, 
Burgundius,  Uguccione,  and  Bandino,  successors  of 
Irnerius,  were  trained  here;  Burgundius  acquired 
renown  by  his  translation  of  the  Pandects  and  of 
Greek  works  on  medicine.  Gerardo  de  Fasiano,  Lam- 
bertuccio  Arminzochi,  Zacchia  da  Volterra,  Giovanni 
Fagioli,  TJgo  Benci,  Baldo  da  Forli,  and  Giovanni 
d'Andrea  taught  at  Pisa  in  the  thirteenth  century.  In 
the  same  century  medicine  also  was  taught ;  the  most 
famous  professor  was  Guido  of  Pisa,  who  afterwards 
went  to  Bologna  (1278).  In  1338,  as  Benedict  XII 
had  placed  Bologna  under  interdict,  Ranieri  da  Forli 
and  Bartolo  removed  to  Pisa  with  a  large  following. 
The  Studium  of  Pisa  is  mentioned  in  the  communal 
documents  of  1340.  In  1343  Clement  VI  erected  a 
studium  generale,  with  all  the  faculties,  including 
theology;   and  Charles  IV  confirmed  it  in  1355. 

The  university,  however,  did  not  flourish.  From 
1359  to  1364  it  was  closed,  and  was  only  reopened  by 
Urban  VI.  Meantime,  however,  the  teaching  of  law 
was  not  discontinued.  In  1406  Pisa  fell  into  the  power 
of  the  Florentines  who  suppressed  the  university.  In 
1473  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  with  Sixtus  IV's  approval 
closed  the  University  of  Florence  and  reopened  Pisa. 
For  its  endowment  the  goods  of  the  Church  and  clergy 
were  put  under  contribution  to  such  an  extent  that 
Paul  III  in  1534  recalled  the  concessions  of  his  pred- 
ecessors. The  most  celebrated  teachers  of  this  first 
epoch  were  the  jurisconsults  Francesco  Tigrini,  Baldo 
degli  Ubaldi,  Lancellotto  Decio,  Francesco  Alcolti, 
Baldo  BartoHni,  Giasone  del  Maino,  Bartolommeo 
and  Mariano  Socini;  the  physicians,  Guido  da  Prato, 
Ammanati,  Ugolino  da  Montecatini,  Alessandro  Ser- 
moneta,  Albertino  da  Cremona,  Pietro  Leoni,  and 
Cristoforo  Prati;  the  Humanists,  Bartolommeo  da 
Pratorecchi,  Lorenzo  Lippi,  Andrea  Dati,  Mariano 
Tucci;  the  theologians,  Bernardino  Cherichini  (1478) 
and  Giorgio  Benigni  Salviati. 

In  1543  Cosimo  de'  Medici  undertook  to  restore  the 
university,  and  to  this  end  Paul  III  made  large  con- 
cessions out  of  the  revenues  of  the  Church  and 
monasteries.  Several  colleges  were  founded,  such  as 
the  Ducal  College,  the  Ferdinando,  and  the  Puteano 
(Pozzi  for  the  Piedmontese).  The  university  at  this 
time  became  famous  especially  by  its  cultivation  of 
the  natural  sciences.  Among  its  noted  scientists  were : 
Cesalpino  (botany,  medicine,  philosophy);  Galileo 
Galilei  (mathematics  and  astronomy);  Borelli  (me- 
chanics and  medicine);  Luca  Ghini,  first  director  of 
the  botanical  gardens  (1544);  Andrea  Vesalio,  Realdo 
Colombo,  Gabriele  Falloppo;  Giovanni  Risischi,  and 
Lambeccari  in  anatomy;  Baccio  Baldini,  Vidio  Vidi, 
Girolamo  Mercuriale,  Rodrigo  Fonseca  (seventeenth 
century),  Fil.  Cavriami,  Marcello  Malpighi  in  medi- 
cine. In  view  of  its  progressive  spirit,  Pisa  may  be 
called  the  cradle  of  modern  science.  iThe  professors 
of  jurisprudence  were  rather  conservative,  but  there 
were  not  wanting  able  thinkers,  such  as  the  two 
Torellis,  Francesco  Vegio,  Asinio,  Giacomo  Mandelli, 
the  two  Facchinis,  and  the  Scotsman  Dempster; 
Nicola  Bonaparte,  who  introduced  into  Pisa  the 
critical-historical  study  of  Roman  Law  inaugurated  by 


Cujas,  Giuseppe  Averani,  Stefano  Fabrucci,  historian 
of  the  university,  Bernardo  Tanucci,  afterwards  min- 
ister of  Charles  III  of  Naples. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
university  was  again  in  a  precarious  condition;  but 
the  new  Lorenzian  dynasty  sought  to  strengthen  it 
by  increasing  the  scientific  institutes,  and  revising  the 
statutes;  thus  after  1744  the  rector  was  no  longer 
elected  by  the  scholars  or  from  their  ranks,  but  had 
to  be  one  of  the  professors.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
Valsecchi  and  Berti  won  distinction  in  theology 
Andrea  Guadegni,  Bart.  Franc.  Pellegrini,  Migliorottc) 
Maccioni,  Flaminio  Dal  Borgo,  Gian  Maria  Lampredi, 
Sandonnini  (canonist),  the  criminalists  della  Pura  and 
Ranuccia  in  jurisprudence;  Politi,  Corsini,  Antonioli, 
Sarti,  in  letters;  Guido  Grandi,  Claudio  Fromond, 
Anton  Nicola  Branchi,  Lorenzo  Pignotti,  Lorenzo 
Tilli,  and  Giorgio  Santi  in  natural  science;  Angelo 
Gatti,  Antonio  Matani,  Franc.  Torrigiani  in  medicine; 
Brogiani  and  Berlinghieri  in  anatomy.  In  1808  the 
regulations  of  the  French  universities  were  introduced, 
but  were  superseded  by  others  in  1814.  The  pro- 
fessors were  then  divided  into  the  faculties  of  theology, 
law  (comprising  philosophy  and  literature),  and 
medicine.  But  the  number  of  the  chairs  increased; 
in  1S40  there  were  six  faculties.  In  1S47  the  "Annali 
delle  University  toscane"  were  published. 

In  1851,  for  political  reasons,  the  Universities  of 
Pisa  and  Siena  were  united,  the  faculties  of  jurispru- 
dence and  theology  located  at  Siena,  and  those  of 
philosophy  and  medicine  at  Pisa.  The  former  regime 
was  re-established  in  1859  with  such  modifications  as 
the  Law  of  Casati  required.  In  1873  all  chairs  of 
theology  were  suppressed  throughout  Italy.  Noted 
professors  in  law  were  Lorenzo  Quartieri,  Federico, 
del  Rosso,  ^'aleri,  Poggi,  Salvagnoli,  Franc.  Ferrara. 
P.  Emilio  Imbriani,  and  Franc.  Carrara  (criminalist). 
Science  and  letters  were  represented  by  the  physicist 
Gerbi ;  the  chemist  Piria ;  the  mathematician  Betti ;  the 
physicians  Puccinotti,  Pacini,  Marcacci,  Ranzi  (path- 
ology) ;  the  criminalist  Rosellini,  the  Latinist  Ferrucci; 
and  Francesco  de  Sanctis,  literary  critic.  Besides  the 
usual  faculties,  Pisa  has  schools  of  engineering,  agri- 
culture, veterinary  medicine  and  pharmacy,  and  a 
normal  high  school.  In  1910-11  there  were  159  in- 
structors and  1160  students. 

Fabroni,  flistoria  Acad.  Pisanm  (Pi.sa,  1791) ;  DAL  Borgo,  Dis- 
sertazione  epistolare  suW  oriuine  delV  univ.  di  Pisa  (Pisa,  1765); 
C\r,l8SE,  Cenni  slorici  sulV  Universitd  di  Pisa  in  Annuario  della 
Universild  di  Pisa  (1899-1900);  Buonamici,  Della  scuola  Pisana 
del  diritto  Tomano  ecc.  (Pisa,  1874) ;  Idem,  I giureconsulH  di  Pisn  at 
tempo  della  scuola  Bolognese  (Rome,  1888) ;  Fedeli,  I  documenti 
pontificii  Hguardanti  V  Universitd  di  Pisa  (Pisa,  1908). 

U.  Benigni. 

Pisa,  Council  of. — Preliminaries. — The  Great 
Schism  of  the  West  had  lasted  thirty  years  (since  1378), 
and  none  of  the  means  employed  to  bring  it  to  an  end 
had  been  successful.  Compromise  or  arbitral  agree- 
ment between  the  two  parties  had  never  been  seri- 
ously attempted ;  surrender  had  failed  lamentably 
owing  to  the  obstinacy  of  the  rival  popes,  all  equally 
convinced  of  their  rights;  action,  that  is  the  interfer- 
ence of  princes  and  armies,  had  been  without  result. 
During  these  deplorable  divisions  Boniface  IX,  Inno- 
cent VII,  and  Gregory  XII  had  in  turn  replaced 
Urban  VI  (Bartholomew  Prignano)  in  the  See  of 
Rome,  while  Benedict  XIII, had  succeeded  Clement 
VII  (Robert  of  Geneva)  in  that  of  Avignon. 

The  cardinals  of  the  reigning  pontiffs  being  greatly 
dissatisfied,  both  with  the  pusillanimity  and  nepotism 
of  Gregory  XII  and  the  obstinacy  and  bad  will  of 
Benedict  XIII,  resolved  to  make  use  of  a  more  effica- 
cious means,  namely  a  general  council.  The  French 
king,  Charles  V,  had  recommended  this,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  schism,  to  the  cardinals  assembled  at 
Anagni  and  Fondi  in  revolt  against  Urban  VI,  and  on 
his  deathbed  he  had  expressed  the  same  wish  (1380). 
It  had  been  upheld  by  several  councils,  by  the  cities 


PISA 


113 


PISA 


of  Ghent  and  Florence,  by  the  Universities  of  Oxford 
and  Paris,  and  by  the  most  renowned  doctors  of 
the  time,  for  example :  Henry  of  Langenstein 
("Epistola  pacis",  1879,  "Epistola  concilii  pacis", 
1381);  Conrad  of  Clelnhausen  ("Epistola  Concor- 
diiE",  1380);  Gerson  (Sermo  coram  Anglicis);  and 
especially  the  latter's  master,  Pierre  d'Ailly,  the  emi- 
nent Bishop  of  Cambrai,  who  wrote  of  himself:  "A 
principio  schismatis  materiam  concilii  gciicralis 
primus  .  instanter  prosi'qui  non  timui"  (Apo- 
logia Concilii  Pi-;:ini,  apud  Tschackert).  Encour- 
aged by  such  men,  by  the  known  dispositiouK  of 
King  Charles  VI  and  of  the  University  of  Paris,  four 
members  of  the  Sacred  College  of  A\'ignon  went  to 
Leghorn  where  they  arranged  an  inter\'iew  with  those 
of  Rome,  and  where  the\'  wt^re  soon  joined  by  others. 
The  two  bodies  thus  united  were  resolved  to  seek 
the  union  of  the  Church  in  spite  of  e\'erything  and 
thenceforth  to  adhere  to  neither  of  the  competitors. 
On  2  and  5  July,  140S,  they  addressed  to  the  princes 
and  prelates  an  encyclical  letter  summoning  them  to  a 
general  council  at  Pisa  on  2.5  March,  1409.  To  oppose 
this  project  Benedict  convoked  a  council  at  Perpignan 
while  Gregory  assembled  another  at  Aquileia,  but 
these  assemblies  met  with  little  success,  hence  to  the 
Council  of  Pisa  were  directed  all  the  attention,  un- 
rest, and  hopes  of  the  Catholic  world.  The  Univer- 
sities of  Paris,  Oxford,  and  Cologne,  many  prelates, 
and  the  most  distinguished  doctors,  like  d'Ailly  and 
Gerson,  openly  approved  the  action  of  the  revolted 
cardinals.  The  princes  on  the  other  hand  were  divided, 
but  most  of  them  no  longer  relied  on  the  good  will  of 
the  rival  popes  and  were  determined  to  act  without 
them,  despite  them,  and,  if  needs  were,  against  them. 
Meeting  of  the  Council. — On  the  feast  of  the  .\.nnun- 
ciation,  4  patriarchs,  22  cardinals,  and  SO  bishops 
assembled  in  the  cathedral  of  Pisaunderthepresidency 
of  Cardinal  de  Malesset,  Bishop  of  Palestrma.  Among 
the  clergy  were  the  representatives  of  100  absent 
bishops,  87  abbots  with  the  proxies  of  those  who  could 
not  come  to  Pisa,  41  priors  and  generals  of  religious 
orders,  300  doctors  of  theology  or  canon  law.  The 
ambassadors  of  all  the  Christian  kingdoms  com- 
pleted this  august  assembly.  Judicial  procedure 
began  at  once.  Two  cardinal  deacons,  two  bishops, 
and  two  notaries  gravely  approached  the  church  doors, 
opened  them,  and  in  a  loud  \-oice,  in  the  Latin  tongue, 
called  upon  the  rival  pontiffs  to  appear.  Xo  one  re- 
plied. "Has  anyone  been  appointed  to  represent 
them?"  they  added.  Again  there  was  silence.  The 
delegates  returned  to  their  places  and  requested  that 
Gregory  and  Benedict  be  declared  guilty  of  contu- 
macy. On  three  consecutive  days  this  ceremony  was 
repeated  without  success,  and  throughout  the  month  of 
May  testimonies  were  heard  against  the  claimants, 
but  the  formal  declaration  of  contumacy  did  not  take 
place  until  the  fourth  session.  In  defence  of  Gregory, 
a  German  embassy  unfavourable  to  the  project  of  the 
assembled  cardinals  went  to  Pisa  (15  April)  at  the 
instance  of  Robert  of  Bavaria,  King  of  the  Romans. 
John,  Archbishop  of  Riga,  brought  before  the  council 
several  excellent  objections,  but  in  general  the  Ger- 
man delegates  spoke  so  blunderingly  that  they 
aroused  hostile  manifestations  and  were  compelled  to 
leave  the  city  as  fugitives.  The  line  of  conduct 
adopted  by  Carlo  Malatesta,  Prince  of  Rimini,  was 
more  clever.  Robert  by  his  awkward  friendliness  in- 
jured Gregory's  otherwise  most  defendable  cause; 
but  Malatestadefendod  it  as  a  man  of  letters,  an  orator, 
a  politician,  and  a  knight,  though  he  did  not  attain 
the  desired  success.  Benedict  refused  to  attend  the 
council  in  person,  but  his  delegates  arrived  very  late 
(14  June),  and  their  claims  aroused  the  protests  and 
laughter  of  the  assembly.  The  people  of  Pisa  over- 
whelmed them  with  threats  and  insults.  The  Chancel- 
lor of  Aragon  was  listened  to  with  little  favour,  while 
the  Archbishop  of  Tarragona  made  a  declaration 
XII.— 8 


of  war  more  daring  than  wise.  Intimidated  by 
rough  demonstrations,  the  ambassadors,  among  them 
Boniface  Ferrer,  Prior  of  the  Grande  Chartreuse, 
secretly  left  the  city  and  returned  to  their  master. 

The  pretended  preponderance  of  the  French  dele- 
gates has  been  often  attacked,  but  the  French  element 
did  not  prevail  either  in  numbers,  influence,  or  bold- 
ness of  ideas.  The  most  remarkable  characteristic  of 
the  assembly  was  the  unanimity  which  reigned  among 
the  500  members  during  the  month  of  June,  especially 
noticeable  at  the  fifteenth  general  session  (5  June, 
1409) .  When  the  usual  formality  was  completed  with 
the  request  for  a  definite  condemnation  of  Peter  de 
Luna  and  Angelo  Corrario,  the  Fathers  of  Pisa  re- 
turned a  sentence  until  then  unexampled  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church.  All  were  stirred  when  the 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  Simon  de  Cramaud,  addressed 
the  august  meeting:  "Benedict  XIII  and  Gregory 
XII",  said  he,  "are  recognised  as  schismatics,  the 
approvers  and  makers  of  schism,  notorious  heretics, 
guilty  of  perjury  and  violation  of  solemn  promises, 
and  openly  scandalising  the  universal  Church.  In 
consequence,  they  are  declared  unworthy  of  the 
Sovereign  Pontificate,  and  are  ipso  facto  deposed  from 
their  functions  and  dignities,  and  even  driven 
out  of  the  Church.  It  is  forbidden  to  them  hence- 
forward to  consider  themselves  to  be  Sovereign 
Pontiffs,  and  all  proceedings  and  promotions  made  by 
them  are  annulled.  The  Holy  See  is  declared  vacant 
and  the  faithful  are  set  free  from  their  promise  of 
obedience."  This  grave  sentence  was  greeted  with 
joyful  applause,  the  Te  Deum  was  sung,  and  a  solemn 
procession  was  ordered  next  day,  the  feast  of  Corpus 
Christi.  All  the  members  appended  their  signatures 
to  the  decree  of  the  council,  and  every  one  thought 
that  the  schism  was  ended  forever.  On  15  June  the 
cardinals  met  in  the  archiepiscopal  palace  of  Pisa  to 
proceed  with  the  election  of  a  new  pope.  The  con- 
clave lasted  eleven  days.  Few  obstacles  intervened 
from  outside  to  cause  delay.  Within  the  council,  it 
is  said,  there  were  intrigues  for  the  election  of  a  French 
pope,  but,  through  the  influence  of  the  energetic  and 
ingenious  Cardinal  Cossa,  on  26  June,  1409,  the  votes 
were  unanimously  cast  in  the  favour  of  Cardinal 
Peter  Philarghi,  who  took  the  name  of  Alexander  V 
(q.  v.).  His  election  was  expected  and  desired,  as 
testified  by  universal  joy.  The  new  pope  announced 
his  election  to  all  the  sovereigns  of  Christendom, 
from  whom  he  received  expressions  of  lively  sympathy 
for  himself  and  for  the  position  of  the  Church.  He 
presided  over  the  last  four  sessions  of  the  council, 
confirmed  all  the  ordinances  made  by  the  cardinals 
after  their  refusal  of  obedience  to  the  antipopes, 
united  the  two  sacred  colleges,  and  subsequently 
declared  that  he  would  work  energetically  for  reform. 

Judgment  of  the  Council  of  Pisa. — The  right  of  the 
cardinals  to  convene  a  general  council  to  put  an  end 
to  the  schism  seemed  to  themselves  indisputable. 
This  was  a  consequence  of  the  natural  principle  that 
demands  for  a  large  corporation  the  capacity  of  dis- 
covering within  itself  a  means  of  safety :  Salus  populi 
suprema  lex  esto,  i.  e.,  the  chief  interest  is  the  safety 
of  the  Church  and  the  preservation  of  her  indispen- 
sable unity.  The  tergiversations  and  perjuries  of  the 
two  pretenders  seemed  to  justify  the  united  sacred 
colleges.  "Never",  said  they,  "shall  we  succeed  in 
ending  the  schism  while  these  two  obstinate  persons 
are  at  the  head  of  the  opposing  parties.  There  is  no 
undisputed  pope  who  can  summon  a  general  council. 
As  the  pope  is  doubtful,  the  Holy  See  must  be  consid- 
ered vacant.  We  have  therefore  a  lawful  mandate 
to  elect  "■  pope  who  will  be  undisputed,  and  to  con- 
voke the  universal  Church  that  her  adhesion  may 
strengthen  our  decision ' ' .  Famous  universities  urged 
and  upheld  the  cardinals  in  this  conclusion.  And 
yet,  from  the  theological  and  judicial  point  of  view, 
their  reasoning  might  seem  false,   dangerous,   and 


PISANO 


114 


PISCATAWAY 


revolutionary.  For  if  Gregory  and  Benedict  were 
doubtful,  so  were  the  cardinals  whom  they  had 
created.  If  the  fountain  of  their  authority  was  un- 
certain, so  was  their  competence  to  convoke  the  uni- 
versal Church  and  to  elect  a  pope.  Plainly,  this  is 
arguing  in  a  circle.  How  then  could  Alexander  V, 
elected  by  them,  have  indisputable  rights  to  the  recog- 
nition of  the  whole  of  Christendom?  Further,  it  was 
to  be  feared  that  certain  spirits  would  make  use  of 
this  temporary  expedient  to  transform  it  into  a 
general  rule,  to  proclaim  the  superiority  of  the  sacred 
college  and  of  the  council  to  the  pope,  and  to  legalize 
henceforth  the  appeals  to  a  future  council,  whicn  had 
already  commenced  under  King  Philip  the  Fair.  The 
means  used  by  the  cardinals  could  not  succeed  even 
temporarily.  The  position  of  the  Church  became 
still  more  precarious;  instead  of  two  heads  there 
were  three  wandering  popes,  persecuted  and  exiled 
from  their  capitals.  Yet,  inasmuch  as  Alexander  was 
not  elected  in  opposition  to  a  generally  recognized 
pontiff,  nor  by  schismatic  methods,  his  position  was 
better  than  that  of  Clement  VII  and  Benedict  XIII, 
the  popes  of  Avignon.  An  almost  general  opinion 
asserts  that  both  he  and  his  successor,  John  XXIII, 
were  true  popes.  If  the  pontiffs  of  Avignon  had  a 
colourable  title  in  their  own  obedience,  such  a  title 
can  be  made  out  still  more  clearly  for  Alexander  V 
in  the  eyes  of  the  universal  Church.  In  fact  the 
Pisan  pope  was  acknowledged  by  the  majority  of  the 
Church,  i.  e.  by  France,  England,  Portugal,  Bohemia, 
Prussia,  a  few  countries  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  the 
County  Venaissin,  while  Naples,  Poland,  Bavaria, 
and  part  of  Germany  continued  to  obey  Gregory,  and 
Spain  and  Scotland  remained  subject  to  Benedict. 

Theologians  and  canonists  are  severe  on  the  Council 
of  Pisa.  On  the  one  hand,  a  violent  partisan  of 
Benedict's,  Boniface  Ferrer,  calls  it  "a  conventicle 
of  demons".  Theodore  Urie,  a  supporter  of  Gregory, 
seems  to  doubt  whether  they  gathered  at  Pisa  with 
the  sentiments  of  Dathan  and  Abiron  or  those  of 
Moses.  St.  Antoninus,  Cajetan,  Turrecremata,  and 
Raynald  openly  call  it  a  conventicle,  or  at  any  rate 
cast  doubt  on  its  authority.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Galilean  school  either  approves  of  it  or  pleads  extenu- 
ating circumstances.  Noel  Alexander  asserts  that 
the  council  destroyed  the  schism  as  far  as  it  could. 
Bossuet  says  in  his  turn :  "If  the  schism  that  de- 
vastated the  Church  of  God  was  not  exterminated  at 
Pisa,  at  any  rate  it  received  there  a  mortal  blow  and 
the  Council  of  Constance  consummated  it."  Protest- 
ants, faithful  to  the  consequences  of  their  principles, 
applaud  this  council  unreservedly,  for  they  see  in  it 
"the  first  step  to  the  deliverance  of  the  world",  and 
greet  it  as  the  dawn  of  the  Reformation  (Gregorovius). 
Perhaps  it  is  wise  to  say  with  Bellarmine  that  this 
assembly  is  a  general  council  which  is  neither  ap- 
proved nor  disapproved.  On  account  of  its  illegalities 
and  inconsistencies  it  cannot  be  quoted  as  an  oecu- 
menical council.  And  yet  it  would  be  unfair  to  brand 
it  as  a  conventicle,  to  compare  it  with  the  "robber 
council"  of  Ephesus,  the  pseudo-council  of  Basle,  or 
the  Jansenist  council  of  Pistoia.  This  synod  is  not  a 
pretentious,  rebellious,  and  sacrilegious  coterie.  The 
number  of  the  fathers,  their  quality,  authority,  in- 
telligence and  their  zealous  and  generous  intentions, 
the  almost  unanimous  accord  with  which  they  came 
to  their  decisions,  the  royal  support  they  met  with, 
remove  every  suspicion  of  intrigue  or  cabal.  It 
resembles  no  other  council,  and  has  a  place  by  itself 
in  the  history  of  the  Church,  as  unlawful  in  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  was  convoked,  unpractical  in  its  choice 
of  means,  not  indisputable  in  its  results,  and  having 
no  claim  to  represent  the  Universal  Church.  It  is 
the  original  source  of  all  the  ecclesiastico-historical 
events  that  took  place  from  1409  to  1414,  and  opens 
the  way  for  the  Council  of  Constance. 
D'Ach]e:ry,  Spicilegium,  I  (Paris,  1723),  853,  see  namea  of  the 


membera  of  the  Council,  I,  844;  d'Aillt  in  Operibus  Gersonii,  ed. 
Ellibs  Dupin  (1706);  St.  Antoninus,  Summa  Historialis,  III, 
xxii,  c.v,  §2;  Bellarmine,  Z)econci7.,  I  (Paris,  1608),  viii,  13;BEsaI 
Johannes  Gerson  und  die  kirchenpolitischen  Parteien  Franhreichs  vor 
dem  Konzil  zu  Ptsa  (Marburg,  1890) ;  Bliemetzrieder,  i)aseene- 
ral  Konzil  im  grossen  abendldndischen  Schis-ma  (Paderborn,  1904); 
Bouix,  De  Papa,  I,  497;  Chronicon  S.  Dionysii,  IV,  52,  216-38; 
Gerson,  Opera  Omnia,  ed.  Ellies  Dupin,  II  (1706),  123  sqq.; 
Hahdouin,  Concilia,  VIII,  85;  Hefele,  Histoire  des  Conciles, 
Leclercq,  X,  255;  Mansi,  Colleciio  Conciliorum,  XXVI,  1090- 
1240,  XXVII,  114-368;  Martene  and  Durand,  Amplissima  Cal- 
lectio,  VII,  894;  Idem,  Thesaurus,  II,  1374-1476;  Muzzahelli, 
De  auclor.  Bom.  pontificis,  II,  414;  Niem,  De  Schismate,  ed.  Erler' 
III  (Leipzig,  1890) ,  26-40,  262  sqq. ;  Pastor,  Histoire  des  Popes,  I, 
200-3 ;  Salembier,  Le  grand  schisme  d'Occident  (Paris,  1900),  251- 
74,  tr.  Mitchell  (London,  1907) ;  Idem,  Petrus  ah  Alliaco  (Lille, 
1886),  76  sqq.;  Tiraboschi,  Storialitt.ital,  II,  370;  Tschackert, 
Peler  von  Ailli  (Gotha,  1877),  see  especially  Appendix,  p.  29;  Va- 
LOIS,  La  France  et  le  grand  Schisme  d' Occident,  IV,  75  sqq.;  Weiz- 
SACKER,  Deutsche  Reichstagsakten,  VI,  496  sqq. ;  Bliemetzrieder 
Literarische  Polemik  zu  Beginn  des  grossen  abendlandischen  Schis- 
mas;  Ungedruckte  texte  und  Untersuchungen  (Vienna  and  Leipzig, 
1909) ;  Die  kirchenrechtlichen  Schriften  Peters  von  Lujia,  tr.  Erhle 
in  Archiv  fur  Literatur  und  Kirchengeschichte,  VII  (1900),  387,  514; 
ScHMiTZ,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Konzils  von  Pisa  in  Rdm.  Quartalschr. 

(1895).  L.  Salembieh. 

Fisano,  Niccola.    See  Niccola  Pisano. 

Piscataway  Indians,  a  tribe  of  Algonquian  Un- 
guistic  stock  formerly  occupying  the  peninsula  of 
lower  Maryland  between  the  Potomac  River  and 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  northward  to  the  Patapsco, 
including  the  present  District  of  Columbia,  and  not- 
able as  being  the  first  tribe  whose  Christianization 
was  attempted  under  English  auspices.  The  name 
by  which  they  were  commonly  known  to  the  Mary- 
land colonists  Pascatae  in  the  Latin  form — was 
properly  that  of  their  principal  village,  on  Piscataway 
Creek  near  its  mouth,  within  the  present  Prince 
George  county.  After  their  removal  to  the  north 
they  were  known  as  Conoy,  a  corruption  of  their 
Iroquois  name.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  ground 
for  the  assertion  of  Smith  (1608)  that  they  were  sub- 
ject to  the  Powhatan  tribes  of  Virginia.  Besides 
Piscataway,  which  was  a  palisaded  village  or  "fort", 
they  had  about  thirty  other  settlements,  among 
which  may  be  named  Yaooomoco,  Potopaco  (Port 
Tobacco),  Patuxent,  Mattapanient  (Mattapony), 
Mattawoman,  and  Nacochtank  (Lat.  Anacosian,  now 
Anaoostia,  D.  C).  The  original  relation  of  these 
towns  to  one  another  is  not  very  clear,  but  under  the 
Maryland  Government  their  chiefs  or  "kings"  all 
recognized  the  chief  of  Piscataway  as  their  "em- 
peror", and  held  the  succession  subject  to  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  colonial  "assembly".  Their  original 
population  was  probably  nearly  2500. 

The  recorded  history  of  the  Piscataway  begins  in 
1608,  when  Captain  John  Smith  of  Virginia  sailed 
up  the  Potomac  and  touched  at  several  of  their 
villages,  including  Nacochtank,  where  "the  people 
did  their  best  to  content  us".  In  1822  the  same  town 
was  destroyed  by  a  band  of  plunderers  from  Vir- 
ginia, but  afterward  rebuilt.  On  25  March,  1634, 
the  Catholic  English  colony  of  Lord  Baltimore,  includ- 
ing the  Jesuit  Fathers  Andrew  White  and  John  Altham, 
and  two  lay  brothers,  landed  on  St.  Clement's 
(Blackistone's)  Island  and  established  friendly  rela- 
tions with  the  people  of  Yaooomoco,  as  well  as  with 
the  great  chief  of  Piscataway,  as  also  the  chief  of 
Potomac  town  on  the  Virginia  side.  The  first  altar 
was  set  up  in  an  Indian  wigwam.  Owing  to  the  at- 
tacks of  the  powerful  Susquehanna  at  the  head  of 
the  bay  the  people  of  Yaocomoco  were  about  to 
remove,  apparently  to  combine  with  those  of  Piscat- 
away, and  the  English  settlers  bargained  with  them 
for  the  abandoned  site. 

The  Jesuits  at  once  set  to  work  to  study  the  lan- 
guage and  customs  of  the  Indians  in  order  to  reach 
them  with  Christianity.  Father  White,  superior  of 
the  mission,  whose  valuable  "Relatio"  is  almost 
our  only  monument  to  the  Maryland  tribes,  composed 
a  grammar,  dictionary,  and  catechism  in  the  Pis- 
cataway dialect,  of  which  the  last,  if  not  the  others, 


PISCINA 


115 


PISCOPIA 


was  still  in  existence  in  Rome  in  1832.  Another  cate- 
chism was  compiled  later  by  Father  Roger  Rigbie 
at  Patuxent.  The  Indians  generally  were  well- 
disposed  to  the  new  teaching,  and,  other  Jesuits  hav- 
ing arrived,  missions  were  established  at  St.  Mary's 
(Yaocomoco),  Mattapony,  Kent  Island,  and,  in 
1639,  by  Father  ^^'hite,  at  the  tribal  capital  Pisrata- 
way,  which,  from  the  name  of  the  tayac  or  great  chief, 
Kittamaquund,  "Big  Beaver",  was  sometimes  known 
as  Kittamaquindi.  Here  on  5  July,  1640,  in  presence 
of  the  governor  and  several  of  the  colonial  officers 
who  attended  for  the  purpose,  Father  White,  with 
public  ceremony,  baptized  and  ga\o  Christian  names 
to  the  great  chief,  his  wife,  and  daughter,  and  to  the 
chief  councillor  and  his  son,  afterward  uniting  the 
chief  and  his  wife  in  Christian  marriage.  A  year 
later  the  missionaries  were  invited  to  Nacochtank, 
and  in  1642  Father  White  baptized  the  chief  and 
several  others  of  the  Potomac  tribe. 

About  this  time  the  renewed  inroads  of  the  Sus- 
quehanna compelled  the  removal  of  the  mission  from 
Piscataway  to  Potopaco,  where  the  woman  chief  and 
over  130  others  were  Christians.  The  work  pros- 
pered until  1644,  when  Claiborne  with  the  help  of  the 
Puritan  refugees  who  had  been  accorded  a  safe  shel- 
ter in  the  Catholic  colony,  seized  the  government, 
deposed  the  governor,  and  sent  the  missionaries  as 
prisoners  to  England.  They  returned  in  1648  and 
again  took  up  the  work,  which  was  again  interrupted 
by  the  confusion  of  the  civil  war  in  England  until 
the  estabhshment  of  the  Cromwellian  government  in 
1652  outlawed  Catholicism  in  its  own  colony  and 
brought  the  Piscataway  mission  to  an  end. 

Under  the  new  Government  the  Piscataway  rap- 
idly declined.  Driven  from  their  best  lands  by  legal 
and  illegal  means,  demoralized  by  liquor  dealers, 
hunted  by  slave-catchers,  wasted  by  smallpox,  con- 
stantly raided  by  the  powerful  Susquehanna  while 
forbidden  the  possession  of  guns  for  their  own  de- 
fence, their  plantations  destroyed  by  the  cattle 
and  hogs  of  the  settlers  and  their  pride  broken  by 
oppressive  restrictions,  they  sank  to  the  condition 
of  helpless  dependents  whose  numbers  constantly 
diminished.  In  1666  they  addressed  a  pathetic 
petition  to  the  assembly:  "We  can  flee  no  further. 
Let  us  know  where  to  live,  and  how  to  be  secured  for 
the  future  from  the  hogs  and  cattle".  As  a  result 
reservations  were  soon  afterward  established  for  each 
of  twelve  villages  then  occupied  by  them.  Encroach- 
ments still  continued,  however,  and  the  conquest  of 
the  Susquehanna  by  the  Iroquois  in  1675  only  brought 
down  upon  the  Piscataway  a  more  cruel  and  persistent 
enemy.  In  1680  nearly  all  the  people  of  one  town  were 
massacred  by  the  Iroquois,  who  sent  word  to  the 
assembly  that  they  intended  to  exterminate  the 
whole  tribe.  Peace  was  finally  arranged  in  1685. 
In  1692  each  principal  town  was  put  under  a  nominal 
yearly  tribute  of  a  bow  and  two  arrows,  their  chiefs 
to  be  chosen  and  to  hold  at  the  pleasure  of  the  assem- 
bly. At  last,  in  1697,  the  "emperor"  and  principal 
chiefs,  with  nearly  the  entire  tribe  excepting  appar- 
ently those  on  the  Chaptico  river  reservation,  aban- 
doned their  homes  and  fled  into  the  backwoods  of 
Virginia.  At  this  time  they  seemed  to  have  num- 
bered under  four  hundred  and  this  small  remnant 
was  in  1704  still  further  reduced  by  a  wasting  epi- 
demic. Refusing  all  offers  to  return,  they  opened 
negotiations  with  the  Iroquois  for  a  settlement  under 
their  protection,  and,  permission  being  given,  they 
began  a  slow  migration  northward,  stopping  for  long 
periods  at  various  points  along  the  Susquehanna 
until  in  1765  we  find  them  living  with  other  remnant 
tribes  at  or  near  Chenango  (now  Binghamton,  New 
York)  and  numbering  only  about  120  souls.  Thence 
they  drifted  west  with  the  Delawares  and  made  their 
last  appearance  in  history  at  a  council  at  Detroit  in 
1793.     Those  who  remained  in  Maryland  are  repre- 


sented to-day  by  a  few  negro  mongrels  who  claim  the 
name. 

In  habit  and  ceremony  the  Piscataway  probably 
closely  resembled  the  kindred  Powhatan  Indians  of 
Virginia  as  described  by  Smith  and  Strachey,  but 
except  for  Father  White's  valuable,  though  brief, 
"Relatio"  we  have  almost  no  record  on  the  subject. 
Their  houses,  probably  communal,  were  oval  wig- 
wams of  poles  covered  with  mats  or  bark,  and  with 
the  fire-hole  in  the  centre  and  the  smoke-hole  in  the 
roof  abo\'p.  The  princijial  men  had  bed  platforms, 
but  the  common  people  slept  upon  skins  upon  the 
ground.  Their  women  made  pottery  and  baskets, 
while  the  men  made  dug-out  canoes  and  carried  the 
bows  and  arrows.  They  cultivated  corn,  pumpkins, 
and  a  species  of  tobacco.  The  ordinary  dress  con- 
sisted simply  of  a  breech-cloth  for  the  men  and  a  short 
deerskin  apron  for  the  women,  while  children  went 
entirely  naked.  They  painted  their  faces  with  bright 
colours  in  various  patterns.  They  had  descent  in  the 
female  line,  believed  in  good  and  bad  spirits,  and  paid 
special  reverence  to  corn  and  fire.  Father  White 
gives  a  meagre  account  of  a  ceremony  which  he 
witnessed  at  Patuxent.  They  seem  to  have  been  of 
kindly  and  rather  unwarlike  disposition,  and  physi- 
cally were  dark,  very  tall,  muscular,  and  well  propor- 
tioned. 

Archives  of  Maryland  (29  vola.,  Baltimore,  1883-1909) ;  Boz- 
MAN,  History  of  Maryland  (2  vols.,  Baltimore,  1837);  Brinton, 
The  Lenape  and  their  Legends  {Walam  Olum)  (Philadelphia, 
1884) ;  Hughes,  History  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  North  America: 
I,  1580-161(5  (Cleveland,  1907) ;  Mooney  and  Others,  Aboriyi- 
nes  of  the  District  of  Columbia  and  the  Lower  Potomac  in  Amer- 
ican Anthropologist,  II  (Washington,  1889);  New  York  Colonial 
Documents  (15  vols.,  Albany,  1853-87),  s.  v.  Conoy;  Piscataway, 
etc.;  Shea,  Catholic  Indian  Missions  (New  York,  1854);  Smith, 
General  History  of  Virginia  (London,  1629;  Richmond,  1819), 
ed.  Arber  (Birmingham,  1884) ;  White,  Relatio  Itineris  in 
Marylandiam,  Maryland  Historical  Society  Fund  pub.  no.  7.  (Bal- 
timore, 1874).  James  Mooney. 

Piscina  (Lat.  from  piscis,  a  fish,  fish-pond,  pool  or 
basin,  called  also  sacrarium,  ihalassicon,  or  feneslella), 
the  name  was  used 
to  denote  a  baptis- 
mal font  or  the 
cistern  into  which 
the  water  flowed 
from  the  head  of 
the  person  bap- 
tized; or  an  ex- 
cavation, some 
two  or  three  feet 
deep  and  about 
one  foot  wide,  cov- 
ered with  a  stone 
slab,  to  receive  the 
water  from  the 
washing  of  the 
priest's  hands,  the 
water  used  for 
washing  the  palls, 
purifiers,  and  cor- 
porals, the  bread 
crumbs,  cotton, 
etc.  used  after 
sacred  unctions, 
and  for  the  ashes 
of  sacred  things  no 

longer  fit  for    use.  Piscina 

It  was  constructed  St.  Canice's  Cathedral,  Kilkenny 

near  the  altar,  at  (XIII  Century) 

the  south  wall  of  the  sanctuary,  in  the  sacristy,  or 
some  other  suitable  place.  It  is  found  also  in  the  form 
of  a  small  column  or  niche  of  stone  or  metal. 

Rock,  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  IV  (London,  1904),  194;  BiN- 
TEBiM,  Denkwiirdigkeiten,  IV,  1,  112;  Theol.  prakt.  Quartalschrift 

(1876),  33.  Francis  Mershman. 


Piscopia,   Helena. 
CEEZiA  Piscopia. 


See  CoRNAEO,  Elena  Lu- 


PISE 


116 


PISTOIA 


Pise,  Charles  Constantinb,  priest,  poet,  and  prose 
writer,  b.  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  22  Nov.,  1801;  d. 
at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  26  May,  1866.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Georgetown  College,  and  was  for  some  time 
a  member  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  He  taught  rhetoric 
at  Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Md., 
where  John  Hughes,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  New 
York,  was  among  his  pupils.  In  1825  he  was  or- 
dained to  the  priesthood  and  officiated  for  some  tiine 

at  the  cathedral  in 
Baltimore.  He  after- 
wards served  at  St. 
Patrick's  church, 
Washington,  as  as- 
sistant pastor,  and 
while  there  was 
elected  (11  Dec, 
1832)  chaplain  to  the 
United  States  Senate 
— the  only  Catholic 
priest  hitherto  ap- 
pointed to  that  office. 
He  was  a  personal 
friend  of  President 
Tyler.  In  1848  he 
became  pastor  of  St. 
Peter's  Church,  New 
York;  he  had  pre- 
viously been  assistant 
pastor  in  the  same  church  under  the  vicar-general. 
Dr.  Powers.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  pastor  of 
St.  Cha,rles  Borromeo's,  Brooklyn,  where  he  officiated 
until  his  death.  Dr.  Pise  wrote  several  works  in 
prose  and  verse,  among  them  being  "A  History 
of  the  Cathofic  Church"  (5  vols.,  1829),  "Father 
Rowland"  (1829),  "Aletheia,  or  Letters  on  the 
Truth  of  the  Cathohc  Doctrines"  (1845),  "St.  Ig- 
natius and  His  First  Companions"  (1845),  "Chris- 
tianity and  the  Church"  (1S.50).  His  "Clara",  a 
poem  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  "Montezuma'  ,  a 
drama,  were  never  pubUshed.  He  contributed  to  the 
magazine  literature  of  the  day,  was  a  distinguished 
lecturer  and  preacher,  and  a  writer  of  Latin  verse. 
Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States,  TV 


Chables  Constantine  Pise 


(New  York,  1892). 


Henry  A.  Bhann. 


Pisidia,  a  country  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Asia 
Minor,  between  the  high  Phrygian  tableland  and  the 
maritime  plain  of  PamphiUa.  This  district,  formed  by 
the  lofty  ridges  of  the  western  Taurus  range,  was  in 
pre-Christian  times  the  abode  of  stalwart,  half- 
civilized,  and  unruly  tribes,  never  entirely  subdued. 
Ancient  writers  describe  them  as  a  restless,  plunder- 
loving  population.  St.  Paul,  no  doulDt,  had  in  mind 
Pisidia,  which  he  had  traversed  twice  (Acts,  xiii, 
13-14:  note  here  that,  according  to  the  more  probable 
text,  in  the  latter  verse  we  should  read  "  Pisidian 
Antioch";  xiv,  20-23),  perhaps  three  times  (Acts, 
xvi,  6),  when  in  II  Cor.,  xi,  26,  he  mentions  the 
"perils  of  waters"  and  "perils  of  robbers"  he  had 
confronted.  Independent  until  36  b.  c,  the  Pisidians 
were  then  conquered  by  the  Galatian  king,  Amyntas, 
and  soon  after,  together  with  their  conquerors,  forced 
to  acknowledge  Roman  suzerainty.  Joined  first  to 
one  province,  then  to  another,  it  received  a  governor 
of  its  own  in  297  a.  d.  The  principal  cities  were 
Cremna,  Adada  (the  modern  name  of  which,  Kara 
Bavlo,  preserves  the  memory  of  St.  Paul),  Serge,  Ter- 
messos,  Pednalissos,  Sagalassos.  Heaps  of  imposing 
ruins  are  all  that  is  now  left. 

CoXYBEARE  AND  Howso.M,  The  Life  and  EpiMes  of  St.  Paul 
(London,  1875);  Fouard,  Snint  Paul  awl  Ilix  Missions,  tr. 
Griffith  (New  York,  1894);  Ramsay,  Hi'.torical  GeoijTaphy  of 
A,iia  Minor  (London,  1890)  ;  Idem.  The  Church  in  the  Roman 
Empire  (London.  1894);  Idem,  Inscriptions  en  langue  Pisidienne 
in  Revue  des  Uinrersiles  du  Mi'li  (189.5),  .3.5.3-60;  Kiepert, 
Manuel  de  gSographie  nr,ci<'nne  (French  tr.,  Paris,  1887);  li,ANC- 
KORONSKi,  Stddte  Pamphyliens  und  Pi^idiens  (Vienna,  1892). 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 


Pistis,  Sophia.     See  Gnosticism. 

Pistoia,  Synod  of,  held  18  to  28  September,  1786, 
by  Scipio  de'  Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistoia  and  Prato.  It 
marks  the  most  daring  effort  ever  made  to  secure  for 
Jansenism  and  allied  errors  a  foothold  in  Italy.  Peter 
Leopold,  created  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  in  1763, 
emulated  the  example  of  his  brother.  Emperor  Joseph 
II,  in  assuming  to  control  religious  affairs  in  his 
domain.  Imbued  with  Regalism  and  Jansenism  he 
extended  a  misguided  zeal  for  reform  to  minutest 
details  of  discipline  and  worship.  In  two  instructions 
of  2  August,  1785,  and  26  January,  1786,  he  sent  to 
each  of  the  bishops  of  Tuscany  a  series  of  fifty-seven 
"points  of  view  of  His  Royal  JHighness"  on  doctrinal, 
disciplinary,  and  liturgical  matters,  directing  that  dio- 
cesan synods  be  held  every  two  years  to  enforce  reform 
in  the  Church  and  "to  restore  to  the  bishops  their 
native  rights  abusively  usurped  by  the  Roman  Court". 
Of  the  eighteen  Tuscan  bishops  but  three  convoked 
the  synod;  and  of  these  his  only  partisan  was  Scipio 
de'  Ricci  in  whom  he  found  a  kindred  spirit.  Born  in 
1714  of  an  eminent  family,  de'  Ricci  gave  early  prom- 
ise of  worth  and  eminence.  Made  Bishop  of  Pistoia 
and  Prato,  the  most  populous  of  the  Tuscan  dioceses, 
19  June,  1780,  he  planned  and  energetically  pursued, 
with  the  encouragement  of  Pius  VI,  the  work  of  much- 
needed  reform,  but  influenced  by  the  times,  his  zeal 
came  to  be  marked  by  reckless  audacity.  He  con- 
demned devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart,  discouraged  the 
use  of  relics  and  images,  undervalued  indulgences,  im- 
provised liturgy,  and  founded  a  press  for  Jansenistic 
propaganda.  On  31  July,  1786,  de'  Ricci,  in  convoking 
the  synod,  invoked  the  authority  of  Pius  VI  who  had 
previously  recommended  a  synod  as  the  normal  means 
of  diocesan  reform.  With  characteristic  energy  and 
prevision  he  prepared  for  the  council  by  inviting  from 
without  his  diocese,  theologians  and  canonists  noto- 
rious for  Galilean  and  Jansenistic  tendencies,  and 
issued  to  his  clergy  pronouncements  which  reflected 
the  dominant  errors  of  the  times.  On  18  September, 
1786,  the  synod  was  opened  in  the  church  of  St.  Leo- 
pold in  Pistoia  and  continued  through  seven  sessions 
until  28  September.  De'  Ricci  presided,  and  at  his 
right  sat  the  royal  commissioner,  Giuseppe  Paribeni, 
professor  at  the  University  of  Pisa,  and  a  regalist. 
The  promoter  was  Pietro  Tamburini,  professor  at  the 
University  of  Pavia,  conspicuous  for  his  learning  and 
for  Jansenistic  sympathies.  At  the  opening  session 
234  members  were  present ;  but  at  the  fifth  session  246 
attended,  of  whom  180  were  pastors,  13  canons,  12 
chaplains,  28  simple  priests  of  the  secular  clergy,  and 
13  regulars.  Of  these  many,  including  even  the  pro- 
moter, were  extra-diocesans  irregularly  intruded  by 
de'  Ricci  because  of  their  sympathy  with  his  designs. 
Several  Pistorian  priests  were  not  invited  while  the 
clergy  of  Prato,  where  feeling  against  the  bishop  was 
particularly  strong,  was  all  but  ignored. 

The  points  proposed  by  the  grand  duke  and  the 
innovations  of  the  bishop  were  discussed  with  warmth 
and  no  little  acerbity.  The  Regalists  pressed  their 
audacity  to  heretical  extremes,  and  evoked  protests 
from  the  papal  adherents.  Though  these  objections 
led  to  some  modifications,  the  propositions  of  Leopold 
were  substantially  accepted,  the  four  Galilean  Articles 
of  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Clergy  of  1682  were 
adopted,  and  the  reform  programme  of  de'  Ricci  car- 
ried out  virtually  in  its  entirety.  The  theological 
opinions  were  strongly  Jansenistic.  Among  the  vaga- 
ries proposed  were :  the  right  of  civil  authority  to 
create  matrimonial  impediments ;  the  reduction  of  all 
religious  orders  to  one  body  with  a  common  habit  and 
no  perpetual  vows;  a  vernacular  liturgy  with  but  one 
altar  in  a  church  etc.  Two  hundred  and  thirty-three 
members  signed  the  acts  in  the  final  session  of  28 
September,  when  the  synod  adjourned  intending  to 
reconvene  in  the  following  April  and  September.    In 


PISTOIA 


117 


PISTOIA 


February,  1787,  the  first  edition  (thirty-five  hundred     Rotondo,  the  former  baptistry;  it  is  an  octagonal 
copies)  of  the  Acts  and  Decrees  appeared,  bearing  the     structure,  the  work  of  Andrea  Pisano  (1333-59),  with 


royal  imprimatur.  De  Ricci,  wishing  the  Holy  See  to 
believe  that  the  work  was  approved  by  his  clergy, 
summoned  his  priests  to  pastoral  retreat  in  April  with 
a  view  to  obtaining  their  signatures  to  an  aoceplance 
of  the  synod.  Only  twenty-seven  attended,  and  of 
these  twenty  refused  to  sign.  Leopold  meantime 
summoned  all  the  Tuscan  bishops  to  meet  at  Florence, 
23  April,  1787,  to  pave  the  way  for  acceptance  of  the 
Pistorian  decrees  at  a  provincial  council;  but  the 
assembled  bishops  vigorously  opposed  his  project,  and 
after  nineteen  stormy  sessions  he  dismissed  the  assem- 
bly and  abandoned  hope  of  the  council.  De  Ricci 
became  discredited,  and,  after  Leopold's  accession  to 
the  imperial  throne  in  1790,  was  compelled  to  resign 
his  see.  Pius  VI  commissioned  four  bishops,  assisted 
by  theologians  of  the  secular  clergy,  to  examine  the 
Pistorian  enactments,  and  deputed  a  congregation  of 
cardinals  and  bishops  to  pass  judgment  on  them. 
They  condemned  the  synod  and  stigmatized  eighty- 
five  of  its  propostitions  as  erroneous  and  dangerous. 
Pius  VI  on  28  August,  1794,  dealt  the  death-blow  to 
the  influence  of  the  synod  and  of  Jansenism  in  Italy  in 
his  Bull  "Auctorem 
Fidei" 

Atti  e  Decreti  del 
Coiicilio  Didcr^urio  iti 
Pistoja  (2nd  ed.,  Flor- 
ence, 17SS) ;  tr.  Schwar- 
ZEL,  Ada  Congregationi.-! 
A  rchupiscoporum  etEpi^- 
coporum  Etrurice,  Floren- 
tiT  anno  1787  celebratx 
(7  vols.,  Bamberg,  1790- 
94);  Denzixgek-Baxx- 
v/ART,  Enchind^un  (Frei- 
burg, 1908).  397-422; 
Ballerini,  Op?/.s  M<inilf, 
I  (Prato,  1898),  li-lxxxii; 
Gerodulo,  Lettera  crito- 
logica  sopra  il  sinodo  di 
Pisloia  (Barletta,  1789); 
La  voce  della  greggia  di 
Pistoja  e  Prato  ai  sua  pas- 
tore  Mgr  Vescovo  Scipione 
de'  Ricci  (Sondrio,  1789) ; 
Lettera  ad  un  Prelato  Ro- 
mano dove  con  gran  vivt^zza 
e  con  profonda  dottrina 
vengono  confutati  gli  errori 
de'  qualiahhonda  ilSinodo 
di  Mgr  de'  Ricci,  Vescovo 
di  Pistoja  (Halle,  17S9); 
Seconda  lettera  ad  un 
Prelato  Romano  sulV  idea 
falsa,  scismatica,  erronea, 
contradittoria,  ridicola 
della  chiesa  formata  del  Sinodo  di  Pistoja  (Halle,  1790);  Con- 
siderazioni  sul  nuovo  Sinodo  di  Pistoja  e  Prato,  fatte  da  un 
paroco  della  stessa  diocesi  (Pistoia,  1790);  PicOT,  Memoires  pour 
servir  a  I'histoire  du  18'  sikcle  (Paris,  1855) ,  V,  251  sq. ;  VI,  407  sq. ; 
Gendry,  Pie  VI.  sa  vie — son  pontifical,  II  (Paris,  1907),  451-83, 
documented  from  Vatican  archives;  Scaduto,  Stato  e  Chiesa  sotto 
Leopold  I  (Florence,  1885) ;  DE  Potter,  Vie  et  Memoires  de  Sci- 
pion  de'  Ricci  (Paris,  1826),  1  sq.;  Parson8.  Studies  in  Church 
History,  IV  (New  York,  1897),  592-600;  Scipio  de'  Bicci  in  Dub- 
lin Review  (March,  1852),  XXXII,  48-69. 

John  B.  Peterson. 

Pistoia  and  Prato,  Diocese  of  (Pistoriensis 
ET  Pratensis)  ,  in  the  Province  of  Florence.  The  city 
of  Pistoia  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ombrone.  The  chief  industries  of 
the  town  are  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  objects 
in  straw.     The  cathedral  dates  from  the  fifth  cen- 


decorations  by  Cellino  di  Nese;  the  font  itself  is  a 
square  base  with  four  wells,  surmounted  by  a  statue  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist  by  Andrea  Vacca.  The  church 
of  S.  Giovanni  Fuoricivitas  is  surrounded,  on  the  upper 
part,  by  two  rows  of  arches;  it  is  a  work  of  the  twelfth 
century;  within,  there  is  the  pulpit,  with  its  sculptures 
by  Fra  Gulielmo  d'Agnello,  and  the  holy-water  font, 
representing  the  theological  virtues,  by  Giovanni  Pi- 
sano. The  name  of  Pistoia  appears  for  the  first  time 
in  history  in  connexion  with  the  conspiracy  of  Cati- 
line (C2  B.  c),  but  it  was  only  after  the  sixth  century 
that  it  became  important;  it  was  governed,  first,  by 
its  bishops,  later  by  stewards  of  the  Marquis  of  Tus- 
cany. It  was  the  first  to  establish  its  independence, 
after  the  death  of  Countess  Matilda,  and  its  municipal 
statutes  are  the  most  ancient  of  their  kind  in  Italy.  It 
was  a  Ghibelline  town,  and  had  subjugated  several 
cities  and  castles;  but,  after  the  death  of  Frederick  II, 
the  Florentines  compelled  it  to  become  Guelph. 
About  1300,  the  Houses  of  the  Ciincellieri  (Guelphs), 
and  Panciatichi  (Ghibellines),  struggled  with  each 
other  for  supremacy.     The  former  having  triumphed 

it  soon  divided  into 
Bianchi  and  Neri, 
which  made  it  easy 
for  Castruccio  Cas- 
tracane  to  subject 
the  town  to  his 
domination,  in  1328. 
Florence  assisted  the 
Pistoians  to  drive 
Castruccio  from  their 
town,  but  that  aid 
soon  weighed  upon 
them,  and  they  re- 
volted (1343),  taking 
part  with  Pisa.  In 
13,51  Pistoia  be- 
came definitively 
subject  to  Florence. 
Clement  IX  was  a 
Pistoian. 

Prato  is  also  a 
city  in  the  Province 
of  Florence,  situated 
in  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  B  i  s  e  n  z  i  o , 
which  supports 
many  industries,  among  them  flour  mills,  woolen 
and  silk  manufactories,  quarries,  iron,  and  cop- 
per works.  The  Cicognani  college  of  Prato  is  fa- 
mous. The  cathedral,  which  was  erected  before  the 
tenth  century,  was  restored  in  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  according  to  plans  of  Giovanni 
Pisano ;  it  contains  paintings  by  Fra  Filippo  Lippi  and 
by  Gaddi,  a  pulpit  that  is  a  masterpiece  of  Donatello, 
and  the  mausoleums  of  Carlo  de'  Medici  and  of  Vin- 
cenzo  Danti.  In  the  chapel  of  la  Cintola  there  is  pre- 
served a  girdle  that,  according  to  the  legend,  was  given 
by  Our  Lady  to  St.  Thomas.  Prato  is  first  mentioned 
in  history,  in  1007,  as  being  in  rebellion  against 
Florence;  after  that  it  had  several  wars  with  Florence 
and  Pistoia.     In  1350,  it  was  bought  by  the  Floren- 


Facade  of  the  Cathedral,  Pistoia  (XIII  Centuey) 
Designed  by  Niccola  Pisano 


tury  but  was  damaged  by  fire  several  times  prior  to  tines,  to  prevent  it  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 

the  thirteenth  century,  when  Nicol6  Pisano  designed  Visconti.     In  1512,  it  was  sacked  by  the  Spaniards, 

its  present  form;  the  outer  walls  are  inlaid  with  bands  Fra  Arlotto,  author  of  the  first  Biblical  concordance, 

of  black  and  white  marble;  the  tribune  was  painted  by  was  a  native  of  Prato,  as  were  also  Fra  BartolommeiJ 

Passignano  and  by  Sorri;  the  paintings  by  Alessio  della  Porta  and  several  personages  of  the  Inghirami 

d'Andrea  and  by  Buonaccorso  di  Cino  (1347),  which  family.     Pistoia  claims  to  have  received  the  Gospel 

were  in  the  centre  aisle,  have  disappeared.     Other  from  St.  Romulus,  the  first  Bishop  of  Fiesole.     The 

things  to  be  admired,  are  the  ancient  pulpit,  the  ceno-  first  mention  of  a  Bishop  of  Pistoia  is  m  492,  though 

taphs  of  Cino  da  Pistoia  and  Cardinal  Forteguerri,  the  name  of  this  prelate,  like  that  of  another  Bishop 

by  Verrocchio,  the  altar  of  8.  Atto,  with  its  silver  work,  of  Pistoia,  referred  to  in  516,  is  unknown.     The  first 

the  baptismal'  font  by  Ferrucci,  and  the  equipments  historically    known    bishop    is    Joannes    (700) ;    Leo 

of  the  sacristy.     Opposite  the  cathedral  is  S.  Giovanni  (1067),  important  in  the  schism  of  Henry  IV;  Jacobus 


PISTORIUS 


118 


PITHOU 


The  Cathedral,  Prato 
Enlarged  by  Giovanni  Piaano  in  1312 


(1118-41);  the  Blessed  Atto  (1135-53);  Bonus  (1189), 
author  of  "  Do  cohabitatione  clericorum  et  muherum ' ' ; 
the  Ven.  Giovanni  Vivenzi  (1370);  Matteo  Diamanti 
(1400);  Donate  de'Mcdici  (1436)  Nicolo  Pandolfini 
(1475),  who  later  became  a  cardinal;  three  Pucci,  Car- 
dinal Lorenzo  (1516),  Cardinal  Antonio  (1519)  and 
Roberto  (1541);  Alessandro  de'Medici  (1573)  became 
Leo  XL  In  1653,  Prato  was  made  a  diocese,  and 
united,  mque  priytcipaliler,  with  Pistoia;  as  early  as 
1409,  Florence  asked  for  the  creation  of  a  diocese  at 
Prato,  on  account  of 
the  dissensions  of  the 
collegiate  church  of 
Prato  with  the  Bish- 
ops of  Pistoia;  and 
in  1460,  it  had  been 
made  a  prelatura 
nullius,  and  given,  as 
a  rule,  to  some  ca,T- 
dinsiX, incommendnni . 
Other  bishops  of 
these  sees  wore  the 
Ven.  Gerardo  Ge- 
rard! (1679-90),  un- 
der whom  Prato 
founded  its  semi- 
nary; Leone  Strozza 
(1690),  Abbot  of 
Vallombrosa,  found- 
ed the  seminary  of 
Pisf(jia,  enlarged  by 
Michele  C.  Msdo- 
mini(1702);Soipione 
Ricci  (1780),  famous 
on  account  of  the 
Synod  of  Pistoia 
which  he  convened 
in  1786,  and  which  Pius  VI  afterwards  condemned. 
The  diocese  is  a  suffragan  of  Florence;  has  194  par- 
ishes, with  200,100  inhabitants,  5  religious  houses  of 
men,  and  19  of  women,  and  7  educational  establish- 
ments for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiesa  d' Italia,  XVII;  Rosati,  Memorie  per 
servire  alia  storia  dei  vescodi  di  Pistoia. 

U.  Benigni. 

Pistorius,  Johann,  controversialist  and  historian, 
b.  at  Nidda  in  Hesse,  14  February,  1546;  d.  at  Frei- 
burg, 18  July,  1608.  He  is  sometimes  called  Niddanus 
from  the  name  of  his  birthplace.  His  father  was  a 
well-known  Protestant  minister,  Johann  Pistorius  the 
Elder  (d.  15S3  at  Nidda),  who  from  1541  was  super- 
intendent or  chief  minister  of  Nidda,  and  took  part  in 
several  religious  disputations  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants.  Pistorius  the  Younger  studied  theology, 
law,  and  medicine  at  Marburg  and  Wittenberg  1559- 
67.  He  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine, 
and  in  1575  was  appointed  court  physician  to  the 
Margrave  Karl  II  of  Baden-Durlach,  who  frequently 
sought  his  advice  in  political  and  theological  matters. 
In  search  of  more  consistent  beliefs,  Pistorius  turned 
from  Lutheranism  to  Calvinism;  through  his  in- 
fluence the  Margrave  Ernst  Friedrich  of  Baden-Dur- 
lach made  the  same  change.  As  time  went  on,  how- 
ever, Pistorius  became  dissatisfied  with  Calvinism 
also.  In  1584  he  became  a  privy  councillor  of  Mar- 
grave James  III  of  Baden-Hochberg  at  Emmen- 
dingen;  after  further  investigation  he  entered  the 
Catholic  Church  in  loSs.  At  his  request  the  Mar- 
grave James  brought  about  the  religious  disputations 
of  Baden,  1589,  and  Emmendingen,  1.590.  After  the 
second  disputation  the  court  preacher  Zehender  and 
the  margrave  himself  became  Catholics.  James  III, 
however,  died  on  17  August,  1590,  and  being  suc- 
ceeded by  his  Protestant  brother  Ernst  Friedrich, 
Pistorius  was  obliged  to  leave.  He  went  to  Freiburg, 
became  a  priest  in  1591,  then  vicar-general  of  Con- 


stance until  1594;  after  this  he  was  an  imperial  coun- 
cillor, cathedral  provost  of  Breslau,  Apostolic  pro- 
thonotary,  and  in  1601  confessor  to  the  Emperor 
Rudolph  II.  After  his  death  his  library  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Jesuits  of  Molsheim  and  later 
was  transferred  to  the  theological  seminary  at  Stras- 
burg. 

Pistorius  published  a  detailed  account  of  the  con- 
version of  Margrave  James  III:  "Jakobs  Marggrafen 
zu  Baden  christliche,  erhebliche  und  wol- 

fundirte  Motifen" 
(Cologne,  1591).  His 
numerous  writings 
against  Protestant- 
ism, while  evincing 
clearness,  skill,  and 
thorough  knowledge 
of  his  opponents,  es- 
pecially of  Luther, 
are  marked  by  con- 
troversial sharpness 
and  coarseness.  The 
most  important  are: 
"  Anatomia  Lutheri " 
(Cologne,  1595-8) ; 
"Hochwiohtige 
Merkzeichen  des  al- 
ien und  neuen  Glau- 
bens"  (Mtinster, 
1599);  "Wegweiser 
vor  alle  verfiihrte 
Christen"  (Mtinster, 
1599).  Pistorius  was 
attacked  violently 
by  the  Protestants; 
e.  g.,  by  Huber, 
Spangenbert,  Ment- 
zer,  Horstius,  and  Christoph  Agricola.  Replies 
to  the  "Anatomia  Lutheri"  were  written  by  the 
Protestant  theologians  of  Wittenberg  and  Hesse. 
Pistorius  also  busied  himself  with  cabalistic  studies, 
and  published  "Artis  cabbalisticse,  h.  e.  recon- 
ditse  theologiae  et  philosophise  scriptorum  tomus 
unus"  (Basle,  1587).  As  court  historiographer  to  the 
Margrave  of  Baden,  he  investigated  the  genealogy 
of  the  princely  house  of  Zahringen ;  he  also  issued  two 
works  on  historical  sources:  "Polonica;  historiEe  cor- 
pus, i.  e.  Polonicarum  rerum  latini  veteres  et  recen- 
tiores  soriptores  quotquot  exstant"  (Basle,  1582), 
and  "Rerurn  Germanicarum  veteres  jam  primum 
publicati  scriptores  aliquot  insignes  medii  a;vi  ad 
Carolum  V"  (Frankfort,  1583-1607). 

RXas,  Die  Convertiten  seil  der  Reformation   (Freiburg,  1866), 

II,  488-507;  III,  91  sqq.;  Gass  in  Allgem.  deut.  Biog.,  XXVI, 
199-201 ;  HuHTEH,  Nomenrlalor,  III  (Innsbruck,  1907) ;  Jans.sen, 
Hist,  of  the  German  People  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  X  (tr. 
Christie,  London,  1906),  116—18;  Schmidlin,  Johann  Pistorius 
als  Propst  im  Elsass  in  Hist,  Jahrbuch,  XXIX  (1908),  790-804; 
[Zell],  Markgraf  Jakob  III.  von  Baden  in  Hist.-pol.  Blatter, 
XXXVIII  (1856):  VON  Weech,  Zur  Geseb.  des  Markgrafen  Jacob 

III.  von  Baden  und  Hachberg  in  Zeitsch.  fur  Gesch.  des  Oberrheins, 
new  series,  VII  (1892),  656-700;   VIII  (1893),  710;   XII  (1897), 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 


See  Santa  F£,  Arch- 


Pitaval,  John  Baptist. 

DIOCESE  OF. 

Pithou,  Pierre,  writer,  b.  at  Troyes,  1  Nov.,  1539; 
d.  at  Nogent-sur-Seine,  1  Nov.,  1596.  His  father,  a 
distinguished  lawyer,  had  secretly  embraced  Calvin- 
ism. Pierre  studied  the  classics  in  Paris  under  Tur- 
nfebe,  and  afterwards  with  his  brother,  Frangois  Pithou, 
attended  lectures  in  law  at  Bourges  and  Valence  under 
Cujas,  who  often  said:  Pithcei  fralres,  clarissima  lu- 
mina.  In  1560  he  was  admitted  to  practise  at  the 
Paris  bar;  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  second  war  of 
religion,  he  withdrew  to  Troyes.  Not  being  admitted 
to  the  bar  at  Troyes  on  account  of  his  Calvinist  be- 
lief, he  withdrew  to  Sedan  which  was  a  Protestant 
district,  and,  at  the  request  of  the  Due  de  Bouillon,  he 


PITIGLIANO 


119 


PITRA 


Pierre  Pithou 
From  a  contemporary  portrait, 
Versailles 


codified  the  legal  customs  into  the  form  of  laws.  He 
then  proceeded  to  Basle,  where  he  published  Otto  de 
Freisingen's  "  Vie  de  Fr6d(5ric  Barberousse  "  and  Warn- 
f  rid's ' '  Historia  Miscellanea ' '  After  the  Edict  of  Paci- 
fication of  1570  he  returned  to  France,  escaped  during 
the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and,  in  1573,  joined 
the  Catholic  Church.  In  the  struggles  between  the 
future  Henry  IV  and  the  League,  he  was  an  ardent  ad- 
herent of  Henry;  he  collaborated  in  the  production  of 
the  "Satire  Menippfie",  and  being  skilled  in  canon 
law,  made  a  study,  in  an  anonymous  letter  published 

in  1593,  of  the 
right  of  the 
French  bishopb  to 
absolve  Henry  IV 
without  consult- 
ing the  pope.  In 
1594  he  published 
an  epoch  -  mak- 
ing work  "Les  h- 
bertes  de  I'^glise 
gallicane".  For 
the  first  time  the 
maxims  of  Gal- 
licanism  were 
really  codified,  in 
eighty-three  arti- 
cles. The  first 
edition  was  ded- 
icated to  Henry 
IV.  The  permis- 
sion to  publish 
the  edition  of 
1651  under  Louis 
XIV  contains 
these  words: 
"We  wish  to  show 
our  favour  to  a  work  of  so  great  importance  for  the 
rights  of  our  crown".  Pithou's  book  was  the  basis  of 
the  Four  Articles  of  1682.  D'Aguesseau  declared  that 
the  book  was  "the  palladium  of  France",  President 
Henault,  that  "the  maxims  of  Pithou  have  in  a  sense 
the  force  of  laws".  An  edict  of  1719,  and  a  decree  of 
the  Parliament  of  Dauphin^  on  21  April,  1768,  or- 
dered the  enforcement  of  certain  articles  in  Pithou's 
book,  as  if  these  eighty-three  articles  were  legal  enact- 
ments.   They  were  reprinted  by  Dupin  in  1824. 

Henry  IV  appointed  Pithou  procurator  general  of 
the  Parliament  of  Paris;  but  he  soon  resigned  the  post, 
preferring  to  return  to  his  juristic  and  hterary  studies. 
He  edited  Salvian,  Quintihan,  Petronius,  Phsedrus, 
the  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne,  and  the  "Cor- 
pus juris  canonici".  His  brother  Frangois  (1541- 
1621),  who  became  a  Catholic  in  1578,  wrote  in  1587  a 
treatise  on  "  Thegreatnessof  the  rights,  and  of  the  pre- 
eminence of  the  kings  and  the  kingdom  of  France", 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  fanatical  hostility  to  the 
Jesuits.  Pierre  Pithou,  more  equitable,  saved  the 
Jesuits  from  some  of  the  dangers  that  threatened  them 
for  a  short  time  after  the  attempted  assassination  of 
Henry  IV  by  Chfttel. 

GE05LEY,  Vie  de  Pierre  Pithou  (Paris,  1756) ;  Dupin,  LibertU 
de  VEglise  gallicane  (Paris,  1S24),  preface. 

Georges  Goyau. 

Pitigliano.  See  Sovana  and  Pitigliano,  Dio- 
cese OP. 

Pitoni,  Joseph,  musician,  b.  at  Rieti,  Perugia, 
Italy,  18  March,  1657;  d.  at  Rome,  1  Feb.,  1743,  and 
buried  in  the  church  of  San  Marco,  where  he  had  been 
choirmaster,  in  the  Pitoni  family  vault.  His  biog- 
raphy, by  his  pupil  Girolamo  Chiti,  is  in  the  library  of 
the  Corsini  palace.  At  five  years  he  began  to  study 
music  at  Rome.  Not  yet  sixteen,  he  composed  pieces 
which  were  sung  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Apostles. 
At  that  age  he  was  in  charge  of  the  choir  at  Monte  Ro- 
tondo;  at  seventeen  at  the  Cathedral  of  Assisi.  At 
twenty  (1677)  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  was  maestro 


di  cappella  in  many  churches;  in  1708  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  St.  John  Lateran.  In  1719  he  be- 
came choirmaster  of  St.  Peter's,  and  remained  in  that 
office  for  twenty-four  years.  In  the  Accademia  di  S. 
Cecilia  he  was  one  of  the  four  esaminatori  dei  maestri. 
Pitoni  acquired  such  a  marvellous  facility,  that  for  his 
compositions,  which  were  of  great  musical  value,  he 
could  write  every  part  separately,  without  making  a 
score.  The  number  of  his  compositions,  says  Chiti,  is 
infinite.  Many  of  them  are  written  for  three  and  four 
choirs.  He  also  began  a,  Mass  for  twelve  choirs;  but 
his  advanced  age  did  not  allow  him  to  finish  it.  He 
left  a  work  "Notizie  dei  maestri  di  Cappella  si  di 
Roma  che  oltramontani". 

Dictionary  of  Music  from  14S0-1880  (London,  1880);  Eitner, 
Queifcnicj-icore,  VII  (1902),  462-64;  Baini,  Memorie  .  .  diG.P. 
da  Palestrina,  II  (Rome,  1828),  55,  nota  502,  Ger.  tr.  Kandler 
(Vienna,  1834). 

A.  Walter. 

Pitra,  Jean-Baptiste-Fran50is,  cardinal,  famous 
archaeologist  and  theologian,  b.  1  August,  1812,  at 
Champforgeuil  in  the  Department  of  Sa6ne-et-Loire, 
France;  d.  9  Feb.,  1889,  in  Rome.  He  was  educated 
at  Autun,  ordained  priest  on  11  December,  1836,  and 
occupied  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at  the  petit  seminaire  of 
Autun  from  1836  to  1841.  From  his  early  youth  he 
manifested  an  indefatigable  diligence  which,  combined 
with  brilli  xnt  talents  and  a  remarkable  memory,  made 
him  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  The 
first  fruit  of  his  scholarship  was  his  decipherment,  in 
1839,  of  the  fragments  of  a  sepulchral  monument,  dis- 
covered in  the  cemetery  of  Saint-Pierre  at  Autun  and 
known  as  the  "Inscription  of  Autun".  It  probably 
dates  back  to  the  third  century,  was  composed  by  a 
certain  Pectorius  and  placed  over  the  grave  of  his 
parents.  The  initials  of  the  first  five  verses  of  the 
eleven-line  inscription  form  the  symbolical  word  txOis 
(fish),  and  the  whole  inscription  is  a  splendid  testi- 
mony of  the  early  belief  in  baptism,  the  Holy  Eucha- 
rist, prayer  for  the  dead,  communion  of  saints,  and  life 
everlasting.  He  published  the  inscription  in  "Spicile- 
gium  Solesmense  "  (III,  554-64). 

In  1840  Pitra  applied  to  Abbot  Gueranger  of  So- 
lesmes  for  admission  into  the  Benedictine  order  but, 
to  accommodate  the  Bishop  of  Autun,  he  remained  an- 
other year  as  professor  at  the  petit  seminaire  of  Autun. 
He  finally  began  his  novitiate  at  SolesmesonlS  January, 
1842,  and  made  his  profession  on  10  February,  1843. 
A  month  later,  he  was  appointed  prior  of  St-Germain 
in  Paris.  During  his  sojourn  there  he  was  one  of  the 
chief  collaborators  of  Abb6  Migne  in  the  latter's  colos- 
sal "  Cursus  patrologiae  "  Pitra  drew  up  the  list  of  the 
authors  whose  writings  were  to  find  a  place  in  the 
work,  and  collaborated  in  the  edition  of  the  Greek 
writers  up  to  Photius,  and  of  the  Latin  up  to  Innocent 
III.  At  the  same  time  he  contributed  extensively  to 
the  newly  founded  periodical  "Auxiliaire  catholique". 
In  1845  he  had  to  break  his  connexion  with  the  great 
work  of  Migne,  owing  to  the  financial  difficulties  of  the 
priory  of  St-Germain,  which  finally  had  to  be  sold  to 
satisfy  the  creditors.  Pitra  undertook  a  journey 
through  Champagne,  Burgundy,  Lorraine,  Alsace, 
Switzerland,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  England  in  the 
interests  of  his  priory.  At  the  same  time  he  visited 
numerous  libraries  in  these  countries  in  search  of  un- 
published manuscripts  bearing  on  the  history  of  the 
early  Christian  Church.  The  fruits  of  his  researches 
he  gave  to  the  world  in  his  famous  "Spicilegium  So- 
lesmense" (see  below). 

His  many  great  archteological  discoveries  and  his 
unusual  acquaintance  with  whatever  bore  any  relation 
to  the  Byzantine  Church,  induced  Pius  IX  to  send  him 
on  a  scientific  mission  to  the  libraries  of  Russia  in 
1858.  Before  setting  out  on  his  journey  he  studied  the 
manuscripts  relative  to  Greek  canon  law,  in  the  libra- 
ries of  Rome  and  other  Italian  cities.  In  Russia,  where 
he  spent  over  seven  months  (July,  1859-March,  1860), 


PITTS 


120 


PITTS 


he  had  free  access  to  all  the  libraries  of  St.  Petersburg 
and  Moscow.  On  his  return  he  made  an  official  visit 
of  the  twenty  Basilian  monasteries  of  Galicia  at  the 
instance  of  the  papal  nuncio  at  Vienna.  After  arrang- 
ing his  writings  at  the  monasteries  of  Solesmes  and 
Liguge,  he  was  called  to  Rome  in  August,  1861,  to  con- 
sult with  the  pope  on  the  advisability  of  erecting  at 
the  Propaganda  a  special  department  for  Oriental 
affairs  and  to  make  a  personal  report  on  his  findings 
in  the  libraries  of  Russia.  Pitra  was  also  chosen  to 
supervise  the  new  edition  of  the  liturgical  books  of  the 
Greek  Rite,  which  was  being  prepared  by  the  Propa- 
ganda. He  was  created  cardinal  on  16  March,  1863, 
with  the  titular  church  of  St.  Thomas  in  Parione.  As 
his  residence  he  chose  the  palace  of  San  Callisto  where 
he  continued  to  live  the  simple  life  of  a  monk  as  far  as 
his  new  duties  permitted. 

On  23  Jan.,  1869,  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the 
Vatican.  He  drew  up  new  and  more  liberal  regula- 
tions for  the  use  of  the  library  and  facilitated  in 
every  way  access  of  scholars  to  the  Vatican  manu- 
scripts. Above  all,  howe\-er,  he  himself  made  diligent 
researches  among  the  manuscripts  and  published 
many  rare  and  valuable  specimens  in  his  "Ana- 
lecta"  (see  below).  At  the  Vatican  Council  in  1870, 
he  ably  maintained  against  the  inopportunists  that  the 
Catholics  of  the  Greek  and  Oriental  Churches  upheld 
the  papal  infallibility.  After  the  accession  of  Leo 
XIII  (20  Feb.,  187s)  he  supervised  the  edition  of  a 
catalogue  of  the  ^'atican  manuscripts,  of  which  the 
first  volume,  "Codices  Palatini  Gra^ci",  appeared  in 
188.5  and  was  prefaced  by  Cardinal  Pitra  -n-ith  a  lauda- 
tory epistle  addressed  to  Leo  XIII.  On  21  May,  1879, 
he  was  appointed  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Frascati  and  for 
five  years  laboured  incessantly  for  the  welfare  of  his 
diocese,  which  had  been  greatly  neglected.  On  24 
March,  18S4,  he  was  transferred  to  the  episcopal  See 
of  Porto  and  Santa  Rufina  to  which  was  annexed  the 
dignity  of  subdean  of  the  Sacred  College.  On  19  May, 
1885,  Abb6  Brouwers  published  in  the  "Amstelbode", 
a  Catholic  journal  of  Belgium,  a  letter  of  Pitra,  which 
the  hostile  press  construed  into  an  attack  upon  the 
policy  of  Leo  XIII;  but  Pitra  soon  satisfied  the  Holy 
See  of  his  filial  devotion. 

Cardinal  Pitra  was  one  of  the  most  learned  and 
pious  members  of  the  Sacred  College  Besides  being 
Librarian  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church  and  member  of 
various  Roman  congregations  and  cardinalitial  com- 
missions, he  was  cardinal  protector  of  the  Ci.stercians, 
the  Benedictine  congregation  of  France,  the  Benedic- 
tine nuns  of  St.  Cecilia  at  Solesmes  and  of  Stanbrook 
in  England,  the  Eudists,  the  Brotliers  of  Christian 
schools,  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  St ,  Charles  in  Xaney, 
and  the  Sisters  of  the  .\tonement  in  Paris.  The  follow- 
ing are  his  literary  productions : —  ( 1 ) "  Histoire  de  Saint 
Lcgcr,  6veque  d'Autun  et  martyr,  et  de  I'^glise  des 
Francs  au  Vile  siecle"  (Paris,  1N4()),  one  of  the  most 
complete  monographs  on  the  Church  of  the  Franks 
during  the  seventh  century ;  (2)  "  La  Hollande  catho- 
hque"  (Paris,  18.50),  consisting  mostly  of  letters  con- 
cerning Holland  and  its  people,  which  he  wrote  while 
traveUingin  that  country  in  1849;  (3)  "Etudessurla 
collection  des  Actes  des  Saints  par  les  RR.  PP.  Jesuites 
Bollandistes"  (Paris,  18.50),  a  complete  history  of  the 
".Vcta  Sanctorum"  of  the  Bollandists,  preceded  by  a 
treatise  on  the  hagiological  collections  up  to  the  time 
of  Roswoyde  (d.  1629) ;  (4)  "Spicilegium  Solesmense" 
(4  vols.,  Paris,  1852-1858),  a  collection  of  hitherto 
unpublished  works  of  Cireek  and  Latin  Fathers  of  the 
Church  and  other  early  ecclesiastical  writers;  (5) 
"Vie  du  P.  Libermann"  (Paris,  1855;  2nd  ed.,  1872; 
3rd  ed.,  1X82),  a  very  rchable  hfe  of  the  W-nerake 
Paul  Libermann,  founder  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Mary.  Libermann  had  been  a  per- 
sonal acquaintance  of  Pitra;  (6)  "Juris  ecolesiastici 
Graecorum  historia  et  monumenta"  (2  vols.,  Rome, 
1864-8),   containing  the   canonical  writings  of  the 


Greeks  from  the  so-called  "Apostohc  Constitutions" 
to  the  "Nomocanon",  generally  ascribed  to  Photius. 
With  its  learned  introduction  and  its  many  notes  and 
comments,  the  work  forms  a  complete  history  of 
Byzantine  law;  (7)  " Hymnographie  de  I'^glise 
grecque"  (Rome,  1867),  a  dissertation  on  Greek 
hymnography,  accompanied  by  numerous  Greek 
hymns  in  honour  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul ;  (8)  "  Analecta 
sacra  Spicilegio  Solesmensi  parata"  (8  vols.),  a  supple- 
ment to  "  Spicilegium  Solesmense".  The  first  volume 
(Paris,  1876)  contains  Greek  hymns;  the  second 
(Frascati,  1883),  the  third  (Venice,  1883),  and  the 
fourth  (Paris,  1883)  contain  writings  of  antc-Xicene 
Fathers;  the  fifth  (Paris,  18S8)  is  composed  of  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers  and  of  a  few  pagan  philosophers; 
the  seventh  (Paris,  1891 )  contains  writings  bearing  on 
the  canon  law  of  the  Cireeks  and  was  published  posthu- 
mously by  Battandier,  who  had  been  Pitra's  secretary; 
the  eighth  (Monte  Cassino,  1881)  contains  the  writ- 
ings of  St.  Hildegard;  the  sixth,  which  was  to  contain 
Greek  melodies,  has  not  been  published;  (9)  "Ana- 
lecta novissima"  (2  vols.,  Frascati,  188.5-8),  a  second 
supplement  to  "Spicilegium  Solesmense"  The  first 
volume  contains  a  French  treatise  on  papal  letters, 
bullaria,  catalogues  of  popes  etc.,  and  a  hitherto  un- 
published treatise  on  Pope  '\^igilius  by  Dom  Constant. 
The  second  volume  is  devoted  to  writings  of  Odon 
d'Ourscamp,  Odon  de  Chateaurou.x,  Jacques  de  Vitry, 
and  Bertrand  de  la  Tour,  four  medieval  French  bishops 
of  Frascati;  (10)  "Sancti  Romani  cautica  sacra" 
(Rome,  1SS<S),  a  collection  of  hymns  written  by 
Romanes,  the  greatest  Byzantine  liymnodist.  Pitra 
presented  this  work  to  Leo  XIII  on  the  occasion  of  his 
sacerdotal  jubilee.  In  addition  to  these  works  Pi- 
tra contributed  numerous  archaeological,  theological, 
historical,  and  other  articles  to  various  scientific  pe- 
riodicals of  France. 

Cabrol,  Histoire  du  Cardinal  Pitra,  benedictin  de  la  Congrega- 
tion de  France  (Paris,  1893),  tr.  into  German  by  BtJHLER  in 
Studienund  Mittfilunotm  aus  dem  Benedikli r/er- unrl  Ci.^tercienser- 
Orden,  XXVIII-XXX  (Briinn,  1907-B) ;  Battandier,  Le  car- 
dinal Jean-Baptiste  Pitrn,  cvSque  de  Porto.  bibliotfiScaire  de  la 
Sniide  Eglise  romaine  (Paris,  1896);  Cabrol,  Le  Cardinal  Pitra. 
■SV.s'  travaux  et  sen  decouvcrtes  in  .Science  catholique  (tss9),  tr.  in 
Til r  Lamp  (1S1I9) ;  Biblio</rn  iihie  des  Benedictines  de  la  Congregation 
de  France  (Paris,  1906),  120-31. 

Michael  Ott. 

Pitts,  John,  b.  at  Alton,  Hampshire,  1560;  d.  at 
Liverdun,  Lorraine,  17  Oct.,  1616.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Winchester  and  New  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  remained,  20  March,  1578-1580.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  English  College,  Rome,  18  Oct.,  1581, 
ordained  priest  2  i\Iarch,  1588,  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  Greek  at  the  English  College,  Reims, 
proceeded  M.A.  and  B.D.  at  Pont-a-Musson,  Lic.D. 
at  Treves  (1592),  and  D.D.  at  Ingolstadt  (1595). 
After  holding  a  canonry  at  Verdun  for  two  years  he 
was  appointed  confessor  and  almoner  to  the  Duchess 
of  Clc\es,  and  held  this  position  for  twelve  years. 
After  her  death  his  former  pupil,  the  Bishop  of  Toul, 
appointed  him  dean  of  Liverdun.  His  chief  work  is  the 
' '  Relationum  Historicarum  de  rebus  Angliae  " ,  of  which 
only  one  part,  "De  Illustribus  Anglia;  Scriptoribus", 
was  published  (Paris,  1619).  The  other  sections,  "De 
Regibus  Angliae",  "De  Episcopis  Angliae",  and  "De 
Viris  Apostolicis  Angliae",  remained  in  MS.  at  Liver- 
dun. The  "De  Scriptoribus"  is  chiefly  valuable  for 
the  notices  of  contemporary  writers.  On  other  points 
it  must  be  used  with  caution,  being  largely  compiled 
from  the  uncritical  work  of  Bale.  Pitts  also  published 
"Tractatus  de  legibus"  (Trier,  1592);  "Tractatus 
de  beatitudine"  (Ingolstadt,  1595);  and  "  Libri  sep- 
tem  de  peregrinatione "  (Dilsseldorf,  1604). 

KiRBY,  Annals  of  Winchester  College  (T^ondon,  1.S92);  Foster, 
Alumni  Oxonienses  (Oxford,  1891);  "VV'ood,  Athen^r  Oxonienses 
(London,  1813-20);  Dodd.,  Church  History.  II  (Brussels,  1739); 
Knox,  Douay  Diaries  (London,  1878) ;  Foley,  Records  Eng.  Prov. 
S.  J.,  Ill,  VI;    GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  a.  v. 

Edwin  Burton. 


PITTSBURG 


121 


PITTSBURG 


Pittsburg,  Diocese  op  (Pittsburgensis),  suf- 
fragan of  Philadelphia,  in  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica. It  comprises  the  counties  of  Allegheny,  Armstrong, 
Beaver,  Butler,  Fayette,  Greene,  Indiana,  Lawrence, 
Washington,  and  Westmoreland  in  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania, an  area  of  7238  square  miles,  the  total  popu- 
lation of  which  is  1,944,942  (U.  S.  Census,  1910). 
About  24.42  per  cent  of  these  are  Catholics. 

It  is  probable  that  the  first  religious  services  held  by 
white  men  within  the  limits  of  what  is  now  the  Dio- 
cese of  Pittsburg  were  conducted  by  a  Jesuit,  Father 
Bonnecamp,  who  accompanied  Celeron  in  his  explora- 
tion along  the  Allegheny  and  Ohio  Rivers  in  1749. 
The  strategic  character  of  the  ground  where  the  Mo- 
nongahela  and  Allegheny  Rivers  meet  to  form  the 
Ohio  pointed  this  place  out  to  George  Washington  as 
a  spot  of  future  importance.  He  first  saw  "the 
Forks",  as  the  place  was  called  by  the  Indians,  on 
24  November,  1753,  when  engaged  in  bearing  a  letter 
from  Robert  Dinwiddle,  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Vir- 
ginia, to  the  commander  of  the  French  forces,  asserting 
the  British  claims  to  the  territory  of  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania. Both  England  and  France  regarded  the  Forks 
as  a  valuable  military  position,  opening  a  way  for  ex- 
ploration to  the  west  and  south,  and  each  was  deter- 
mined to  occupy  it.  At  that  time  the  adjacent  country 
was  occupied  by  various  Indian  tribes — the  Shawnees, 
Delawares,  Senecas — dwelling  along  the  Allegheny, 
Monongahela,  and  Ohio  Rivers.  The  first  place  of 
public  worship  within  this  territory  was  a  chapel 
erected  by  the  French  in  the  stockade  of  Fort  Du- 
quesne,  after  Captain  Contrecoeur  and  his  forces  had 
driven  Ensigns  Ward  and  Frazier  from  the  Fort  they 
were  constructing  at  the  fork  of  the  Ohio.  This  chapel 
was  built  at  some  time  later  than  16  April,  1754,  and 
dedicated  under  the  title  of  "The  Assumption  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  of  the  Beautiful  River  ".  In  those  days 
and  for  long  afterwards,  the  Ohio — on  account  of  its 
clear  water  and  rugged  scenery — was  known  as  the 
"beautiful  river". 

There  is  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  city  of 
Montreal  a  register  of  baptisms  and  deaths  kept  by 
the  army  chaplain  at  Fort  Duquesne,  from  which  we 
learn  that  the  first  interment  in  the  cemetery  of  the 
fort  was  that  of  Toussaint  Boyer,  who  died  20  June, 
1754.  The  first  white  child  born  on  the  site  of  the 
city  of  Pittsburg  was  John  Daniel  Norment.  His 
godfather  was  the  chief  officer  of  Fort  Duquesne, 
John  Daniel  Sieur  Dumas.  These  entries  are  signed 
lay  "Friar  Denys  Baron,  Recollect  Priest,  Chaplain" 
If  written  evidence  alone  were  to  be  considered. 
Father  Baron,  and  not  Father  Bonnecamp  (mentioned 
above),  must  be  regarded  as  the  first  priest  to  offer 
the  Holy  Sacrifice,  and  the  first  white  man  to  perform 
any  pubhc  act  of  religious  worship  in  the  territory  of 
the  diocese.  The  register  of  baptisms  and  interments 
which  took  place  at  Fort  Duquesne  begins  11  July, 
1753,  and  ends  10  October,  1756.  The  records  before 
June,  1754,  are  from  posts  occupied  by  the  French  in 
the  north-western  part  of  Pennsylvania,  now  in  the 
Diocese  of  Erie,  before  they  took  possession  of  the 
spot  on  which  Fort  Duquesne  stood.  In  the  register 
we  find  entries  made  by  Friar  Gabriel  Amheuser  and 
Friar  Luke  Collet,  but  they  were  chaplains  from  other 
French  forts.  Friar  Denys  Baron  alone  signs  himself 
"  Chaplain  "  of  Fort  Duquesne.  These  records  testify 
to  the  baptism  and  burial  of  a  number  of  Indians, 
showing  that  the  French  chaplains  did  not  neglect 
their  missionary  duties. 

The  French  evacuated  the  fort,  the  British  army 
under  General  Forbes  took  possession  in  1758,  and 
the  place  was  named  Pittsburg,  or  Fort  Pitt,  after 
WiUiam  Pitt,  Prime  Minister  of  England.  For  thirty 
or  forty  years  the  Catholic  religion  was  almost,  if  not 
entirely,  without  adherents  in  Western  Pennsylvania. 
Gradually,  as  the  western  part  of  the  state  was  settled, 
the  Cathohcs  gained  a  foothold,  but  met  with  much 


opposition  in  this  strongly  Calvinistic  section.  In 
1784  their  numbers  had  increased  sufficiently  about 
Pittsburg  to  warrant  them  in  sending  Felix  Hughes 
to  the  Very  Rev.  John  Carroll,  at  Baltimore,  who  was 
then  superior  of  the  clergy  in  the  United  States,  asking 
that  a  priest  be  sent  to  minister  to  them  at  least  once 
or  twice  a  year.  By  this  time  there  were  seventy-five 
or  eighty  families  along  the  Chartiers  Creek,  up  the 
Monongahela  Valley,  and  about  Pittsburg.  Priests 
were  few  in  the  country  then,  and  the  request  could 
not  be  compUed  with.  Under  such  conditions  some  of 
the  Catholics  in  Western  Pennsylvania  became  indif- 
ferent, abandoned  their  religion  altogether,  or  neg- 
lected their  religious  duties,  even  when  the  priests 
came.  It  is  probable  that  the  first  priest  to  pass 
through  Western  Pennsylvania  and  minister  to  the 
Catholics  there  was  a  Carmelite,  Father  Paul,  who 
came  in  1785.  Another  was  the  Rev.  Charles  Whalen, 
a  Capuchin,  who  remained  a  short  time  in  1787.  In 
1792  the  Rev.  Benedict  Joseph  Flaget,  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Bardstown,  remained  here  for  some  weeks. 
In  1793  the  Revs.  Baden  and  Barrieres  came  to  Pitts- 
burg and  remained  from  September  until  November. 
The  Rev.  Michael  Fournier  was  here  fourteen  weeks 
in  the  winter  of  1796-7. 

The  site  on  which  St.  Vincent's  Arohabbey  now 
stands,  in  Unity  township,  Westmoreland  county, 
was  the  first  place  where  a  permanent  Catholic  settle- 
ment was  made  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  This  was 
about  1787.  The  Rev.  Theodore  Brewers  purchased 
the  tract  of  land  then  known  as  "Sportsman's  Hall" 
in  1790,  and  became  the  first  priest  of  the  little  colony. 
When  the  Rev.  Peter  Heilbron  came  to  take  charge 
of  the  parish,  in  November,  1799,  he  found  seventy- 
five  communicants.  In  March,  1789,  ground  was  pur- 
chased at  Greensburg,  where  the  Rev.  John  B.  Causse 
said  Mass  for  the  first  time  in  June,  1789.  A  log 
chapel  was  begun  in  1790,  but  was  never  completed. 
The  Rev.  Patrick  Lonergan  went  with  a  colony  of 
Catholics  from  Sportsman's  Hall  in  1798  and,  after  a 
short  stay  at  West  Alexander,  began  a  church  at 
Waynesburg,  Greene  County,  in  1799,  or  1800, 
"which",  says  Archbishop  Kenrick  of  Baltimore, 
writing  in  1862,  "was  completed  by  me  thirty  years 
later"  In  the  summer  of  1799,  the  Rev.  Deme- 
trius A.  Gallitzin  came  to  reside  with  a  colony  of 
Catholics  at  Maguire's  Settlement,  now  known  as 
Loretto,  in  Cambria  County,  in  the  present  Diocese 
of  Altoona,  and  his  mission-field  included  much  of 
what  is  now  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg.  These,  with 
the  churches  at  Sugar  Creek,  Armstrong  County, 
where  the  Rev.  Lawrence  S.  Phelan  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  1805,  and  at  Pittsburg,  where  the  Rev. 
William  F.  X.  O'Brien  settled  in  1808,  were  the  first 
centres  of  the  Faith  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  The 
Franciscans,  who  had  reared  the  first  altar  at  Fort 
Duquesne,  furnished  the  first  missionaries  to  attempt 
permanent  centres  of  Catholic  life,  and  establish 
places  of  worship  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  The 
Revs.  Theodore  Browers,  John  B.  Causse,  Patrick 
Lonergan,  Peter  Heilbron,  Charles  B.  Maguire,  all 
belonged  to  one  or  another  branch  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Francis. 

The  Rev.  Wilham  F.  X.  O'Brien,  the  first  resident 
pastor  of  Pittsburg,  was  ordained  at  Baltimore  11 
June,  1808,  came  to  Pittsburg  in  November  of  the 
same  year,  and  took  up  the  erection  of  the  church 
which  is  known  in  history  as  "Old  St.  Patrick's"  It 
stood  at  the  corner  of  Liberty  and  Epiphany  streets, 
at  the  head  of  Eleventh  Street,  in  front  of  the  present 
Union  Station.  The  Right  Rev.  Michael  Egan  dedi- 
cated this  church  in  August,  1811,  and  its  dedication 
and  the  administration  of  the  Sacrament  of  Confirma- 
tion mark  the  first  visit  of  a  bishop  to  this  part  of  the 
state.  After  twelve  years  of  labour  and  exposure  on 
the  missions  of  his  extensive  territory,  in  which  there 
were    perhaps    not    more    than    1800  souls,  Father 


PITTSBURG 


122 


PITTSBURG 


O'Brien's  health  declined,  and  in  March,  1820,  he 
retired  to  Maryland,  where  he  died  1  November,  1832. 
He  was  succeeded  in  May,  1820,  by  the  Rev.  Charles 
B.  Maguire,  who  had  been  pastor  of  the  church  at 
Sportsman's  Hall  since  1817.  "Priest  Maguire",  as 
he  was  called  by  the  Protestant  people  of  Pittsburg, 
was  a  man  of  great  ability  and  extensive  learning,  and 
in  his  day  one  of  the  best  known  and  most  respected 
and  influential  citizens  of  the  community.  He  gave 
to  the  parish  of  St.  Patrick,  and  to  the  Church  in  West- 
ern Pennsylvania  something  of  his  own  strong  person- 
ality and  splendid  qualities  of  order,  progress,  indus- 
try, love,  and  fidelity  to  Jesus  Christ — influences  that 
are  still  felt.  He  began  in  1827  the  erection  of  St.  Paul's 
church,  which,  when  finished  and  dedicated  4  May, 
ISm,  was  the  largest  and  most  imposing  church  edifice 
in  the  United  States.  The  Poor  Clare  Nuns  opened  a 
convent  and  academy  in  1828  on  Nunnery  Hill  in 
what  was  then  Allegheny  (now  the  North  Side  of  Pitts- 
burg). The  community  left  Nunnery  Hill  in  1835 
and,  after  remaining  in  another  part  of  Allegheny 
until  1837,  the  sisters  either  returned  to  Europe,  or 
entered  other  religious  communities  in  the  United 
St  ates. 

Father  Maguire  died  of  cholera  17  July,  1833,  and 
was  succeeded  as  pastor  by  his  assistant,  the  Rev. 
John  O'Reilly,  who  completed  St.  Paul's  church,  in- 
troduced the  Sisters  of  Charity  from  Emmitsburg, 
Maryland,  in  1835,  and  established  in  the  same  year 
a  Catholic  school,  and  in  1838  an  orphan  asylum 
which  the  Sisters  of  Charity  conducted  until  they  were 
withdrawn  from  the  diocese  by  their  superiors  in  1845. 
In  April,  1837,  Father  O'Reilly  was  transferred  to 
Philadelphia,  and  the  Rev.  Thomas  Heyden,  of  Bed- 
ford, took  his  place.  In  November  of  the  same  year. 
Father  Heyden  returned  to  Bedford,  and  the  Rev. 
P.  R.  Kcnrick,  the  late  Archbishop  of  St.  Louis,  be- 
came pastor  of  St.  Paul's,  Pittsburg.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1838,  Father  O'Reilly  exchanged  places  with 
Father  Kenrick,  and  returned  to  Pittsburg.  He  re- 
mained at  St.  Paul's  until  succeeded  by  the  Rev. 
Michael  O'Connor,  17  June,  1S41.  He  then  went  to 
Rome,  entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission,  and 
died  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  4  March,  1862.  The  first 
religious  community  of  men  was  established  in  Pitts- 
burg, 8  April,  1839,  which  date  marks  the  advent  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Congregation  of  Our  Most  Holy 
Redeemer,  in  the  person  of  the  Rev.  Father  Prost, 
who  came  to  take  charge  of  St.  Patrick's  parish,  and 
establish  St.  Philomena's. 

Bishop  Flaget  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to 
regard  Pittsburg  as  the  future  see  of  a  bishop,  having 
entertained  this  idea  in  1825.  As  early  as  1835  Bishop 
Kenrick  proposed  to  the  cardinal  prefect  of  Propa- 
ganda a  division  of  the  Diocese  of  Philadelphia  by  the 
erection  at  Pittsburg  of  an  episcopal  see,  and  he 
recommended  the  appointment  of  the  Rev.  John 
Hughes  as  Bishop  either  of  Philadelphia  or  of  Pitts- 
burg. The  suggestion  of  Bishop  Kenrick  was  offi- 
cially approved  in  Rome,  and  in  January,  1836,  the 
Rev.  John  Hughes  was  named  Bishop  of  Philadelphia, 
and  Bishop  Kenrick  was  transferred  to  Pittsburg. 
Some  obstacle  intervened,  and  the  appointments  were 
recalled.  The  matter  was  again  discussed  in  the  Third 
Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore,  16  April,  1837,  but 
no  definite  action  was  taken.  In  the  Fifth  Provincial 
Council,  which  assembled  at  Baltimore,  14  May,  1843, 
the  division  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  into  two 
dioceses  was  recommended  to  the  Holy  See,  and  the 
Ro\-.  Dr.  Michael  O'Connor  was  named  as  the  most 
suitable  person  to  govern  the  new  see.  Both  actions 
of  the  council  were  confirmed  at  Rome.  The  new 
Diocese  of  Pittsburg,  according  to  the  Bull  of  erec- 
tion, issued  11  August,  1843,  was  "Western  Pennsyl- 
vania". This  designation  being  rather  vague,  Bishop 
Kenrick,  of  Philadelphia,  and  Bishop  O'Connor 
agreed  to  consider  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburgh  as  com- 


prising the  Counties  of  Bedford,  Huntingdon,  Clear- 
field, McKean,  and  Potter,  and  all  west  of  them  in  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania.  This  agreement  was  after- 
wards confirmed  by  a  rescript  of  the  Holy  Sec.  'The 
new  diocese  contained  an  area  of  21,300  sq.  miles,  or 
a  little  less  than  one-half  of  the  state,  and  not  more 
than  one-third  either  of  the  entire,  or  of  the  Catholic 
population.  Dr.  iNIichael  O'Connor  was  in  Rome  at 
the  time  of  the  division  of  the  Diocese  of  Philadelphia, 
and  his  appointment  to  the  new  see  was  announced 
to  him  by  Gregory  XVI,  while  the  future  bishop  knelt 
at  his  feet  to  ask  permission  to  enter  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  "You  shall  be  a  bishop  first,  and  a  Jesuit  after- 
wards", said  the  venerable  pontiff.  These  prophetic 
words  were  literally  fulfilled.  The  Bull  of  his  appoint- 
ment was  dated  11  August,  1843,  and  he  was  conse- 
crated four  days  later  by  Cardinal  Franzoni  in  the 
church  of  S.  Agata,  at  Rome,  on  the  feast  of  the 
Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  titular  feast 
of  the  first  chapel  at  Fort  Duquesne. 

Michael  O'Connor  was  born  near  the  city  of  Cork, 
Ireland,  27  September,  1810.  His  early  education  was 
received  at  Queenstown,  in  his  native  county.  At  the 
age  of  fourteen  he  went;  to  France,  where  he  studied 
for  several  years.  Then  he  was  sent  by  the  Bishop  of 
Cloyne  and  Ross  to  the  College  of  the  Propaganda, 
at  Rome  where  he  won  the  title  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity.  Cardinal  Wiseman,  then  Rector  of  the 
English  College  at  Rome,  in  his  "Recollections  of  the 
Last  Four  Popes",  speaks  in  terms  of  high  commenda- 
tion of  the  ability  of  the  youthful  O'Connor,  and  of 
the  manner  in  which  he  won  his  doctor's  cap  and  ring. 
On  1  June,  1833,  he  was  ordained,  and  immediately 
afterwards  was  appointed  professor  of  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture at  the  Propaganda.  'The  post  of  vice-rector  of 
the  Irish  College  was  next  assigned  to  him,  and,  re- 
turning to  his  native  land,  he  was  stationed  for  a  time 
in  the  parish  of  Fermoy.  At  the  invitation  of  Bishop 
Kenrick  he  came  to  the  United  States  in  1839,  and 
was  at  once  appointed  to  a  professorship  in  St.  Charles 
Borromeo's  Seminary,  Philadelphia,  afterwards  be- 
coming its  president.  During  his  connexion  with  the 
seminary,  he  attended  the  mission  at  Morristown,  and 
built  the  church  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  at  Fairmount. 
In  June,  1841,  he  was  appointed  vicar-general  of  the 
western  part  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  came 
to  Pittsburg  to  succeed  th(>  Rev.  John  O'Reilly,  as 
pastor  of  St.  Paul's.  The  e^-ent  is  chronicled  in  his 
notebook  as  follows:  "June  17,  1841,  arrived  at  Pitts- 
burg on  this  day  (Thursday) ;  lodging  at  Mrs.  Tim- 
mons,  at  $4.00  per  week"  One  month  after  his  ar- 
rival. Father  O'Connor  undertook  the  erection  of  a 
parochial  school,  organized  a  literary  society  for  the 
young  men  of  the  city,  and  opened  a  reading-room. 
He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Pittsburg  15  August, 
1843,  at  Rome.  Soon  after  his  consecration  he  left 
Rome  and  passed  through  Ireland  on  his  way  to 
America,  with  a  view  of  providing  priests  and  religious 
for  his  diocese.  He  called  at  Maynooth  in  October, 
1843,  and  made  an  appeal  to  the  students,  asking  some 
of  them  to  volunteer  their  services  for  the  new  Dio- 
cese of  Pittsburg.  Five  students  whose  course  of 
studies  was  almost  completed  and  three  others  also 
far  advanced  resolved  to  accompany  the  bishop. 
Coming  to  Dubhn,  he  obtained  a  colony  of  seven 
Sisters  of  the  recently-founded  Order  of  Our  Lady  of 
Mercy  to  take  charge  of  the  parochial  schools  and  of 
the  higher  education  of  young  ladies.  These  were  the 
first  Sisters  of  the  Order  of  Mercy,  founded  by  Mother 
Catherine  McCauley,  to  establish  a  convent  in  the 
United  States.  He  sailed  for  America  12  November, 
and  arrived  at  Pittsburg  in  December,  1843.  At  that 
time  the  bishop  had  in  his  vast  diocese  33  churches,  a 
few  of  which  were  unfinished,  16  priests,  and  a  Cath- 
olic population  of  less  than  25,000  souls. 

The  following  were  the  churches  and  priests  of 
Western  Pennsylvania  at  the- time  of  the  erection  of 


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the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg.  In  Allegheny  County: 
Pittsburg,  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  the  Very  Rev.  M. 
O'Connor  and  his  assistant,  the  Rev.  Joseph  F.  Deane; 
St.  Patrick's,  the  Rev.  E.  F.  Garland;  St.  Philomena's 
(German),  the  Revs.  John  N.  Neuman,  Julius  P.  Saen- 
derl,  F.  X.  Tschenheus,  Peter  Czackert,  C.SS.R.  The 
Rev.  A.  P.  Gibbs  resided  in  Pittsburg  and  attended  a 
number  of  small  congregations  and  missions  in  Alle- 
gheny and  other  counties :  St.  Philip's,  Broadhead  (now 
Crafton) ;  St.  Mary's,  Pine  Creek ;  St.  Alphonsus,  Wex- 
ford; St.  Peter's,  McKeesport.  Westmoreland  County: 
St.  Vincent's;  Mt.  Carmel  (near  Derry),  the  Rev.  Jas. 
A.  Stillinger.  Indiana  County :  Blairsville,  Sts.  Simon 
and  Jude,  and  St.  Patrick's,  Cameron's  Bottom;  the 
Rev.  Jas.  A.  Stillinger,  from  St.  Vincent's.  Butler 
County:  Butler,  St.  Petcr',s,  the  Rev.  H.  P.  Gal- 
lagher; Donegal,  St.  Joseph's  (now  North  Oakland); 


Cathedral  of  St.  Paul,  PiTTSBtma 


Murrinsville,  St.  Alphonsus;  St.  Mary's  (now  Her- 
man), the  Rev.  H.  P.  Gallagher  (residing  at  Butler). 
Armstrong  County:  St.  Patrick's,  Sugar  Creek;  St. 
Mary's,  Freeport;  the  Rev.  Joseph  Cody,  residing  at 
Sugar  Creek.  Washington  County :  St.  James,  West 
Alexander.  Fayette  County:  St.  Peter's,  Browns- 
ville (in  course  of  erection),  the  Rev.  M.  Gallagher. 
Greene  County:  Waynesburg,  St.  Ann's;  other  sta- 
tions in  Greene  County,  Washington  County,  and 
Fayette  County,  attended  by  the  Rev.  M.  Gallagher, 
from  Brownsville.  Beaver  County:  Beaver,  Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul.  Bedford  County:  Bedford,  St. 
Thomas,  the  Rev.  Thomas  Heyden.  Somerset 
County:  Harman  Bottom,  St.  John's,  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Heyden  (residing  at  Bedford).  Huntingdon 
County:  Huntingdon,  Holy  Trinity,  attended  from 
Newry  by  the  Rev.  James  Bradley.  Blair  County: 
Newry,  St.  Patrick's;  St.  Luke's,  Sinking  Valley  and 
St.  Mary's,  Hollidaysburg,  attended  from  Newry  by 
the  Rev.  James  Bradley.  Cambria  County:  Loretto, 
St.  Michael's;  Jefferson  (now  Wilmore),  St.  Barthol- 
omew's; Johnstown,  St.  John  Gaulbert;  Ebensburg, 
St.  Patrick's  (now  Holy  Name  of  Jesus);  Hart's 
Sleeping  Place,  St.  Joseph's;  Summit,  St.  Aloysius's 
(these  places  attended  in  1843  by  the  Rev.  Peter  H. 
Lemke,  pastor  of  Loretto,  and  his  assistant,  the  Rev. 
Matthew  W.  Gibson).  Mercer  County:  Mercer,  St. 
Raphael's,  attended  from  Butler,  by  the  Rev.  H.  P. 


Gallagher.  Clearfield  County:  Clearfield,  St.  Fran- 
cis; French  Settlement,  St.  Mary's;  Grampian  Hills, 
St.  Bonaventure.  Crawford  County :  Cupewago  (dedi- 
cation unknown)  ;  French  Settlement,  St.  Hippolyte's; 
Oil  Creek,  St.  Stephen's.  Erie  County:  Erie,  St.  Pat- 
rick's; Erie,  St.  Mary's.  Elk  County:  Elk  Creek  (dedi- 
cation unknown);  Marysville  (dedication  unknown). 
Clarion  County:  Erismans,  St.  Michael's;  Red  Bank, 
St.  Nicholas's.  The  Rev.  J.  A.  Berti  seems  to  have 
attended  the  missions  of  Clearfield,  Crawford,  Erie, 
Elk,  and  Clarion  Counties  in  1843. 

As  yet  there  were  but  two  religious  communities  in 
the  diocese,  the  Redemptorist  Fathers  at  St.  Philo- 
mena's church,  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  who  had 
charge  of  St.  Paul's  Orphan  Asylum,  and  two  schools 
in  Pittsburg.  The  first  parochial  school  building  at 
St.  Paul's,  which  has  already  been  mentioned,  was 
opened  14  April,  1844.  On  16  June  of  the  same  year 
the  first  diocesan  synod  was  held,  and  statutes  were 
enacted  for  the  government  of  the  Church.  On  the 
30th  of  the  same  month  a  chapel  was  opened  for  the 
use  of  the  coloured  Catholics  of  the  city.  In  tho  same 
year  the  pubhcation  of  "The  Catholic"  was  begun, 
and  the  paper  has  been  regularly  issued  every  week 
down  to  the  present  time.  St.  Michael's  ecclesiastical 
seminary,  for  the  education  of  candidates  for  the 
priesthood,  was  established  also  in  1844.  Thus  in  the 
brief  space  of  a  single  year  Bishop  O'Connor  had  suc- 
ceeded in  thoroughly  organizing  all  the  departments 
of  his  vast  diocese.  The  Presentation  Brothers  came 
in  1845  to  take  charge  of  St.  Paul's  Boys'  School. 
They  withdrew  from  the  diocese,  however,  in  1848. 
In  1846  Bishop  O'Connor  received  the  Benedictine 
Order  into  the  diocese.  Their  abbey  was  founded  at, 
St.  Vincent's,  Beatty,  Pa.,  by  the  late  Archabbot 
Boniface  Wimmer  (then  the  Rev.  Boniface  Wimmer, 
O.S.B.)  from  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Melten, 
in  Bavaria,  and  in  its  college  and  seminary  many  young 
men  have  received  their  higher  education  and  com- 
pleted their  studies  for  the  priesthood.  The  little 
seed  sown  at  Sportsman's  Hall  has  developed  into  the 
great  Archabbey  of  St.  Vincent's,  which  is,  at  this  date 
(1911),  the  largest  Benedictine  institution  in  the  world. 
In  1847  a  community  of  the  members  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis  came  from  Ireland  and  settled  at 
Loretto,  Cambria  County,  Pa.  In  184SI  the  Sisters 
of  Notre  Dame  opened  a  convent  and  school  at  St. 
Philomena's,  Pittsburg.  The  Passionists,  then  an 
Italian  order,  were  introduced  into  the  diocese  in  18.52, 
and  from  their  first  monastery  of  St.  Paul's,  Pitts- 
burg, the  order  has  since  spread  into  many  States 
of  tlie  Union. 

By  1852  the  diocese  had  increased  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  bishop  began  to  consider  the  propriety  of 
having  it  divided,  and  a  new  one  formed  from  the 
northern  counties.  He  laid  the  matter  before  the 
Fathers  of  the  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
which  assembled  9  May,  18.52,  and  the  division  was 
recommended  to  the  Holy  See.  The  Bulls  dividing 
the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  and  erecting  the  new  Dio- 
cese of  Erie  were  dated  29  July,  1853.  The  dividing 
line  ran  east  and  west  along  the  northern  boundaries 
of  Cambria,  Indiana,  Armstrong,  Butler,  and  Law- 
rence, taking  from  Pittsburg  all  the  counties  lying 
north  thereof,  and  giving  thirteen  counties  to  the  new 
and  fifteen  to  the  old  diocese.  The  area  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Pittsburg  was  reduced  from  21,300  sq.  miles 
to  11,314  sq.  miles.  Bishop  O'Connor  chose  the  new 
and  poorer  diocese  as  his  portion,  and  the  Holy  See 
approved  his  choice.  The  Rev.  Joshua  M.  Young,  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  Cincinnati,  was  named  Bishop  of 
Pittsburg.  The  reluctance  of  Father  Young  to  be 
the  successor  of  Bishop  O'Connor  in  the  See  of  Pitts- 
burg and  the  urgent  petition  of  the  clergy  and  the 
people  of  the  diocese  moved  the  Holy  See  to  restore 
Bishop  O'Connor  after  five  months  (20  December, 
1853)  to  his  former  bishopric,  and  appoint  Bishop 


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Young  to  the  new  Diocese  of  Erie.  A  comparison  of 
the  condition  of  the  diocese  at  the  date  of  its  division 
to  form  the  Diocese  of  Erie  with  what  it  was  at  the 
time  of  its  erection  ten  years  before  will  furnish  the 
most  con^'incing  evidence  of  the  zeal,  prudence,  and 
enerii;y  which  characterized  the  administration  of 
Bishop  O'Connor.  At  the  time  of  the  division,  the  43 
churches  had  increased  to  7S,  and  4  more  were  in 
course  of  erection.  The  16  priests  had  increased  to  64, 
and  the  Catholic  population  from  less  than  25,000  to 
at  least  .50,000. 

On  23  iNIuy,  1860,  Bishop  O'Connor  resigned  his  see 
to  carry  out  liis  cherished  purpose  of  entering  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  He  made  his  novitiate  in  Germany 
and  then  returned  to  this  country,  where  he  laboured 
with  characteristic  energy  and  zeal  as  a  professor,  also 
lireaching  and  lecturing  all  over  the  United  States  and 
Canui  la.  With  his  other  acquirements,  Bishop  O'Con- 
nor was  a  linguist  of  considerable  note,  being  familiar 
with  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  and  speaking  English, 
Irish,  French,  German,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  He  was 
called  to  his  reward  18  October,  1872,  in  his  sixty- 
third  year.  His  remains  were  deposited  by  the  side 
of  his  Jesuit  brethren  at  Woodstock,  Maryland,  and 
there  still  lies  all  that  is  mortal  of  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  lights  that  has  ever  shed  its  lustre  on  the 
Church  in  the  United  Sta1  es.  "When  Bishop  O'Connor 
resigned,  the  statistics  of  the  diocese  were  as  follows: 
77  churches,  86  priests,  .30  clerical  students,  4  male 
and  2  female  religious  orders,  1  seminary,  3  male  and 
2  female  institutions  of  higher  education,  2  orphan 
asylums,  1  hospital,  and  a  Catholic  population  of 
50,000.  Any  one  who  understands  the  resources  of 
the  diocese  in  1M43  would  find  it  difficult  to  compre- 
hend how  the  bishop  could  have  accomplished  so 
much  for  the  good  of  religion.  A  stranger,  after  <  xam- 
ining  all  that  had  been  done — the  charitable  and  edu- 
cational esl  ablishments  founded,  churches  built — 
would  at  once  conclude  that  the  person  who  accom- 
plished so  much  must  have  had  control  of  vast  means, 
or  must  ha\'P  been  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  and  in- 
fluential, wealthy,  and  munificent.  Catholic  body.  Yet 
Bishop  O'Connor  in  fact  enjoyed  none  of  these  advan- 
tages. The  Catholics  of  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  at 
that  time,  though  generous  to  support  religion,  cannot 
be  said  to  have  been  in^uential  in  the  community,  or 
possessed  of  great  means.  Indeed  they  were,  almost 
without  exception,  the  poorer  people  of  the  commu- 
nity. But  during  sixteen  years  they  had  enjoyed  the 
advantages  of  an  episcopal  administration,  all  things 
considered,  the  most  brilliant  and  most  successful  in 
the  history  of  the  American  Church.  The  Very  Revs. 
James  A.  Stillinger  and  Edward  McMahon  were 
Bishop  O'Connor's  ^'icars-general. 

The  Right  Rev.  Michael  Domenec,  who  succeeded 
Bishop  O'Connor,  2S  September,  1860,  was,  at  the 
time  of  his  appointment,  pastor  of  the  church  of  St. 
Mncent  de  Paul,  Germantown.  He  was  born  at  Ruez, 
near  Tarragona,  Spain,  in  1816.  His  early  education 
was  received  at  Madrid.  The  outbreak  of  the  Carlist 
War  interrupted  his  studies,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  went  to  France  to  complete  his  education.  Having 
spent  some  years  in  the  Lazarist  seminary  in  Paris, 
he  entered  that  order.  In  the  company  of  the  Very 
Rev.  John  Timon,  then  visitor-general  of  the  Lazarists, 
he  came  to  the  United  States  in  1838,  and  was  or- 
dained at  the  seminary  at  Barrens,  Missouri,  29  June, 
1839  Ha\-ing  acted  as  professor  in  that  seminary,  at 
the  same  time  labouring  as  a  missionary  in  various 
parts  of  Missouri,  he  was  sent  in  1845  with  some  other 
Lazarist  Fathers  to  take  charge  of  the  diocesan  sem- 
inary at  Philadelphia,  a  position  formerly  occupied  by 
the  first  Bishop  of  Pittsburg.  In  conjunction  with 
his  work  at  the  seminary  he  was  pastor,  first  at  Nice- 
town,  and  afterwards  at  Germantown.  He  was  con- 
secrated in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Pittsburg,  on  9 
December,   1860,  by  Archbishop  F.  P.  Kenrick  of 


Baltimore,  and  entered  upon  his  new  duties  with  a 
zeal  and  activity,  the  effects  of  which  were  soon  evi- 
dent all  over  the  diocese  in  new  churches,  schools,  hos- 
pitals, and  asylums  for  the  sick  and  poor. 

While  Bishop  Domenec  was  recognized  as  a  man  of 
great  learning,  an  eloquent  preacher,  and  a  zealous 
and  indefatigable  chief  pastor  of  the  diocese,  it  is  to 
be  regretted  that  the  closing  chapter  in  the  life  and 
history  of  this  amiable  and  saintly  prelate  was  dark- 
ened by  the  gloom  of  one  of  the  severest  trials  that 
any  bishop  in  the  United  States  has  ever  passed 
through.  When  the  panic  of  1873  had  destroyed  the 
prosperity  of  the  country  and  disheartened  the  people 
of  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg,  the  bishop,  probably 
overcome  by  financial  and  other  diflBculties  which 
beset  him,  set  out  on  a  visit  to  Rome,  5  Nov.,  1875, 
to  petition  for  the  di^•ision  of  the  Diocese  of  Pitts- 
burg, and  the  formation  of  a  new  diocese  with  Alle- 
gheny City  as  its  see.  Priests  and  people  were  taken 
by  surprise  when  the  division  was  announced  from 
Rome,  and  found  difficulty  in  crediting  the  report. 
But  further  intelligence  confirmed  it.  The  Diocese 
of  Pittsburg  was  divided,  and  Bishop  Domenec  was 
transferred  to  the  new  See  of  Allegheny.  The  Bulls 
for  both  the  division  and  the  transfer  were  dated  11 
January,  1.S76.  Many  persons  had  expected  that  the 
division  of  the  dioce.se  with  Altoona  as  the  new  see 
would  take  place  in  time,  but  felt  that  the  panic  which 
the  people  were  passing  through  must  necessarily 
defer  it  for  a  few  years  to  come.  By  Bulls  dated  16 
January,  1,S76,  the  Very  liev.  John  'Tuigg  of  Altoona 
was  elevated  to  the  vacant  See  of  Pittsburg.  The 
new  diocese  of  Allegheny  had  8  counties,  with  an  area 
of  6530  sq.  miles,  leaving  the  parent  diocese  6  coun- 
ties, and  an  area  of  4784  sq.  miles.  Broken  in  health 
and  saddened  by  the  trials  which  he  had  passed 
through,  Bishop  Domenec  resigned  the  See  of  Alle- 
gheny 27  July,  1877,  and  retired  to  his  native  land, 
where  he  died  at  Tarragona,  7  January,  1878.  Bishop 
Domenec  had  for  his  vicars-general  the  Very  Revs. 
Tobias  Mullen,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Erie,  and  John 
Hickey.  The  Fathers  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Gho.st  entered  the  diocese  15  April,  1874,  and, on  1  Octo- 
ber, 1878,  opened  the  Pittsburg  College  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  which  is  now  (1911)  attended  by  over  400 
students. 

The  Right  Rev.  John  Tuigg  was  born  in  County 
Cork,  Ireland,  19  P'ebruary,  1821.  He  began  his 
studies  for  the  priesthood  at  All  Hallows  College, 
Dublin,  and  completed  his  theological  course  at  St. 
Michael's  Seminary,  Pitt.sburg.  He  was  ordained 
by  Bishop  O'Connor  on  14  May,  1850,  and  was  as- 
signed to  the  cathedral  as  an  assistant  priest,  and 
secretary  to  the  bishop.  He  organized  the  parish  of 
St.  Bridget,  Pittsburg,  in  1853.  He  was  then  en- 
trusted with  the  charge  of  the  important  mission  of 
Altoona,  where  monuments  of  his  pastoral  zeal  and 
energy  exist  in  the  shape  of  a  church,  convent,  and 
schools.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  vicar-forane  for 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  diocese.  On  11  January, 
1876,  he  was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacant  See  of  Pitts- 
burg, and  was  consecrated  bishop  in  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Paul  on  19  March,  1876,  by  the  Most  Rev. 
James  Frederic  Wood,  Archbishop  of  Philadelphia. 
At  that  time,  owing  mainly  to  the  effects  of  the  panic 
of  three  years  previous,  and  the  discontent  arising 
from  the  division  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Pittsburg, 
he  found  great  financial  and  other  cares  to  encounter. 
The  division  of  the  diocese  was  the  beginning  of  the 
darkest  period  in  the  history  of  the  Church  in  Western 
Pennsylvania.  It  was  followed  by  disputes,  mistrust, 
and  litigations,  which  sundered  many  old  friendships, 
created  clerical  and  laj'  factions,  and  did  violence  to 
the  peace  and  charity  which  had  hitherto  blessed  the 
diocese.  In  the  manner  in  which  it  was  brought  about, 
in  the  lines  which  designated  the  limits  of  each  dio- 
cese, in  the  apportionment  of  debt,  in  fact  from  every 


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point  of  view,  the  division  proved  unsatisfactory  and 
resulted  in  bitter  contention  and  disorder  which  ended 
only  with  the  suppression  of  the  See  of  Allegheny  and 
the  reunion  of  the  two  dioceses  as  though  no  division 
had  taken  place.  With  foresight,  energy,  determina- 
tion, and  perseverance  the  new  bishop  faced  the  diffi- 
culties with  which  he  was  surrounded,  and  entered 
upon  the  task  of  restoring  order  and  confidence,  and 
placing  the  embarrassed  properties  of  the  diocese  upon 
a  safe  and  sound  footing.  He  sacrificed  his  personal 
comfort,  his  own  private  means,  and  reduced  the  ex- 
pense of  the  diocese  by  the  strictest  economy,  in  order 
that  the  creditors  of  the  Church  might  not  suffer  loss, 
and  although  his  once  vigorous  constitution  was  shat- 
tered by  the  labours  and  trials  through  which  he 
passed,  confidence  was  restored,  and  the  diocese 
started  on  one  of  the  most  prosperous  periods  of  its 
history.  Although  these  heavy  burdens  rested  on  his 
shoulders,  as  Bishop  of  Pittsburg,  yet  the  Holy  See, 
on  3  August,  1877,  after  Bishop  Domenec  resigned, 
entrusted  to  him  the  administration  of  the  vacant  See 
of  Allegheny. 

In  the  year  1883  Bishop  Tuigg  was  warned  of  his 
approaching  end  by  a  stroke  of  paralysis,  and,  al- 
though he  lingered  for  some  years  longer,  suffering 
and  pain  were  his  constant  companions.  By  slow  but 
sure  degrees  he  continued  to  grow  worse,  until  on  7 
December,  1889,  the  soul  of  the  venerable  prelate 
passed  away  to  its  heavenly  home.  His  last  moments 
were  singularly  peaceful,  and  his  death  was  a  fitting  close 
to  his  long  and  saintly  career.  It  may  be  said  of  him 
that  he  combined  the  qualities  of  firmness  and  gentle- 
ness to  a  degree  rarely  found  in  the  same  individual; 
strong  and  unjdelding  when  confident  of  the  justice 
and  propriety  of  any  position  he  took,  he  was  at  the 
same  time  kind  and  courteous  to  those  from  whom  he 
differed.  Proofs  of  his  executive  ability,  his  piety,  and 
his  self-sacrificing  zeal  abound  throughout  the  diocese 
over  which  God  called  him  to  rule,  and  which  he  left 
in  better  condition  than  it  had  known  for  some  years. 

The  Right  Rev.  Richard  Phelan,  the  fourth  occu- 
pant of  the  See  of  Pittsburg,  was  born  1  January, 
1828,  at  Sralee,  County  Kilkenny,  Ireland.  He  was 
one  of  a  family  of  nine  children,  four  of  whom  em- 
braced the  religious  life.  He  entered  St.  Kieran's 
College,  Kilkenny,  in  1844,  to  study  for  the  priest- 
hood. When  Bishop  O'Connor  visited  Ireland,  in 
1850,  in  search  of  students  to  labour  in  the  Diocese  of 
Pittsburg,  Richard  Phelan  volunteered  his  services. 
He  came  to  the  United  States,  completed  his  theological 
studies  at  St.  Mary's,  Baltimore,  and  was  ordained  at 
Pittsburg  by  Bishop  O'Connor,  4  May,  1854.  He 
served  as  vicar-general  to  Bishop  Tuigg.  By  a  Bull 
dated  12  May,  1885,  he  was  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Cybara,  and  by  a  Bull  dated  15  May,  1885,  he  was 
appointed  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Tuigg  with  right  of 
succession,  and  was  consecrated  by  Archbishop  Ryan 
in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Pittsburg,  on  2  August,  1885. 
He  succeeded  as  bishop  to  the  united  Dioceses  of 
Pittsburg  and  Allegheny,  7  December,  1889.  By  a 
Bull  dated  1  July,  1889,  the  See  of  Allegheny  was 
totally  suppressed,  and  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  was 
declared  to  embrace  the  territory  of  what  had  been 
the  two  dioceses,  as  though  no  division  had  ever  taken 
place.  The  administration  of  Bishop  Phelan  was  a 
remarkably  successful  one.  He  was  a  man  of  pru- 
dent zeal  and  extraordinary  business  ability.  The 
people  of  many  nationalities  who  were  coming  in  large 
numbers  to  find  work  in  the  mines  and  mills  of  West- 
ern Pennsylvania  were  formed  into  regular  congrega- 
tions, supplied  with  pastors  who  could  speak  their  own 
languages,  and  the  material  and  spiritual  develop- 
ment of  the  diocese  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the 
population.  In  May,  1901,  the  counties  of  Cambria, 
Blair,  Bedford,  Huntingdon,  and  Somerset  were  taken 
from  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  to  form,  with  several 
counties  taken  from  the  Diocese  of  Harrisburg,  the  new 


Diocese  of  Altoona,  leaving  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg 
its  present  territory  (see  beginning  of  this  article). 

When  Bishop  Phelan,  as  a  priest,  began  his  work 
in  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg,  religious  prejudices  ran 
high,  and  misguided  men  said  and  did  things  against 
Catholics  which  have  passed  into  history.  Placed  in 
the  most  trying  positions,  he  always  disarmed  bigotry 
by  his  straightforward  adherence  to  principles  of  jus- 
tice and  charity  towards  all  men,  and  by  his  consider- 
ate treatment  of  those  who  in  belief  and  worship  were 
separated  from  him.  His  life  as  priest  and  bishop  was 
coincident  with  a  remarkable  transitional  period  in 
Western  Pennsylvania.  No  region  has  experienced  so 
great  changes  within  the  last  fifty  years  as  has  West- 
ern Pennsylvania.  During  the  administration  of 
Bishop  Phelan  these  changes  were  most  marked.  He 
saw  the  wonderful  growth  and  development  of  the 
iron,  steel,  coal,  and  coke  industries,  to  which  the 
western  portion  of  the  state  owes  its  distinction  and 
prosperity.  The  sudden  advent  of  immense  Catholic 
populations  with  strange  tongues  and  strange  cus- 
toms, and  all  of  them  impoverished,  ga\'e  rise  to 
problems  that  would  have  taxed  the  ablest  men. 
Here  was  a  field  in  which  Bishop  Phelan  showed  his 
splendid  administrative  ability.  By  his  wise  and  pru- 
dent counsel,  by  the  exercise  of  judgment  and  fore- 
sight which  in  the  light  of  events  to-day  are  seen  to 
have  been  of  the  first  excellence,  either  the  difficulties 
that  arose  were  solved  or  the  way  for  their  solution 
was  prepared.  At  his  death,  which  occurred  20  Decem- 
ber, 1904,  at  St.  Paul's  Orphan  Asylum,  Idlewood, 
Pennsylvania,  he  was  the  head  of  a  diocese  which  in 
organization,  in  the  personnel  of  its  clergy  and  its 
adequate  equipment  for  the  needs  of  its  people,  was 
second  to  none  in  the  United  States.  His  vicars- 
general  were  Very  Rev.  Stephen  Wall,  Very  Rev. 
F.  L.  Tobin,  and  Very  Rev.  E.  A.  Bush. 

The  Right  Rev.  Regis  Canevin,  present  (1911)  Bishop 
of  Pittsburg,  was  born  in  Westmoreland  County, 
Pennsylvania,  5  June,  1853,  educated  at  St.  Vincent's 
College  and  the  seminary  at  Beatty,  and  ordained 
priest  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Pittsburg,  4  June, 
1879.  He  became  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Phelan,  with 
right  of  succession,  being  consecrated  in  the  same 
cathedral  by  Archbishop  Ryan,  of  Philadelphia,  24 
February,  1903.  His  vicars-general  are  Rt.  Rev.  F.  L. 
Tobin  and  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Suhr.  The  present  Cath- 
olic population  is  about  475,000,  and  is  composed  of 
so  many  nationalities  that  the  Gospel  is  preached  in 
at  least  fourteen  languages:  English,  German,  French, 
Italian,  Slovak,  Polish,  Bohemian,  Magyar,  Slovenian, 
Lithuanian,  Croatian,  Rumanian,  Ruthenian,  and 
Syrian. 

The  religious  communities  of  men  in  the  diocese 
number  as  follows:  Redemptorists,  6  members;  Bene- 
dictine Fathers,  134;  Passionist  Fathers,  32;  Brothers 
of  Mary  (Dayton,  Ohio),  11;  Capuchin  Fathers,  50; 
Holy  Ghost  Fathers,  42;  Carmelite  Fathers,  7;  Ital- 
ian Franciscan  Fathers,  10.  Total,  292  members. 
The  religious  communities  of  women  number:  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  353  members;  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame 
(Motherhouse,  Baltimore),  50;  Franciscan  Sisters, 
239;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  189;  Benedictine  Nuns,  78; 
Ursuline  Nuns,  26;  Sisters  of  Charity,  331 ;  Little  Sis- 
ters of  the  Poor,  32;  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  61; 
Sisters  of  Divine  Providence,  180;  Sisters  of  Mercy 
(Motherhouse,  Cresson),  13;  Sisters  of  Nazareth 
(Motherhouse,  Chicago),  64;  Slovak  Sisters  of  Char- 
ity, 27;  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  Nuns  (Mother- 
house,  Allegheny,  New  York),  7;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
(Motherhouse,  Watertown,  New  York),  16;  Sisters  of 
the  Incarnate  Word,  3;  Missionary  Franciscan  Sis- 
ters (Motherhouse,  Rome),  5;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
(Motherhouse,  Rutland,  Vermont),  7;  FeHcian  Sis- 
ters (Motherhouse,  Detroit),  40;  Sisters  of  St.  Agnes 
(Motherhouse,  Fond  du  Lac,  Wisconsin),  5;  Passion- 
ist Nuns,  8;  Immaculate  Heart  Nuns  (Motherhouse, 


PITYTJS 


126 


PIUS 


Scranton),    15;     Bernardine    Sisters    (Motherhouse, 
Reading,  Pennsylvania),  5.    Total,  1754  members. 

General  statistics  of  the  diocese  (1911):  bishop,  1; 
archabbot,  1;  diocesan  priests,  353;  regular,  145; 
churches  with  resident  priests,  275;  missions,  29; 
parochial  schools,  145;  pupils,  45,593;  diocesan  sem- 
inarians, 70;  seminaries  of  religious  orders,  3;  boys' 
colleges,  3,  with  700  students;  girls'  academies,  4, 
with  490  pupils;  preparatory  schools  for  boys,  2,  with 
129  pupils;  deaf-mute  school,  1,  with  37  pupils;  or- 
phan asylums,  4,  with  1586  orphans;  foundling  asy- 
lum, 1;  industrial  school  for  boys,  2;  for  girls,  1. 
Total  number  of  pupils  in  schools  and  asylums, 
48,555;  hospitals,  7;  home  for  aged  poor,  2;  homes 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  2;  homes  for  working  girls,  2. 
Catholic  population,  about  475,000. 

Baron,  Register  of  Baptisms  and  Burials  in  Fort  DuQuesne, 
17S3-17,'jIj:  Craig,  History  of  Pittsburg  (Pittsburg,  1851 — ); 
The  Catholic  (Pittsburg,  1844-1911),  files;  St.  Vincent's  in  Penn- 
sylvania (New  Yor]i.,  1873);  O'Connor,  Ztiocesan  Eepis/er  (Pitta- 
burg,  1843) ;  Lambing,  History  of  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  (New 
York,  1880) ;  Beck,  The  Rerlemptorists  in  Pittsburg  (Pittsburg, 
1889);  hAMBlNO,  Catholic  Historical  Researches  (FittahuTg,  {1884- 
86) :  Griffin,  A-merican  Catholic  Historical  Researches  (Philadel- 
phia, 1880-1911);  Idem,  History  of  Bishop  Egan  (Philadelphia, 
1893);  History  of  Pittsburg  (Pittsburg,  1908);  Cathedral  Record, 
Pittsburg  (Pittsburg,  1895-1911);  Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  United  States  (New  York,  1892). 

Regis  Canevin. 

Pityus,  a  titular  see  in  Pontus  Polemoniacus,  suffra- 
gan of  Neocaesarea.  Pityus  was  a  large  and  wealthy 
Greek  city  on  the  northeast  of  the  Black  Sea  (Artemi- 
dorus,  in  Strabo,  XI,  496),  which  was  destroyed  before 
the  time  of  Pliny  (Hist,  nat.,  VI,  v,  16).  Arrianus 
mentions  its  anchorage  in  "Periplus  Ponti  Euxini", 
27.  The  city  was  rebuilt  and  fortified  by  the  Romans, 
captured  by  the  Scythians  under  Gallienus,  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  Byzantines  to  prevent  Chosroes  from 
entering  it  (Zosimus,  I,  32;  Procopius,  "De  bello 
gothico",  IV,  4;  "De  a;dificiis",  IV,  7).  In  535  it 
was  "a  fortress  rather  than  a  city"  (Justinian,  "No- 
vella ",-28).  Stratophilus,  Bishop  of  Pityus,  assisted 
at  the  Council  of  NicEea  in  325 ;  since  then  there  is  no 
mention  of  the  see,  which  does  not  figure  in  any  of  the 
Greek  "Notitiae  episcopatuum"  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens 
Christ.",  I,  519).  It  was  towards  Pityus  that  St.  John 
Chrysostom  (q.  v.)  was  being  led  by  the  imperial  sol- 
diers, in  execution  of  the  decree  of  exile,  when  he  diedon 
the  way  (Theodoret,  "Hist,  eccl.",  V,  34).  Pityus  was 
located  at  the  end  of  the  gulf,  east  of  Cape  Pitsunda, 
near  the  River  Chypesta  and  the  village  of  Abchasik, 
in  the  vilayet  of  Trebizond. 

NoRDMANN,  Reise  durch  die  westlichen  Provinzen  des  Caucasus 
in  Annalen  der  Erd-  und  Volkerkunde  (Berlin,  1839),  257;  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  s.  v. 

S.  Pf:THIDfes. 

Pius  I,  Saint,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  pope 
from  about  140  to  about  154.  According  to  the  earli- 
est hst  of  the  popes,  given  by  Irenteus  ("Adv.  haer. ", 
II,  xxxi;  cf.  Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  V,  vi),  Pius  was 
the  ninth  successor  of  St.  Peter.  The  dates  given  in 
the  Liberian  Catalogue  for  his  pontificate  (146-61) 
rest  on  a  false  calculation  of  earlier  chroniclers,  and 
cannot  be  accepted.  The  only  chronological  datum 
we  possess  is  supplied  by  the  year  of  St.  Polycarp  of 
Smyrna's  death,  which  may  be  referred  with  great 
certainty  to  155-6.  On  his  visit  to  Rome  in  the  year 
before  his  death  Polycarp  found  Anicetus,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Pius,  bishop  there;  consequently,  the  death 
of  Pius  must  have  occurred  about  154.  'The  "Liber 
Pontifioalis"  (ed.  Duchesne,  I,  132)  says  the  father  of 
Pius  was  Rufinus,  and  makes  him  a  native  of  Aquileia; 
this  is,  however,  probably  a  conjecture  of  the  author, 
who  had  heard  of  Rufinus  of  Aquileia  (end  of  fourth 
century).  From  a  notice  in  the  "Liberian  Catalogue" 
(in  Duchesne,  "Liber  Pontificalis",  I,  5),  which  is 
confirmed  by  the  Muratorian  Fragment  (ed.  Preu- 
schen,  "Analecta",  I,  Tubingen,  1910),  we  learn  that 
a  brother  of  this  pope,  Hermas  by  name,  published 


"The  Shepherd"  (see  Hermas).  If  the  information 
which  the  author  gives  concerning  his  personal  condi- 
tions and  station  (first  a  slave,  then  a  freedman)  were 
historical,  we  should  know  more  about  the  origin  of 
the  pope,  his  brother.  It  is  very  possible  that  the 
story  which  Hermas  relates  of  himself  is  a  fiction. 
During  the  pontificate  of  Pius  the  Roman  Church 
was  visited  by  various  heretics,  who  sought  to  propa- 
gate their  false  dfictrine  among  the  faithful  of  the 
capital.  The  Gnostic  Valentinus,  who  had  made  his 
appearance  under  Pope  Hyginus,  continued  to  sow 
his  heresy,  apparently  not  without  success.  The 
Gnostic  Cordon  was  also  active  in  Rome  at  this 
.  period,  during  which  Marcion  arrived  in  the  capital 
(see  Mahcionitbs).  Excluded  from  communion  by 
Pius,  the  latter  founded  his  heretical  body  (Irenaeus, 
"Adv.  haer.",  Ill,  iii).  But  Catholic  teachers  also 
visited  the  Roman  Church,  the  most  important  be- 
ing St.  Justin,  who  expounded  the  Christian  teach- 
ings during  the  pontificate  of  Pius  and  that  of  his  suc- 
cessor. A  great  activity  thus  marks  the  Christian 
community  in  Rome,  which  stands  clearly  conspicuous 
as  the  centre  of  the  Church.  The  "  Liber  Pontificalis" 
(ed.  cit.)  speaks  of  a  decision  of  this  pope  to  the  effect 
that  Jewish  converts  to  Christianity  should  be  ad- 
mitted and  baptized.  What  this  means  we  do  not 
know;  doubtless  the  author  of  the  "Liber  Pontifi- 
calis", here  as  frequently,  refers  to  the  pope  a  decree 
valid  in  the  Church  of  his  own  time.  A  later  legend 
refers  the  foundation  of  the  two  churches,  the  litulus 
Pudeniis  {ecclesia  Pudentiana)  and  the  litulns  Praxedis, 
to  the  time  of  this  pope,  who  is  also  supposed  to  have 
built  a  baptistery  near  the  former  and  to  have  exer- 
cised episcopal  functions  there  (Acta  SS.,  IV  May, 
299  sqq. ;  cf .  de  Rossi,  "  Musaici  delle  chiese  di  Roma: 
S.  Pudenziana,  S.  Prassede").  The  story,  however, 
can  lay  no  claim  to  historical  credibility.  These  two 
churches  came  into  existence  in  the  fourth  century, 
although  it  is  not  impossible  that  they  replaced  Chris- 
tian houses,  in  which  the  faithful  of  Rome  assembled 
for  Divine  service  before  the  time  of  Constantine ;  the 
legend,  however,  should  not  be  alleged  as  proof  of  this 
fact.  In  many  later  writings  (e.  g.  the  "Liber  Pon- 
tificalis") the  "Pastor"  or  "Shepherd"  in  the  work 
of  Hermas  is  erroneously  accepted  as  the  name  of  the 
author,  and,  since  a  Roman  priest  Pastor  is  assigned 
an  important  role  in  the  foundation  of  these  churches, 
it  is  quite  possible  that  the  writer  of  the  legend  was 
similarly  misled,  and  consequently  interwove  Pope 
Pius  into  his  legendary  narrative  (see  Praxedes  and 
Pudentiana).  Two  letters  written  to  Bishop  Justus 
of  Vienna  (P.  L.,  V,  1125  sq.;  JaSi,  "Regesta",  I, 
2nd  ed.,  pp.  7  sq.),  ascribed  to  Pius,  are  not  authentic. 
The  feast  of  St.  Pius  I  is  celebrated  on  11  July. 

Liber  Pontif,  I,  ed.  Duchesne,  132  sq.;  Langen,  Gesch.  der 
ram.  Kirche,  I  (Bonn,  1881),  111  sq.;  Duchesne,  Hist,  ancienne 
de  Viglise,  I  (Paris,  1906),  236  sqq.  On  chronological  questions  cf. 
Lightfoot,  The  Apostolic  Fathers,  I,  i  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1890), 
201  sqq.;  Harnack,  Gesch.  der  altchristl.  Lit.,  II  (Leipzig,  1897), 
i,  133  sqq.;  Metrick,  Lives  of  the  Early  Popes  (London,  1880). 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Pius  II,  Pope  (Enea  Silvio  de'  Piccolomini),  b. 
at  Corsignano,  near  Siena,  18  Oct.,  1405;  elected  19 
Aug.,  1458;  d.  at  Ancona,  14  Aug.,  1464.  He  was  the 
eldest  of  eighteen  children  of  Silvio  de'  Piccolomini 
and  Vittoria  Forteguerra.  Although  of  noble  birth, 
straitened  circumstances  forced  him  to  help  his  father 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  estate  which  the  family  owned 
at  Corsignano.  This  village  he  later  ranked  as  a  town 
and  made  an  episcopal  residence  with  the  name  of 
Pienza  (Pius).  Having  received  some  elementary  in- 
struction from  a  priest,  he  entered,  at  the  age  of 
eighteen,  the  University  of  Siena.  Here  he  gave  him- 
self up  to  diligent  study  and  the  free  enjoyment  of 
sensual  pleasures.  In  1425  the  preaching  of  St.  Ber- 
nardine of  Siena  kindled  in  him  the  desire  of  embracing 
a  monastic  life,  but  he  was  dissuaded  from  his  purpose 


Tijimi:urii,',-   i;<.«,nl  «t  /'fins,  fiaun 

^NEAS   SYLVIUS   CREATED  CARDINAL  BY   CALLISTUS   III 

PINTURICCHIO,     CATHEDRAL    LIBRARY,    SIENA 


PIUS 


127 


PIUS 


by  his  friends.  Attracted  by  the  fame  of  the  cele- 
brated Filelfo,  he  shortly  after  spent  two  years  in  the 
study  of  the  classics  and  poetry  at  Florence.  He  re- 
turned to  Siena  at  the  urgent  request  of  his  relatives, 
to  devote  his  time  to  the  study  of  jurisprudence.  Pass- 
ing through  Siena  on  his  way  to  the  Council  of  Basle 
(q.  v.),  Capranica,  Bishop  of  Fermo,  invited  Enea  to 
accompany  him  as  his  secretary.  Bishop  and  secre- 
tary arrived  there  in  1432,  and  joined  the  opposition 
to  Pope  Eugene  IV. 

Piccolomini,  however,  soon  left  the  service  of  the 
impecunious  Capranica  for  more  remunerative  em- 
ployment with  Nicodemo  della  Soala,  Bishop  of  Frei- 
sing,  with  Bartolomeo,  Bishop  of  Novara,  and  with 
Cardinal  Albergati.  He  accompanied  the  latter  on 
several  journeys,  particularly  to  the  Congress  of  Arras, 
which  in  1435  discussed  peace  between  Burgundy  and 
France.  In  the  same  year  his  master  sent  him  on  a 
secret  mission  to  Scotland.  The  voyage  was  very  tem- 
pestuous and  Piccolomini  vowed  to  walk,  if  spared, 
barefoot  from  the  port  of  arrival  to  the  nearest  shrine 
of  Our  Lady.  He  landed  at  Dunbar  and,  from  the 
pilgrimage  of  ten  miles  through  ice  and  snow  to  the 
sanctuary  of  A\hitekirk,  he  contracted  the  gout  from 
which  he  suffered  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Although  on 
his  return  from  Scotland  Cardinal  Albergati  was  no 

longer  at  Basle,  he 


.'! 


determined  to  re- 
main in  the  city, 
and  to  his  human- 
istic culture  and 
oratorical  talent 
owed  his  appoint- 
ment  to  differ- 
ent important 
functions  by  the 
council.  He  con- 
tinued to  side  with 
the  opposition  to 
Eugene  IV,  and 
associated  particu- 
larly with  a  small 
circle  of  friends 
who  worshipped 
classical  antiquity 
and  led  dissolute 
lives.       That    he 

Heraldic  Achievement  on  the  freely  indulged  his 

Piccolomini  Mansion  passions      is     evi- 

(XVI  Century)  denced  not  onlyby 

the  birth  of  two  illegitimate  children  to  him  (the  one 
in  Scotland,  the  other  at  Strasburg),  but  by  the  friv- 
olous manner  in  which  he  glories  in  his  own  disorders. 
The  low  moral  standard  of  the  epoch  may  partly  ex- 
plain, but  cannot  excuse  his  dissolute  conduct.  He 
had  not  yet  received  Holy  orders,  however,  and  shrank 
from  the  ecclesiastical  state  because  of  the  obligation 
of  continence  which  it  imposed.  Even  the  inducement 
to  become  one  of  the  electors  of  a  successor  to  Eugene 
IV,  unlawfully  deposed,  could  not  overcome  this  reluc- 
tance; rather  than  receive  the  diaconate  he  refused  the 
proffered  honour. 

He  was  then  appointed  master  of  ceremonies  to  the 
conclave  which  elected  Amadeus  of  Savoy  to  the 
papacy.  He  likewise  belonged  to  the  delegation  which 
was  to  escort  to  Basle  in  14:jO  the  newly-elected  anti- 
pope,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Felix  V  and  chose 
Piccolomini  as  his  secretary.  The  latter's  clear- 
sightedness, however,  soon  enabled  him  to  realize  that 
the  position  of  the  schismatic  party  could  not  fail  to 
become  untenable,  and  he  profited  by  his  presence  as 
envoy  of  the  council  at  the  Diet  of  Frankfort  in  1442 
again  to  change  masters.  His  literary  attainments 
were  brought  to  the  attention  of  Frederick  III,  who 
crowned  him  imperial  poet,  and  offered  him  a  position 
in  his  service  which  was  gladly  accepted.  On  11  Nov., 
1442,  Enea  left  Basle  for  Vienna,  where  he  assumed  in 


January  of  the  following  year  the  duties  of  secretary 
in  the  imperial  chancery.  Receding  gradually  from  his 
attitude  of  supporter  of  Felix  V,  he  ultimately  became, 
with  the  imperial  chancellor  Schlick,  whose  favour  he 
enjoyed,  a  partisan  of  Eugene  IV.  The  formal  recon- 
ciliation between  him  and  this  pope  took  place  in  1445, 
when  he  came  on  an  official  mission  to  Rome.  He  was 
first  absolved  of  the  censures  which  he  had  incurred  as 
partisan  of  the  Council  of  Basle  and  official  of  the 
antipope.  Hand  in  hand  with  this  change  in  personal 
allegiance  went  a  transformation  in  his  moral  charac- 
ter and  in  March,  1446,  he  was  ordained  subdeacon  at 
Vienna.  The  same  year  he  succeeded  in  breaking  up 
the  Electors'  League,  equally  dangerous  to  Eugene  IV 
and  Frederick  III,  and  shortly  afterwards  a  delega- 
tion, of  which  he  was  a  member,  laid  before  the  pope 
the  conditional  submission  of  almost  all  Germany.  In 
1447  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Trieste;  the  follow- 
ing year  he  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  Concordat  of  Vienna;  and  in  1450  he 
received  the  Bishopric  of  Siena.  He  continued,  how- 
ever, until  1455  in  the  service  of  Frederick  III,  who 
had  frequent  recourse  to  his  diplomatic  ability.  In 
1451  he  appeared  in  Bohemia  at  the  head  of  a  royal 
embassy,  and  in  1452  accompanied  Frederick  to  Rome 
for  the  imperial  coronation.  He  was  created  cardinal 
18  Dec,  1456,  by  Calixtus  III,  whose  successor  he 
became. 

The  central  idea  of  his  pontificate  was  the  liberation 
of  Europe  from  Turkish  domination.  To  this  end  he 
summoned  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  all  the  Chris- 
tian princes  to  meet  in  congress  on  1  June,  1459. 
Shortly  before  his  departure  for  Mantua,  where  he  was 
personally  to  direct  the  deliberations  of  this  assembly, 
he  issued  a  Bull  instituting  a  new  religious  order  of 
knights.  They  were  to  bear  the  name  of  Our  Lady  of 
Bethlehem  and  to  have  their  headquarters  in  the 
Island  of  Lemnos.  History  is  silent  concerning  the 
actual  existence  of  this  foundation,  and  the  order  was 
probably  never  organized.  At  Mantua  scant  attend- 
ance necessitated  a  delay  in  the  opening  of  the  sessions 
until  26  Sept.,  1459.  Even  then  but  few  delegates 
were  present,  and  the  deliberations  soon  revealed  the 
fact  that  the  Christian  states  could  not  be  relied  on 
for  mutual  co-operation  against  the  Turks.  Venice 
pursued  dilatory  and  insincere  tactics;  France  would 
promise  nothing,  because  the  pope  had  preferred 
Ferrante  of  Aragon  for  the  throne  of  Naples  to  the 
pretender  of  the  House  of  Anjou.  Among  the  German 
delegates,  Gregory  of  Heimburg  (q.  v.)  assumed  an 
ostentatiously  disrespectful  attitude  toward  Pius  II; 
the  country,  however,  ultimately  agreed  to  raise 
32,000  footmen  and  10,000  cavalry.  But  the  promise 
was  never  redeemed,  and  although  a  three  years'  war 
was  decreed  against  the  Turks,  the  congress  failed  of 
its  object,  as  no  practical  results  of  any  importance 
were  attained.  It  was  apparent  that  the  papacy  no 
longer  commanded  the  assent  and  respect  of  any  of 
the  Powers.  This  was  further  demonstrated  by  the 
fact  that  Pius,  on  the  eve  of  his  departure  from  Man- 
tua, issued  the  Bull  "Execrabilis",  in  which  he  con- 
demned all  appeals  from  the  decisions  of  the  pope  to 
an  (Ecumenical  council  (18  Jan.,  1460). 

During  the  congress  war  had  broken  out  in  southern 
Italy  about  the  possession  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples. 
The  pope  continued  to  support  Ferrante  against  the 
Angevin  claimant.  This  attitude  was  adverse  to 
ecclesiastical  interests  in  France,  where  he  aimed  at 
the  repeal  of  the-  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges.  At 
his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1461,  Louis  XI  sup- 
pressed indeed  that  instrument;  but  this  papal  suc- 
cess was  more  apparent  than  real.  For  Louis's  expec- 
tation of  support  in  southern  Italy  was  not  realized; 
and  opposition  to  the  suppression  manifesting  itself  in 
France,  his  dealings  with  the  Church  underwent  a 
corresponding  change,  and  royal  ordinances  were  even 
issued  aiming  at  the  revival  of  the  former  Galilean 


PIUS 


128 


PIUS 


liberties.  In  Germany  Frederick  III  showed  readiness 
to  comply  with  the  obligations  assumed  at  Mantua, 
but  foreign  and  domestic  difficulties  rendered  him 
powerless.  Between  Pius  II  and  Duke  Sigismund  of 
Tyrol,  however,  an  acute  conflict  developed  concern- 
ing the  Bishojiric  of  Brixen  (q.  v.).  Likewise  the  re- 
fu.sal  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  Diether  of  Isenburg 
(q.  v.),  to  abide  by  the  pope's  decree  of  deposition  led 
1o  civil  strife.  Diether  was  ultimately  defeated  and 
supplanted  by  Adolf  of  Nassau,  who  had  been  ap- 
jjointed  in  his  stead.  More  difficult  to  adjust  were 
(he  troubles  in  Bohemia.  Hussitism  was  rampant  in 
the  kingdom,  which  was  governed  by  the  wily  George 
Podiebrad,  a  king  seemingly  devoid  of  religious  con- 
victions. He  had  promised  in  a  secret  coronation  oath 
personally  to  profess  the  Catholic  faith  and  to  restore, 
in  his  realm,  union  with  Rome  in  ritual  and  worship. 
This  was  tantamount  to  a  renunciation  of  the  "Com- 
pact of  Basle",  which,  under  certain  conditions  sub- 
sequently not  observed  by  the  Bohemians,  had  granted 
them  communion  under  both  kinds  and  other  priv- 


The  Palazzo  Piccolomini 
Bernardo   Kosaellino,  Pienza 

ileges.  The  pope,  deceived  for  a  time  by  the  pro- 
testations of  royal  fidelity,  used  his  influence  to  bring 
back  the  Catholic  city  of  Breslau  to  the  king's  alle- 
giance. But  in  14(if  Podiebrad,  to  further  his  fanciful 
schemes  of  political  aggrandizement,  promised  his 
subjects  to  maintain  the  Compact.  When  in  1462 
his  long-promised  embassy  appeared  in  Rome,  its 
purpose  was  not  only  to  do  homage  to  the  pope,  but 
also  to  obtain  the  confirmation  of  that  agreement. 
Pius  II,  instead  of  acceding  to  the  latter  request, 
withdrew  the  misused  concessions  made  by  Basle. 
He  continued  negotiations  with  the  king,  but  died 
before  any  settlement  was  reached. 

The  pre\'alence  of  such  discord  in  Christendom  left 
but  little  hope  for  armed  opposition  to  the  Turks. 
As  rumours  had  been  circulated  that  the  sultan 
doubted  the  faith  of  Islam,  the  pope  attempted  to  con- 
vert him  to  the  Christian  faith.  But  in  vain  did  he 
address  to  him  in  14G1  a  letter,  in  which  were  set  forth 
the  claims  of  Christianity  on  his  belief.  Possibly  the 
transfer  with  extraordinary  pomp  of  the  head  of  St. 
Andrew  to  Rome  was  also  a  fruitless  attempt  to  re- 
kindle zeal  for  the  Crusades.  As  a  last  resort,  Pius  II 
endeavoured  to  stir  up  the  enthusiasm  of  the  apa- 
thetic Christian  princes  by  placing  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  crusaders.  Although  seriously  ill  he  left  Rome 
for  the  Kiisi ,  but  died  at  Ancona,  the  mustering-place 
of  the  Christian  troops. 

There  ha\-e  been  widely  divergent  appreciations  of 
the  life  of  Pius  II.  \\'hile  his  varied  talents  and  supe- 
rior culture  cannot  be  doubted,  the  motives  of  his 
frequent  transfer  of  allegiance,  the  causes  of  the  radical 
transformations  which  his  opinions  underwent,  the 


influences  exercised  over  him  by  the  environment  in 
which  his  lot  was  cast,  are  so  many  factors,  the  bear- 
ing of  which  can  be  justly  and  precisely  estimated  only 
with  the  greatest  difficulty.  In  the  early  period  of 
his  life  he  was,  like  many  humanists,  frivolous  and 
immoral  in  conduct  and  writing.  More  earnest  were 
his  conceptions  and  manner  of  life  after  his  entrance 
into  the  ecclesiastical  state.  As  pope  he  was  indeed 
not  sufficiently  free  from  nepotism,  but  otherwise 
served  the  best  interests  of  the  Church.  Not  only 
was  he  constantly  solicitous  for  the  peace  of  Christen- 
dom against  Islam,  but  he  also  instituted  a  commission 
for  the  reform  of  the  Roman  court,  seriously  endeav- 
oured to  restore  monastic  discipline,  and  defended  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church  against  the  writings  of  Regi- 
nald Peacock,  the  former  Bishop  of  Chichester.  He 
retracted  the  errors  contained  in  his  earlier  writings 
in  a  Bull,  the  gist  of  which  was  "Reject  Eneas,  hold 
fast  to  Pius"  St.  Catherine  of  Siena  was  canonized 
during  his  pontificate. 

Even  among  the  many  cares  of  his  pontificate  he 
found  time  for  continued  literary  activity.  Two  im- 
portant works  of  his  were  either  entirely  or  partly 
written  during  this  period:  his  geographical  and 
ethnographical  description  of  Asia  and  Europe;  and 
his  "Memoirs",  which  are  the  only  autobiography 
left  us  by  a  pope.  They  are  entitled  "Pii  II  Com- 
mentarii  rerum  memorabilium,  quae  temporibus  suis 
contigerunt " .  Earlier  in  his  life  he  had  written,  be- 
sides "Eurialus  and  Lucretia"  and  the  recently  dis- 
covered comedy  "Chrysis",  the  following  historical 
works:  "Libellus  dialogorum  de  generalis  concilii 
auctoritate  et  gestis  Basileensium";  "  Commentarius 
de  rebus  Basileae  gestis";  "Historia  rerum  Frederici 
III  imperatoris " ;  "Historia  Bohemica".  Incom- 
plete collections  of  his  \\orks  were  published  in  1551 
and  1571  at  Basle.  A  critical  edition  of  his  letters  by 
A\'olkan  is  in  course  of  publication. 

Campanus,  Vtta  Pii  77  in  Muratohi,  Her.  Ital.  script.,  Ill,  ii, 
967-92;  Platina,  Lives  of  the  Popes,  tr.  Rycaut,  ed.  Benham 
(3  vols.,  London,  1888);  Wolkan,  Der  Brief-wechsel  des  Eneas 
Silvius Piccolomini  in  Pontes  rerum  A-ustriacarum  (Vienna,  1909 — ) ; 
VoiGT,  Enea  Silvio  de'  Piccolomini  als  Papst  Pius  II  und  sein 
Zeitalter  (Berlin,  1856-63):  Creighton.  History  of  the  Papacy, 
III  (new  ed.,  New  York,  1903),  202-:i,"iS;  Weiss,  Aeneas  Sihius 
Piccolomini  als  Papst  Pius  II  (Graz,  1897);  Pastor,  History  of 
the  Popes  (London,  1891-94) ;  Boultinc,  Jineas  Silvius  {Pius  IT), 
Orator,  Man  of  Letters,  Statesman,  and  Pope  (London,  1908);  The 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  I;  The  Renaissance  (New  York, 
1909),  passim. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Pius  III,  Pope  (Francesco  Todeschini  Picco- 
lomini), b.  at  Siena,  29  May,  1439;  elected  22  Sept., 
1503;  d.  in  Rome,  18  Oct.,  1503,  after  a  pontificate  of 
four  weeks.  Piccolomini  was  the  son  of  a  sister  of 
Pius  II.  He  had  passed  his  boy- 
hood in  destitute  circumstances  when 
his  uncle  took  him  into  his  house- 
hold, bestowed  upon  him  his  family 
name  and  arms,  and  superintended 
his  training  and  education.  He 
studied  law  in  Perugia  and  immedi- 
ately after  receiving  the  doctor- 
ate as  canonist  was  appointed  by 
his  uncle  Archbishop  of  Siena,  and 
on  5  March,  1460,  cardinal-deacon 
with  the  title  of  8.  Eustachio. 
The  following  month  he  was  sent  as  legate  to  the 
March  of  Ancona,  with  the  experienced  Bishop  of 
Marsico  as  his  counsellor.  "The  only  thing  objection- 
able about  him",  says  Voigt  (Enea  Silvio,  III,  531), 
"was  his  youth;  for  in  the  administration  of  his  lega- 
tion and  in  his  later  conduct  at  the  curia  he  proved 
to  be  a  man  of  spotless  character  and  many-sided 
capacity."  He  was  sent  by  Paul  II  as  legate  to  Ger- 
many, where  he  acquitted  himself  with  eminent  suc- 
cess, the  knowledge  of  German  that  he  had  acquired 
in  his  uncle's  house  being  of  great  advantage  to  him. 
During  the  worldly  reigns  of  Sixtus  IV  and  Alexander 


(9 

V 

9 
9 
9 

9 

Arms  of  Pius  III 


PIUS 


129 


PIUS 


VI  he  kept  away  from  Rome  as  much  as  possible. 
Sigismondo  de  Conti,  who  knew  him  well  tells  us  that 
"he  left  no  moment  unoccupied ;  his  time  for  study  was 
before  daybreak;  he  spent  his  mornings  in  prayer  and 
his  midday  hours  in  giving  audiences,  to  which  the 
humblest  had  easy  access.  He  was  so  temperate  in 
food  and  drink  that  he  only  allowed  himself  an  evening 
meal  every  other  day."  Yet  this  is  the  excellent 
man  to  whom  Gregorovius  in  his  "Lucrezia  Borgia", 
without  a  shadow  of  authority,  gives  a  dozen  chil- 
dren— the  calumny  being  repeated  by  Brosch  and 
Creighton.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  VI,  the 
conclave  could  not  unite  on  the  principal  candidates, 
d'Amboise,  Rovere,  and  Sforza;  hence  the  great  major- 
ity cast  their  votes  for  Piccolomini,  who  though  only 
sixty-four  was,  like  his  uncle,  tortured  with  gout  and 
was  prematurely  old.  He  took  the  name  of  Pius  III 
in  honour  of  his  uncle,  was  crowned  on  8  Oct.,  after 
receiving  priestly  and  episcopal  orders.  The  strain 
of  the  long  ceremony 
was  so  great  that  the 
pope  sank  under  it. 
He  was  buried  in  St. 
Peter's,  but  his  re- 
mains were  later 
transferred  to  S.  An- 
drea dellaValle  where 
he  rests  by  the  side 
of  Pius  II. 

Pastor,  History  of  the 
Popes,  Ml,  185  sqq.;  Pan- 
viNio,  Continuation  of 
Platina;  VON  Reumont, 
Gesch.  der  Stadt  Rom; 
Artand  de  Montor,  His- 
tory of  the  Popes  (New 
York,  1867). 

James  F.  Lotjghlin. 


Pius  IV,  Pope 
(Giovanni  Angelo 
Medici),     b.    31 


Recumbent  Effigy  of  Pius  III 
Crypt  of  the  Vatican  (XVI  Century) 


March,  1499,  at  Milan;  elected  26  December,  1559; 
d.  in  Rome  9  Dec,  1565.  The  Medici  of  Milan  lived 
in  humble  circumstances  and  the  proud  Florentine 
house  of  the  same  name  claimed  no  kindred  with  them 
until  Cardinal  Medici  was  seated  on  the  papal  throne. 
His  father  Bernardino  had  settled  in  Milan  and  gained 
his  livelihood  by  farming  the  taxes.  Bernardino  had 
two  enterprising  sons,  both  able  to  rise  in  the  world  by 
different  roads.  The  oldest,  Giangiacomo,  became  a 
soldier  of  fortune  and  after  an  adventurous  career 
received  from  the  emperor  the  title  of  Marchese  di 
Marignano.  He  commanded  the  imperial  troops  who 
conquered  Siena.  Giovanni  Angelo  was  as  success- 
ful with  his  books  as  his  brother  with  his  sword.  He 
made  his  studies  first  at  Pavia,  then  at  Bologna, 
devoting  himself  to  philosophy,  medicine,  and  law, 
in  the  last  mentioned  branch  taking  the  degree  of 
doctor.  He  gained  some  reputation  as  a  jurist.  In 
his  twenty-eighth  year  he  determined  to  embrace  the 
ecclesiastical  state  and  seek  his  fortune  in  Rome. 
He  arrived  in  the  Eternal  City,  26  Dec,  1527,  just 
thirty-two  years  to  a  day  before  his  election  to  the 
papacy.  From  Clement  VII  he  obtained  the  office 
of  prothonotary,  and  by  his  inteUigence,  industry, 
and  trustworthiness  commended  himself  to  Paul 
III  who  entertained  the  greatest  confidence  in  his  in- 
tegrity and  abihty  and  employed  him  in  the  governor- 
ship of  many  cities  of  the  papal  states.  In  the  last 
year  of  Paul  Ill's  reign,  Medici,  whose  brother  had 
married  an  Orsini,  sister  to  the  pope's  daughter-in-law, 
was  created  cardinal-priest  with  the  title  of  S. 
Pudenziana.  Julius  III  made  him  legate  in  Romagna 
and  commander  of  the  papal  troops.  The  antipathy 
of  Paul  IV  was  rather  to  his  advantage  than  otherwise; 
for  in  the  reaction  which  followed  the  death  of  that 
morose  pontiff  all  eyes  finally  settled  on  the  man  who 
in  every  respect  was  Paul's  opposite.  The  conclave 
XII.— 9 


dragged  along  for  over  three  months,  when  it  was  ob- 
vious that  neither  the  French  nor  the  Spanish-Aus- 
trian faction  could  win  the  election.  Then,  mainly 
through  the  exertions  of  Cardinal  Farnese,  the  con- 
clave by  acclamation  pronounced  in  favour  of  Medici. 
He  was  crowned  6  Jan.,  1660,  and  took  the  name  of 
Pius  IV. 

His  first  official  act  was  to  grant  an  amnesty  to  those 
who  had  outraged  the  memory  of  his  predecessor,  Paul 
IV;  but  he  refused  clemency  to  Pompeio  Colonna, 
who  had  murdered  his  mother-in-law.  "  God  forbid", 
he  said,  "that  I  should  begin  my  pontificate  with  con- 
doning a  parricide."  The  enmity  of  Spain  and  the 
popular  detestation  of  the  Caraffas  caused  him  to 
open  a  process  against  the  relatives  of  Paul  IV,  as  a 
result  of  which  Cardinal  Carlo  Caraffa  and  his  brother, 
to  whom  Paul  had  given  the  Duchy  of  Paliano,  were 
condemned  and  executed.  The  sentence  was  after- 
wards declared  unjust  by  St.  Pius  V  and  the  memoiy 

of  the  victims  vindi- 
cated  and  their 
estates  restored.  Car- 
dinal Morone  and 
other  dignitaries 
whom  Paul  had  im- 
prisoned for  suspicion 
of  heresy  were  re- 
leased. 

Pius  IV  now  de- 
voted his  undivided 
attention  to  the  com- 
pletion of  the  labours 
of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  He  was  luck- 
ier than  his  predeces- 
sors in  the  youth 
whom  he  created  car- 
dinal-nephew. This 
was  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  the  glory  of 
Milan  and  of  the  Universal  Churchin  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Piushadthe  satisfactionof  seeing  the  close  of  the 
long-continued  council  and  the  triumph  of  the  papacy 
over  the  antipapal  tendencies  which  at  times  asserted 
themselves.  His  name  is  immortally  connected  with  the 
"Profession  of  Faith",  which  must  be  sworn  to  by 
everyone  holding  an  ecclesiastical  office.  The  few 
years  which  remained  to  him  after  the  close  of  the  coun- 
cil were  devoted  to  much  needed  improvements  inRome 
and  the  papal  states.  Unfortunately  for  his  popular- 
ity, these  works  could  not  be  perfected  without  the  im- 
position of  additional  taxes.  Amid  the  numerous  em- 
bellishments with  which  his  name  is  connected,  one  of 
the  most  useful  was  the  founding  of  the  pontifical 
printing-office  for  the  issuing  of  books  in  all  languages. 
He  procured  the  necessary  type  and  placed  the  insti- 
tution under  the  able  superintendence  of  Paul  Mi- 
nutius.  In  addition  to  the  heavy  expenses  incurred 
in  the  fortification  and  embelhshment  of  Rome,  Pius 
was  under  obUgation  to  contribute  many  hundred 
thousands  of  scudi  to  the  support  of  the  war  against 
the  Turks  in  Hungary. 

The  mildness  of  Pius  IV  in  deahng  with  suspects  of 
heresy,  so  different  from  the  rigour  of  his  predecessor, 
made  many  suspect  his  own  orthodoxy.  A  fanatic 
named  Benedetto  Ascolti,  "inspired  by  his  guardian 
angel",  made  an  attempt  upon  his  life.  A  more 
formidable  foe,  the  Roman  fever,  carried  him  off  9 
Dec,  1565,  with  St.  Philip  Neri  and  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  at  his  pillow.  He  was  buried  first  in  St. 
Peter's,  but  4  June,  1583,  his  remains  were  transferred 
to  Michelangelo's  great  church  of  S.  Maria  degU 
Angeli,  one  of  Pius's  most  magnificent  structures. 
"Pius  IV",  says  the  fearless  Muratori,  "had  faults 
(who  is  without  them?) ;  but  they  are  as  nothing  com- 
pared with  his  many  virtues.  His  memory  shall 
ever  remain  in  benediction  for  having  brought  to  a 


PIUS 


130 


PIUS 


glorious  termination  the  Council  of  Trent;  for  having 
reformed  all  the  Roman  tribunals;  for  having  main- 
tained order  and  plenty  in  his  dominion;  for  having 
promoted  to  the  oardinalate  men  of  great  merit  and 
rare  literary  ability;  finally,  for  having  avoided  excess 
of  love  for  his  kindred,  and  enriched  Rome  by  the 
building  of  so  many  fine  edifices." 

Ranke,  History  of  the  Popes  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth 
Centuries;  MuRATORI,  Annali  d' Italia;  VoN  Reumont,  Geschichte 
der  Stadt  Rom;  Artand  de  Montor,  History  of  the  Popes  (New 
York,  1867). 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Pius  V,  S.\iN'T,  Pope  (jMichele  Ghisleri),  b.  at 
Bosco,  near  Alexandria,  Lombardy,  17  Jan.,  1504; 
elected  7  Jan.,  l.ibii;  d.  1  May,  1572.    Being  of  a  poor 


Monument  to  St.  Pius  V 

L.  Sarzana  and  G.  Delia  Porta,  Basilica  of  S.  Maria 

Maggiore,  Rome 

though  noble  family  his  lot  would  have  been  to  follow 
a  trade,  but  he  was  taken  in  by  the  Dominicans  of 
Voghera,  where  he  received  a  good  education  and  was 
trained  in  the  way  of  solid  and  austere  piety.  He 
entered  the  order,  was  ordained  in  1528,  and  taught 
theology  and  philosophy  for  sixteen  years.  In  the 
meantime  he  wax  master  of  novices  and  was  on  several 
occasions  elected  prior  of  different  houses  of  his  order, 
in  which  he  strove  to  develop  the  practice  of  the 
monastic  virtu(\s  and  spread  the  spirit  of  the  holy 
founder.  He  himself  was  an  example  to  all.  He 
fa.sted,  did  peniince,  passed  long  hours  of  the  night  in 
meditation  and  prayer,  travelled  on  foot  without  a 
cloak  in  dccj)  silence,  or  only  speaking  to  his  compan- 
ion.s  of  the  things  of  God.  In  15-56  he  was  made 
Bi.^hop  of  Sutri  by  Paul  IV.  Hi.s  zeal  against  heresy 
caused  him  to  be  selected  as  inquisitor  of  the  faith  in 
Milan  and  Lombardy,  and  in  1557  Paul  II  made  him 
a  cardinal  and  named  him  inquisitor  general  for  all 
Christendom.  In  1559  he  was  transferred  to  Mondovi, 
where  he  restored  the  purity  of  faith  and  discipline, 
gra\'ely  impaired  by  the  wars  of  Piedmont.  Fre- 
quently called  to  Rome,  he  displayed  his  unflinching 
zeal  in  all  the  affairs  on  which  he  was  consulted.  Thus 
he  offered  an  insurmountable  opposition  to  Pius  IV 
when   the   latter   wished   to   admit    Ferdinand   de' 


Medici,  then  only  thirteen  years  old,  into  the  Sacred 
College.  Again  it  was  he  who  defeated  the  project  of 
Maximilian  II,  Emperor  of  Germany,  to  abolish  eccle- 
siastical celibacy.  On  the  death  of  Pius  IV,  he  was, 
despite  his  tears  and  entreaties,  elected  pope,  to  the 
great  joy  of  the  whole  Church. 

He  began  his  pontificate  by  giving  large  alms  to  the 
poor,  instead  of  distributing  his  bounty  at  haphazard 
like  his  predecessors.  As  pontiff  he  practised  the 
virtues  he  had  displayed  as  a  monk  and  a  bishop.  His 
piety  was  not  diminished,  and,  in  spite  of  the  heavy 
labours  and  anxieties  of  his  office,  he  made  at  least 
two  meditations  a,  day  on  bended  knees  in  presence 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  In  his  charity  he  visited 
the  hospitals,  and  sat  by  the  bedside  of  the  sick,  con- 
soling them  and  preparing  them  to  die.  He  washed 
the  feet  of  the  poor,  and  embraced  the  lepers.  It  is 
related  that  an  English  nobleman  was  converted  on 
seeing  him  kiss  the  feet  of  a  beggar  covered  with  ul- 
cers. He  was  very  austere  and  banished  luxury  from 
his  court,  raised  the  standard  of  morality,  laboured 
with  his  intimate  friend,  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  to 
reform  the  clergy,  obliged  his  bishops  to  reside  in 
their  dioceses,  and  the  cardinals  to  lead  lives  of  sim- 
plicity and  piety.  He  diminished  public  scandals  by 
relegating  prostitutes  to  distant  quarters,  and  he  for- 
bade bull  fights.  He  enforced  the  observance  of  the 
discipline  of  the  Council  Of  Trent,  reformed  the  Cis- 
tercians, and  supported  the  missions  of  the  New  World. 
In  the  Bull  "In  Coena  Domini"  he  proclaimed 
the  traditional  principles  of  the  Roman  Church  and 
the  supremacy  of  the  Holy  See  over  the  civil  power. 

But  the  great  thought  and  the  constant  preoccupa- 
tion of  his  pontificate  seems  to  have  been  the  struggle 
against  the  Protestants  and  the  Turks.  In  Germany 
he  supported  the  Catholics  oppressed  by  the  heretical 
princes.  In  France 
he  encouraged  the 
League  by  his 
counsels  and  with 
pecuniary  aid.  In 
the  Low  Countries 
he  supported 
Spain.  In  England, 
finally,  he  excom- 
municated Eliz- 
abeth, embraced 
the  cause  of  Mary 
Stuart,  and  wrote 
to  console  her  in 
prison.  In  the  ar- 
dour of  his  faith 
he  did  not  hesitate 
to  display  severity 
against  the  dissi- 
dents when  neces- 
sary, and  to  give  a 
new  impulse  to  the 
activity  of  the  In- 
q  u  i  s  i  t  i  o  n  ,  for 
which  he  has  been 
blamed  by  certain 
historians  who 
have  exaggerated 
his  conduct.  De- 
spite all  representa- 
tions on  his  behalf 
he  condemned  the 
writings  of  Baius 
(q.  v.),  who  ended 
by  submitting. 

He  worked  incessantly  to  unite  the  Christian  princes 
against  the  hereditary  enemy,  the  Turks.  In  the  first 
year  of  his  pontificate  he  had  ordered  a  solemn  jubilee, 
exhorting  the  faithful  to  penance  and  almsgiving  to 
obtain  the  victory  from  God.  He  supported  the 
Knights  of  Malta,  sent  money  for  the  fortification  of 


MONU.MENT   TO    St.    PiUS   V,    PaVIA 


PIUS 


131 


PIUS 


the  free  towns  of  Italy,  furnished  monthly  contribu- 
tions to  the  Christians  of  Hungary,  and  endeavoured 
especially  to  bring  Maximilian,  Philip  II,  and  Charles 
IX  together  for  the  defence  of  Christendom.  In  1567 
for  the  same  purpose  he  collected  from  all  convents 
one-tenth  of  their  revenues.  In  1570  when  Solyman 
II  attacked  Cyprus,  threatening  all  Christianity  in 
the  West,  he  never  rested  till  he  united  the  forces  of 
Venice,  Spain,  and  the  Holy  See.  He  sent  hi.s  blessing 
to  Don  John  of  Austria,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
expedition,  recommending  him  to  leave  behind  all 
soldiers  of  evil  lite,  and  promising  him  the  victory  if 
he  did  so.  He  ordered  public  prayers,  and  increased 
his  own  supplications  to  heaven.  On  the  day  of  the 
Battle  of  Lepanto,  7  Oct.,  1571,  he  was  working  with 
the  cardinals,  when,  suddenly,  interrupting  his  work, 
opening  the  window  and  looking  at  the  sky,  he  cried 
out,  "A  truce  to  business;  our  great  task  at  present 
is  to  thank  God  for  the  victory  which  He  has  just 
given  the  Christian  army  ' '  He  burst  into  tears  when 
he  heard  of  the  victory,  which  dealt  the  Turkish 
power  a  blow  from  which  it  never  recovered.  In 
memory  of  this  triumph  he  instituted  for  the  first 
Sunday  of  October  the  feast  of  the  Rosary,  and  added 
to  the  Litany  of  Loreto  the  supphcation ' '  Help  of  Chris- 
tians" He  was  hoping  to  put  an  end  to  the  power  of 
Islam  by  forming  a  general  alliance  of  the  Italian  cities, 
Poland,  France,  and  all  Christian  Europe,  and  had 
begun  negotiations  for  this  purpose  when  he  died  of 
gravel,  repeating  "O  Lord,  increase  my  sufferings  and 
my  patience!"  He  left  the  memory  of  a  rare  virtue 
and  an  unfailing  and  inflexible  integrity.  He  was 
beatified  by  Clement  X  in  1672,  and  canonized  by 
Clement  XI  in  1712. 

Mendham,  Life  and  Pontificate  of  St.  Pius  V  (London,  1832  and 
183.5) :  Acta  SS,,  1  May;  Touron,  Hommes  illustres  de  I'ordre  de  St- 
Dominique,  IV;  Falloux,  Hidoire  de  S.  Pie  V  (Paris,  1853) ;  Pas- 
tor, Gcsch.  der  Papsie,  Artaud  de  Montor,  History  of  the  Popes 
(New  York.  1867);  Pope  Pius  V,  the  Father  of  Christendom  in 
Dublin  Renew,  LIX  (London,  1866),  273.         T.   LatASTE. 

Pius  VI  (Giovanni  Angelico  Braschi),  Pope,  b. 
at  Cesena,  27  Dec,  1717;  elected  15  Feb.,  1775;  d.  at 
Valence,  France,  29  Aug.,  1799.  He  was  of  a  noble  but 
impoverished  family,  and  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit 
College  of  Cesena  and  studied  law  at  Ferrara.  After  a 
diplomatic  mission  to  Naples,  he  was 
appointed  papal  secretary  and  canon 
of   St.   Peter's   in    1755.     Clement 

XIII  appointed  him  treasurer  of  the 
Roman  Church  in  1766,  and  Clement 

XIV  made  him  a  cardinal  in  1775. 
He  then  retired  to  the  Abbey  of 
Subiaco,  of  which  he  was  commen- 
datory abbot,  until  his  election  as 
Pius  VI. 

Spain,  Portugal,  and  France 
had  at  first  combined  to  prevent 
his  election,  because  he  was  believed  to  be  a  friend 
of  the  Jesuits;  he  was  well  disposed  towards  the 
order,  but  he  dared  not  revoke  the  Bull  of  their 
suppression.  Still  he  ordered  the  liberation  of  their 
general,  Ricci,  a  prisoner  in  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo 
in  Rome,  but  the  general  died  before  the  decree  of 
liberation  arrived.  Upon  the  request  of  Frederick  II 
of  Prussia  he  permitted  the  Jesuits  to  retain  their 
schools  in  Prussia;  while  in  Russia,  he  permitted  an 
uninterrupted  continuation  of  the  order.  Soon  after 
his  accession  he  took  steps  to  root  out  the  Galilean 
idea  on  papal  supremacy  which  had  been  spread  in 
Germany  by  Hontheim  (q.  v.;  see  Febronianism). 
Joseph  II  forbade  the  Austrian  bishops  to  apply  to 
Rome  for  faculties  of  any  kind,  and  suppressed  innu- 
merable monasteries.  Pius  Vl  resolved  to  go  to 
Vienna;  he  left  Rome  on  27  Feb.,  1782,  and  arrived 
in  Vienna  on  22  March.  The  emperor  received 
him  respectfully,  though  the  minister,  Kaunitz  (q.  v.), 
neglected  even  the  ordinary  rules  of  etiquette.  The 


Arms  of  Pius  VI 


pope  remained  at  Vienna  until  22  April,  1782.  All 
that  he  obtained  from  the  emperor  was  the  promise 
that  his  ecclesiastical  reforms  would  not  contain  any 
violation  of  Catholic  dogmas,  or  compromise  the  dig- 
nity of  the  pope.  The  emperor  accompanied  the  pope 
on  his  return  as  far  as  the  Monastery  of  Mariabrunn, 
and  suppressed  tliis  monastery  a  few  hours  after  the 
pope  had  left  it.  Scarcely  had  the  pope  reached  Rome 
when  he  again  saw  himself  compelled  to  protest 
against  the  emperor's  unjustifiable  confiscation  of 
ecclesiastical  property.  But  when  Joseph  II  filled  the 
vacant  See  of  Milan  of  his  own  authority,  Pius  sol- 
emnly protested,  and  it  was  probably  at  this  occasion 
that  he  threatened  the  emperor  with  excommunication. 
On  23  Dec,  1783, 
the  emperor  un- 
expectedly came 
to  Rome  to  return 
the  papal  visit.  He 
was  determined  to 
continue  his  ec- 
clesiastical re- 
forms, and  made 
known  to  the 
Spanish  diplomat, 
Azara,  his  project 
of  separating  the 
German  Church 
entirely  from 
Rome.  The  latter 
however,  dissuad- 
ed him  from  tak- 
ing this  fatal  step. 
To  avoid  worse 
things,  the  pope 
granted  him  the 
right  of  nominat- 
ing the  bishops  in 
the  Duchies  of 
Milan  and  Man- 
tua, in  a  concor- 
dat dated  20  Jan., 
1784  (see  Nussi, 
"  Conventiones  de 
rebus  ecclesiasticis 
et  civiUbus  inter  S.  Sedem  et  civilem  potestatcm'', 
Mainz,  1870,  138-9). 

Joseph's  example  was  followed  in  Tuscany  by  his 
brother,  the  Grand  Duke  Leopold  II  and  Bishop 
Scipio  Ricci  of  Pistoia.  Here  the  antipapal  reforms 
culminated  in  the  Synod  of  Pistoia  (q.  v.)  in  1786, 
where  the  doctrines  of  Jansenius  and  Quesnel  were 
sanctioned,  and  the  papal  supremacy  was  eliminated. 
In  his  Bull  "Auctorem  fidei"  of  28  Aug.,  1794,  the 
pope  condemned  the  acts,  and  in  particular  eighty-five 
propositions  of  this  synod.  In  Germany  the  three 
ecclesiastical  Electors  of  Mainz,  Trier,  and  Cologne, 
and  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  attempted  to  curtail 
the  papal  authority  by  convening  a  congress  at  Ems 
(q.  v.).  With  Portugal  the  papal  relations  became 
very  friendly  after  the  accession  of  Maria  I  in  1777, 
and  a  satisfactory  concordat  was  concluded  in  1778 
(Nussi,  loc.  cit.,  138-39).  In  Spain,  Sardinia,  and 
Venice  the  Governments  to  a  great  extent  followed  in 
the  footsteps  of  Joseph  II.  But  the  most  sweeping 
anti-ecclesiastical  reforms  were  carried  out  in  the  Two 
Sicilies.  _  Ferdinand  IV  refused  the  exequatur  to  all 
papal  briefs  that  were  obtained  without  the  royal  per- 
mission, and  claimed  the  right  to  nominate  all  eccle- 
siastical beneficiaries.  Pius  VI  refused  to  accept  the 
bishops  that  were  nominated  by  the  king  and,  as  a 
result,  there  were  in  1784  thirty  vacant  sees  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Naples  alone,  which  number  had  in- 
creased to  sixty  in  1798.  The  king,  moreover,  refused 
to  acknowledge  the  papal  suzerainty  which  had  existed 
for  eight  hundred  years.  The  pope  repeatedly  made 
overtures,  but  the  king  persisted  in  nominating  to  all 


Statue  of  Pius  VI 
Angelo  Siciliano,  Milan  Cathedral 


PIUS 


132 


PIUS 


the  vacant  sees.  In  April,  1791,  when  more  than  half 
the  sees  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  were  vacant,  a 
temporary  compromise  was  reached  and  in  that  year 
sixty-two  vacant  sees  were  filled  (Rinieri,  loc.  cit., 
infra). 

In  response  to  the  application  of  the  clergy  of  the 
United  States,  the  Bull  of  April,  1789,  erected  the  See 
of  Baltimore  (see  Baltimore,  Akchdiocese  of). 

Pius  VI  put  the  papal  finances  on  a  firmer  basis; 
drained  the  marshy  lands  near  Citta  della  Pieve, 
Perugia,  Spoleto,  and  Trevi;  deepened  the  harbours 
of  Porto  d'Anzio  and  Terracina;  added  a  new  sacristy 
to  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter;  completed  the  Museo  Pio- 
Clementino,  and  enriched  it  with  many  costly  pieces 
of  art;  restored  the  Via  Appia;  and  drained  the 
greater  part  of  the  Pontine  Marshes. 

After  the  French  Revolution,  Pius  rejected  the 
"Constitution  civile  du  clerg6"  on  13  March,  1791, 
suspended  the  priests  that  accepted  it,  provided  as 
well  as  he  could  for  the  banished  clergy  and  protested 
against  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.  France  retaUated 
by  annexing  the  small  papal  territories  of  Avignon  and 
Venaissin.  The  pope's  co-operation  with  the  Allies 
against  the  French  Republic,  and  the  murder  of  the 
French  attach^,  Basseville,  at  Rome,  brought  on  by 
his  own  fault,  led  to  Napoleon's  attack  on  the  Papal 
States.  At  the  Truce  of  Bologna  (25  June,  1796) 
Napoleon  dictated  the  terms:  twenty-one  million 
francs,  the  release  of  all  political  criminals,  free  access 
of  French  ships  into  the  papal  harbours,  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  Romagna  by  French  troops  etc.  At  the 
Peace  of  Tolentino  (19  Feb.,  1797)  Pius  VI  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  Avignon,  Venaissin,  Ferrara,  Bo- 
logna, and  the  Romagna;  and  to  pay  fifteen  million 
francs  and  give  up  numerous  costly  works  of  art  and 
manuscripts.  In  an  attempt  to  revolutionize  Rome 
the  French  General  Duphot  was  shot  and  killed, 
whereupon  the  French  took  Rome  on  10  Feb.,  1798, 
and  proclaimed  the  Roman  Republic  on  15  Feb. 
Because  the  pope  refused  to  submit,  he  was  forcibly 
taken  from  Rome  on  the  night  of  20  Feb.,  and  brought 
first  to  Siena  and  then  to  Florence.  At  the  end  of  March, 
1799,  though  seriously  ill,  he  was  hurried  to  Parma, 
Piacenza,  Turin,  then  over  the  Alps  to  Briangon  and 
Grenoble,  and  finally  to  Valence,  where  he  succumbed 
to  his  sufferings  before  he  could  be  brought  further. 
He  was  first  buried  at  Valence,  but  the  remains  were 
transferred  to  St.  Peter's  in  Rome  on  17  Feb.,  1802 
(see  Napoleon  I).  His  statue  in  a  kneeling  position 
by  Canova  was  placed  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter  be- 
fore the  crypt  of  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles. 

Bullarii  Romani  Continuatio,  ed.  Barberi  (Rome,  1842  sq.), 
V-X;  Collectio  Brevium  atque  Instructionum  Pii  Papm  VI  q-ua;  ad 
prcEsentes  Gallicanarum  ecclesiarum  calamitates  pertinent  (2  vols., 
Augsburg,  1796) ;  Acta  Pii  VI  guibus  ecclesiai  catholicm  calami- 
tatihus  in  Gallia  consultum  est  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1871) ;  BouRGOiNG, 
MSmoires  historigues  et  philosophigues  sur  Pie  VI  et  son  pontifical 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1800) ;  Gendry,  Pie  VI.  Sa  vie,  son  pontifical  1 777- 
99,  d'aprks  les  archives  valicanes  el  de  nombreux  documents  inedits 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1907);  Wolf,  Gesch.  der  Kalh.  Kirche  unter  der 
Regierung  Pius  VI  (Zurich,  1793-1802),  7  vols.  (Josephinistic) ; 
Beccatini,  Storia  di  Pio  VI  (4  vols.,  Venice,  1801-02);  Ferrari, 
Vita  Pii  VI  (Padua,  1802);  Bertrand,  Le  Pontifical  de  Pie  VI 
et  I'AlhHsme  R^volutionnaire  (2  vols.,  Bar-le-Duc,  1879);  Samp- 
son, Pius  VI  and  the  French  Revolution  in  Amer.  Calh.  Quarterly 
Review  (New  York,  1906),  220-40,  413-40,  601-31;  Pius  VI  in 
Catholic  World,  XIX  (New  York,  1874),  7.55-64;  Tiepoli,  Relazi- 
oni  sul  conclave  per  la  elezione  di  papa  Pio  VI  (Venice,  1896); 
KoNiG,  Pius  VI  und  die  S&kularisation,  Program  (Kalksburg, 
1900) ;  SCHLITTER,  Pius  VI  und  Joseph  II  von  der  Riickkehr  des 
Papstes  nach  Rom  his  zum  Abschluss  des  Konkordals,  ibid.  II 
(Vienna,  1894) ;  Cordara,  De  projectu  Pii  VI  ad  aulam  Viennen- 
sem  ejusque  causis  el  exitu  commentarii,  ed.  Boero  (Rome,  1855); 
Rinieri,  Della  rovina  di  una  Monorchia,  Relazioni  sloriche  tra 
Pio  VI  e  la  Corte  di  Napoli  negli  anni  1776-99,  secondo  documenti 
inediti  dell'  Archivio  Valicano  (Turin,  1910);  Baldassaei,  His- 
toire  de  I'enlhement  et  de  la  captivity  de  Pie  VI  (Paris,  1839),  Ger. 
tr.  Steck  (Tubingen,  1844);  Madelin,  Pie  VI  et  la  premiire 
coalition  in  Revue  des  quest,  hist.,  LXXXI  (Paris,  1903),  1-32. 

Michael  Ott. 

Pius  VII,  Pope  (Barnaba  Chiaramonti),  b.  at 
Cesena  in  the  Pontifical  States,  14  Aug.,  1740;  elected 
at  Venice  14  March,   1800;   d.  20  Aug.,  1823.    His 


father  was  Count  Scipione  Chiaramonti,  and  his 
inother,  of  the  noble  house  of  Ghini,  was  a  lady  of  rare 
piety  who  in  1763  entered  a  convent  of  CarmeUtes  at 
Fano.  Here  she  foretold,  in  her  son's  hearing,  as  Pius 
VII  himself  later  related,  his  elevation  to  the  papacy 
and  his  protracted  sufferings.  Barnaba  received  his 
early  education  in  the  college  for  nobles  at  Ravenna. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  Benedictine  mon- 
astery of  Santa  Maria  del  Monte,  near  Cesena,  where 
he  was  called  Brother  Gregory.  After  the  completion 
of  his  philosophical  and  theological  studies,  he  was 
appointed  professor  at  Parma  and  at  Rome  in  colleges 
of  his  order.  He  was  teaching  at  the  monastery  of 
San  Callisto  in  the  latter  city  at  the  accession  of  Pius 
VI,  who  was  a  friend  of  the  Chiaramonti  family  and 
subsequently  appointed  Barnaba  abbot  of  his  monas- 
tery. The  appointment  did  not  meet  with  the  uni- 
versal approbation  of  the  inmates,  and  complaints 
were  soon  lodged  with  the  papal  authority  against  the 
new  abbot.  Investigation,  however,  proved  the 
charges  to  be  unfounded,  and  Pius  VI  soon  raised  him 
to  further  dignities.  After  conferring  upon  him  suc- 
cessively the  Bishoprics  of  Tivoli 
and  Imola  he  created  him  cardinal 
14  Feb.,  1785.  When  in  1797  the 
French  invaded  northern  Italy, 
Chiaramonti  as  Bishop  of  Imola 
addressed  to  his  flock  the  wise  and 
practical  instruction  to  refrain  from 
useless  resistance  to  the  overwhelm- 
ing and  threatening  forces  of  the 
enemy.  The  town  of  Lugo  refused 
to  submit  to  the  invaders  and  was  de-  , 
livered  up  to  a  pillage  which  had  an  ^="^  °^  ^^"^  V" 
end  only  when  the  prelate,  who  had  counselled  subjec- 
tion, suppliantly  cast  himself  on  his  knees  before  Gen- 
eral Augereau.  That  Chiaramonti  could  adapt  himself 
to  new  situations  clearly  appears  from  a  Christmas 
homily  delivered  in  1797,  in  which  he  advocates  sub- 
mission to  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  as  there  is  no  oppo- 
sition between  a  democratic  form  of  government  and 
the  constitution  of  the  Catholic  Church.  In  spite  of 
this  attitude  he  was  repeatedly  accused  of  treasonable 
proceedings  towards  the  republic,  but  always  success- 
fully vindicated  his  conduct. 

According  to  an  ordinance  issued  by  Pius  VI,  13 
Nov.,  1798,  the  city  where  the  largest  number  of  car- 
dinals was  to  be  found  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  to 
be  the  scene  of  the  subsequent  election.  In  conformity 
with  these  instructions  the  cardinals  met  in  conclave, 
after  his  death  (29  Aug.,  1799),  in  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  San  Giorgio  at  Venice.  The  place  was 
agreeable  to  the  emperor,  who  bore  the  expense  of  the 
election.  Thirty-four  cardinals  were  in  attendance 
on  the  opening  day,  30  Nov.,  1799;  to  these  was  added 
a  few  days  later  Cardinal  Herzan,  who  acted  simul- 
taneously as  imperial  commissioner.  It  was  not  long 
before  the  election  of  Cardinal  Bellisomi  seemed 
assured.  He  was,  however,  unacceptable  to  the 
Austrian  party,  who  favoured  Cardinal  Mattel.  As 
neither  candidate  could  secure  a  sufficient  number  of 
votes,  a  third  name,  that  of  Cardinal  Gerdil,  was  pro- 
posed, but  his  election  was  vetoed  by  Austria.  At 
last,  after  the  conclave  had  lasted  three  months,  some 
of  the  neutral  cardinals,  including  Maury,  suggested 
Chiaramonti  as  a  suitable  candidate  and,  with  the 
tactful  support  of  the  secretary  of  the  conclave,  Ercole 
Consalvi,  he  was  elected.  The  new  pope  was  crowned 
as  Pius  VII  on  21  March,  1800,  at  Venice.  He  then 
left  this  city  in  an  Austrian  vessel  for  Rome,  where  he 
made  his  solemn  entry  on  3  July,  amid  the  universal 
joy  of  the  populace.  Of  all-important  consequence 
for  his  reign  was  the  elevation  on  11  Aug.,  1800,  of 
Ercole  Consalvi,  one  of  the  greatest  statesmen  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  to  the  college  of  cardinals  and  to 
the  office  of  secretary  of  state.  Consalvi  retained  to 
the  end  the  confidence  of  the  pope,  although  the  con- 


PI  us  VII 

JACQUES-LOUIS   DAVID,    LOUVRE 


PIUS 


133 


PIUS 


flict  with  Napoleon  forced  him  out  of  office  for  several 
years. 

With  no  country  was  Pius  VII  more  concerned  dur- 
">g  his  reign  than  with  France,  where  the  revolution 
had  destroyed  the  old  order  in  religion  no  less  than  in 
politics.  Bonaparte,  as  first  consul,  signified  his  readi- 
ness to  enter  into  negotiations  tending  to  the  settle- 
ment of  the  reUgious  question.  These  advances  led  to 
the  conclusion  of  the  historic  Concordat  of  1801,  which 
for  over  a  hundred  years  governed  the  relations  of  the 
French  Church  with  Rome  (on  this  compact;  the  jour- 
ney of  Pius  VII  to  Paris  for  the  imperial  coronation; 
his  captivity  and  restoration,  see  Concordat;  Con- 
SALVi;  and  Napoleon  I).  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
a  new  concordat  was  negotiated  between  Pius  VII  and 
Louis  Xyill.  It  provided  for  an  additional  number  of 
French  bishoprics  and  abrogated  the  Organic  Articles. 
But  liberal  and  Galilean  opposition  to  it  was  so  strong 
that  it  could  never  be  carried  out.  One  of  its  objects 
was  later  reahzed  when  in  1822  the  circumscription 
Bull  "  Paternae  Caritatis"  erected  thirty  new  episcopal 
sees. 

At  the  Peace  of  Lunfiville  in  1801,  some  German 
princes  lost  their  hereditary  rights  and  dominions 
through  the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to 
France.  When  it  became  known  that  they  contem- 
plated compensating  their  loss  by  the  secularization  of 
ecclesiastical  lands,  Pius  VII  instructed  Dalberg,  Elec- 
tor of  Mainz,  on  2  Oct.,  1802,  to  use  all  his  influence  for 
the  protection  of  the  rights  of  the  Church.  Dalberg, 
however,  displayed  more  ardour  for  his  own  advance- 
ment than  zeal  in  the  defence  of  religious  interests, 
and  the  seizure  of  ecclesiastical  property  was  permit- 
ted in  1803  by  the  Imperial  Deputation  at  Ratisbon. 
The  measure  resulted  in  enormous  loss  for  the  Church, 
but  the  pope  was  powerless  to  resist  its  execution. 
The  ecclesiastical  reorganization  of  Germany  now  be- 
came a  pressing  need.  Bavaria  soon  opened  negotia- 
tions in  view  of  a  concordat  and  was  shortly  after  fol- 
lowed by  Wurtemburg.  But  Rome  would  rather  treat 
with  the  central  imperial  government  than  with  indi- 
vidual states,  and  after  the  suppression  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  in  1806,  Napoleon's  aim  was  to  obtain 
a  uniform  concordat  for  the  whole  Confederation  of 
the  Rhine.  Subsequent  events  prevented  any  agree- 
ment before  Napoleon's  downfall.  At  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  (1814-15)  Consalvi  in  vain  advocated  the 
restoration  of  the  former  ecclesiastical  organization. 
Soon  after  this  event  the  individual  German  States 
separately  entered  into  negotiations  with  Rome  and 
the  first  concordat  was  concluded  with  Bavaria  in 
1817.  In  1821  Pius  VII  promulgated  in  the  Bull  "  De 
salute  animarum"  the  agreement  concluded  with 
Prussia,  and  the  same  year  another  Bull,  "Provida 
Solersque",  made  a  fresh  distribution  of  dioceses  in  the 
ecclesiastical  province  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  An  ar- 
rangement with  Rome  based  on  mutual  concessions 
was  likewise  contemplated  in  England  in  regard  to 
Irish  ecclesiastical  affairs,  notably  episcopal  nomina- 
tions (the  veto).  The  papal  administration  favoured 
the  project  the  more  readily  seeing  that  common  re- 
sistance to  Napoleon  had  brought  the  Holy  See  and 
the  British  Government  more  closely  together,  and 
that  it  still  stood  in  need  of  the  assistance  of  English 
might  and  diplomacy.  But  Irish  opposition  to  the 
scheme  was  so  determined  that  nothing  could  be 
done,  and  the  Irish  clergy  remained  free  from  all  state 
control.  Similar  freedom  prevailed  in  the  growing 
Church  of  the  United  States,  in  which  country  Pius 
VII  erected  in  1808  the  Dioceses  of  Boston,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Bardstown,  with  Baltimore  as  the 
metropolitan  see.  To  these  dioceses  were  added  those 
of  Charleston  and  Richmond  in  1820,  and  that  of 
Cincinnati  in  1821. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  successes  ot  his  pontih- 
cate  was  the  restoration  of  the  Pontifical  States,  se- 
cured at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  by  the  papal  represen- 


MONUMENT    TO    PlUS   VII 

Thorwaldsen,  St.  Peter's,  Rome 


tative  Consalvi.  Only  a  small  strip  of  land  remained 
in  the  power  of  Austria,  and  this  usurpation  was  pro- 
tested. In  the  temporal  administration  of  these  states 
some  of  the  features  making  for  uniformity  and  effi- 
ciency introduced  by  the  French  were  judiciously 
retained,  the  feudal  rights  of  the  nobility  were  abol- 
ished, and  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  municipali- 
ties suppressed.  Considerable  opposition  developed 
against  these  measures,  and  the  Carbonari  even  threat- 
ened rebellion;  but  Consalvi  had  their  leaders  prose- 
cuted and  on  13 
Sept.,  1821,  Pius 
VII  condemned 
their  principles. 
Of  a  more  serious 
nature  was  the 
revolution  which 
in  1820  broke  out 
in  Spain  and 
which,  owing  to 
its  anticlerical 
character,  gave 
great  concern  to 
the  papacy.  It 
restricted  the  au- 
thority of  ecclesi- 
astical courts  (26 
Sept.,  1830);  de- 
creed (23  Oct.) 
the  suppression 
of  a  large  number 
of  monasteries, 
and  prohibited 
(14  April,  1821) 
the  forwarding  of 
financial  contri- 
butions to  Rome. 
It  also  secured  the 
appointment  of  Canon  Villanueva,  a  public  advocate  of 
the  abolition  of  the  papacy,  as  Spanish  ambassador  to 
Rome,  and,  upon  the  refusal  of  Pius  VII  to  accept  him, 
broke  off  diplomatic  relations  with  the  Holy  See  in 
1823.  This  same  year,  however,  the  armed  interven- 
tion of  France  suppressed  the  revolution  and  King 
Ferdinand  VII  repealed  the  anti-Catholic  laws. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Pius  VII,  the 
prestige  of  the  papacy  was  enhanced  by  the  presence 
in  Rome  of  several  European  rulers.  The  Emperor 
and  Empress  of  Austria,  accompanied  by  their  daugh- 
ter, made  an  official  visit  to  the  pope  in  1819.  The 
King  of  Naples  visited  Rome  in  1821  and  was  followed 
in  1822  by  the  King  of  Prussia.  The  blind  Charles 
Emmanuel  IV  of  Savoy,  and  King  Charles  IV  of  Spain 
and  his  queen,  permanently  resided  in  the  Eternal  City. 
Far  more  glorious  to  Pius  VII  personally  is  the  fact 
that,  after  the  downfall  of  his  persecutor  Napoleon,  he 
gladly  offered  a  refuge  in  his  capital  to  the  members  of 
the  Bonaparte  family.  Princess  Letitia,  the  deposed 
emperor's  mother,  lived  there;  likewise  did  his  broth- 
ers Lucien  and  Louis  and  his  uncle,  Cardinal  Fesoh. 
So  forgiving  was  Pius  that  upon  hearing  of  the  severe 
captivity  in  which  the  imperial  prisoner  was  held  at 
St.  Helena,  he  requested  Cardinal  Consalvi  to  plead 
for  leniency  with  the  Prince-Regent  of  England. 
When  he  was  informed  of  Napoleon's  desire  for  the 
ministrations  of  a  Catholic  priest,  he  sent  him  the 
Abbe  Vignali  as  chaplain. 

Under  Pius's  reign  Rome  was  also  the  favourite 
abode  of  artists.  Among  these  it  suffices  to  cite  the 
illustrious  names  of  the  Venetian  Canova,  the  Dane 
Thorwaldsen,  the  Austrian  Filhrich,  and  the  Germans 
Overbeck,  Pforr,  Schadow,  and  Cornelius.  Pius  VII 
added  numerous  manuscripts  and  printed  volumes  to 
the  Vatican  Library;  reopened  the  English,  Scottish, 
and  German  Colleges  at  Rome,  and  established  new 
chairs  in  the  Roman  College.  He  reorganized  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Propaganda,  and  condemned  the  Bible 


PIUS 


134 


PIUS 


Societies  (q.  v.).  In  1805  he  received  at  Florence  the 
unconditional  submission  of  Scipione  Ricci,  the  former 
Bishop  of  Pistoia-Prato,  who  had  refused  obedience  to 
Pius  VI  in  his  condemnation  of  the  Synod  of  Pistoia. 
The  suppressed  Society  of  Jesus  he  re-established  for 
Russia  in  1801,  for  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicihes 
in  1804;  for  America,  England,  and  Ireland  in  1813, 
and  for  the  Universal  Church  on  7  August,  1814. 

On  ()  July,  1S23,  Pius  VII  fell  in  his  apartment  and 
fractured  his  thigh.  He  was  obliged  to  take  to  his  bed, 
never  to  rise  again.  During  his  illness  the  magnifioent 
basilica  of  St.  Paul  Without  the  Walls  was  destroyed 
by  fire,  a  calamity  which  was  never  revealed  to  him. 
The  gentle  but  courageous  pontiff  breathed  his  last  in 
the  presence  of  his  devoted  Consalvi,  who  was  soon  to 
follow  him  to  the  grave. 

The  Bulls  of  Pius  VII  are  partly  in  BuUarii  Romani  continuatio, 
ed.  Bahderi,  XI-XV  (Rome,  1846-53);  Dbochon,  Mimoires  du 
cardinal  Consahi  (Paris,  1896);  Pacca,  tr.  Head,  Historical 
Memoirs  of  Cardinal  Pacca  (London,  1850) ;  Abtaud  de  Montor, 
Ilhtoire  du  Pape  Pie  VII  (3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1839) ;  Wiseman,  Recol- 
lerlions  of  the  Last  Four  Popes  (Boston,  1858) ;  Allies,  The  Life  of 
Pope  Pius  VII  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1897);  MacCaferbv,  History 
of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (2nd  ed.,  Dublin 
and  St.  Louis,  1910) ;  Acton,  The  Cambridge  Modern  History:  vol. 
X,  The  Restoration  (New  York,  1907) ;  Sampson,  Pius  VII  and 
the  French  Revolution^  in  Amer.  Cath.  Quarterly  Rev.  (Philadelphia, 
Apr.,  1908 — ).  See  also  bibliographies  to  Concordat;  Con- 
salvi, Ercole;  Napoleon  I  (Bonaparte). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Pius  VIII,  Pope  (Francesco  Xaverio  Castigli- 
ONTi;),  b.  at  Cingoli,  20  Nov.,  1761;  elected  31  March, 
1829 ;  d.  1  Dec,  1830.  He  came  of  a  noble  family  and 
attended  the  Jesuit  school  at  Osimo,  later  taking 
courses  of  canon  law  at  Bologna  and  Rome,  In  Rome 
he  associated  himself  withhis  teacher 
Devoti,  assisted  him  in  the  compila- 
tion of  his  "Institutiones"  (1792), 
and,  when  Devoti  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Anagni,  became  his  vicar- 
general.  He  subsequently  filled  the 
same  position  under  Bishop  Severoli 
at  Cingoli,  and,  after  some  time,  be- 
came provost  of  the  cathedral  in  his 
native  city.  In  1800  Pius  VII 
named  him  Bishop  of  Montalto, 
Arms  oe  Pros  VIII  ^j^j^j^  ggg  ^le  shortly  afterwards  ex- 
changed for  that  of  Cesena.  Under  the  French  dom- 
ination he  was  arrested,  having  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  King  of  Italy,  and  brought  to 
Macerata,  then  to  Mantua,  and  finally  to  France.  In 
1816  the  pope  conferred  upon  him  the  cardinal's  hat, 
and  in  1822  appointed  him  Bishop  of  Frascati  and 
Grand  Penitentiary.  As  early  as  the  conclave  of  1823, 
Castiglione  was  among  the  candidates  for  the  papacy. 
At  the  election  of  1829,  France  and  Austria  were  de- 
sirous of  electing  a  pope  of  mild  and  temperate  dis- 
position, and  Castiglione,  whose  character  corre- 
sponded with  the  requirements,  was  chosen  after  a 
five  weeks'  session.  His  reign,  which  lasted  but  twenty 
months,  was  not  wanting  in  notable  occurrences.  In 
April,  1829,  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill,  which 
made  it  possible  for  Catholics  to  sit  in  Parliament 
and  to  hold  pubUc  offices,  was  passed  in  England. 
Leo  XII  had  taken  a  great  interest  in  Cathohc  Eman- 
cipation, but  had  not  lived  to  see  it  become  law.  On 
25  March,  1830,  Pius  published  the  Brief  "Litteris 
altero  abhinc",  in  which  he  declared  that  marriage 
could  be  blessed  by  the  Church  only  when  the  proper 
promises  were  made  regarding  the  Catholic  education 
of  the  children;  otherwise,  the  parish  priest  should 
only  assist  passively  at  the  ceremony.  Under  his  suc- 
cessor this  matter  became  a  cause  of  conflict  in 
Prussia  between  the  bishops  and  the  Government  (see 
Droste-Vischering,  Clemens  August  von).  The 
pope's  last  months  were  troubled.  In  France,  the 
Rr-\'olution  of  July  broke  out  and  the  king  was  ob- 
liged to  flee,  being  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  the 
younger  Orleans   branch.     The  pope  recognized  the 


new  regime  with  hesitation.  The  movement,  which 
also  affected  Belgium  and  Poland,  even  extended  to 
Rome,  where  a  lodge  of  Carbonari  with  twenty-six 
members  was  discovered.  In  the  midst  of  anxiety 
and  care,  Pius 
VIII,  whose  con- 
stitution had  al- 
ways been  deli- 
cate, passed  away. 
Before  the  cor- 
onation of  his  suc- 
cessor, revolution 
broke  out  in  the 
Papal  States.  The 
character  of  Pius 
VIII  was  mild  and 
amiable,  and  he 
enjoyed  a  reputa- 
tion for  learning, 
being  especially 
versed  in  canon 
law,  numismatics, 
and  Biblical  liter- 
ature. In  addi- 
tion, he  was  ex- 
tremely conscien- 
tious. Thus,  he 
ordered  all  his 
relatives,  upon  his 
accession   to     the 


Monument  to  Pius  VIII 
Tenerani,  St.  Peter's,  Rome 


pontifical  throne,  to  resign  the  positions  which  they 
held. 

Artaud,  Histoire  du  Pape  Pie  VIII  (Paris,  1844) ;  W  iseman. 
Recollections  of  the  Last  Four  Popes  (London  and  Boston,  1858). 

KliEMENS   LOFFLER. 

Pius  IX  (Giovanni  Maria  Mastai-Ferretti), 
Pope  from  1846-78,  b.  at  Sinigaglia,  13  May,  1792;  d. 
in  Rome,  7  February,  1878.  After  receiving  his  classi- 
cal education  at  the  Piarist  College  in  Volterra  from 
1802-09  he  went  to  Rome  to  study  philosophy  and 
theology,  but  left  there  in  1810  on  account  of  political 
disturbances.  He  returned  in  1814  and,  in  deference 
to  his  father's  wish,  asked  to  be  admitted  to  the  pope's 
Noble  Guard.  Being  subject  to  epileptic  fits,  he  was 
refused  admission  and,  following  the  desire  of  his 
mother  and  his  own  inclination,  he  studied  theology 
at  the  Roman  Seminary,  1814-18.  Meanwhile  his 
malady  had  ceased  and  he  was  ordained  priest,  10 
April,  1819.  Pius  VII  appointed  him  spiritual  direc- 
tor of  the  orphan  asylum,  popularly  known  as  "Tata 
Giovanni",  in  Rome,  and  in  1823  sent  him,  as  auditor 
of  the  Apostolic  delegate,  Mgr  Muzi,  to  Chili  in  South 
America.  Upon  his  return  in  1825  he  was  made 
canon  of  Santa  Maria  in  Via  Lata  and  director  of  the 
large  hospital  of  San  Michele  by  Leo  XII.  The  same 
pope  created  him  Archbishop  of  Spoleto,  21  May, 
1827.  In  1831  when  4000  ItaUan  revolutionists  fled 
before  the  Austrian  army  and  threatened  to  throw 
themselves  upon  Spoleto,  the  archbishop  persuaded 
them  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  disband,  induced  the 
Austrian  commander  to  pardon  them  for  their  treason, 
and  gave  them  sufficient  money  to  reach  their  homes. 
On  17  February,  1832,  Gregory  XVI  transferred  him 
to  the  more  important  Diocese  of  Imola  and,  14 
December,  1840,  created  him  cardinal  priest  with  the 
titular  church  of  Santi  Pietro  e  Marcellino,  after  hav- 
ing reserved  him  in  petto  since  23  December,  1839. 
He  retained  the  Diocese  of  Imola  until  his  elevation 
to  the  papacy.  His  great  charity  and  amiability  had 
made  him  beloved  by  the  people,  while  his  friendship 
with  some  of  the  revolutionists  had  gained  for  him 
the  name  of  liberal. 

On  14  June,  1846,  two  weeks  after  the  death  of 
Gregory  XVI,  fifty  cardinals  assembled  in  the  Quirinal 
for  the  conclave.  They  were  divided  into  two  fac- 
tions, the  conservatives,  who  favoured  a  continuance  of 


PIUS 


135 


PIUS 


absolutism  in  the  temporal  government  of  the  Church, 
and  the  liberals,  who  were  desirous  of  moderate 
political  reforms.  At  the  fourth  scrutiny,  16  June, 
Cardinal  Mastai-Ferretti,  the  liberal  candidate, 
received  three  votes  beyond  the  required  majority. 
Cardinal  Archbishop  Gaysruck  of  Milan  had  arrived 
too  late  to  make  use  of  the  right  of  exclusion  against 
his  election,  given  him  by  the  Austrian  Government. 
The  new  pope  accepted  the  tiara  with  reluctance  and 
in  memory  of  Pius  VII,  his  former  benefactor,  took 
the  nanie  of  Pius  IX.  His  coronation  took  place  in 
the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter  on  21  June.  His  election  was 
greeted  with  joy,  for  his  charity  towards  the  poor,  his 
kindheartedness,  and  his  wit  had  made  him  very 
popular. 

"Young  Italy"  was  clamouring  for  greater  political 
freedom.  The  unyielding  attitude  of  Gregory  XVI 
and  his  secretary  of  state,  Cardinal  Lambruschini, 
had  brought  the  papal  states  to  the  verge  of  a  revolu- 
tion. The  new  pope  was  in  favour  of  a  political  re- 
form. His  first  great  political  act  was  the  granting 
of  a  general  amnesty  to  political  exiles  and  prisoners 
on  16  July,  1846.  This  act  was  hailed  with  enthu- 
siasm by  the  people,  but  many  prudent  men  had  rea- 
sonable fears  of  the 
results.  Some  ex- 
treme reactionaries 
denounced  the  pope 
as  in  league  with 
the  Freemasons  and 
the  Carbonari.  It 
did  not  occur  to  the 
kindly  nature  of 
Pius  IX  that  many 
of  the  pardoned 
political  offenders 
would  use  their  lib- 
erty to  further  their 
revolutionary  ideas. 
That  he  was  not  in 
accord  with  the  rad- 
ical ideas  of  the 
times  he  clearly 
demonstrated  by 
his  Encyclical  of  9 
Nov.,  1846,  in  which 
he  laments  the  op- 
pression of  Catholic 
interests,  intrigues 
against  the  Holy  See,  machinations  of  secret  societies, 
sectarian  bitterness,  the  Bible  associations,  indifferent- 
ism,  false  philosophy,  communism,  and  the  licentious 
press.  He  was,  however,  willing  to  grant  such  politi- 
cal reforms  as  he  deemed  expedient  to  the  welfare  of  the 
people  and  compatible  with  the  papal  sovereignty. 
On  19  April,  1847,  he  announced  his  intention  to  es- 
tablish an  advisory  council  {ConsuUa  di  Stalo),  com- 
posed of  laymen  from  the  various  provinces  of  the 
papal  territory.  This  was  followed  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  civic  guard  (Guardia  Civica),  5  July,  and  a 
cabinet  council,  29  December.  But  the  more  con- 
cessions the  pope  made,  the  greater  and  more  in- 
sistent became  the  demands.  Secret  clubs  of  Rome, 
especially  the  "Circolo  Romano",  under  the  direction 
of  Ciceruacchio,  fanaticized  the  mob  with  their 
radicalism  and  were  the  real  rulers  of  Rome.  They 
spurred  the  people  on  to  be  satisfied  with  nothing 
but  a  constitutional  government,  an  entire  laicization 
of  the  ministry,  and  a  declaration  of  war  against  hated 
and  reactionary  Austria. 

On  8  February,  1848,  a  street  riot  extorted  the 
promise  of  a  lay  ministry  from  the  pope  and  on  14 
March  he  saw  himself  obliged  to  grant  a  constitution, 
but  in  his  allocution  of  29  April  he  solemnly  pro- 
claimed that,  as  the  Father  of  Christendom,  he  could 
never  declare  war  against  Catholic  Austria.  Riot 
followed  riot,  the  pope  was  denounced  as  a  traitor  to 


Tomb  of  Pit's  IX 
Crypt  of  S.  Lorenzo,  Rome 


his  country,  his  prime  minister  Rossi  was  stabbed  to 
death  while  ascending  the  steps  of  the  Cancelleria, 
whither  he  had  gone  to  open  the  parliament,  and  on 
the  following  day  the  pope  himself  was  besieged  in  the 
Quirinal.  Palma,  a  papal  prelate,  who  was  standing  at 
a  window,  was  shot,  and  the  pope  was  forced  to  prom- 
ise a  democratic  ministry.  With  the  assistance  of  the 
Bavarian  ambassador.  Count  Spaur,  and  the  French 
ambassador.  Due  d'  Harcourt,  Pius  IX  escaped  from 
the  Quirinal  in  disguise,  24  November,  and  fled  to 
Gaeta  where  he  was  joined  by  many  of  the  cardinals. 
Meanwhile  Rome  was  ruled  by  traitors  and  adven- 
turers who  abolished  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  9 
February,  1849,  and  under  the  name  of  a  democratic 
republic  terrorized  the  people  and  committed  untold 
outrages.  The  pope  appealed  to  France,  Austria, 
Spain,  and  Naples.  On  29  June  French  troops  under 
General  Oudinot  restored  order  in  his  territory. 
On  12  April,  1850,  Pius  IX  returned  to  Rome,  no 
longer  a  political  liberalist.  Cardinal  Antonelli,  his 
secretary  of  state,  exerted  a  paramount  political  in- 
fluence until  his  death  on  6  Nov.,  1876.  The  tem- 
poral reign  of  Pius  IX,  up  to  the  seizure  of  the  last 
of  his  temporal  possessions  in  1870,  was  one  continu- 
ous struggle,  on  the 
one  hand  against 
the  intrigues  of  the 
revolutionaries,  on 
the  other  against 
the  Piedmontese 
ruler  Victor  Em- 
manuel, his  crafty 
premier  C  a  v  o  u  r , 
and  other  antipapal 
statesmen  who 
aimed  at  a  united 
Italy,  with  Rome 
as  its  capital,  and 
the  Piedmontese 
ruler  as  its  king. 
The  political  diffi- 
culties of  the  pope 
were  still  further  in- 
creased by  the  double 
dealing  of  Napoleon 
III,  and  the  necessity 
of  relying  on  French 
and  Austrian  troops 
for  the  maintenance 
of  order  in  Rome  and  the  papal  legations  in  the  north. 
When  Pius  IX  visited  his  provinces  in  the  summer 
of  1857  he  received  everywhere  a  warm  and  loyal  recep- 
tion. But  the  doom  of  his  temporal  power  was  sealed, 
when  a  year  later  Cavour  and  Napoleon  III  met  at 
Plombieres,  concerting  plans  for  a  combined  war 
against  Austria  and  the  subsequent  territorial  extension 
of  the  Sardinian  Kingdom.  They  sent  their  agents  into 
various  cities  of  the  Papal  States  to  propagate  the  idea 
of  a  politically  united  Italy.  The  defeat  of  Austria 
at  Magenta  on  4  July,  1859,  and  the  subsequent  with- 
drawal of  the  Austrian  troops  from  the  papal  lega- 
tions, inaugurated  the  dissolution  of  the  Papal  States. 
The  insurrection  in  some  of  the  cities  of  the  Romagna 
was  put  forth  as  a  plea  for  annexing  this  province  to 
Piedmont  in  September,  1859.  On  6  Feb.,  1860, 
Victor  Emmanuel  demanded  the  annexation  of  Um- 
bria  and  the  Marches  and,  when  Pius  IX  resisted 
this  unjust  demand,  made  ready  to  annex  them  by 
force.  After  defeating  the  papal  army  at  Castelfi- 
dardo  on  18  Sept.,  and  at  Ancona  on  30  Sept.,  he  de- 
prived the  pope  of  all  His  possessions  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Rome  and  the  immediate  vicinity.  Finally  on 
20  Sept.,  1870,  he  completed  the  spoliation  of  the  pa- 
pal possessions  by  seizing  Rome  and  making  it  the 
capital  of  United  Italy.  The  so-called  Law  of  Guar- 
antees, of  15  May,  1871,  which  accorded  the  pope  the 
rights  of  a  sovereign,   an  annual   remuneration  of 


PIUS 


136 


PIUS 


3)4  million  lire  ($650,000),  and  exterritoriality  to  a 
few  papal  palaces  in  Rome,  was  never  accepted  by 
Pius  IX  or  his  successors.  (See  States  of  the  CHtJHCH; 
Rome;  Guarantees,  Law  of.) 

The  loss  of  his  temporal  power  was  only  one  of  the 
many  trials  that  filled  the  long  pontificate  of  Pius  IX. 
There  was  scarcely  a  country,  Catholic  or  Protestant, 
where  the  rights  of  the  Church  were  not  infringed 
upon .  In  Piedmont  the  Concordat  of  1841  was  set  aside, 
the  tithes  were  abolished,  education  was  laicized,  mon- 
asteries were  suppressed,  church  property  was  confis- 
cated, religious  orders  were  expelled,  and  the  bishops 
who  opposed  this  anti-ecclesiastical  legislation  were 
imprisoned  or  banished.  In  vain  did  Pius  IX  protest 
against  such  outrages  in  his  allocutions  of  1850,  1852, 
1S53,  and  finally  in  1855  by  publishing  to  the  world 
the  numerous  injustices  which  the  Piedmontese  gov- 
ernment had  committed  against  the  Church  and  her 
representatives.  In  Wurtemberg  he  succeeded  in 
concluding  a  concordat  with  the  Government,  but, 
owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  Protestant  estates,  it 
never  became  a  law  and  was  revoked  by  a  royal  re- 
script on  1.3  June,  1861.  The  same  occurred  in  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  where  the  Concordat  of  1859 
was  abolished  on  7  April,  1860.  Equally  hostile  to  the 
Church  was  the  policy  of  Prussia  and  other  German 
states,  where  the  anti-ecclesiastical  legislations 
reached  their  height  during  the  notorious  Kullur- 
kampf  (q.  v.),  inaugurated  in  1873.  The  violent  out- 
rages committed  Ln  Switzerland  against  the  bishops 
and  the  remaining  clergy  were  solemnly  denounced  by 
Pius  IX  in  his  encychcal  letter  of  21  Nov.,  1S73,  and, 
as  a  result,  the  papal  internuncio  was  expelled  from 
Switzerland  in  January,  1874.  The  concordat  which 
Pius  IX  had  concluded  with  Russia  in  1847  remained  a 
dead  letter,  horrible  cruelties  were  committed  against 
the  Catholic  clergy  and  laity  after  the  Polish  insurrec- 
tion of  1863,  and  all  relations  with  Rome  were  broken 
in  1866.  The  anti-ecclesiastical  legislation  in  Colom- 
bia was  denounced  in  his  allocution  of  27Sept.,  1852, 
and  again,  together  with  that  of  Mexico,  on  30  Sept., 
1861 .  With  Austria  a  concordat,  very  favourable  to  the 
Church,  was  concluded  on  18  August,  1855  ("Con- 
ventiones  de  rebus  eccl.  inter  s.  sedem  et  civilem  po- 
testatem",  Mainz,  1870,  310-318).  But  the  Protes- 
tant agitation  against  the  concordat  was  so  strong,  that 
in  contravention  to  it  the  emperor  reluctantly  ratified 
marriage  and  school  laws,  25  March,  1868.  In  1870 
the  concordat  was  abolished  by  the  Austrian  Govern- 
ment, and  in  1874  laws  were  enacted,  which  placed  all 
but  the  inner  management  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in 
the  hands  of  the  Government.  With  Spain  Pius  IX 
concluded  a  satisfactory  concordat  on  16  March,  1851 
(Nussi,  281-297;  "Acta  Pii  IX",  I,  293-341).  It  was 
supplemented  by  various  articles  on  25  Nov.,  1859 
(Nussi,  341-5).  Other  satisfactory  concordats  con- 
cluded by  Pius  IX  were  those  with:  Portugal  in  1857 
(Nussi,  318-21);  Costa  Rica,  and  Guatemala,  7  Oct., 
1852  (lb.,  297-310) ;  Nicaragua,  2  Nov.,  1861  (lb.,  361- 
7);  San  Salvador,  and  Honduras,  22  April,  1862  (lb., 
367-72;  349) ;  Haiti, 28  March,  1860  (lb.,  346-8) ;  Ven- 
ezuela, 26  July,  1862  (lb.,  356-61);  Ecuador,  26  Sept., 
1862  (lb.,  349-56).  (See  Concordat:  Summary  of 
Principal  Concordats.) 

His  greatest  achievements  are  of  a  purely  eccle- 
siastical and  religious  character.  It  is  astounding 
how  fearlessly  he  fought,  in  the  midst  of  many  and 
severe  trials,  against  the  false  liberalism  which  threat- 
ened to  destroy  the  very  essence  of  faith  and  religion. 
In  his  Encyclical  "Quanta  Cura"  of  8  Dec,  1864,  he 
condemned  sixteen  propositions  touching  on  errors 
of  the  age.  This  Encyclical  was  accompanied  by 
the  famous  "Syllabus  errorum",  a  table  of  eighty 
previously  censured  propositions  bearing  on  panthe- 
ism, naturalism,  rationalism,  indifferentism,  socialism, 
communism,  freemasonry,  and  the  various  kinds  of 
religious  liberalism.    Though  misunderstandings  and 


malice  combined  in  representing  the  Syllabus  as  a 
veritable  embodiment  of  religious  narrow-mindedness 
and  cringing  servility  to  papal  authority,  it  has  done 
an  inestimable  service  to  the  Church  and  to  society  at 
large  by  unmasking  the  false  liberalism  which  had  be- 
gun to  insinuate  its  subtle  poison  into  the  very  marrow 
of  CathoUcism.  Previously,  on  8  January,  1857,  he 
had  condemned  the  philosophico-theological  writings 
of  Gtinther  (q.  v.),  and  on  many  occasions  advocated 
a  return  to  the  philosophy  and  theology  of  St.  Thomas. 
Through  his  whole  life  he  was  very  devout  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  As  early  as  1849,  when  he  was  an  ex- 
ile at  Gaeta,  he  issued  letters  to  the  bishops  of  the 
Church,  asking  their  views  on  the  subject  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  (q.  v.),  and  on  8  Dec,  1854,  in 
the  presence  of  more  than  200  bishops,  he  proclaimed 
the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  a 
dogma  of  the  Church.  He  also  fostered  the  devotion 
to  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  on  23  Sept.,  1856,  extended 
this  feast  to  the  whole  world  with  the  rite  of 
a  double  major.  At  his  instance  the  Catholic  world 
was  consecrated  to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  on  16 
June,  1875.  He  also  promoted  the  inner  life  of  the 
Church  by  many  important  liturgical  regulations,  by 
various  monastic  reforms,  and  especially  by  an  unpre- 
cedented number  of  beatifications  and  canonizations. 
On  29  June,  1869,  he  issued  the  Bull  "jEterni  Patris" 
(q.  v.),  convoking  the  Vatican  Council  which  he 
opened  in  the  presence  of  700  bishops  on  8  Dec,  1869. 
During  its  fourth  solemn  session,  on  18  July,  1870,  the 
papal  infallibility  (q.  v.)  was  made  a  dogma  of  the 
Church.    (See  Vatican  Council.) 

The  healthy  and  extensive  growth  of  the  Church 
during  his  pontificate  was  chiefly  due  to  his  unselfish- 
ness. He  appointed  to  important  ecclesiastical  posi- 
tions only  such  men  as  were  famous  both  for  piety  and 
learning.  Among  the  great  cardinals  created  by  him 
were:  Wiseman  and  Manning  for  England;  CuUen  for 
Ireland;  McCloskey  for  the  United  States;  Diepen- 
brock,  Geissel,  Reisach,  and  Ledochowski  for  Ger- 
many; Rauscher  and  Franzelin  for  Austria;  Mathieu, 
Donnet,  Gousset,  and  Pitra  for  France.  On  29  Sept., 
1850,  he  re-established  the  Catholic  hierarchy  in  Eng- 
land by  erecting  the  Archdiocese  of  Westminster  with 
the  twelve  suffragan  Sees  of  Beverley,  Birmingham, 
Clifton,  Hexham,  Liverpool,  Newport  and  Menevia, 
Northampton,  Nottingham,  Plymouth,  Salford, 
Shrewsbury,  and  Southwark.  The  widespread  com- 
motion which  this  act  caused  among  English  fanatics, 
and  which  was  fomented  by  Prime  Minister  Russell  and 
the  London  "Times",  temporarily  threatened  to  re- 
sult in  an  open  persecution  of  Catholics  (see  Eng- 
land). On  4  March,  1853,  he  restored  the  Catholic 
hierarchy  in  Holland  by  erecting  the  Archdiocese  of 
Utrecht  and  the  four  suffragan  Sees  of  Haarlem,  Bois- 
le-Duc,  Roermond,  and  Breda  (see  Holland). 

In  the  United  States  of  America  he  erected  the 
Dioceses  of:  Albany,  Buffalo,  Cleveland,  and  Galves- 
ton in  1847;  Monterey,  Savannah,  St.  Paul,  Wheeling, 
Santa  Fe,  and  Nesqually  (Seattle)  in  1850;  Burhng- 
ton,  Covington,  Erie,  Natchitoches,  Brooklyn,  New- 
ark, and  Quincy  (Alton)  in  1853;  Portland  (Maine)  in 
1855;  Fort  Wayne,  Sault  Sainte  Marie  (Marquette)  in 
1857;  Columbus,  Grass  Valley  (Sacramento),  Green 
Bay,  Harrisburg,  La  Crosse,  Rochester,  Scranton,  St. 
Joseph,  Wilmington  in  1868;  Springfield  and  St.  Au- 
gustine in  1870;  Providence  and  Ogdensburg  in  1872; 
San  Antonio  in  1874;  Peoria  in  1875;  Leavenworth  in 
1877;  the  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  the  Indian  Territory 
and  Nebraska  in  1851;  Northern  Michigan  in  1853; 
Florida  in  1857;  North  Carolina,  Idaho,  and  Colorado 
in  1868;  Arizona  in  1869;  Brownsville  in  Texas  and 
Northern  Minnesota  in  1874.  He  encouraged  the  con- 
vening of  provincial  and  diocesan  synods  in  various 
countries,  and  established  at  Rome  the  Latin  American 
College  in  1853,  and  the  College  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  at  his  own  private  expense,  in  1859.    His 


PIUS 


137 


PIUS 


was  the  longest  pontificate  in  the  history  of  the  papacy. 
In  1871  he  celebrated  his  twenty-fifth,  in  1876  his  thir- 
tieth, anniversary  as  pope,  and  in  1877  his  golden 
episcopal  jubilee.  His  tomb  is  in  the  church  of  San 
Lorenzo  fuori  le  mura.  The  so-called  diocesan  pro- 
cess of  his  beatification  was  begun  on  11  February 
1907.  ^' 

Acta  Pii  IX  (Rome,  1854-78) ;  Ada  Sanclae  Sedis  (Rome,  1865 
sq.) ;  RiANCEY,  Recueil  des  allocutions  consistoriales  (Paris,  1853 
sq.) ;  Discorsi  del  Sommo  Pont.  Pio  IX  (Rome,  1872-8) ;  Maquire, 
Pius  IX  and  his  Times  (Dublin,  1885) ;  Trollope,  Life  of  Pius 
IX  (London,  1S77) ;  .Shea,  Life  and  Pontificate  of  Pius  IX  (New 
Yorlc,  1877) ;  Brennan,  A  Popular  Life  of  Our  Holy  Father  Pope 
Pius  IX  (New  York;,  1S77);  O'Reilly,  Life  of  Pius  IX  (New 
York,  1878) ;  McCaffrey,  Hist,  of  the  Calh.  Church  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  I  (Dublin,  1909) ;  Lyons,  Dispatches  resp.  the  con- 
dition of  the  Papal  States  (London,  1860) ;  Ballerini,  Les  pre- 
mieres pages  du  pontificat  de  Pie  IX  (Rome,  1909) ;  Pouqeois, 
Histoire  de  Pie  IX,  son  pontificat  et  son  sikcle  (Paria,  1877-86) ;  Vil- 
LEFRANCHE,  Pie  IX,  sa  vie,  son  histoire,  son  si^cle  (Paris,  1878); 
SAGtis,  5S.  Pie  IX,  sn  vie,  ses  ecrits,  sa  doctrine  (Paris,  1896) ; 
RocFER,  Souvenirs  d'un  prSlat  romain  sur  Rome  et  la  cour  pontifi- 
cale  au  temps  de  Pic  IX  (Paris,  1896) ;  Van  Duerm,  Rome  et  la 
Franc- Mai^onnerie  (Brussels,  1896) ;  Gillet,  Pie  IX,  sa  vie,  et  les 
actes  de  son  pontificat  (Paris,  1877) ;  Rutjes,  Leben,  wirfcen  und 
leiden  Sr.  Heiligkeit  Pius  IX  (Oberhausen,  1870) ;  HtjLSKAMP, 
Papst  Pius  IX  in  seinem  Leben  und  Wirken  (Munster,  1875) ; 
SxEPPlscHNEQa,  Papst  Pius  IX  und  seine  Zeit  (Vienna,  1879) ; 
Wappmannsperqer,  Leben  und  Wirken  des  Papst  Pius  IX  (Ratis- 
bon,  1879) ;  Nurnberger,  Papsttum  und  Kirchenstaat,  II,  III 
(.Mainz,  1898-1900);  Marocco,  Pio  IX  (Turin,  1861-4);  Mo- 
Rosi,  Vita  di  SS,  Pio  papa  IX  (Florence,  1885-6) ;  Bonetti,  Pio 
IX  ad  Imola  e  Roma — Memorie  inedite  di  un  suo  famigliare  segreto 
(Rome,  1892) ;  Cesare,  Roma  e  to  slato  del  Papa  dal  ritorno  di  Pio 
IX  al  BO  Settembre  (Rome,  1906). 

Michael  Ott. 

Pius  X,  Pope  (Giuseppe  Melchioere  Sabto), 
b.  2  June,  1835,  at  Riese,  Province  of  Treviso,  in 
Venice.  His  parents  were  Giovanni  Battista  Sarto 
and  Margarita  {nee  Sanson) ;  the  former,  a  postman, 
died  in  1852,  but  Margarita  lived  to  see  her  son  a 
cardinal.  After  finishing  his  elements,  Giuseppe  at 
first  received  private  lessons  in  Latin  from  the  arch- 
priest  of  his  town,  Don  Tito  Fusaroni,  after  which  he 
studied  for  four  years  at  the  gymnasium  of  Castel- 
franco  Veneto,  walking  to  and  fro  every  day.  In 
1850  he  received  the  tonsure  from  the  Bishop  of  Tre- 
viso, and  was  given  a  scholarship  of  the  Diocese  of 
Treviso  in  the  seminary  of  Padua,  where  he  finished 
his  classical,  philosophical,  and  theological  studies 
with  distinction.  He  was  ordained  in  1858,  and  for 
nine  years  was  chaplain  at  Tombolo,  having  to  assume 
most  of  the  functions  of  parish  priest,  as  the  pastor 
was  old  and  an  invalid.  He  sought  to  perfect  his 
knowledge  of  theology  by  assiduously  studying  Saint 
Thomas  and  canon  law;  at  the  same  time  he  estab- 
lished a  night  school  for  adult  students,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  ministry  of  preaching  in  other  towns 
to  which  he  was  called.  In  1867  he  was  named  arch- 
priest  of  Salzano,  a  large  borough  of  the  Diocese  of 
Treviso,  where  he  restored  the  church,  and  provided 
for  the  enlargement  and  maintenance  of  the  hospital 
by  his  own  means,  consistently  with  his  habitual 
generosity  to  the  poor;  he  especially  distinguished 
himself  by  his  abnegation  during  the  cholera.  He 
showed  great  solicitude  for  the  rehgious  instruction 
of  adults.  In  1875  he  was  made  a  canon  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Treviso,  and  filled  several  ofltices,  among  them 
those  of  spiritual  director  and  rector  of  the  seminary, 
examiner  of  the  clergy,  and  vicar-general;  moreover, 
he  made  it  possible  for  the  students  of  the  public 
schools  to  receive  religious  instruction.  In  1878,  on 
the  death  of  Bishop  Zanelli,  he  was  elected  vioar- 
capitular.  On  10  November,  1884,  he  was  named 
Bishop  of  Mantua,  then  a  very  troublesome  see,  and 
consecrated  on  20  November.  His  chief  care  in  his 
new  position  was  for  the  formation  of  the  clergy  at 
the  seminary,  where,  for  several  years,  he  himself 
taught  dogmatic  theology,  and  for  another  year 
moral  theology.  He  wished  the  doctrine  and  method 
of  St.  Thomas  to  be  followed,  and  to  many  of  the 
poorer  students  he  gave  copies  of  the  "Summa  theo- 
logiea" ;  at  the  same  time  he  cultivated  the  Gregorian 


Arms  of  Pius  X 


Chant  in  company  with  the  seminarians.  The  tem- 
poral administration  of  his  see  imposed  great  sacri- 
fices upon  him.  In  1887  he  held  a  diocesan  sj'nod. 
By  his  attendance  at  the  confessional,  he  gave  the 
example  of  pastoral  zeal.  The  Catholic  organization 
of  Italy,  then  known  as  the  "Opera  dei  Congressi", 
found  in  him  a  zealous  propagandist  from  the  time 
of  his  ministry  at  Salzano. 

At  the  secret  consistory  of  June,  1893,  Leo  XIII 
created  him  a  cardinal  under  the  title  of  San  Bernardo 
alle  Terme;  and  in  the  public  consistory,  three  days 
later,  he  was  preconized  Patriarch  of  ^'enice,  retain- 
ing meanwhile  the  title  of  Apostolic  Administrator  of 
Mantua.  Cardinal  Sarto  was  obliged  to  wait  eighteen 
months  before  he  was  able  to  take  possession  of  his 
new  diocese,  because  the 
Italian  government  re- 
fused its  exequatur, 
claiming  the  right  of 
nomination  as  it  had 
been  exercised  by  the 
Emperor  of  Austria. 
This  matter  was  dis- 
cussed with  bitterness 
in  the  newspapers  and 
in  pamphlets;  the  Gov- 
ernment, by  way  of  re- 
prisal, refused  its  ex- 
equatur to  the  other 
bishops  who  were  ap- 
pointed in  the  mean- 
time, so  that  the  num- 
ber of  vacant  sees  grew 
to  thirty.  Finally,  the 
minister  Crispi  having 
returned  to  power,  and 
the  Holy  See  having  raised  the  mission  of  Eritrea  to  the 
rank  of  an  Apostolic  Prefecture  in  favour  of  the  Ital- 
ian Capuchins,  the  Government  withdrew  from  its 
position.  Its  opposition  had  not  been  caused  by  any 
objection  to  Sarto  personally.  At  Venice  the  cardinal 
found  a  much  better  condition  of  things  than  he  had 
found  at  Mantua.  There,  also,  he  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  the  seminary,  where  he  obtained  the  establish- 
ment of  the  faculty  of  canon  law.  In  1898  he  held  the 
diocesan  synod.  He  promoted  the  use  of  the  Grego- 
rian Chant,  and  was  a  great  patron  of  Lorenzo  Perosi; 
he  favoured  social  works,  especially  the  rural  parochial 
banks;  he  discerned  and  energetically  opposed  the 
dangers  of  certain  doctrines  and  the  conduct  of  cer- 
tain Christian-Democrats.  The  international  Eu- 
charistio  Congress  of  1897,  the  centenary  of  St.  Gerard 
Sagredo  (1900),  and  the  blessing  of  the  corner-stone 
of  the  new  belfry  of  St.  Mark's,  also  of  the  commemo- 
rative chapel  of  Mt.  Grappa  (1901),  were  events  that 
left  a  deep  impression  on  him  and  his  people.  Mean- 
while, Leo  XIII  having  died,  the  cardinals  entered 
into  conclave  and  after  several  ballots  Giuseppe  Sarto 
was  elected  on  4  August  by  a  vote  of  55  out  of  a  pos- 
sible 60  votes.  His  coronation  took  place  on  the  fol- 
lowing Sunday,  9  August,  1903. 

In  his   first  Encyclical,   wishing    to  develop    his 

Erogramme  to  some  extent,  he  said  that  the  motto  of 
is  pontificate  would  be  "instaurare  omnia  in  Christo  " 
(Ephes.,  i,  10).  Accordingly,  his  greatest  care  always 
turned  to  the  direct  interests  of  the  Church.  Before 
all  else  his  efforts  were  directed  to  the  promotion  of 
piety  among  the  faithful,  and  he  advised  all  (Deer.  S. 
Congr.  Concil.,  20  Dec,  1905)  to  receive  Holy  Commun- 
ion frequently  and,  if  possible,  daily,  dispensing  the  sick 
from  the  obligation  of  fasting  to  the  extent  of  enabling 
them  to  receive  Holy  Communion  twice  each  month, 
and  even  oftener  (Deer.  S.  Congr.  Rit.,  7  Dec,  1906). 
Finally,  by  the  Decree  "Quam  Singular!"  (15  Aug., 
1910),  he  recommended  that  the  first  Communion 
of  children  should  not  be  deferred  too  long  after  they 
had  reached  the  age  of  discretion.    It  was  by  his  desire 


PIUS 


138 


PIUS 


that  the  Eucharistic  Congress  of  1905  was  held  at 
Rome,  while  he  enhanced  the  solemnity  of  subsequent 
Eucharistic  congresses  by  sending  to  them  cardinal 
legates.  The  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  proclamation 
of  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  was  an 
occasion  of  which  he  took  advantage  to  enjoin  devo- 
tion to  Mary  (Encyclical  "Ad  ilium  diem",  2  Feb- 
ruary, 1904);  and  the  Marian  Congress,  together  with 
the  coronation  of  the  image  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception in  the  choir  of  St.  Peter's,  was  a  worthy  cul- 
mination of  that  solemnity.  As  a  simple  chaplain, 
a  bishop,  and  a  patriarch,  Giuseppe  Sarto  was  a  pro- 
moter of  sacred  music;  as  pope,  he  published,  22 
November,  1903,  a  Motu  Proprio  on  sacred  music  in 
churches,  and  at  the  same  time  ordered  the  authentic 
Gregorian  Chant  to  be  used  everywhere,  while  he 
caused  the  choir  books  to  be  printed  with  the  ^'atican 
font  of  type  under  the  supervision  of  a  special  com- 
mission. In  the  Encychcal  "Acerbo  nimis"  (15 
April,  1905)  he  treated  of  the  necessity  of  catechismal 
instruction,  not  only  for  children,  but  also  for  adults, 
giving  detailed  rules,  especially  in  relation  to  suitable 
schools  for  the  religious  instruction  of  students  of 
the  public  schools,  and  even  of  the  universities.  He 
caused  a  new  catechism  to  be  published  for  the  Dio- 
cese of  Rome. 

As  bishop,  his  chief  care  had  been  for  the  formation 
of  the  clergy,  and  in  harmony  with  this  purpose,  an 
Encyclical  to  the  Italian  episcopate  (28  July,  1906) 
enjoined  the  greatest  caution  in  the  ordination  of 
priests,  calling  the  attention  of  the  bishops  to  the 
fact  that  there  was  frequently  manifested  among 
the  younger  clergy  a  spirit  of  independence  that  was 
a  menace  to  ecclesiastical  discipline.  In  the  interest 
of  Italian  seminaries,  he  ordered  them  to  be  visited 
by  the  bishops,  and  promulgated  a  new  order  of  stud- 
ies, which  had  been  in  use  for  several  years  at  the 
Roman  Seminary.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  dioceses 
of  Central  and  of  Southern  Italy  were  so  small  that 
their  respecti^'e  seminaries  could  not  prosper,  Pius 
X  established  the  regional  seminary  which  is  common 
to  the  sees  of  a  given  region;  and,  as  a  consequence, 
many  small,  deficient  seminaries  were  closed.  For 
the  more  efficient  guidance  of  souls,  by  a  Decree  of 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  (20  August, 
1910),  instructions  were  given  concerning  the  removal 
of  parish  priests,  as  administrati\-c  acts,  when  such 
procedure  was  required  by  grave  circumstances  that 
might  not  constitute  a  canonical  cause  for  the  re- 
moval. At  the  time  of  the  jubilee  in  honour  of  his 
ordination  as  a  priest,  he  addressed  a  letter  full  of  affec- 
tion and  wise  council  to  all  the  clergy.  By  a  recent 
Decree  (IS  Nov.,  1910),  the  clergy  have  been  barred 
from  the  temporal  administration  of  social  organiza- 
tions, which  was  often  a  cause  of  grave  difficulties. 

The  jiope  has  at  heart  above  all  things  the  purit>'  of 
the  faith.  On  various  occasions,  as  in  the  Encyclical 
regarding  the  centenary  of  Saint  Gregory  the  Great, 
Pius  X  had  pointed  out  the  dangers  of  certain  new 
theological  methods,  which,  based  upon  Agnosticism 
and  upon  Immanentism,  necessarily  divest  the  doc- 
trine of  the  faith  of  its  teachings  of  objective,  absolute, 
and  immutable  truth,  and  all  the  more,  when  those 
methods  are  associated  with  subversive  criticism  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures  and  of  the  origins  of  Christianity. 
Wherefore,  in  1907,  he  caused  the  publication  of  the 
Decree  "  Lamentabili "  (called  also  the  Syllabus  of  Pius 
X),  in  which  sixty-five  propositions  are  condemned. 
The  greater  number  of  these  propositions  concern  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  their  inspiration,  and  the  doctrine  of 
Jesus  and  of  the  Apostles,  while  others  relate  to  dogma, 
the  sacraments,  and  the  primacy  of  the  Bishop  of 
Rome.  Soon  after  that,  on  S  Sept.,  1907,  there  ap- 
peared the  famous  Encychcal  "Pascendi",  which 
expounds  and  condemns  the  system  of  Modernism 
(q.  v.).  It  points  out  the  danger  of  Modernism  in 
relation  to  philosophy,  apologetics,  exegesis,  history, 


liturgy,  and  discipline,  and  shows  the  contradiction 
between  that  innovation  and  the  ancient  faith;  and, 
finally,  it  establishes  rules  by  which  to  combat  effi- 
ciently the  pernicious  doctrines  in  question.  Among 
the  means  suggested  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
establishment  of  an  official  body  of  "censors"  of 
books  and  the  creation  of  a  "Committee  of  Vigi- 
lance" 

Subsequently,  by  the  Motu  Proprio  "Sacrorum 
Antistitum",  Pius  X  called  attention  to  the  injunc- 
tions of  the  Encyclical  and  also  to  the  pro\'isions  that 
had  already  been  established  under  Leo  XIII  on 
preaching,  and  prescribed  that  all  those  who  exercised 
the  holy  ministry  or  who  taught  in  ecclesiastical  insti- 
tutions, as  well  as  canons,  the  superiors  of  the  regular 
clergy,  and  those  serving  in  ecclesiastical  bureaux 
should  take  an  oath,  binding  themselves  to  reject  the 
errors  that  are  denounced  in  the  Encyclical  or  in  the 
Decree  "Lamentabifi".  Pius  X  reverted  to  this  vital 
subject  on  other  occasions,  especially  in  those  Encyc- 
licals that  were  written  in  commemoration  of  St. 
Anselm  (21  April,  1909)  and  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo 
(23  June,  1910),  in  the  latter  of  which  Reformist  Mod- 
ernism was  especially  condemned.  As  the  study  of  the 
Bible  is  both  the  most  important  and  the  most 
dangerous  studj-  in  theology,  Pius  X  wished  to  found 
at  Rome  a  centre  for  these  studies,  to  give  assurance 
at  once  of  unquestioned  orthodoxy  and  scientific 
worth ;  and  so,  with  the  assistance  of  the  whole  Catho- 
lic world,  there  was  established  at  Rome  the  Biblical 
Institute,  under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuits. 

A  need  that  had  been  felt  for  a  long  time  was  that 
of  the  codification  of  the  Canon  Law,  and  with  a  view 
to  effecting  it,  Pius  X,  on  19  March,  1904,  created  a 
special  congregation  of  cardinals,  of  which  Mgr 
Gasparri,  now  a  cardinal,  became  the  secretary.  The 
most  eminent  authorities  on  canon  law,  throughout 
the  world,  are  collaborating  in  the  formation  of  the 
new  code,  some  of  the  provisions  of  which  have  already 
been  published,  as,  for  example,  that  modifying  the 
law  of  the  Council  of  Trent  on  secret  marriages,  the 
new  rules  for  diocesan  relations  and  for  episcopal 
visits  adliminn,  and  the  new  organization  of  the  Roman 
Curia  (Constitution  "Sapienti  Consilio",  29  June, 
1908).  Prior  to  that  time,  the  Congregations  for 
Relics  and  Indulgences  and  of  Discipline  had  been 
suppressed,  while  the  Secretariate  of  Briefs  had  been 
united  to  the  Secretariate  of  State.  The  characteristic 
of  the  new  rule  is  the  complete  separation  of  the  ju- 
dicial from  the  administrative;  while  the  functions  of 
the  various  bureaux  have  been  more  precisely  deter- 
mined, and  their  work  more  equalized.  The  offices  of 
the  Curia  are  divided  into  Tribunals  (3),  Congrega- 
tions (11),  and  Offices  (5).  With  regard  to  the  first, 
the  Tribunal  of  the  Signature  (consisting  of  cardinals 
only)  and  that  of  the  Rota  were  revived;  to  the  Tri- 
bunal of  the  Penitentiary  were  left  only  the  cases  of 
the  internal  forum  (conscience).  The  Congregations 
remained  almost  as  they  were  at  first,  with  the  excep- 
tions that  a  special  section  was  added  to  that  of  the 
Holy  Office  of  the  Inquisition,  for  indulgences;  the 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars  received  the 
name  of  Congregation  of  the  Religious,  and  has  to 
deal  only  with  the  affairs  of  religious  congregations, 
while  the  affairs  of  the  secular  clergy  are  to  be  re- 
ferred to  the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  or  of  that 
of  the  Council ;  from  the  latter  were  taken  the  matri- 
monial causes,  which  are  now  sent  to  the  tribunals  or 
to  the  newly-created  Congregation  of  the  Sacraments. 
The  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  has  increased 
greatly  in  importance,  since  it  has  to  decide  questions 
of  competence  between  the  various  other  Congrega- 
tions. The  Congregation  of  Propaganda  lost  much  of 
its  territory  in  Europe  and  in  America,  where  reli- 
gious conditions  have  become  regular.  At  the  same 
time  were  published  the  rules  and  regulations  for  em- 
ployees and  those  for  the  various  bureaux.    Another 


PIUS  X 


PIUSVEREIN 


139 


PIUSVEREIN 


recent    Constitution    relates    to    the  suburbicarian 
sees. 

The  Cathohc  hierarchy  has  greatly  increased  in 
numbers  during  these  first  years  of  the  pontificate  of 
Pius  X,  in  which  twenty-eight  new  dioceses  have  been 
created,  mostly  in  the  United  States,  Brazil,  and  the 
PhiUppine  Islands;  also  one  abbey  nullius,  16  vica- 
riates Apostolic,  and  15  prefectures  Apostolic. 

Leo  XIII  brought  the  social  question  within  the 
range  of  ecclesiastical  activity.  Pius  X,  also,  wishes 
the  Church  to  co-operate,  or  rather  to  play  a  leading 
part  in  the  solution  of  the  social  question;  his  views 
on  this  subject  were  formulated  in  a  syllabus  of  nine- 
teen propositions,  taken  from  different  Encyclicals 
and  other  Acts  of  Leo  XIII,  and  published  in  a  INIotu 
Proprio  (18  Dec,  190.3),  especially  for  the  guidance  of 
Italy,  where  the  social  question  was  a  thorny  one  at 
the  beginning  of  his  pontificate.  He  sought  especially 
to  repress  certain  tendencies  leaning  towards  Social- 
ism and  promoting  a  spirit  of  insubordination  to  eccle- 
siastical authority.  As  a  result  of  ever  increasing 
divergencies,  the  "Opera  dei  Congressi",  the  great 
association  of  the  Catholics  of  Italy,  was  dissolved. 
At  once,  however,  the  Encyclical  "II  fermo  propo- 
sito"  (11  June,  1905)  brought  about  the  formation  of 
a  new  organization  consisting  of  three  great  unions, 
the  Popolare,  the  Economica,  and  the  Elettorale.  The 
firmness  of  Pius  X  obtained  the  elimination  of,  at 
least,  the  most  quarrelsome  elements,  making  it  pos- 
sible now  for  Catholic  social  action  to  prosper,  al- 
though some  friction  still  remains.  The  desire  of 
PiusX  is  for  the  economical  work  to  be  avowedly  Cath- 
olic, as  he  expressed  it  in  a  memorable  letter  to  Count 
Medolago-Albani.  In  France,  also,  the  Sillon,  after 
promising  well,  had  taken  a  turn  that  was  Uttle  reassur- 
ing to  orthodoxy;  and  dangers  in  this  connexion  were 
made  manifest  in  the  Encyclical  "Notre  charge  apos- 
tolique"  (15  Aug.,  1910),  in  which  the  Sillonists  were 
ordered  to  place  their  organizations  under  the  author- 
ity of  the  bishops. 

In  its  relations  with  Governments,  the  pontificate 
of  Pius  X  has  had  to  carry  on  painfiil  struggles.  In 
France  the  pope  had  inherited  quarrels  and  menaces. 
The  "Nobis  nominavit"  question  was  settled  through 
the  condescension  of  the  pope;  but  the  matter  of  the 
appointment  of  bishops  proposed  by  the  Government, 
the  visit  of  the  president  to  the  King  of  Italy,  with  the 
subsequent  note  of  protestation,  and  the  resignation  of 
two  French  bishops,  which  was  desired  by  the  Holy 
See,  became  pretexts  for  the  Government  at  Paris  to 
break  off  diplomatic  relations  with  the  Court  of  Rome. 
Meanwhile  the  law  of  Separation  had  been  already 
prepared,  despoiling  the  Church  of  France,  and  also 
prescribing  for  the  Church  a  constitution  which,  if  not 
openly  contrary  to  her  nature,  was  at  least  full  of 
danger  to  her.  Pius  X,  paying  no  attention  to  the 
counsels  of  short-sighted  opportunism,  firmly  refused 
his  consent  to  the  formation  of  the  associations  cultu- 
elles.  The  separation  brought  some  freedom  to  the 
French  Church,  especially  in  the  matter  of  the  selec- 
tion of  its  pastors.  Pius  X,  not  looking  for  reprisals, 
still  recognizes  the  French  right  of  protectorate  over 
Cathohcs  in  the  East.  Some  phrases  of  the  Encyclical 
"Editae  Sspe",  written  on  the  occasion  of  the  cen- 
tenary of  St.  Charles,  were  misinterpreted  by  Prot- 
estants, especially  in  Germany,  and  Pius  X  made  a 
declaration  in  refutation  of  them,  without  belittling 
the  authority  of  his  high  office.  At  present  (Dec, 
1910)  complications  are  feared  in  Spain,  as,  also,  sep- 
aration and  persecution  in  Portugal;  Pius  X  has  al- 
ready taken  opportune  measures.  The  new  Govern- 
ment of  Turkey  has  sent  an  ambassador  to  the  Pope. 
The  relations  of  the  Holy  See  with  the  republics  of 
Latin  America  are  good .  The  delegations  to  Chile  and 
to  the  Argentine  Republic  were  raised  to  the  rank  of 
internuntiatures,  and  an  Apostohc  Delegate  was  sent 
to  Central  America. 


Naturally,  the  solicitude  of  .Pius  X  extends  to  his 
own  habitation,  and  he  has  done  a  great  deal  of  work 
of  restoration  in  the  Vatican,  for  example,  in  the  quar- 
ters of  the  cardinal-secretary  of  State,  the  new  palace 
for  employees,  the  new  picture-gallery,  the  Specola, 
etc  Finally,  we  must  not  forget  his  generous  charity 
in  public  misfortunes:  during  the  great  earthquakes 
of  Calabria,  he  asked  for  the  assistance  of  Catholics 
throughout  the  world,  with  the  result  that  they  con- 
tributed, at  the  time  of  the  last  earthquake,  nearly 
7,000,000  francs,  which  served  to  supply  the  wants  of 
those  in  need,  and  to  build  churches,  schools,  etc.  His 
charity  was  proportionately  no  less  on  the  occasion  of 
the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  and  of  other  disasters  out- 
side of  Italy  (Portugal  and  Ireland).  In  few  years 
Pius  X  has  secured  great,  practical,  and  lasting  results 
in  the  interest  of  Catholic  doctrine  and  discipline,  and 
that  in  the  face  of  great  difficulties  of  all  kinds.  Even 
non-Catholics  recognize  his  apostolic  spirit,  his 
strength  of  character,  the  precision  of  his  decisions, 
and  his  pursuit  of  a  clear  and  explicit  programme. 

Cf.  the  biographies  by  Marchesan  (Einsiedein,  1908)  trans- 
lated into  various  languages;  de  Waal,  tr.  Berq  (Milwau- 
kee, 1904);  Daelli  (Bergamo,  1906);  Brunner  (Ratisbon, 
1908);  ScHMiDLiN  (1903);  GlA.coMEhi.o,  Pio  X  e  la  citta  e  diocesi 
di  Padova  (Padua,  1908) ;  Life  of  Pope  Pius  X  (with  sketch  of 
Pope  Leo  XIII,  and  a  history  of  the  conclave)  with  preface  by 
CABniNAL  Gibbons  (New  York,  1904) ;  Uopera  di  Pio  X  in 
La  Civilta  Cattolica.  IV  (1908),  513;  Acta  Pii  PP.  X  and  Acta 
ApostoliccB  Sedis  (Vatican  press). 

U.  Benigni. 

Piusverein,  the  name  given  to  Catholic  associa- 
tions in  various  countries  of  Europe. 

I.  The  Pius  Association  of  Germany,  named 
after  Pius  IX,  was  founded  at  Mainz  in  1848  by  the 
cathedral  canon,  Adam  Franz  Lennig  (d.  1866),  and 
Professor  Caspar  Riff  el  (d.  1856) ,  to  organize  the  Cath- 
olics of  Germany  in  defence  of  their  religious  freedom 
and  civil  rights.  The  platform  and  by-laws  were  pub- 
fished  in  the  "KathoUk"  (Mainz,  1848).  The  organ- 
izers of  the  association  called  a  congress  of  the  Catho- 
lic societies  of  Germany  which  met  at  Mainz,  3-6 
October,  1848.  At  this  assembly  38  societies  were 
represented,  and  all  the  Catholic  associations  of  Ger- 
many founded  to  protect  religious  interests  were 
united  into  the  "Catholic  Association  of  Germany". 
The  annual  congresses  of  this  association  led  to  other 
efficient  organizations;  in  1848  the  Society  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  and  the  Association  of  St.  Elizabeth; 
in  1849  the  Association  of  St.  Boniface;  in  1850  the 
Society  for  Christian  Art;  in  1851  the  Catholic  Jour- 
neymen's Union;  these  assemblies  were  the  precursors 
of  the  "General  Congress  of  the  Catholics  of  Ger- 
many" that  is  held  annually. 

II.  The  Pius  Association  op  Switzerland. — 
This  was  founded  in  1855  by  Count  Theodore  Scherer- 
Boccard  who  remained  at  its  head  until  his  death  (d. 
1885).  Its  aim  is  to  develop  and  centralize  Catholic 
associational  life  in  Switzerland.  It  is  directed  by  two 
central  committees,  and  the  general  meetings  are  held 
nearly  every  year;  in  addition,  there  are  also  cantonal 
and  district  assemblies.  Many  of  the  local  associa- 
tions have  branches  for  women.  Since  1899  the  so- 
ciety was  called  the  "Swiss  Catholic  Association";  it 
then  contained  225  groups  with  35,000  members.  On 
22  November,  1904,  it  combined  with  the  "United 
Societies  of  Catholic  Men  and  Workingmen''  and  the 
"Federation  Romande"  to  form  the  "Swiss  Cathofic 
Peoples  Union"  (Seethe  "Yearbook"  of  the  Union, 
Stans,  1907.) 

III.  The  Pius  Association  for  Promoting  the 
Catholic  Press  of  Austria,  named  after  Pius  X,  was 
founded  at  the  Fifth  Catholic  Congress  held  at  Vienna 
in  1905  after  the  presentation  of  a  convincing  report 
by  the  Jesuit,  Father  Victor  Kolb,  in  order  to  offset 
the  demoralizing  Liberal  daily  Press  with  an  equally 
able  Christian  Press.  This  end  was  to  be  gained 
largely  by  developing  the  Catholic  daily  newspapers  of 


PIZARRO 


140 


FIZARRO 


Vienna.  The  presidentof  the  association  since  its  found- 
ing has  been  Count  Franz  Walterskirchen-Walfstal. 
In  January,  1911,  the  Pius  Association  included  840 
local  groups  with  a  membership  of  more  than  63,000, 
and  headquarters  at  Vienna.  The  annual  fee  is  one 
krone  (twenty  cents) .  In  1910  the  annual  income  was 
12ti,000  Kr.  ($25,200);  of  this  amount  40,000  Kr. 
(JsOOO)  went  to  two  daily  newspapers  of  Vienna,  the 
"Reichspost"  and  the  "Vaterland";  25,000  Kr. 
(.S5000)  for  campaign  purposes  and  associational 
periodicals;  5000  Kr.  ($1000)  for  the  support  of 
Catholic  newspaper  writers;  27,000  Kr.  ($5400)  for  a 
press  and  correspondence  bureau.  The  bureau  sends 
daily,  Sundays  excepted,  the  "  Piusvereinskorres- 
pondenz",  which  is  six  to  eight  pages  in  size,  to  about 
fifty  Christian  newspapers.  Since  1910  it  has  also  is- 
sued a  supplement  for  use  in  different  papers  and  thus 
contributes  largely  to  the  intellectual  and  religious 
de\elopment  of  the  Catholic  provincial  Press  in  Aus- 
tria. There  are  12  diocesan  subsidiary  councils,  be- 
sides an  Italian  section  at  Triest,  and  a  Czech  section 
at  Prague.  The  money  collected  outside  of  Vienna  is 
partially  used  for  the  local  Press.  Since  the  founding 
of  the  Pius  Association  there  has  been  a  very  notice- 
able development  of  the  Catholic  Press  of  Austria, 
due  largely  to  writings  in  behalf  of  the  cause  and  to  the 
holding  of  meetings,  of  which  there  are  about  700 
yearly;  but  the  desired  aim  is  still  far  from  being  real- 
ized. 

IV.  Academic  Pius  Associations  in  Germany,  for 
promoting  religious  interests  and  attachment  to  the 
Church  among  Catholic  students  and  training  them 
both  socially  and  scientifically,  were  greatly  weakened 
by  the  Kulturkampf.  In  Southern  Germany  they 
ha%e  recently  been  organized  as  the  "Unio  Plana"  or 
"Union  of  the  Academic  Pius  Associations";  this 
union  has  9  branch  associations  with  about  1300 
members,  of  whom  800  are  regular  members.  Since 
1909  the  organ  of  the  association  has  been  "Der 
Akademiker". 

May,  Gesch.  der  Katholikenversammlungen  (Freiburg,  1903); 
Palatinus,  Entstehung  der  Generahersammlungev  (2nd  ed.,  Frei- 
burg, l.'^^^4):  Jahresberichte  des  Piusvereins  (Vienna,  1910); 
Krose,  KirdiHches  Handbuch,  1907-8, 1  (Freiburg,  1908) ,  290  sq. ; 
Ballut  in  Etudes  religieuseSt  CXIX  (1909),  526-47. 

Karl  Hilgenkeinee. 

Fizarro,  Francisco,  b.  in  Trujillo,  Estremadura, 
Spain,  probably  in  1471 ;  d.  at  Lima,  Pern,  26  June, 
l.i41.  He  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro 
and  Francisca  Gonzalez,  who  paid  little  attention  to 
his  education  and  he  grew  up  without  learning  how  to 
read  or  write.  His  father  was  a  captain  of  infantry 
and  had  fought  in  the  Neopolitan  wars  with  el  Gran 
Capitdn  Gonzalo  de  C6rdoba.  Filled  with  enthusiasm 
at  the  accounts  of  the  exploits  of  his  countrymen  in 
America,  Pizarro  set  sail  (10  Nov.,  1509)  with  Alonzo 
de  Ojeda  from  Spain,  on  the  latter's  expedition  to 
IlrabA,  where  Ojeda  founded  the  city  of  San  Sebastian, 
and  left  it  in  Pizarro's  care  when  he  returned  to  the 
ship  for  provisions.  Hardships  and  the  climate  having 
thinned  the  ranks  of  his  companions,  Pizarro  sailed  to 
the  port  of  Cartagena.  There  he  joined  the  fleet  of 
Martin  Fernandez  de  Enclso,  and  later  attached  him- 
self to  the  expedition  of  Nunez  de  Balboa,  whom  he 
accompanied  on  his  journey  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  to  discover  the  Pacific  Ocean  (29  Sept.,  1513). 
When  Balboa  was  beheaded  by  his  successor,  Pedra- 
rias  Ddvila,  Pizarro  followed  the  fortunes  of  the  latter 
until  \5V>  when  Ddvila  sent  him  to  trade  with  the 
natives  along  the  Pacific  coast.  \^'Tien  the  capital  was 
transferred  to  Panama  he  helped  Pedrarias  to  subju- 
gate the  warlike  tribes  of  Veraguas,  and  in  1520  accom- 
panied Espinosa  on  his  expedition  into  the  territory  of 
the  Cacique  Urraca,  situated  in  the  present  Repubhc 
of  Costa  Rica. 

In  1.522  the  accounts  of  the  achievements  of  Hemdn 
Cortes,  and  the  return  of  Pascual  de  Andagoya  from 


his  expedition  to  the  southern  part  of  Panama,  bring- 
ing news  of  the  countries  situated  along  the  shore  of 
the  ocean  to  the  south,  fired  him  with  enthusiasm. 
With  the  approbation  of  Pedrarias  he  formed  together 
with  Diego  de  Almagro,  a  soldier  of  fortune  who  was 
at  that  time  in  Panama,  and  Hernando  de  Luque,  a 
Spanish  cleric,  a  company  to  conquer  the  lands  situ- 
ated to  the  south  of  Panama.  Their  project  seemed 
so  utterly  unattainable  that  the  people  of  Panama 
called  them  the  "company  of  lunatics"  Having  col- 
lected the  necessary  funds  Pizarro  placed  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  expedition;  Almagro  was  entrusted 
with  the  equipping  and  provisioning  of  the  ships;  and 
Luque  was  to  remain  behind  to  look  after  their  mutual 
interests  and  to  keep  in  Pedrarias's  favour  so  that  he 
might  continue  to  support  the  enterprise.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1524,  Pizarro  set  sail  from  Panama  with  a  party 

of    one    hundred 

and  fourteen  vol- 
unteers and  four 
horses,  and  Al- 
magro was  to  fol- 
low him  in  a 
smaller  ship  just 
as  soon  as  it  could 
be  made  ready. 
The  result  of  this 
first  expedition 
was  dishearten- 
ing. Pizarro  went 
no  further  than 
Punta  Quemada, 
on  the  coast  of 
what  is  now 
Colombia,  and 
having  lost  many 
of  his  men  he 
went  to  Chicamd, 
a  short  distance 
from  Panama. 
From  here  he  sent 
his  treasurer,  with 
the  small  quantity  of  gold  which  he  had  obtained ,  to  the 
governor  to  give  an  account  of  the  expedition.  Mean- 
while Almagro  had  followed  him,  going  as  far  as  the 
Rio  de  San  Juan  (Cauca,  Colombia),  and,  not  finding 
him,  returned  to  rejoin  him  at  Chicamd. 

A  second  request  to  obtain  Pedrarias's  permission 
to  recruit  volunteers  for  the  expedition  was  met  with 
hostility,  because  the  governor  himself  was  planning 
an  expedition  to  Nicaragua.  Luque,  however,  con- 
trived to  change  his  attitude,  and  the  new  governor, 
D.  Pedro  de  los  Rios,  was  from  the  beginning  favour- 
ably disposed  towards  the  expedition.  On  10  March, 
1528,  the  three  partners  signed  a  contract,  whereby  they 
agreed  to  divide  equally  all  the  territory  that  should 
be  conquered  and  all  the  gold,  silver,  and  precious 
stones  that  should  be  found.  They  purchased  two 
ships,  and  Pizarro  and  Almagro  directed  their  course 
to  the  mouth  of  the  San  Juan  River,  where  they  sep- 
arated. Pizarro  remained  with  a  portion  of  the  sol- 
diers to  explore  the  mainland;  Almagro  returned  to 
Panama  to  get  re-enforcements;  and  the  other  ship 
under  the  command  of  Ruiz  set  sail  for  the  south. 
He  went  as  far  as  Punta  de  Pasados,  half  a  degree 
south  of  the  equator,  and  after  making  observations 
and  collecting  an  abundance  of  information,  returned 
to  join  Pizarro,  who  in  the  meantime,  together  with 
his  companions,  had  suffered  severely.  Shortly  after- 
wards Almagro  arrived  from  Panama,  bringing  soldiers 
and  abundant  provisions.  Once  more  re-enforced  they 
started  together  taking  a  southerly  route  until  they 
reached  Tacamez,  the  extreme  south  of  Colombia. 
They  then  decided  that  Almagro  should  return  to 
Panama,  and  Pizarro  should  remain  on  the  Island  del 
Gallo  to  await  further  re-enforcements.  The  arrival  of 
Almagro  and  the  news  of  the  sufferings  of  the  explor- 


Francisco   Pizarro 

After  the  Portrait  formerly  m  the  Palace 

of  the  Viceroys,  Lima 


PIZARRO 


141 


PIZARRO 


ers  alarmed  Pedro  de  los  Rios,  who  sent  two  ships  to 
the  Island  del  Gallo  with  orders  to  bring  back  all  the 
members  of  the  expedition.  Pizarro  and  thirteen  of 
his  companions  refused  to  return,  and  the  httle  party 
was  abandoned  on  the  island.  Fearful  of  being  mo- 
lested by  the  inhabitants  on  account  of  their  reduced 
number,  they  built  a  raft  and  sought  refuge  on  the 
Island  of  Gorgona  on  the  coasts  of  Colombia. 

Meanwhile  Almagro  and  Luque  endeavoured  to 
pacify  the  governor  who  at  last  consented  that  a  ship 
be  sent,  but  only  with  a  sufficient  force  to  man  it,  and 
with  positive  orders  to  Pizarro  to  present  himself  at 
Panama  within  six  months.  When  the  ship  arrived 
without  reenforcements  Pizarro  determined,  with  the 
aid  of  the  few  men  that  he  still  had  with  him,  to  under- 
take an  expedition  southward.  Skirting  the  coast  of 
the  present  Republic  of  Ecuador,  he  directed  his  course 
towards  the  city  of  Tumbez  in  the  north  of  what  is 
now  Peru.  Seeing  that  the  natives  were  friendly 
towards  him,  he  continued  his  voyage  as  far  as  Payta, 
doubled  the  point  of  Aguja,  and  sailed  along  the  coast 
as  far  as  the  point  where  the  city  of  Trujillo  was  later 
founded.  He  was  everywhere  well  received,  for  the 
Spaniards  in  obedience  to  his  strict  orders  had  re- 
frained from  any  excesses  that  might  have  incurred 
the  enmity  of  the  Indians  and  endangered  the  ultimate 
result  of  the  expedition.  Finally  after  an  absence  of 
eighteen  months  Pizarro  returned  to  Panama.  Not- 
withstanding the  gold  he  brought  and  the  glowing 
accounts  he  gave,  the  governor  wdthdrew  his  support 
and  permission  to  continue  the  explorations.  The 
three  partners  then  determined  that  Pizarro  should  go 
to  Spain  and  lay  his  plans  before  Charles  V. 

He  landed  in  Seville  in  1538  and  was  well  received 
by  the  emperor,  then  in  Toledo,  who  was  won  by  the 
account  of  the  proposed  expedition,  and,  26  June, 
1529,  signed  the  memorable  agreement  (capitulacion) , 
in  which  the  privileges  and  powers  of  Pizarro  and  his 
associates  were  set  forth.  On  the  former,  Charles  con- 
ferred the  order  of  Knight  of  St.  James,  the  titles  of 
Adelantado,  Governor  and  Captain  General,  with  abso- 
lute authority  in  all  the  territories  he  might  discover 
and  subjugate.  A  government  independent  of  that  of 
Panama  was  granted  to  him  in  perpetuity,  extending 
two  hundred  leagues  to  the  south  of  the  River  Santi- 
ago, the  boundary  between  Colombia  and  Ecuador. 
He  had  the  privilege  of  choosing  the  officers  who  were 
to  serve  under  him,  of  administering  justice  as  chief 
constable  (alguacil),  and  his  orders  were  revocable 
only  by  the  Consejo  Real.  Pizarro  agreed  to  take  250 
soldiers  and  provide  the  boats  and  ammunition  indis- 
pensable for  such  an  expedition.  He  sailed  from  Seville 
18  January,  1S30,  taking  with  him  his  brothers,  Her- 
nando, who  was  the  only  legitimate  son,  Juan,  and 
Gonzalo,  all  of  whom  were  to  play  an  important  part 
in  the  history  of  Peru.  Arrived  in  Panama  he  had  the 
task  of  pacifying  his  two  associates  who  were  dissatis- 
fied with  the  scant  attention  he  had  secured  for  them 
from  the  Court.  Early  in  January,  1531,  Pizarro  set 
sail  from  the  port  of  Panama  with  3  ships,  180  men, 
and  27  cavaliers.  Almagro  and  Luque  remained  be- 
hind to  procure  further  assistance  and  send  reenforce- 
ments. He  landed  in  the  Bay  of  San  Mateo  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Santiago  River,  and  started  to  explore 
the  coast  on  foot.  The  three  boats  were  sent  back  to 
Panama  for  reenforcements. 

The  explorers  passed  by  Puerto  Viejo  and  came  as 
far  as  the  city  of  Tumbez,  where  they  embarked  in 
some  Indian  rafts  and  passed  o\'er  to  the  Island  of 
Puna  in  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil.  Here  they  were  hard 
pressed  by  the  attacks  of  the  islanders,  when  relief 
came  in  the  form  of  two  vessels  with  a  hundred  men 
and  some  horses  commanded  by  Hernando  de  Soto. 
Thus  reenforced  and  knowing  that  the  brothers 
Atahuallpa  and  Huascar  were  at  war  with  each  other, 
Pizarro  determined  to  penetrate  into  the  interior  of 
the  empire  and  left  Tumbez  early  in  May,  1532.    On 


15  Nov.,  after  a  long,  distressing  journey  and  without 
opposition  from  the  Indians,  he  entered  the  city  of 
Caxamalca  (now  Caxamarca).  Treacherously  invited 
into  the  camp  of  the  Spaniards,  the  Indian  prince 
Atahuallpa  presented  himself  accompanied  by  his 
bodyguard  but  unarmed.  At  a  given  signal  the  Span- 
iards rushed  upon  the  unsuspecting  Indians,  mas- 
sacred them  in  the  most  horrible  manner,  and  took 
possession  of  their  chief.  Deprived  of  its  leader  the 
great  army  that  was  encamped  near  Caxamalca,  not 
knowing  what  to  do,  retreated  into  the  interior.  As 
the  price  of  his  release  the  Inca  monarch  offered  his 
captives  gold  enough  to  fill  the  room  (22  by  17  feet) 
in  which  he  was  held  captive.  In  a  few  months  the 
promise  was  fulfilled.  Gold  to  the  amount  of  4,605,- 
670  ducats  (15,000,000  pesos),  according  to  Garcilaso 
de  la  Vega,  was  accumulated  and  Atahuallpa  claimed 
his  freedom.  At  this  juncture  Almagro  arrived  with 
soldiers  to  strengthen  their  position,  and  naturally 
insisted  that  they  too  should  share  in  the  booty.  This 
was  agreed  to  and  after  the  fifth  part,  the  share  of 
the  king,  had  been  set  apart  an  adequate  division 
was  made  of  the  remainder,  a  share  of  $52,000  falling 
to  the  lot  of  each  soldier,  even  those  who  had  come 
at  the  end.  Notwithstanding  Atahuallpa  was  accused 
and  executed  24  June,  1534. 

From  Caxamalca  he  passed  to  the  capital  of  the 
Incas,  while  his  fieutenants  were  obtaining  possession 
of  all  the  remaining  territory.  In  order  to  keep  the 
Indians  together  Pizarro  had  Manco  Capac,  an  Inca, 
crowned  king,  and  on  6  Jan.,  1535,  founded  the  city 
of  Lima.  He  obliged  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  who  had 
come  from  Guatemala  in  search  of  adventure,  to  re- 
turn to  his  own  territory,  and  sent  his  brother  Her- 
nando to  Spain  to  give  an  account  to  the  Court  of  the 
new  empire  he  had  united  to  the  Crown.  He  was  well 
received  by  the  emperor,  who  conferred  on  Pizarro 
the  title  of  marquess  and  extended  the  hmits  of  his 
territory  seventy  leagues  further  along  the  southern 
coast.  The  title  of  Adelantado,  besides  that  of  Gover- 
nor of  Chile,  which,  however,  had  not  yet  been  con- 
quered, was  conferred  on  Diego  de  Almagro.  Luque 
was  no  longer  living.  Almagro  at  once  set  about  the 
conquest  of  Chile,  taking  with  him  all  those  who  were 
willing  to  follow. 

Manco  Capac  was  meanwhile  trying  to  foment  an 
uprising  in  the  whole  of  Peru,  actually  besieging  the 
cities  of  Lima  and  Cuzoo.  The  arrival  of  Alonso  de 
Alvarado,  brother  of  the  companion  of  Cortes,  saved 
Lima,  but  Cuzco,  where  the  three  brothers  of  Pizarro 
were,  was  only  saved  by  the  return  of  Almagro  from 
his  expedition  to  Chile  and  his  claim  that  the  city  of 
Cuzco  was  situated  in  the  territory  which  had  been 
assigned  to  him  in  the  royal  decrees.  The  Indians 
were  put  to  flight,  Almagro  took  forcible  possession 
of  the  city,  April,  1537,  and  made  Hernando  and 
Gonzalo  prisoners,  Juan  having  died.  Troops,  how- 
ever, were  hurrying  from  Lima  to  the  rescue ;  Almagro 
was  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  executed,  July, 
1538.  Hernando  went  to  Spain  but  was  not  received 
well  at  the  Court;  he  was  imprisoned  until  1560,  and 
died  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  almost  in  dire  poverty. 
Gonzalo  launched  on  his  intrepid  expedition  to  explore 
the  Amazon,  returning  to  find  that  his  brother  Fran- 
cisco was  no  more.  The  followers  of  Almagro,  offended 
by  the  arrogant  conduct  of  Pizarro  and  his  followers 
after  the  defeat  and  execution  of  Almagro,  organized 
a  conspiracy  which  ended  in  Pizarro's  assassination  of 
the  conqueror  of  Peru  in  his  palace  at  Lima. 

Pizarro  had  four  children:  a  son  whose  name  and 
the  name  of  his  mother  are  not  known,  and  who  died 
in  1544;  Gonzalo  by  an  Indian  girl,  In^s  Huaillas 
Yupanqui,  who  was  legitimized  in  1537  and  died  when 
he  was  fourteen;  by  the  same  woman,  a  daughter, 
Francisca,  who  sujjsequently  married  after  having 
been  legitimized  by  imperial  decree,  together  with  her 
uncle  Hernando  Pizarro,  10  Oct.,  1537;    and  a  son, 


PLACET 


142 


PLACIDUS 


Francisco,  by  a  relative  of  Atahuallpa,  who  was  never  his  brother,  on  ascending  the  throne,  drove  Placidia 

legitimized,  and  died  shortly  after  reaching  Hjiain.  from  the  palace.     She  was  again  delivered  to  the  Em- 

Prescott   //isfori/  0/  the  Conquest  of  Peru  (London,  1S.S9),  peror  Honorius  by  King  AA'aller,  and  in  416  went  tn 

Spanish  tr.  by  Icazbalceta  (Mexico,  ISoO);    Diccionario  enci-  ^-i^^  n^,,,,+    r^f   T>«,, M^   4.  r^        i      i-         ,,      V^ 

rfopMico  Mspano-americano,  XV  (Barcelona,  1894) ;  Icazbalceta,  ^"^  S        ,  •   1    Ka\enna.      JNext  Oonstantius,  the  Em- 

HuigrafladeAtahualpa,  Atahuallpa,  Atabaliva,  6  Aiabalipa  (Mcx-  peror  S  chiet   general  and  later  Pdldcius   of    Gaul 


1899);  Sancho,  Re 
liicion  de  la  Conquista  dd 
I''Tu,  Italian  ed.  by 
Ramusio,  .Spanish  tr,  by 
Icazbalceta  (Mfxico, 
1R!I9). 

Camillus  Crivelli. 

Placet.  See  Ex- 
equatur. 

Placidia,  Galla, 
Queen  of  Rome,  b. 
in  393;  d.  27  Nov., 
4.'50;  the  daughter  of 
Theodosius  the  Great 
by  his  second  wife 
Galla,  whom  he  mar- 
ried in  3.S8  and  for 
whom  he  afterwards 
took  the  field  against 
the  usurper  Maximus 
and  conquered  Italy, 
wliich  he  restored  to 
his  wife's  brother 
Valentinian.  The 
death  of  the  latter 
put  an  end  to  the  last 
imperial    dynasty 


desired  to  marry 
her.  Necessity  forced 
her  consent  (417) 
to  the  marriage,  the 
fruits  of  which  were 
a  daughter,  Justa 
Grata  Honoria,  and 
later  a  son,  Placidus 
Valentinianus. 

In  421  Constantius 
was  made  emperor 
and  Placidia  received 
the  title  of  Augusta. 
Constantius  died 
this  same  year.  Fear- 
ful of  new  disturb- 
ances in  Ravenna, 
Honorius  sent  her 
to  Constantinople. 
A\'hen  the  latter  died 
(423),  Johannes  took 
possession  of  Italy 
by  force.  Placidia, 
with  her  son  Valen- 
Interior  of  the  Mausoleum  of  Galla  Placidia,  Ravenna  tinianus,   and  es- 

V  Century.     (See  Article,  Painting,  Religious.)  COrted    by  an   East- 

of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  and  Theodosius  be-  ern  Roman  army,  left  for  Aquila,  and  thence  to 
came  the  sole  ruler  of  the  Roman  Empire.  He  was  Ra\'enna.  Johannes  was  conquered  and  captured, 
succeeded  (395)  by  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  two  sons  \'alentinian  III  was  called  to  the  throne  in  Rome, 
by  his  first  marriage.  StiHcho  conducted  the  govern-  Placidia  conducted  the  government  as  regent  with 
ment  in  Western  Rome  for  Honorius.     In  his  house     skill   and  foresight,  her  advisers  being  the   faithful 


Galla  Placidia  grew 
up  to  maturity  at  the 
side  of  his  wife 
Serena.  When,  after 
the  execution  of 
Stilicho,  Alaric,  with 
his  army  of  Goths, 
bore  down  on  Italy 
and  Rome,  the  wrath 
of  the  people  against 
Serena  became  in- 
tense. The  opinion 
prevailed  that  her 
vengeance  had  bid- 
den this  invasion. 
She  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Sen- 
ate, which  compelled 
the  consent  of  Pla- 
cidia to  its  sentence 
against  her.  AAith 
this  act  of  desper- 
ation, Placidia  makes 
her  appearance  on 
the  world's  stage. 
After  the  second 
storming  of  Rome  by 
the  Goths,  she  was 
taken  a  hostage  by 
Alaric  on  his  return  to  Calabria.  After  the  lat- 
ter's  death  Ataulf  became  king,  and,  urgetl  by  Pla- 
cidia, began  peace  negotiations  with  Honorius  at 
Ra\-enna.  These  being  fruitless,  he  traversed  the 
Italian  peninsula  with  his  Goths,  crossed  the  Alps 
and  established  himself  in  Southern  Gaul  where  he 
and  Placidia  were  married  at  Narbo  (417).  In  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  her  enemies,  Ataulf  yielded  to  her 
influence  in  negotiating  peace  with  Honorius.  In 
Barcelona,  Placidia  gave  birth  to  a  son,  Theodosius, 
who  died  soon  afterwards.  Death  also  overtook  her 
husband,  who  died  a  victim  of  revenge.    Singerich, 


Boniface,  Prefect  of 
the  Province  of 
Africa,  and  the  Patri- 
cius  Aetius.  In  her 
children  she  had  lit- 
tlepleasure.  Placidia 
deserves  great  praise 
for  her  services  to  the 
Church.  She  used 
her  influence  to  fur- 
ther the  plans  of  Leo 
I  when  he  pleaded 
with  Theodosius  II 
to  put  an  end  to  the 
heresy  of  Eutyches. 
She  built  many 
churches  in  Ra- 
venna, Rimini,  and 
Rome,  restored 
others,  or  adorned 
them  with  mosaics. 
Among  these  are  the 
church  of  St.  John 
the  Evangelist  and 
that  of  Sts.  Nazaro 
and  Celso  in  Ra- 
venna. Her  zeal  in 
the  building  and 
beautifying     of 

churches  gave  a  new  stimulus  to  Christian  art  in  the 

fifth  century. 

Nagl,  G.  Placidia  in  Studien  zur    Gesch,  d.  AUertums,  II,  3 

(Paderborn,  1908). 

Karl  Hoebeb. 

Placidus,  Saint,  disciple  of  St.  Benedict,  the  son 
of  the  patrician  TertuUus,  was  brought  as  a  child  to 
St.  Benedict  at  Sublaqueum  (Subiaco)  and  dedicated 
to  God  asprovided  for  in  chapter  Ixix  of  St.  Benedict's 
Rule.  Here  too  occurred  the  incident  related  by  St. 
Gregory  (Dialogues,  II,  vii)  of  his  rescue  from  drown- 
ing when  his  fellow  monk,  Maurus,  at  St.  Benedict's 


Martyrdo.m  of  .Sts.  Placidus  and  Flavia 
Correggio,  Pinacoteca,  Parma 


PLACITUM 


143 


PLAGUES 


order  ran  across  the  surface  of  the  lake  below  the 
monastery  and  drew  Placidus  safely  to  shore.  It  ap- 
pears certain  that  he  accompanied  St.  Benedict  when, 
about  529,  he  removed  to  Monte  Cassino,  which  was 
said  to  have  been  made  over  to  him  by  the  father  of 
Placidus.  Of  his  later  life  nothing  is  known,  but  in 
an  ancient  psallerium  at  Vallombrosa  his  name  is 
found  in  the  Litany  of  the  Saints  placed  among  the 
confessors  immediately  after  those  of  St.  Benedict  and 
St.  Maurus;  the  same  occurs  in  Codex  CLV  at  Sub- 
iaco,  attributed  to  the  ninth  century  (see  Baumer, 
"Johannes  Mabillon",  p.  199,  n.  2). 

There  seems  now  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  "  Passio  S. 
Placidi",  purporting  to  be  written  by  one  Gordianus, 
a  servant  of  the  saint,  on  the  strength  of  which  he  is 
usually  described  as  abbot  and  martyr,  is  really  the 
work  of  Peter  the  Deacon,  a  monk  of  Monte  Cassino  in 
the  twelfth  century  (see  Delehaye,  op.  cit.  infra) .  The 
writer  seems  to  have  begun  by  confusing  St.  Placidus 
with  the  earlier  Placitus,  who,  with  Euticius  and  thirty 
companions,  was  martyred  in  Sicily  under  Diocletian, 
their  feast  occurring  in  the  earlier  martyrologies  on  5 
October.  Having  thus  made  St.  Placidus  a  martyr,  he 
proceeds  to  account  for  this  by  attributing  his  martyr- 
dom to  Saracen  invaders  from  Spain — an  utter  an- 
achronism in  the  sixth  century  but  quite  a  possible 
blunder  if  the  "Acta"  were  composed  after  the  Mos- 
lem invasions  of  Sicily.  The  whole  question  is  dis- 
cussed by  the  Bollandists  (infra). 

Acta  SS.,  Ill  Oct.  (Brussels,  1770),  65-147;  Mabillon,  Acta 
SS.  O.  S.  B.,  I  (Paris,  1668),  45;  Idem,  Annales  0.  S.  B.,  I  (Paris, 
1703);  Idem,  Iter  italicum  (Paris,  1687),  125;  CJregory  the 
Great,  Dial.,  II,  iii,  v,  vii,  in  P.  L.,  LXV,  140,  144,  146;  Pibri, 
Sicilia  sacra  (Palermo,  1733),  359,  379,  432,  1128;  Abbatissa, 
Vita  di  s.  Placido  (Messina,  1(354) ;  Avo,  Vita  S.  Placidi  (Venice, 
1583) ;  Compendia  deUa  vita  di  s.  Placido  (Monte  Cassino,  1895) ; 
Delehaye,  Legends  of  the  Saints,  tr.  Crawford  (London,  1907), 
72,  106. 

G.  Roger  Hudlbston. 
Placitum  Regium.     See  Exequatur. 

Plagues  of  Egypt,  ten  calamities  inflicted  on  the 
Egyptians  to  overcome  Pharao's  obstinacy  and  force 
him  to  let  the  Israelites  leave  Egypt  (Ex.,  vii,  8-xii, 
30;  Ps.lxxvii,  42-51;  civ,  26-36).  Moses's  notifica- 
tion of  God's  will  to  Pharao  only  produced  an  aggrava- 
tion of  the  condition  of  the  Israelites,  and  the  wonder 
of  changing  Aaron's  rod  into  a  serpent,  which  was 
wrought  in  proof  of  Moses's  Divine  mission,  made  no 
impression,  as  it  was  imitated  by  the  Egyptian  magi- 
cians (Ex.,  v;  vii,  8-13).  A  series  of  afflictions, 
culminating  in  the  destruction  of  all  the  first-born  of 
Egypt,  was  required  before  Pharao  yielded.  Of  the  ten 
plagues  seven  were  produced  through  the  agency  of 
Moses  and  Aaron  or  of  Moses  alone,  and  three,  namely 
the  fourth,  fifth,  and  tenth,  by  the  direct  action  of  God 
Himself.  The  interval  of  time  within  which  they 
occurred  cannot  be  stated  with  certainty.  The  last 
four  must  have  followed  in  close  succession  between 
the  beginning  of  March  and  the  first  days  of  April. 
For  when  the  hail  fell  barley  was  in  the  ear  and  flax  in 
bud,  which  in  Lower  Egypt  happens  about  March, 
and  the  Israelites  left  on  the  14th  of  Nisan,  which  falls 
in  the  latter  part  of  March  or  the  early  part  of  April. 
The  first  six  seem  also  to  have  succeeded  one  another 
at  short  intervals,  but  the  interval,  if  any,  between 
them  and  the  last  four  is  uncertain.  The  Scriptural 
account  produces  the  impression  that  the  ten  plagues 
were  a  series  of  blows  in  quick  succession,  and  this  is 
what  the  case  would  seem  to  have  required.  The 
scene  of  the  interviews  of  Moses  and  Aaron  with 
Pharao  was  Tanis  or  Soan  in  Lower  Egypt  (Ps.  Ixxvii, 
12,  43). 

In  the  first  plague,  the  water  of  the  river  and  of  all 
the  canals  and  pools  of  Egypt  was  turned  to  blood  and 
became  corrupted,  so  that  the  Egyptians  could  not 
drink  it,  and  even  the  fishes  died  (Ex.,  vii,  14-25). 
Commentators  are  divided  as  to  whether  the  water  was 
really  changed  into  blood,  or  whether  only  a  phenom- 


enon was  produced  similar  to  the  red  discoloration  of 
the  Nile  during  its  annual  rise,  which  gave  the  water 
the  appearance  of  blood.  The  latter  view  is  now  com- 
monly accepted.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that 
the  red  discoloration  is  not  usual  in  Lower  Egypt, 
and  that,  when  so  discoloured,  the  water  is  not  unfit  to 
drink,  though  it  is  during  the  first,  or  green,  stage  of  the 
rise.  Besides,  the  change  did  not  take  place  during  the 
inundation  (cf.  Ex.,  vii,  15).  The  second  plague  came 
seven  days  later.  Aaron  stretched  his  hand  upon  the 
waters  and  there  appeared  an  immense  number  of 
frogs,  which  covered  the  land  and  penetrated  into  the 
houses  to  the  great  discomfort  of  the  inhabitants. 
Pharao  now  promised  to  let  the  Israelites  go  to  sacrifice 
in  the  desert  if  the  frogs  were  removed,  but  broke  his 
promise  when  this  was  done.  The  third  plague  con- 
sisted of  swarms  of  gnats  which  tormented  man  and 
beast.  The  magicians  who  in  some  way  had  imitated 
the  first  two  wonders  could  not  imitate  this,  and  were 
forced  to  exclaim  "This  is  the  finger  of  God".  The 
fourth  was  a  pest  of  flies.  Pharao  now  agreed  to  allow 
the  Israelites  a  three  days'  journey  into  the  desert,  but 
when  at  the  prayer  of  Moses  the  flies  were  taken  away, 
he  failed  to  keep  his  promise.  The  fifth  was  a  murrain 
or  cattle-pest,  which  killed  the  beasts  of  the  Egyptians, 
while  sparing  those  of  the  Israelites.  The  sixth  con- 
sisted in  boils  which  broke  out  both  on  men  and 
beasts.  The  seventh  was  a  fearful  hailstorm.  "The 
hail  destroyed  through  all  the  land  of  Egypt  all  things 
that  were  in  the  field,  both  man  and  beast:  and  the 
hail  smote  every  herb  of  the  field,  and  it  broke  every 
tree  of  the  country.  Only  in  the  land  of  Gessen,  where 
the  children  of  Israel  were,  the  hail  fell  not."  The 
frightened  king  again  promised  and  again  became 
obstinate  when  the  storm  was  stopped.  At  the  threat 
of  an  unheard  of  plague  of  locusts  (the  eighth)  the  serv- 
ants of  Pharao  interceded  with  him  and  he  consented 
to  let  the  men  go,  but  refused  to  grant  more.  Moses 
therefore  stretched  forth  his  rod,  and  a  south  wind 
brought  innumerable  locusts  which  devoured  what  the 
hailstorm  had  left.  The  niiith  plague  was  a  horrible 
darkness  which  for  three  days  covered  all  Egypt  except 
the  land  of  Gessen.  The  immediate  cause  of  this 
plague  was  probably  the  hamsin,  a  south  or  south- 
west wind  charged  with  sand  and  dust,  which  blows 
about  the  spring  equinox  and  at  times  produces  dark- 
ness rivalling  that  of  the  worst  London  fogs.  As 
Pharao,  though  willing  to  allow  the  departure,  in- 
sisted that  the  flocks  should  be  left  behind,  the 
final  and  most  painful  blow  (the  tenth)  was  struck — 
the  destruction  in  one  night  of  all  the  first-born  of 
Egypt. 

As  the  plagues  of  Egypt  find  parallels  in  natural 
phenomena  of  the  country,  many  consider  them  as 
merely  natural  occurrences.  The  last  evidently  does 
not  admit  of  a  natural  explanation,  since  a  pesti- 
lence does  not  select  its  victims  according  to  method. 
The  others,  howsoever  natural  they  may  be  at  times, 
must  in  this  instance  be  considered  miraculous  by 
reason  of  the  manner  in  which  they  were  produced. 
They  belong  to  the  class  of  miracles  which  the  theo- 
logians call  preternatural.  For  not  to  mention  that 
they  were  of  extraordinary  intensity,  and  that  the  first 
occurred  at  an  unusual  time  and  place  and  with  un- 
usual effects,  they  happened  at  the  exact  time  and  in 
the  exact  manner  predicted.  Most  of  them  were  pro- 
duced at  Moses's  command,  and  ceased  at  his  prayer, 
in  one  case  at  the  time  set  by  Pharao  himself.  Purely 
natural  phenomena,  it  is  clear,  do  not  occur  under 
such  conditions.  Moreover,  the  ordinary  phenomena, 
which  were  well  known  to  the  Egyptians,  would  not 
have  produced  such  a  deep  impression  on  Pharao  and 
his  court. 

ViGOUHOux,  La  Bible  et  les  dScouv.  mod.,  II  (PariSj  1889),  285 
sqq. ;  Hummelauer,  Cornment.  in  Exod.  et  Levit.  (Paris,  1897) ,  83 
sqq. :  Selbst,  Handbuch  zur  biblisch,  Geschichte  (I'reiburg,  1910), 
405  sqq. 

F.  Bechtel. 


PLAIN 


144 


PLAIN 


Plain  Chant. — By  plain  chant  we  understand  the 
church  music  of  the  early  Middle  Ages,  before  the  ad- 
vent of  polyphony.  Having  grown  up  gradually  in 
the  service  of  Christian  worship,  it  remained  the  ex- 
clusive music  of  the  Church  till  the  ninth  century, 
when  polyphony  made  its  first  modest  appearance. 
For  centuries  again  it  held  a  place  of  honour,  being, 
on  the  one  hand,  cultivated  side  by  side  with  the  new 
music,  and  serving,  on  the  other  hand,  as  the  founda- 
tion on  which  its  rival  was  built.  By  the  time  vocal 
polyphony  reached  its  culminating  point,  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  plain  chant  had  lost  greatly  in  the 
estimation  of  men,  anrl  it  was  more  and  more  neg- 
lected during  the  following  centuries.  But  all  along 
the  Church  officially  looked  upon  it  as  her  own  music, 
and  as  particularly  suited  for  her  services,  and  at  last, 
in  our  own  days,  a  revival  has  come  which  seems 
destined  to  restore  plain  chant  to  its  ancient  position 
of  glory.  The  name,  cantus  planus,  was  first  used  by 
theorists  of  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  to  dis- 
tinguish the  old  music  from  the  musica  mensurata  or 
mensurabilis,  music  using  notes  of  different  time  value 
in  strict,  mathematical  proportion,  which  began  to  be 
developed  about  that  time.  The  earUest  name  we 
meet  is  cantilena  romana  (the  Roman  chant) ,  probably 
used  to  designate  one  form  of  the  chant  having  its 
origin  in  Rome  from  others,  such  as  the  Ambrosian 
chant  (see  Gregorian  Chant).  It  is  also  commonly 
called  Gregorian  chant,  being  attributed  in  some  way 
to  St.  Gregory  I. 

History. — .Vlthough  there  is  not  much  known 
about  the  church  music  of  the  first  three  centuries, 
and  although  it  is  clear  that  the  time  of  the  presecu- 
tions  was  not  favourable  to  a  development  of  solemn 
Liturgy,  there  are  plenty  of  allusions  in  the  wril^mgs 
of  contemporary  authors  to  show  that  the  early  Chris- 
tians used  to  sing  both  in  private  and  when  assembled 
for  public  worship.  We  also  know  that  they  not  only 
took  their  texts  from  the  psalms  and  canticles  of  the 
Bible,  but  also  composed  new  things.  The  latter  were 
generally  called  hymns,  whether  they  were  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  or  of  the  classical  Greek  poetic 
forms.  There  seem  to  have  been  from  the  beginning, 
or  at  least  very  early,  two  forms  of  singing,  the  respon- 
sorial  and  the  antiphonal.  The  responsorial  was  solo 
singing  in  which  the  congregation  joined  with  a  kind 
of  refrain.  The  antiphonal  consisted  in  the  alterna- 
tion of  two  choirs.  It  is  probable  that  even  in  this 
early  period  the  two  methods  caused  that  differentia- 
tion in  the  style  of  musical  composition  which  we  ob- 
serve throughout  the  later  history  of  plain  chant,  the 
choral  compositions  being  of  a  simple  kind,  the  solo 
compositions  more  elaborate,  using  a  more  extended 
compass  of  melodies  and  longer  groups  of  notes  on 
single  syllables.  One  thing  stands  out  very  clearly  in 
this  period,  namely,  the  exclusion  of  musical  instru- 
ments from  Christian  worship.  The  main  reason  for 
this  exclusion  was  perhaps  the  associations  of  musical 
instruments  arising  from  their  pagan  use.  A  similar 
reason  may  have  militated  in  the  West,  at  least, 
against  metrical  hymns,  for  we  learn  that  St.  Ambrose 
was  the  first  to  introduce  these  into  public  worship  in 
'Western  churches.  In  Rome  they  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  admitted  before  the  twelfth  century.  (See,  how- 
ever, an  article  by  Max  Springer  in  "  Gregorianische 
Rundschau",  Graz,  1910,  nos.  5  and  6.) 

In  the  fourth  century  church  music  developed  con- 
siderably, particularly  in  the  monasteries  of  Syria  and 
Egypt.  Here  there  seems  to  have  been  introduced 
about  this  time  what  is  now  generally  called  antiphon, 
i.  e.,  a  short  melodic  composition  sung  in  connexion 
with  the  antiphonal  rendering  of  a  psalm.  This  anti- 
phon, it  seems,  was  repeated  after  every  verse  of  the 
psalm,  the  two  choir  sides  uniting  in  it.  In  the  W^est- 
em  Church  where  formerly  the  responsorial  method 
seems  to  ha^■o  been  used  alone,  the  antiphonal  method 
was  introduced  by  St.  Ambrose.    He  first  used  it  in 


Milan  in  386,  and  it  was  adopted  soon  afterwards  in 
nearly  all  the  Western  churches.  Another  importa- 
tion from  the  Eastern  to  the  Western  Church  in  this 
century  was  the  Alleluia  chant.  This  was  a  peculiar 
kind  of  responsorial  singing  in  which  an  Alleluia 
formed  the  responsorium  or  refrain.  This  Alleluia, 
which  from  the  beginning  appears  to  have  iDeen  a  long, 
melismatic  composition,  was  heard  by  St.  .lerome  in 
Bethlehem,  and  at  his  instance  was  adopted  in  Rome 
by  Pope  Damascus  (368-84).  At  first  its  use  there 
appears  to  have  been  confined  to  Easter  Sunday,  but 
soon  it  was  extended  to  the  whole  of  Paschal  time, 
and  eventually,  by  St.  Gregory,  to  all  the  year  except- 
ing the  period  of  Septuagesima. 

In  the  fifth  century  antiphony  was  adopted  for  the 
Mass,  some  psalms  being  sung  antiphonally  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Mass,  during  the  oblations,  and  dur- 
ing the  distribution  of  Holy  Communion.  Thus  all 
the  types  of  the  choral  chants  had  been  established 
and  from  that  time  forward  there  was  a  continuous 
development,  which  reached  something  like  finality 
in  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great.  During  this 
period  of  development  some  important  changes  took 
place.  One  of  these  was  the  shortening  of  the  Gradual. 
This  was  originally  a  psalm  sung  responsorially.  It  had 
a  place  in  the  Mass  from  the  very  beginning.  The 
alternation  of  readings  from  scripture  with  responso- 
rial singing  is  one  of  the  fundamental  features  of  the 
Liturgy.  As  we  have  the  responses  after  the  lessons 
of  Matins,  so  we  find  the  Gradual  responses  after  the 
lessons  of  Mass,  during  the  singing  of  which  all  sat 
down  and  listened.  They  were  thus  distinguished 
from  those  Mass  chants  that  merely  accompanied  other 
functions.  As  the  refrain  was  originally  sung  by  the 
people,  it  must  have  been  of  a  simple  kind.  But  it 
appears  that  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  century,  or, 
at  latest,  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century,  the  re- 
frain was  taken  over  by  the  schola,  the  body  of 
trained  singers.  Hand  in  hand  with  this  went  a 
greater  elaboration  of  the  melody,  both  of  the  psalm 
verses  and  of  the  refrain  itself,  probably  in  imitation 
of  the  Alleluia. 

This  elaboration  then  brought  about  a  shortening 
of  the  text,  until,  by  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century, 
we  have  only  one  verse  left.  There  remained,  how- 
ever, the  repetition  of  the  response  proper  after  the 
verse.  This  repetition  gradually  ceased  only  from 
the  twelfth  century  forward,  until  its  omission  was 
sanctioned  generally  for  the  Roman  usage  by  the 
Missal  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  repetition  of  the 
refrain  is  maintained  in  the  Alleluia  chant,  except 
when  a  second  Alleluia  chant  follows,  from  the  Satur- 
day after  Easter  to  the  end  of  Paschal  time.  The 
Tract,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  Alleluia  chant 
during  the  period  of  Septuagesima,  has  presented 
some  difficulty  to  liturgists.  Prof.  Wagner  (Intro- 
duction to  the  Gregorian  Melodies,  i,  78,  86)  holds 
that  the  name  is  a  translation  of  the  Greek  term 
€lpij.6i,  which  means  a  melodic  type  to  be  applied  to 
several  texts,  and  he  thinks  that  the  Tracts  are  really 
Graduals  of  the  older  form,  before  the  melody  was 
made  more  elaborate  and  the  text  shortened.  The 
Tracts,  then,  would  represent  the  form  in  which  the 
Gradual  verses  were  sung  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies. Of  the  antiphonal  Mass  chants  the  Introit 
and  Communion  retained  their  form  till  the  eighth 
century,  when  the  psalm  began  to  be  shortened. 
Nowadays  the  Introit  has  only  one  verse,  usually  the 
first  of  the  psalm,  and  the  Doxology,  after  which  the 
Antiphon  is  repeated.  The  Communion  has  lost 
psalm  and  repetition  completely,  only  the  requiem 
Mass  preserving  a  trace  of  the  original  custom.  But 
the  Offertory  underwent  a  considerable  change  before 
St.  Gregory;  the  psalm  verses,  instead  of  being  sung 
antiphonally  by  the  choir,  were  given  over  to  the 
soloist  and  accordingly  received  rich  melodic  treat- 
ment like  the  Gradual  verses.     The  antiphon  itself 


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145 


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also  participated  to  some  extent  in  this  melodic  en- 
richment. The  Offertory  verses  were  omitted  in  the 
late  Middle  Ages,  and  now  only  the  Offertory  of  the 
requiem  Mass  shows  one  verse  with  a  partial  repeti- 
tion of  the  antiphon. 

After  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  musical  composition 
suddenly  began  to  flag.  For  the  new  feasts  that  were 
introduced,  either  existing  chants  were  adopted  or  new 
texts  were  fitted  with  existing  melodies.  Only  about 
twenty-four  new  melodies  appear  to  have  been  com- 
posed in  the  seventh  century;  at  least  we  cannot  prove 
that  they  existed  before  the  year  600.  After  the 
seventh  century,  composition  of  the  class  of  chants 
we  have  discussed  ceased  completely,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  Alleluias  which  did  not  gain  general 
acceptance  till  the  fifteenth  century,  when  a  new 
Alleluia  was  composed  for  the  Visitation  and  some 
new  chants  for  the  Mass  of  the  Holy  Name  (see 
"The  Sarum  Gradual  and  the  Gregorian  Antiphonale 
Missarum"  by  W.  H.  Frere,  London,  1895,  pp.  20,  30). 
It  was  different,  however,  with  another  class  of  Mass 
chants  comprised  under  the  name  of  "Ordinarium 
Missae".  Of  these  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  and  Sanctus 
were  in  the  Gregorian  Liturgy,  and  are  of  very  ancient 
origin.  The  Agnus  Dei  appears  to  have  been  insti- 
tuted by  Sergius  I  (687-701)  and  the  Credo  appears 
in  the  Roman  Liturgy  about  the  year  800,  but  only 
to  disappear  again,  until  it  was  finally  adopted  for 
special  occasions  by  Benedict  VIII  (1012-24).  All 
these  chants,  however,  were  originally  assigned,  not 
to  the  schola,  but  to  the  clergy  and  people.  Accord- 
ingly their  melodies  were  very  simple,  as  those  of  the 
Credo  are  still.  Later  on  they  were  assigned  to  the 
choir,  and  then  the  singers  began  to  compose  more 
elaborate  melodies.  The  chants  now  found  in  our 
books  assigned  to  Ferias  may  be  taken  as  the  older 
forms. 

Two  new  forms  of  Mass  music  were  added  in  the 
ninth  century,  the  Sequences  and  the  Tropes  or 
Proses.  Both  had  their  origin  in  St.  Gall.  Notker 
gave  rise  to  the  Sequences,  which  were  originally 
meant  to  supply  words  for  the  longissimce  melodicB 
sung  on  the  final  syllable  of  the  Alleluia.  These  "very 
long  melodies"  do  not  seem  to  have  been  the  melis- 
mata  which  we  find  in  the  Gregorian  Chant,  and 
which  in  St.  Gall  were  not  longer  than  elsewhere,  but 
special  melodies  probably  imported  about  that  time 
from  Greece  (Wagner,  op.  cit.,  I,  222).  Later  on  new 
melodies  were  invented  for  the  Sequences.  What 
Notker  did  for  the  Alleluia,  his  contemporary  Tuotilo 
did  for  other  chants  of  the  Mass,  especially  the  Kyrie, 
which  by  this  time  had  got  some  elaborate  melodies. 
The  Kyrie  melodies  were,  in  the  subsequent  centuries, 
generally  known  by  the  initial  words  of  the  Tropes 
composed  for  them,  and  this  practice  has  been  adopted 
in  the  new  Vatican  edition  of  the  "Kyriale".  Se- 
quences and  Tropes  became  soon  the  favourite  forms 
of  expression  of  medieval  piety,  and  innumerable 
compositions  of  the  kind  are  to  be  met  with  in  the 
medieval  service  books,  until  the  Missal  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  reduced  the  Sequences  to  four  (a  fifth,  the 
Stabat  Mater,  being  added  in  1727)  and  abolished  the 
Tropes  altogether.  As  regards  the  Office,  Gevaert 
(La  Melop6e  Antiqiie)  holds  that  one  whole  class  of 
antiphons,  namely  those  taken  from  the  "Gesta 
Martyrum",  belong  to  the  seventh  century.  But  he 
points  out  also  that  no  new  melodic  type  is  found 
amongst  them.  So  here  again  we  find  the  ceasing  of 
melodic  invention  after  St.  Gregory.  The  responses 
of  the  Office  received  many  changes  and  additions 
after  St.  Gregory,  especially  in  Gaul  about  the  ninth 
century,  when  the  old  Roman  method  of  repeating  the 
whole  response  proper  after  the  verses  was  replaced 
by  a  repetition  of  merely  the  second  half  of  the  re- 
sponse. This  GalUcan  method  eventually  found  its 
way  into  the  Roman  use  and  is  the  common  one  now. 
But  as  the  changes  affected  only  the  verses,  which 
XII.— 10 


have  fixed  formulae  easily  applied  to  different  texts, 
the  musical  question  was  not  much  touched. 

St.  Gregory  compiled  the  Liturgy  and  the  music  for 
the  local  Roman  use.  He  had  no  idea  of  extending  it 
to  the  other  Churches,  but  the  authority  of  his  name 
and  of  the  Roman  See,  as  well  as  the  intrinsic  value 
of  the  work  itself,  caused  his  Liturgy  and  chant  to 
be  adopted  gradually  by  practically  the  whole  Western 
Church.  During  his  own  lifetime  they  were  intro- 
duced into  England  and  from  there,  by  the  early 
missionaries,  into  Germany  (Wagner,  "  Einf iihrung ", 
II,  p.  88).  They  conquered  Gaul  mainly  through  the 
efforts  of  Pepin  and  Charlemagne,  and  about  the  same 
time  they  began  to  make  their  way  into  Northern 
Italy,  where  the  Milanese,  or  Ambrosian,  Liturgy  had 
a  firm  hold,  and  into  Spain,  although  it  took  centuries 
before  they  became  universal  in  these  regions.  While 
the  schola  founded  by  St.  Gregory  kept  the  tradition 
pure  in  Rome,  they  also  sent  out  singers  to  foreign 
parts  from  time  to  time  to  check  the  tradition  there, 
and  copies  of  the  authentic  choir  books  kept  in  Rome 
helped  to  secure  uniformity  of  the  melodies.  Thus  it 
came  about  that  the  MS.  in  neumatic  notation  (see 
Neum)  from  the  ninth  century  forward,  and  those  in 
staff  notation  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, present  a  wonderful  uniformity.  Only  a  few 
slight  changes  seem  to  have  been  introduced.  The 
most  important  of  these  was  the  change  of  the  reciting 
note  of  the  3rd  and  8th  modes  from  h  to  c,  which  seems 
to  have  taken  place  in  the  ninth  century.  A  few  other 
slight  changes  are  due  to  the  notions  of  theorists 
during  the  ninth  and  following  centuries. 

These  notions  included  two  things:  (1)  the  tone 
system,  which  comprised  a  double  octave  of  natural 
tones,  from  A  to  a'  with  G  added  below,  and  allowing 
only  one  chromatic  note,  namely  b  flat  instead  of  the 
second  h;  and  (2)  eight  modes  theory.  As  some  of  the 
Gregorian  melodies  did  not  well  fit  in  with  this  theo- 
retic system,  exhibiting,  if  ranged  according  to  the 
mode  theory,  other  chromatic  notes,  such  as  e  flat,  / 
sharp,  and  a  lower  B  flat,  some  theorists  declared  them 
to  be  wrong,  and  advocated  their  emendation.  Fortu- 
nately the  singers,  and  the  scribes  who  noted  the  tradi- 
tional melodies  in  staff  notation,  did  not  all  share  this 
view.  But  the  difficulties  of  expressing  the  melodies 
in  the  accepted  tone  system,  with  6  flat  as  the  only 
chromatic  note,  sometimes  forced  them  to  adopt 
curious  expedients  and  slight  changes.  But  as  the 
scribes  did  not  all  resort  to  the  same  method,  their 
differences  enable  us,  as  a  rule,  to  restore  the  original 
version.  Another  slight  change  regards  some  melodic 
ornaments  entailing  tone  steps  smaller  than  a  semi- 
tone. The  older  chant  contained  a  good  number  of 
these,  especially  in  the  more  elaborate  melodies.  In 
the  staff  notation,  which  was  based  essentially  on  a 
diatonic  system,  these  ornamental  notes  could  not  be 
expressed,  and,  for  the  small  step,  either  a  semitone 
or  a  repetition  of  the  same  note  had  to  be  substituted. 
Simultaneously  these  non-diatonic  intervals  must  have 
disappeared  from  the  practical  rendering,  but  the 
transition  was  so  gradual  that  nobody  seems  to  have 
been  conscious  of  a  change,  for  no  writer  alludes  to  it. 
Wagner  (op.  cit.,  II,  passim),  who  holds  that  these 
ornaments  are  of  Oriental  origin  though  they  formed  a 
genuine  part  of  the  sixth-century  melodies,  sees  in 
their  disappearance  the  complete  latinization  of  the 
plain  chant. 

A  rather  serious,  though  fortunately  a  singular, 
interference  of  theory  with  tradition  is  found  in 
the  form  of  the  chant  the  Cistercians  arranged  for 
themselves  in  the  twelfth  century  (Wagner,  op.  cit., 
II,  p.  286).  St.  Bernard,  who  had  been  deputed  to 
secure  uniform  books  for  the  order,  took  as  his  adviser 
one  Guido,  Abbot  of  Cherlieu,  a  man  of  very  strong 
theoretical  views.  One  of  the  things  to  which  he  held 
firmly  was  the  rule  that  the  compass  of  a  melody 
should  not  exceed  the  octave  laid  down  for  each  mode 


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146 


PLAIN 


by  more  than  one  note  above  and  below.  This  rule  is 
broken  by  many  Gregorian  melodies.  But  Guido  had 
no  scruple  in  applying  the  pruning  knife,  and  sixty- 
three  Graduals  and  a  few  other  melodies  had  to  un- 
dergo considerable  alteration.  Another  systematic 
change  affected  the  Alleluia  verse.  The  long  melisma 
regularly  found  on  the  final  syllable  of  this  verse  was 
considered  extravagant,  and  was  shortened  consider- 
ably. Similarly  a  few  repetitions  of  melodic  phrases 
in  a  melismatio  group  were  cut  out,  and  finally  the  idea 
that  the  fundamental  note  of  the  mode  should  begin 
and  end  every  piece  caused  a  few  changes  in  some 
intonations  and  in  the  endings  of  the  Introit  psalmody. 
Less  violent  changes  are  found  in  the  chant  of  the 
Dominicans,  fixed  in  the  thirteenth  century  (Wagner, 
op.  cit.,  p.  :i05).  The  main  variations  from  the  gen- 
eral tradition  are  the  shortening  of  the  melisma  on  the 
final  syllable  of  the  Alleluia  verse  and  the  omission  of 
the  repetition  of  some  melodic  phrases. 

From  the  fourteenth  century  forward  the  tradition 
begins  to  go  down.  The  growing  interest  taken  in 
polyphony  caused  the  plain  chant  to  be  neglected. 
The  books  were  written  carelessly;  the  forms  of  the 
neums,  so  important  for  the  rhythm,  began  to  be  dis- 
regarded, and  shortenings  of  melismata  became  more 
general.  Xo  radical  changes,  however,  are  found  until 
we  come  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  re- 
form of  Missal  and  Breviary,  initiated  by  the  Council 
of  Trent,  gave  rise  to  renewed  attention  to  the  litur- 
gical chant.  But  as  the  understanding  of  its  peculiar 
language  had  disappeared,  the  results  were  disastrous. 
Palestrina  was  one  of  the  men  who  tried  their  hands, 
but  he  did  not  carry  his  work  through  (see  P.  R. 
MoUtor,  "Die  Nach-Tridentinische  Choral  Reform", 
2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1901-2).  Early  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  however,  Raimondi,  the  head  of  the  Medi- 
cean  printing  establishment,  took  up  again  the  idea  of 
publishing  a  new  Gradual.  He  commissioned  two 
musicians  of  name,  Felice  Anerio  and  Francesco  Su- 
riano,  to  revise  the  melodies.  This  they  did  in  an  in- 
credibly short  time,  less  than  a  year,  and  with  a  .simi- 
larly incredible  recklessness,  and  in  1614  and  1615  the 
Medicean  Gradual  appeared.  This  book  has  consider- 
able importance,  because  in  the  second  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  believ- 
ing it  to  contain  the  true  chant  of  St.  Gregory,  had  it 
republished  as  the  official  chant  book  of  the  Church, 
which  position  it  held  from  1870  to  1904.  During  the 
se\'enteenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  various  other 
attempts  were  made  to  reform  the  Gregorian  chant. 
They  were  well  intentioned,  no  doubt,  but  only  em- 
phasized the  downward  course  things  were  taking. 
The  practice  of  singing  became  worse  and  worse,  and 
what  had  been  the  glory  of  centuries  fell  into  general 
contempt  (see  P.  R.  Molitor,  "Reform-Choral",  Frei- 
burg, 1901). 

From  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  dates 
a  revival  of  the  interest  taken  in  plain  chant.  Men 
began  to  study  the  question  seriously,  and  while  some 
saw  salvation  in  further  "reforms",  others  insisted  on 
a  return  to  the  past.  It  took  a  whole  century  to  bring 
about  a  complete  restoration.  France  has  the  honour 
of  having  done  the  principal  work  in  this  great  under- 
taking fsoe  P.  R.  Molitor,  " Restauration  des  Grego- 
rianischen  Chorales  im  1<).  Jahrhundert"  in  "His- 
tori.sch-politische  Blatter",  CXXXV,  nos.  9-11).  One 
of  the  best  attempts  was  a  Gradual  edited  about  18.51 
!)>•  a  commission  for  the  Dioceses  of  Reims  and  Cam- 
brai,  and  published  by  Lecoffre.  Being  founded  on 
limited  critical  material,  it  was  not  perfect;  but  the 
worst  feature  was  that  the  editors  had  not  the  courage 
to  Ko  the  whole  way.  The  final  solution  of  the  difficult 
question  was  to  come  from  the  Benedictine  monastery 
of  Solesmcs,  Gueranger,  the  restorer  of  the  Liturgy, 
also  conceived  the  idea  of  restoring  the  liturgical 
chant,  .\bout  lN(;(  I  he  ordered  two  of  his  monks,  Dom 
Jausions  and  Dom  Pothier,  to  make  a  thorough  exam- 


ination of  the  codices  and  to  compile  a  Gradual  for  the 
monastery.  After  twelve  years  of  close  work  the 
Gradual  was  in  the  main  completed,  but  another 
eleven  years  elapsed  before  Dom  Pothier,  who  on  the 
death  of  Dom  Jausions  had  become  sole  editor,  pub- 
hshed  his  "  Liber  Gradualis  "  It  was  the  first  attempt 
to  return  absolutely  to  the  version  of  the  MSS.,  and 
though  capable  of  improvements  in  details  solved  the 
question  substantially.  This  return  to  the  version  of 
the  MSS.  was  illustrated  happily  by  the  adoption  of 
the  note  forms  of  the  thirteenth  century,  which  show 
clearly  the  groupings  of  the  neums  so  important  for 
the  rhythm.  Since  that  date  the  work  of  investigating 
the  MSS.  was  continued  by  the  Solesmes  monks,  who 
formed  a  regular  school  of  critical  research  under  Dom 
Mocquereau,  Dom  Pothier's  successor.  A  most  valu- 
able outcome  of  their  studies  is  the  "  Paldographie 
Musicale",  which  has  appeared,  since  1889,  in  quar- 
terly volumes,  giving  photographic  reproductions  of 
the  principal  MSS.  of  plain  chant,  together  with  scien- 
tific dissertations  on  the  subject.  In  1903  they  pub- 
lished the  "Liber  Usualis",  an  extract  from  the  Grad- 
ual and  antiphonary,  in  which  they  embodied  some 
melodic  improvements  and  valuable  rhythmical  direc- 
tions. 

A  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  plain  chant  was  inau- 
gurated by  Pius  X.  By  his  Motu  Proprio  on  church 
music  (22  Nov.,  1903)  he  ordered  the  return  to  the 
traditional  chant  of  the  Church  and  accordingly  the 
Congregation  of  Rites,  by  a  decree  of  8  Jan.,  1904, 
withdrawing  the  former  decrees  in  favour  of  the  Ratis- 
bon  (Medicean)  edition,  commanded  that  the  tradi- 
tional form  of  plain  chant  be  introduced  into  all 
churches  as  soon  as  possible.  In  order  to  facilitate 
this  introduction,  Pius  X,  by  a  iVIotu  Proprio  of  25 
April,  1904,  established  a  commission  to  prepare  an 
edition  of  plain  chant  which  was  to  be  brought  out  by 
the  Vatican  printing  press  and  which  all  publishers 
should  get  permission  to  reprint.  Unfortunately  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  arose  between  the  majority  of  the 
members  of  the  commission,  including  the  Solesmes 
Benedictines,  and  its  president,  Dom  Joseph  Pothier, 
with  the  result  that  the  pope  gave  the  whole  control  of 
the  work  to  Dom  Pothier.  The  consequence  was  that 
magnificent  MS.  material  which  the  Solesmes  monks, 
expelled  from  France,  had  accumulated  in  their  new 
home  on  the  Isle  of  Wight,  first  at  Appuldurcombe 
afterwards  at  Quarr  Abbey,  remained  unused.  The 
Vatican  edition,  however,  though  it  is  not  all  that 
modern  scholarship  could  have  made  it,  is  a  great 
improvement  on  Dom  Pothier's  earlier  editions  and 
represents  fairly  well  the  reading  of  the  best  MSS. 

Tone  Syste.m  and  Modes. — The  theory  of  the  plain 
chant  tone  system  and  modes  is  as  yet  somewhat 
obscure.  We  have  already  remarked  that  the  current 
medieval  theory  laid  down  for  the  tone  system  a 
heptatonic  diatonic  scale  of  about  two  octaves  with 
the  addition  of  b  flat  in  the  higher  octave.  In  this  sys- 
tem four  notes,  d,  e,  f,  and  g,  were  taken  as  fundamen- 
tal notes  (tonics)  of  modes.  Each  of  these  modes  was 
subdivided  according  to  the  compass,  one  class,  called 
authentic,  having  the  normal  compass,  from  the  fun- 
damental note  to  the  octave,  the  other,  called  plagal, 
from  a  fourth  below  the  fundamental  note  to  a  fifth 
above.  Thus  there  result  eight  modes.  These,  of 
course,  are  to  be  understood  as  differing  not  in  abso- 
lute pitch,  as  their  tlicoretical  demonstration  and  also 
the  notation  might  suggest,  but  in  their  internal  con- 
struction. The  notation,  therefore,  refers  merely  to 
relative  pitch,  as  does,  e.  g.,  the  tonic  sol-fa  notation. 
Not  being  hampered  by  instrumental  accompaniment, 
singers  and  scribes  did  not  bother  about  a  system  of 
transposition,  which  in  ancient  Greek  music,  for  in- 
stance, was  felt  necessary  at  an  early  period. 

The  theoretical  distinction  between  authentic  and 
plagal  modes  is  not  borne  out  by  an  analysis  of  the 
existing  melodies  and  their  traditional  classification 


PLAIN 


147 


PLAIN 


(see  Fr.  Krasuski,  "Ueber  den  Ambitus  der  grego- 
rianischen  Messgesange",  Freiburg,  1903).  Melodies 
of  the  fourth  mode  having  a  constant  6  flat  fall  in 
badly  with  the  theoretic  conception  of  a  fourth  mode 
having  b  natural  as  its  normal  note,  and  some  antiphon 
melodies  of  that  mode,  although  they  use  no  b  flat  but 
have  a  as  their  highest  note,  e.  g.  the  Easter  Sunday 
Introit,  are  out  of  joint  with  the  psalmody  of  that 
mode.  It  would,  therefore,  seem  certain  that  the  eight 
mode  theory  was,  as  a  ready  made  system,  imposed  on 
the  existing  stock  of  plain  chant  melodies.  Historically 
the  first  mention  of  the  theory  occurs  in  the  writings  of 
Alcuin  (d.  804),  but  the  "  Pal^ographie  Musicals"  (IV, 
p.  204)  points  out  that  the  existence  of  cadences  in  the 
Introit  psalmody  based  on  the  literary  cursus  planus 
tends  to  show  that  an  eight  mode  theory  was  current 
already  in  St.  Gregory's  time.  From  the  tenth  century 
forward  the  four  modes  are  also  known  by  the  Greek 
terms,  Dorian,  Phrygian,  Lydian,  and  Mixolydian, 
the  plagals  being  indicated  by  the  prefix  Hypo.  But 
in  the  ancient  Greek  theory  these  names  were  applied 
to  the  scales  e-e,  d-d,  c-c,  b-b  respectively.  The  trans- 
formation of  the  theory  seems  to  have  come  to  pass, 
by  a  complicated  and  somewhat  obscure  process,  in 
Byzantine  music  (see  Riemann,  "Handbuch  der  Mu- 
sikgeschiohte",  I,  §31).  The  growth  of  the  melodies 
themselves  may  have  taken  place  partly  on  the  basis 
of  Hebrew  (Syrian)  elements,  partly  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  varying  Greek  or  Byzantine  theories. 

Rhythji. — Practically,  the  most  important  ques- 
tion of  plain  chant  theory  is  that  of  the  rhythm.  Here 
again  opinions  are  divided.  The  so-called  equalists  or 
oratorists  hold  that  the  rhythm  of  plain  chant  is  the 
rhythm  of  ordinary  prose  Latin;  that  the  time  value 
of  all  the  notes  is  the  same  except  in  as  far  as  their 
connexion  with  the  different  syllables  makes  slight 
differences.  They  hold,  however,  the  prolongation  of 
final  notes,  mora  ultimas  vocis,  not  only  at  the  end  of 
sentences  and  phrases  but  also  at  the  minor  divisions 
of  neum  groups  on  one  syllable.  In  the  Vatican  edi- 
tion the  latter  are  indicated  by  vacant  spaces  after  the 
notes.  The  mensuralists,  on  the  other  hand,  with 
Dechevrens  as  their  principal  representative,  hold 
that  the  notes  of  plain  chant  are  subject  to  strict  meas- 
urement. They  distinguish  three  values  correspond- 
ing to  the  modern  quavers,  crotchets,  and  minims. 
They  have  in  their  favour  numerous  expressions  of 
medieval  theorists  and  the  manifold  rhythmical  indi- 
cations in  the  MSS.,  especially  those  of  the  St.  Gall 
School  (see  Neum)  .  But  their  rhythmical  translations 
of  the  MS.  readings  do  not  give  a  satisfactory  result, 
which  they  admit  themselves  by  modifying  them  for 
practical  purposes.  Moreover,  their  interpretation  of 
the  MS.  indications  does  not  seem  correct,  as  has  been 
shown  by  Baralli  in  the  "Rassegna  Gregoriana", 
1905-8.  We  may  mention  here  also  the  theory  of 
Riemann  (Handbuch  der  Musikgeschichte,  I,  viii), 
who  holds  that  plain  chant  has  a  regular  rhythm  based 
on  the  accents  of  the  texts  and  forming  two-bar 
phrases  of  four  accents.  He  transcribes  the  antiphon 
"Apud  Dominum"  in  this  way: 


■•-     -•-«-|22- 


.•-»-.*»-     -^     ■(=- 


mE=^ 


A.  -  pud    Do-mi-num     mi 


I  -  ri  -  cor  -  di  -  a, 


H^ 


=t 


=EC^= 


^ 


et        CO  -  pi  -  o 


aa         a  -  pud  e-um   re-dempti-o. 


This  looks  quite  plausible.  But  he  has  to  admit 
that  this  antiphon  suits  his  purposes  particularly,  and 
when  he  comes  to  more  complicated  pieces  the  result 
is  altogether  impossible,  and  for  the  long  final  neumata 
of  Graduals  he  has  even  to  suppose  that  they  were 
sung  on  an  added  Alleluia,  a  supposition  which  has  no 
historical  foundation.    Possibly  the  melodies  of  Office 


antiphons,  as  they  came  from  Syria,  had  originally 
some  such  rhythm,  as  Riemann  states.  But  in  the 
process  of  adaptation  to  various  Latin  texts  and  under 
the  influence  of  psalmodic  singing  they  must  have  lost 
it  at  an  early  period.  A  kind  of  intermediate  position 
between  the  oratorists  and  the  mensuralists  is  taken 
up  by  the  school  of  Dom  Mooquereau.  With  the 
oratorists  they  hold  the  free  combination  of  duple  and 
triple  note  groups.  With  the  mensuralists  they  state 
various  time  values  ranging  from  the  normal  duration 
of  the  short  note,  which  is  that  of  a  syllable  in  ordinary 
recitation,  to  the  doubling  of  that  duration.  Their 
system  is  based  on  the  agreement  of  the  rhythmical 
indications  in  the  MSS.  of  St.  Gall  and  Metz,  and 
recently  Dom  Beyssac  has  pointed  out  a  third  class  of 
rhythmical  notation,  which  he  calls  that  of  Chartres 
("Revue  Gr^gorienne",  1911,  no.  1).  Moreover,  they 
find  their  theories  supported  by  certain  proceedings  in 
a  large  number  of  other  MSS.,  as  has  been  shown  in 
the  case  of  the  "Quilisma"  by  Dom  Mocquereau  in 
the  "Rassegna  Gregoriana'',  1906,  nos.  6-7.  Their 
general  theory  of  rhythm,  according  to  which  it  con- 
sists in  the  succession  of  arsis  and  thesis,  i.  e.,  one  part 
leading  forward  and  a  second  part  marking  a  point  of 
arrival  and  of  provisional  or  final  rest,  is  substantially 
the  same  as  Riemann' s  (see  his  "  System  der  musikali- 
schen  Rhythmik  und  Metrik",  Leipzig,  1903),  and  is 
becoming  more  and  more  accepted.  But  their  special 
feature,  which  consists  in  placing  the  word  accent  by 
preference  on  the  arsis,  has  not  found  much  favour 
with  musicians  generally. 

Forms. — Plain  chant  has  a  large  variety  of  forms 
produced  by  the  different  purposes  of  the  pieces  and 
by  the  varying  conditions  of  rendering.  A  main  dis- 
tinction is  that  between  responsorial  and  antiphonal 
chants.  The  responsorial  are  primarily  solo  chants 
and  hence  elaborate  and  difficult;  the  antiphonal  are 
choral  or  congregational  chants  and  hence  simple  and 
easy.  Responsorial  are  the  Graduals,  Alleluia  verses, 
and  Tracts  of  the  Mass,  and  the  responses  of  the  Office. 
The  antiphonal  type  is  most  clearly  shown  in  the  Office 
antiphons  and  their  psalmody.  The  Mass  antiphons, 
especially  the  Introit  and  Communion,  are  a  kind  of 
idealized  antiphon  type,  preserving  the  general  sim- 
plicity of  antiphons,  but  being  slightly  more  elabo- 
rated in  accordance  with  their  being  assigned  from  the 
beginning  to  a  trained  body  of  singers.  The  Offerto- 
ries approach  more  closely  to  the  responsorial  style, 
which  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  their  verses 
were  at  an  early  period  assigned  to  soloists,  as  ex- 
plained above.  Another  distinction  is  that  between 
psalmodic  and  what  we  may  call  hymnodic  melodies. 
The  psalmody  is  founded  on  the  nature  of  the  Hebrew 
poetry,  the  psalm  form,  and  is  characterized  by  recita- 
tion on  a  unison  with  the  addition  of  melodic  formulae 
at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  each  member  of  a 
psalm  verse.  This  type  is  most  clearly  recognized  in 
the  Office  psalm  tones,  where  only  the  melodic  formula 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  part  of  the  verse  is 
wanting.  A  slightly  more  ornamental  form  is  found  in 
the  Introit  psalmody,  and  a  yet  richer  form  in  the  ver- 
ses of  the  Office  responses.  But  the  form  can  also  still 
be  recognized  in  the  responsorial  forms  of  the  Mass 
and  the  body  of  the  Office  responses  (see  Pal.  Mus., 
III).  Of  a  psalmodic  nature  are  various  other  chants, 
such  as  the  tones  for  the  prayers,  the  Preface,  some  of 
the  earlier  compositions  of  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass, 
etc.  The  hymnodic  chants,  on  the  other  hand,  show 
a  free  development  of  melody;  though  there  may  be 
occasionally  a  little  recitation  on  a  monotone,  it  is  not 
employed  methodically.  They  are  more  like  hymn 
tunes  or  folk  songs.  This  style  is  used  for  the  anti- 
phons, both  of  the  Oflfice  and  of  the  Mass.  Some  of 
these  show  pretty  regular  melodic  phrases,  often  four 
in  number,  corresponding  like  the  lines  of  a  hymn 
stanza,  as,  e.  g.,  the  "Apud  Dominum"  quoted  above. 
But  oftentimes  the  correspondence  of  the  melodic 


PLANTAGENET 


148 


PLANTIN 


phrases,  which  is  always  of  great  importance,  is  of  a 
freer  kind. 

A  marked  feature  in  plain  chant  is  the  use  of  the 
same  melody  for  various  texts.  This  is  quite  typical 
for  the  ordinarj'  psalmody,  in  which  the  same  formula, 
the  "psalm  tone",  is  used  for  all  the  verses  of  a  psalra, 
just  as  in  a  hymn  or  a  folk  song  the  same  melody  is 
used  for  the  various  stanzas.  But  it  is  also  used  for 
the  more  complicated  psalmodic  forms,  Graduals, 
Tracts  etc.,  though  oftentimes  with  considerable  lib- 
erty. Again  we  find  it  in  the  case  of  the  Office  anti- 
phons.  In  all  these  cases  great  art  is  shown  in  adapt- 
ing the  melodic  type  to  the  rhythmical  structure  of  the 
new  texts,  and  oftentimes  it  can  be  observed  that  care 
is  taken  to  bring  out  the  sentiments  of  the  words.  On 
the  other  hand  it  seems  that  for  the  Mass  antiphons 
each  text  had  originally  its  own  melody.  The  present 
Gradual,  indeed,  shows  some  instances  where  a  melody 
of  one  Mass  antiphon  has  been  adapted  to  another  of 
the  same  kind,  but  they  are  all  of  comparatively 
late  date  (seventh  century  and  after).  Among  the 
earliest  examples  are  the  Offertory,  "Posuisti"  (Com- 
mon of  a  Martyr  Non-Pontiff),  taken  from  the  Offer- 
tory of  Easter  Monday,  "Angelus  Domini",  and  the 
Introit,  "Salve  sancta  Parens",  modelled  on  "Ecce 
advenit "  of  the  Epiphany.  The  adaptation  of  a  melo- 
dic type  to  different  texts  seems  to  have  been  a  char- 
acteristic feature  of  antique  composition,  which  looked 
primarily  for  beauty  of  form  and  paid  less  attention  to 
the  distinctive  representation  of  sentiment.  In  the 
Mass  antiphons,  therefore,  we  may,  in  a  sense,  see  the 
birth  of  modern  music,  which  aims  at  individual  ex- 
pression. 

iEsTHETic  Value  and  Liturgical  Fitness. — 
There  is  httle  need  to  insist  on  the  testhetic  beauty  of 
plain  chant.  Melodies,  that  have  outlived  a  thousand 
years  and  are  at  the  present  day  attracting  the  atten- 
tion of  so  many  artists  and  scholars,  need  no  apol- 
ogy. It  must  be  kept  in  mind,  of  course,  that  since 
the  language  of  plain  chant  is  somewhat  remote  from 
the  musical  language  of  to-day,  some  little  familiarity 
with  its  idiom  is  required  to  appreciate  its  beauty. 
Its  tonality,  its  rhythm,  as  it  is  generally  understood, 
the  artistic  reserve  of  its  utterance,  all  cause  some  diffi- 
culty and  demand  a  willing  ear.  Again  it  must  be 
insisted  that  an  adequate  performance  is  necessary  to 
reveal  the  beauty  of  plain  chant.  Here,  however,  a 
great  difference  of  standard  is  required  for  the  various 
classes  of  melodies.  While  the  simplest  forms  are 
quite  fit  for  congregational  use,  and  forms  like  the 
Introits  and  Communions  are  within  the  range  of 
average  choirs,  the  most  elaborate  forms,  like  the 
Graduals,  require  for  their  adequate  performance 
highly  trained  choirs,  and  soloists  that  are  artists. 
As  to  the  liturgical  fitness  of  plain  chant  it  may  be 
said  without  hesitation  that  no  other  kind  of  music 
can  rival  it.  Having  grown  up  with  the  Liturgy  itself 
and  having  influenced  its  development  to  a  large 
extent, itismostsuitableforitsrequirements.  Thegen- 
eral  expression  of  the  Gregorian  melodies  is  in  an  emi- 
nent degree  that  of  liturgical  prayer.  Its  very  remote- 
ness from  modern  musical  language  is  perhaps  an 
additional  element  to  make  the  chant  suitable  for  the 
purpose  of  religious  music,  which  above  all  things 
should  be  separated  from  all  mundane  associations. 
Then  the  various  forms  of  plain  chant  are  all  particu- 
larly appropriate  to  their  several  objects.  For  the 
singing  of  the  psalms  in  the  Office,  for  instance,  no 
other  art  form  yet  invented  can  be  compared  with  the 
Gregorian  tones.  The  Falsi  Bordoni  of  the  sixteenth 
century  are  doubtless  very  fine,  but  their  continuous 
use  would  soon  become  tedious,  while  the  Anglican 
chants  are  but  a  poor  substitute  for  the  everlasting 
vigour  of  the  plain  chant  formulae.  No  attempt  even 
has  been  made  to  supply  a  substitute  for  the  antiphons 
that  accompany  this  singing  of  the  psalms.  At  the 
Mass,  the  Ordinary,  even  in  the  most  elaborate  forms 


of  the  later  Middle  Ages,  reflects  the  character  of  con- 
gregational singing.  The  Introit,  Offertory,  and  Com- 
munion are  each  wonderfully  adapted  to  the  particu- 
lar ceremonies  they  accompany,  and  the  Graduals 
display  the  splendour  of  their  elaborate  art  at  the 
time  when  all  are  expected  to  listen,  and  no  ceremony 
interferes  with  the  full  effect  of  the  music. 

The  revival  of  rehgious  life  about  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  gave  the  impetus  for  a  renewed 
cultivation  of  plain  chant.  The  extended  use  and  per- 
fected rendering  of  plain  chant,  so  ardently  desired  by 
Pope  Pius  X,  will  in  its  turn  not  only  raise  the  level  of 
rehgious  music  and  enhance  the  dignity  of  Divine 
worship,  but  also  intensify  the  spiritual  life  of  the 
Christian  community. 

Wagner,  Einfilhrung  in  die  gregorianischen  Melodien  (Leipzig, 
1911),  first  vol.  also  in  English:  Introduction  to  the  Gregorian  Melo- 
dies (London) ;  Gastoc^,  Les  origines  du  chant  romain  (Paris, 
1907) ,  RiEMANN,  Handbuch  der  Musikgeschickte,  I  (Leipzig,  1905) ; 
Weinmann,  History  of  Church  Music  (Ratisbon,  1910) ;  M6hler 
AND  Gauss,  Compendium  der  katholischen  Kirchenmusik  (Ravens- 
burg,  1909) :  Jacobsthal,  Die  chromattsche  Alteration  im  litur- 
gischen  Gesang  der  ahendldndischen  Kirche  (Berlin,  1897);  Nikel, 
Geschichte  der  katholischen  Kirchenmusik,  I  (Breslau,  1908) ;  Leit- 
ner,  Der  gottesdienstliche  Volksgesang  im  jiidischen  u.  christlichen 
Altertum  (Freiburg,  1906) ;  Bewerunge,  The  Vatican  Edition  of 
Plain  Chant  in  Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record  (Jan.,  May,  and  Nov., 
1906) ;  MocQTJEREAU,  Le  nombre  musical  gregorien,  I  (Tournai, 
1908):  Dechevrens,  Etudes  de  science  Tnusicale  (3  vols.,  1898); 
Benedictines  of  Stanbrook,  A  Grammar  of  Plainsong  (Worces- 
ter, 1905) ;  PoTHiER,  Les  melodies  gregoriennes  (Tournai,  1S80) ; 
JOHNER,  Neue  Schule  des  gregorianischen  Choralgesanges  (Ratisbon, 
1911);  KiENLE,  Choralschule  (Freiburg,  1890);  Wagner,  Ele- 
mente  des  gregorianischen  Gesanges  (Ratisbon,  1909) ;  Abert,  Die 
Musikan^chauung  des  Mittelalters  (Halle,  1905). 

H.  Bewerunge. 

Plantagenet,  Henkt  Beaufort,  cardinal.  Bishop 
of  Winchester,  b.  c.  1377;  d.  at  Westminster,  11  April, 
1447.  He  was  the  second  illegitimate  son  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  and  Katherine  Swynford,  later  legitimized  by 
Richard  II  (1397).  After  his  ordination  he  received 
much  preferment,  becoming  successively  dean  of 
Wells  (1397),  Bishop  of  Lincoln  (1398),  Chancellor  of 
Oxford  University  (1399),  Chancellor  of  England 
(1403-4),  and  Bishop  of  Winchester  (1404).  He  was 
much  in  favour  with  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  on 
his  accession  as  Henry  V,  Beaufort  again  became 
chancellor  (1413).  He  attended  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance (1417),  and  it  was  due  to  him  that  the  Emperor 
Sigismund  in  alliance  with  Henry  V  withdrew  his  op- 
position to  the  plan  of  electing  a  new  pope  before 
measures  for  Church  reform  had  been  taken.  This 
election  ended  the  unhappy  Western  Schism.  The 
new  pope,  Martin  V,  created  Beaufort  a  cardinal, 
though  the  king  forbade  him  to  accept  this  dignity. 
On  Henry's  death  he  was  left  guardian  of  the  infant 
Henry  VI  and  again  acted  as  chancellor  (1424^26). 
He  was  created  cardinal-priest  of  St.  Eusebius  in  1426, 
and  was  employed  as  papal  legate  in  Germany,  Hun- 
gary, and  Bohemia,  where  he  assisted  the  pope  in  the 
Hussite  War.  Employed  in  French  affairs  in  1430-31, 
he  crowned  Henry,  as  King  of  France,  in  Paris  (1431). 
The  following  year  he  defeated  the  Duke  of  Glouces- 
ter's effort  to  deprive  him  of  his  see  on  the  ground 
that  a  cardinal  could  not  hold  an  English  bishopric. 
When  war  broke  out  with  France  he  assisted  the  war- 
party  with  large  financial  advances.  He  completed 
the  building  of  Winchester  cathedral,  where  he  is 
buried. 

Radford,  Henry  Beaufort,  bishop,  chancellor,  cardinal  (London, 
1908) ;  LiNGARD,  History  of  England,  IV  (London,  1883) ;  Ghego- 
Roviue,  History  of  the  City  of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Hamii^ 
ton's  tr.  (London,  1894-1900);  Cv.eigjiton,  History  of  the  Papacy 
during  the  Reformation  (London,  1882-97) ;  Caley  in  Archxologia 
(1826),  XXL  34;  (1852),  XXXIV,  44;  Beaurepaire  in  Free, 
trav.  acad.  Rouen  (Rouen,  1888-90) ;  Hunt  in  Diet.  Nat,  Biog., 
witti  reference  to  contemporary  sources;   s.  v.  Beaufort. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Plantin,  Christohe,  book-binder  and  publisher 
of  Antwerp,  b.  1514,  at  or  near  Tours  (France);  d. 
1  July,  1589,  at  Antwerp.  The  son  of  a  servant,  he 
learned  the  art  of  book-binding  and  printing  (1535- 


PLANTS 


149 


PLANTS 


40)  with  the  prototypographer,  Robert  Mac6  II  at 
Caen.  At  an  early  age  he  had  already  learned  Latin 
and  shown  a  pronounced  taste  for  scientific  books. 
After  a  short  residence  in  Paris,  he  went  to  Antwerp 
(1548-9),  where  he  opened  a  book-bindery  and  soon 
became  famous  for  his  beautiful  inlaid  bindings  and 
book  covers.  In  1555  he  opened  his  pubhshing  house 
which,  notwithstanding  keen  competition,  soon  pros- 
pered. Within  five  years,  he  attained  the  highest 
rank  among  typographers  of  his  time,  surpassing  his 


Courtyard  of  the  Plantin-Moretus  Museum,  Antwerp 


rivals  in  the  Netherlands  by  the  perfection,  beauty, 
and  number  of  his  publications.  In  1562,  charged 
with  holding  intercourse  with  two  religious  reformers 
(Niclaes  and  Barrefelt),  he  was  obliged  to  flee  from 
Antwerp.  He  succeeded,  however,  in  dissipating  the 
suspicions  against  him,  and  it  was  only  after  two  cen- 
turies that  his  relations  with  the  Familists,  or  "Fa- 
mille  de  la  Charite"  came  to  light,  and  also  that  he 
printed  the  works  of  Barrefelt  and  other  heretics. 
In  1563,  having  returned  to  Antwerp,  Plantin  formed 
business  associations  with  prominent  citizens  with 
whom  he  conducted  a  printing  establishment  for 
three  years.  In  1566  we  first  hear  of  Plantin's  scheme 
to  reprint  the  Polyglot  Bible  of  Cardinal  Ximenes. 
His  beautiful  proofs  secured  the  support  of  King 
Philip  II,  and  the  eight  volumes  of  the  "Biblia 
Regia"  were  completed  in  1573  (see  Polyglot 
Bibles).  Immediately  after  the  king  appointed  him 
Royal  Architypographer,  in  charge  of  the  printing  of 
the  newly-edited  breviaries,  missals,  psalters,  and 
other  liturgical  texts  which  were  sent  to  Spain  in 
great  numbers  at  the  expense  of  the  king.  Plantin 
also  published  many  new  editions  of  the  classics, 
works  on  jurisprudence,  and  the  "Index  Expurgato- 
rius".  Wars  stopped  the  execution  of  the  king's  or- 
ders for  the  new  Liturgical  formularies;  but  Plantin 
had,  long  before,  obtained  privileges  for  this  work 
from  Rome.  This  exclusive  privilege,  possessed  by 
Plantin's  successors  for  two  hundred  years,  became  a 
source  of  great  profit  and  balanced  the  extensive  losses 
incurred  by  the  "  Biblia  Regia".  In  1583,  leaving 
his  business  at  Antwerp  to  his  two  nephews,  Moretus 
and  Raphelingen,  Plantin  settled  in  Leyden,  where  he 
conducted  a  second-hand  book  store  and  a  small 
printing  office  with  three  presses,  but  sought  prin- 
cipally for  quiet  and  the  restoration  of  his  failing 
health.  In  1585  Raphelingen  took  charge  of  the 
printing  office  at  Leyden,  and  Plantin  returned  to 
Antwerp,  where,  until  his  death,  he  endeavoured  by 
the  sale  of  his  Bible  to  indemnify  himself  for  the  loss 
of  the  twenty  thousand  florins  which  the  king  still 
owed  him.  These  losses  ware  finally  made  good  after 
his  death. 

The  extensive  character  of  Plantin's  undertakings 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  between  1555  and  1589  he 


published  over  sixteen  hundred  works,  eighty-three 
in  1575  alone.    His  press  room  at  this  time  contained 
twenty-two  presses.    His  editions,  as  a  rule,  consisted 
of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  copies,  in  some  cases 
considerably  more;  thus  thirty-nine  hundred  copies 
of  his  Hebrew  Bible  were  published.     His  emblem 
shows  a  hand  reaching  out  of  the  clouds  holding  a 
pair  of  compasses;  one  point  is  fixed,  the  other  marks 
a  line.    The  motto  is  "Lahore  et  Constantia".    He 
was  justlyconsidered  the  first  typographer  of  his  time. 
Moreover,  money  was  not  his  only  object.    He  thor- 
oughly appreciated  the  ethical  side  of  his  profession, 
as  is  proved  by  his  publishing  useful  works,  excelling 
in  scientific  value  and  artistic  worth.    The  astonishing 
number  of  his  publications,  the  extreme  care  which  he 
devoted  to  the  simplest  as  well  as  to  the  greatest  of 
his  publications,  the  monumental  character  of  a  whole 
series  of  his  books,  his  good  taste  in  their  adornment, 
his  correct  judgment  in  the  choice  of  subjects  to  be 
published,  and  his  success  in  gaining  the  sympathy  of 
his  assistants  prove  that  his  fame  was  well  deserved. 
There  is  but  one  blot  on  Plantin's  reputation,  his  rela- 
tions with  the  "Famille  de  la  CharitcS",  which  can 
only  be  explained  as  due  to  the  unsettled  conditions 
of  the  times.    His  Antwerp  business  remained  in  the 
possession  of  his  second  daughter,  Martina,  wife  of 
Johannes  Moerentorf  (Latinized  Moretus),  who  was 
his  assistant  for  many  years.     Their  son,  Balthasar, 
a  friend  of  Rubens  in  his  youth,  was  the  most  famous 
of  the  Moretus  name,  and  a  worthy  successor  to  his 
grandfather.     After  the  death  of  Balthasar  in  1641, 
his  heirs  made  a  great  fortune  out  of  their  monopoly 
of  Liturgical  books.     Unfortunately  they  abandoned 
almost  entirely  the  publication  of  scientific  books.    It 
was  only  at  the  beginning  of  1800  that  the  privilege 
ceased  in  consequence  of  the  decree  of  the  King  of 
Spain,  forbidding  the  importation  of  foreign  books  and 
this  practically  put  an  end  to  the  printing  house  of 
Plantin.     In  1867,  after  three  hundred  and  twelve 
years,  the  firm  of  Plantin  ceased  to  exist.    The  City 
of  Antwerp  and  the  Government  of  Belgium  in  1876 
purchased  from  the  last  owner,  Edward  Moretus,  all 
the  buildings,  as  well  as  the  printing  house  with  its 
appurtenances  and  collections  for  1,200,000  florins. 


Interior  of  the  Plantin-Moretus  Museum,  Antwerp 


The  entire  plant   was   converted  into  the  Plantin- 
Moretus  Museum. 

RoosBs,  Christophe  Plantin  (Anvers,  1882,  2nd  ed.,  1897) ;  Idem, 
Corresp.  de  P.  (Ghent,  1884  sq.);  Idem,  Le  MusSe  P.-Morelus 
(Brussels,  1894). 

Heinkich  Wilh.  Wallau. 

Plants  in  the  Bible. — When  Moses  spoke  to  the 
people  about  the  Land  of  Promise,  he  described  it  as  a 
"land  of  hills  and  plains"  (Deut.,  xi,  11),  "a  good 
land,  of  brooks  and  of  waters,  and  of  fountains:  in 
the  plains  of  which  and  the  hills  deep  rivers  break  out : 


PLANTS 


150 


PLANTS 


a  land  of  wheat,  and  barley,  and  vineyards,  wherein 
fig-trees  and  pomegranates,  and  oliveyards  grow:    a 
land  of  oil  and  honey"  (Deut.,  viii,  7-8).    This  glow- 
ing description,  sketched  exclusively  from  an  utihta- 
rian  point  of  view,  was  far  from  doing  justice  to  the 
wonderful  variety  of  the  country's  productions,  to 
which  several  causes  contributed.     First  the  differ- 
ences of  elevation;  for  between  Lebanon,  10,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  1285 
feet  below  the  Mediterranean,  every  gradation  of  alti- 
tude is  to  be  found,  within  less  than  200  miles.  Sinuous 
valleys  furrow  the  highland,  causing  an  incredible  vari- 
ation in  topography ;  hence,  cultivated  land  lies  almost 
side  by  side  with  patches  of  desert.    The  soil  is  now  of 
clay,  now  of  clay  mixed  with  hme,  farther  on  of  sand; 
the  surface  rock  is  soft  limestone,  and  basalt.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  factors,  variations  of  climate  consequent 
on  change  of  altitude  and  geographical  position  cause 
forms  of  vegetation  which  elsewhere  grow  far  apart 
to     thrive    side    by 
side  within  the  nar- 
row limits  of  Pales- 
tine.     The    vegeta- 
tion along  the  west 
coast,  like  that  of 
Spain,      southern 
Italy,     Sicily,     and 
Algeria,  is  composed 
of  characteristic 
species   of   Mediter- 
ranean flora.      Near 
the  perennial  snows 
of    the    northern 
peaks  grow  the   fa- 
miliar   plants    of 
Alpine   and   sub- 
Alpine  regions;    the 
highlands   of   Pales- 
tine and  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  north- 
ern  ranges  produce 
the  Oriental  vegeta- 
tion of  the  steppes; 
whereas  the  peculiar 
climatic     conditions 
prevaihng  along  the 
Ghor  and  about  the 
Dead   Sea  favour  a  „ 

sub-tropical       flora,  Papykus  gbowing  on  the 

characterized    by    species    resembling   those   which 
thrive  in  Nubia  and  Abyssinia. 

Over  3000  species  of  Palestinian  flora  are  known  to 
exist,  but  the  Holy  Land  of  our  day  can  give  only  an 
imperfect  idea  of  what  it  was  in  Biblical  times.  The 
hill-country  of  Juda  and  the  Negeb  are,  as  formerly, 
the  grazing  lands  of  the  Judean  herds,  yet  groves, 
woods,  and  forest  flourished  everywhere,  few  traces 
of  which  remain.  The  cedar-forests  of  Lebanon  had  a 
world-wide  reputation;  the  slopes  of  Hermon  and  the 
mountains  of  Galaad  were  covered  with  luxuriant  pine 
woods;  oak  forests  were  the  distinctive  feature  of 
Basan;  throughout  Ephraim  clumps  of  terebinths  dot- 
ted the  land,  while  extensive  palm  groves  were  both 
the  ornament  and  wealth  of  the  Jordan  Valley.  The 
arable  land,  much  of  which  now  lies  fallow,  was  all  culti- 
vated and  amply  rewarded  the  tiller.  The  husband- 
man derived  from  his  orchards  and  vineyards  abun- 
dant crops  of  ohves,  figs,  pomegranates,  and  grapes. 
Nearly  every  Jewish  peasant  had  his  "garden  of 
herbs",  furnishing  in  season  vegetables  and  fruits  for 
the  table,  flowers,  and  medicinal  plants.  Only  some 
130  plants  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  which  is  not 
surprising  since  ordinarj'  people  are  interested  only  in 
a  few,  whether  ornamental  or  useful.  The  first  at- 
tempt to  classify  this  flora  is  in  Gen.,  i,  11-12,  where 
it  is  divided  into:  (1)  deshe,  signifying  all  low  plants, 
e.  g.,  cryptogamia;    (2)  'esehh,  including  herbaceous 


plants;  (3) 'es  pen,  embracing  all  trees.  In  the  course 
of  time,  the  curiosity  of  men  was  attracted  by  the 
riches  of  Palestinian  vegetation;  Solomon,  in  particular, 
is  said  to  have  treated  about  the  trees  (i.  e.,  plants) 
from  the  lofty  cedar  "unto  the  hyssop  that  cometh 
out  of  the  wall"  (III  Kings,  iv,  33).  Of  the  plants 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  the  most  common  varieties 
may  be  identified  either  with  certainty  or  probability; 
but  a  large  proportion  of  the  biblical  plant-names  are 
generic  rather  than  specific,  e.  g.,  briers,  grass,  nettles, 
etc.;  and  just  what  plants  are  meant  in  some  cases  is 
impossible  to  determine,  e.  g.,  algum,  cockle,  gall,  etc. 
A  complete  alphabetical  list  of  the  plant-names  found 
in  the  English  Versions  is  here  given,  with  an  attempt 
at  identification. 
Acacia.  See  Setim. 
Acanlh.     See  Brier. 

Algum  (A.  V.,  II  Chron.,  ii,  8;  D.  V.,  ix,  10,  11, 
"thyine   trees",    "fir   trees"),    written   "almug"   in 

A.  v.,  I  Kings,  x,  11, 
12).  No  doubt  the 
same  tree  is  signified, 
the  double  name  be- 
ing due  to  a  mere 
accidental  transpo- 
sition of  the  letters; 
if  linguistic  analogy 
may  be  trusted  in, 
almvg  is  correct  (cf. 
Tamil,  valguka). 
The  algum  tree  is 
spoken  of  as  a  valu- 
able exotic  product 
imported  to  Pales- 
tine by  Hiram's  and 
Solomon's  fleets  (III 
Kings,  X,  11;  II  Par., 
ii,  8;  ix,  10),  suitable 
for  fine  joinery  and 
making  musical  in- 
struments (III 
Kings,  X,  12;  II 
Par.,  ix,  11).  Jose- 
phus  (Ant.,  VIII, 
vii,  1)  says  it  was 
somewhat  like  the 
wood  of  the  fig  tree, 
but  whiter  and  more 
ghttering.      Accord- 


BANKS    OF    THE    AnaPO. 

ing  to  most  modern  scholars  and  certain  rabbis, 
the  red  sandal -wood,  Pterocarpus  santalina,  is  in- 
tended, though  some  of  the  uses  made  of  it  appear  to  re- 
quire a  stouter  material.  The  identification  proposed 
by  Vulg.  (see  Thyine)  is  much  more  satisfactory. 

Almond  tree,  Heb.  luz  (Gen.,  xxx,  37;  "hazel"  in 
A.  V.  is  a  mistranslation;  cf.  Arab,  lauz),  apparently 
an  old  word  later  supplanted  by  shaqed  (Gen.,  xliii,  11 ; 
Num.,  xvii,  8;  Eccles.,  xii,  5);  which  alludes  to  the 
early  blossoming  of  the  tree.  Almonds  are  (Gen., 
xliii,  11)  considered  one  of  the  best  fruits  in  the  Orient, 
and  the  tree,  Amygdalus  communis,  has  always  been 
cultivated  there.  Several  varieties,  A.  orientalis.  Ait., 
or  A.  argentea,  A.  lycioides,  Spach,  A.  sparlioides, 
Spach,  grow  wild  in  districts  such  as  Lebanon, 
Carmel,  Moab. 

Almug.     See  Algum. 

Aloes  (Prov.,  vii,  17;  Cant.,  iv,  14;  John,  xix,  39; 
A.  v.,  Ps.  xlv,  8)  is  reckoned  among  "the  chief  per- 
fumes". InA.  v..  Num.,  xxiv,  6  ("hgnaloes";  D.V., 
"tabernacles"  is  an  erroneous  translation),  a  tree  is 
clearly  intended.  The  officinal  aloes,  Liliacea,  is  not 
alluded  to;  the  aloes  of  the  Bible  is  the  product  of  a 
tree  of  the  genus  Aquilaria,  perhaps  A.  agallocha, 
Roxb.,  a  native  of  northern  India;  at  a  certain  stage  of 
decay,  the  wood  develops  a  fragrance  well  known  to 
the  ancients  (Dioscorides,  i,  21),  and  from  it  a  rare 
perfume  was  obtained. 


PLANTS 


151 


PLANTS 


Amomum  (Apoc,  xviii,  13,  neither  in  the  Greek 
New  Testament,  Vulg.,  A.  V.,  nor  D.  V.,  but  found  in 
critical  editions,  such  as  Griesbach,  Laohmann, 
Tischendorf,  Nestle),  a  perfume  well  known  in  antiq- 
uity (Dioscor.,  i,  14;  Theophr.,  "Hist,  plant.",  ix,  7; 
"De  odor.",  32;  etc.).  The  Assyrian  variety  was 
particularly  prized  (Virg.,  Eolog.,  iv,  25;  Josephus, 
"Ant.",  XX,  ii,  3;  Martial.,  "Epigr.",  vii,  77;  Ovid., 
"Heroid.",  xxi,  166;  etc.),  and  probably  obtained 
from  Cissus  vitigenea,  a  climbing  plant  native  of  India 
but  foimd  also  in  Armenia,  Media,  and  Pontus  (Pliny, 
"Nat.  hist.",  xii,  13). 

Anise  (Matt.,  xxiii,  23),  not  the  anise,  Pimpirulla 
anisum,  but  rather  the  dill,  Anethum  graveolens,  sha- 
bath  of  the  Talmud,  shibith  of  the  Arabs,  is  meant. 
Dill  has  always  been  much  cultivated  in  Palestine; 
its  seeds,  leaves,  and  stems  were  subject  to  tithe, 
according  to  Rabbi  Eliezer  (Maasaroth,  i,  1;  cf. 
Matt.,  xxiii,  23),  which  opinion,  however,  others 
thought  excessive  (Schwab,  "Talmud  de  Jerus.",  Ill, 
182). 

Apple  tree,  Heb.  ihappuakh  (of.  Arab,  tijfah;  Egypt. 
dapih,  "apple")  and  the  description  of  the  tree  and 
its  fruit  indicate  the  common  apple  tree,  Malus 
communis,  which  is  beautiful,  affording  shade  for 
a  tent  or  a  house  (Cant.,  ii,  3;  viii,  5),  and  bears  a 
sweet  fruit,  the  aroma  (Cant.,  vii,  8)  of  which  is  used 
in  the  East  to  revive  a  fainting  person  (cf.  Cant.,  ii,  .5). 
Apple  groves  flourished  at  an  early  date  (Ramses  II) 
in  Egypt  (Loret,  "Flore  pharaonique",  p.  83);  place- 
names  like  Tappuah  (Jos.,  xii,  17)  or  Beth-tappuah  A.V. 
(Jos.,  XV,  53)  indicate  that  they  were  a  distinct  feature 
of  certain  districts  of  Palestine. 

Arum.     See  Cockle. 

Ash  tree.  Is.,  xliv,  14  (A.  V.  for  Heb.  'oven;  D.  V. 
"pine")  depicts  a  planted  tree,  watered  only  by  rain, 
whose  wood  is  suitable  to  be  carved  into  images  and 
used  as  fuel  (Is.,  xliv,  15).  Probably  the  tree  intended 
is  Pinus  pinea,  the  maritime  or  stone  pine,  rather 
than  the  ash,  as  the  various  species  of  Fraxinus  grow 
only  in  the  mountains  of  Syria,  outside  Palestine. 

Aspalathus  (Eoclus.,  xxiv,  20;  Greek,  xxiv,  20; 
D.  V.  "aromatical  balm")  is  quite  frequently  alluded 
to  by  ancient  writers  (Theognis  Hippocrates,  Theo- 
phrastes,  Plutarch,  Pliny  etc.)  as  a  thorny  plant 
yielding  a  costly  perfume.  It  is  impossible  to  identify 
it  with  certainty,  but  most  scholars  believe  it  to  be 
Convolvulus  scoparius,  also  called  Ldgnum  rhodium 
(rose-scented  wood). 

Aspen.     See  Mulberry. 

Astragalus  a  genus  of  Papilionaceous  plants  of  the 
tribe  Lotea,  several  species  of  which  yield  the  gum 
tragacanth  (Heb.  nek'olh,  Arab,  neka'al)  probably 
meant  in  Gen.,  xxxvii,  25;  xliii,  11  (D.  V.  "spices"; 
"storax").  In  IV  Kings,  xx,  13,  and  Is.,  xxxix,  2,  Heb. 
nekothoth  has  been  mistaken  for  the  plural  of  nek'oth 
and  mistranslated  accordingly  "aromatical  spices"; 
A.  V.  and  R.  V.  give,  in  margin,  "spioery";  A.  V. 
"precious  things"  is  correct.  The  gum  spoken  of  in 
Gen.  was  probably  gathered  from  the  species  found 
in  Palestine,  A.  gummifer,  A .  rousseaunus,  A.  kurdicus, 
A.  stromatodes. 

Balm,  Balsam,  the  regular  translation  of  Heb.  fori 
(Gen.,  xxxvii,  25;  xliii,  11;  Jer.,  viii,  22;  xlvi,  11;  h,  8), 
except  in  Ezech.,  xxvii,  17  (Heb.  pannag)  and  Ecclus., 
xxiv,  20a  (Greek  do-TrdXoffos;  see  Aspalathus);  xxiv, 
20b  (Greek  <rii.if>va).  The  fori  is  described  as  coming 
from  Galaad  (Jer.,  viii,  22;  xlvi,  11)  and  having 
medicinal  properties  (Jer.,  11,  8).  It  is  obtained  from 
Balsamodendron  opobalsamum,  Kunth,  which  is  extant 
in  tropical  regions  of  east  Africa  and  Arabia  and 
yields  the  "balm  of  Mecca";  and  Amyris  gileadensis, 
a  variety  of  the  former,  which  gave  the  more  extrav- 
agantly prized  "balm  of  Judea",  and  is  now  extinct; 
it  was  extensively  cultivated  around  the  Lake  of 
Tiberias,  in  the  Jordan  Valley,  and  on  the  shores  of 
the  Dead  Sea  (Talm.  Babyl.  Shabbath,  26*;  Josephus, 


"Ant.",  IX,  i,  2;  Jerome,  "Quajst.  in  Gen.",  xiv,  7; 
Pliny,  "Nat.  hist.",  xii,  25,  etc.).  The  word  fori  is 
also  applied  to  the  gum  from  the  mastic  tree,  or  lentisk 
{Pistacia  lentiscus,  cf.  Arab,  daru),  and  that  from 
Balanites  aegyptiaca,  Del.,  falsely  styled  "balm  of 
Galaad"-  The  meaning  of  pannag,  mentioned  in 
Ezech.,  xxvii,  17,  is  not  known  with  certainty;  modern 
commentators  agree  with  R.  V.  (marginal  gloss)  that 
it  is  "a  kind  of  oonfection"- 

Balsam,  Aromatical.    See  Aspalathus. 

Barley  (Heb.  se'orah,  "hairy",  an  allusion  to  the 
length  of  the  awns)  was  cultivated  through  the  East 
as  provender  for  horses  and  asses  (III  Kings,  iv,  28), 
also  as  a  staple  food  among  the  poor,  working  men, 
and  the  people  at  large  in  times  of  distress.  The  grain 
was  either  roasted  (Lev.,  ii,  14;  IV  Kings,  iv,  43)  or 
milled,  kneaded  and  cooked  in  ovens  as  bread  or  cake. 
Barley,  being  the  commonest  grain,  was  considered  a 
type  of  worthless  things,  hence  the  contemptuous  force 
of  Ezech.,  xiii,  19;  Judges,  vii,  13;  and  Osee,  iii,  2. 
Hordeum  ilhaburense,  Boiss.,  grows  wild  in  many  dis- 
tricts of  Palestine;  cultivation  has  developed  the  two 
(H.  distichum),  four  (H.  tetrasiichuin) ,  and  six-rowed 
{H.  hexastichum)  barley.  The  harvest  begins  in  April 
in  the  Gh6r,  and  continues  later  in  higher  altitudes; 
a  sheaf  of  the  new  crop  was  offered  in  oblation  on  the 
"sabbath  of  the  Passover". 

Bay  tree,  so  A.  V.  in  Ps.  xxxvii,  35;  D.  V.  (xxxvi) 
"cedar  of  Libanus",  which  renderings  are  erroneous. 
The  correct  meaning  of  the  Heb.  text  is:  "as  a  green 
tree",  any  kind  of  evergreen  tree,  "in its  native  soil" 

Bdellium.  (Gen.,  ii,  12;  Num.,  xi,  7),  either  a  pre- 
cious stone  or  the  aromatic  gum  of  Amyris  agallochum, 
a  small  resinous  tree  of  northern  India,  found  also,  ac- 
cording to  Pliny,  in  Arabia,  Media,  and  Babylonia. 

Beans  (II  Kings,  xvii,  28;  Ezech.,  iv,  9),  the  horse- 
bean  {Faba  vulgaris;  cf.  Heb.  pol  and  Arab,  ful),  an 
ordinary  article  of  food,  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
East.  The  string-bean,  Vigna  sinensis,  kidney-bean, 
Phaseolus  vulgaris,  and  Phaseolus  molliflorus,  also 
grow  in  Palestine. 

Blackthorn.     See  Bur. 

Blasting.     See  Mildew. 

Borith,  a  Heb.  word  transliterated  in  Jer.,  ii,  22,  and 
translated  in  Mai.,  iii,  2  by  "fuller's  herb"  (A.  V. 
"soap").  St.  Jerome  in  his  Commentary  on  Jer.,  ii, 
22,  identifies  borith  with  the  "fuller's  weed",  which 
was  not  used,  like  the  Dipsacus  fullonum,  Mill.,  to 
dress  cloth,  but  to  wash  it;  St.  Jerome  adds  that  the 
plant  grew  on  rich,  damp  soil,  which  description 
appUes  to  a  species  of  Saponaria;  yet  many  modern 
scholars  think  he  refers  to  some  vegetable  alkali  pro- 
cured by  burning  plants  like  Salsola  kali  and  the 
Salicornias  {S.  fructicosa;  S.  herbacea)  abundant  on 
the  coast. 

Boxthom.     See  Bramble. 

Box  tree  (Is.,  xii,  19;  Ix,  13;  in  D.  V.,  Ezech.,  xxvii, 
6,  instead  of  "ivory  and  cabins",  we  should  read: 
"ivory  inlain  in  boxwood"),  probably  the  Heb. 
ihe'ashshur.  The  box  tree  does  not  grow  in  Palestine, 
and  indeed  the  Bible  nowhere  intimates  this,  but  it 
mentions  the  box  tree  of  Lebanon,  Buxus  longifolia, 
Boiss.,  and  that  imported  from  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

Bramble,  translated  from  Heb.  'atad  in  Judges,  ix, 
14-15,  also  rendered  "thorn",  in  Ps.  Ivii,  10.  The 
Latin  version  has  in  both  places  rhamnus,  "buck- 
thorn"; of  which  several  species  grow  in  Palestine  and 
Syria,  but  Arabic  writers  hold  that  the  various  kinds 
of  Lycium  or  boxthom  are  meant. 

Briers.  (1)  Heb.  kharul  rendered  "burning"  in 
D.  v.,  Job,  xxx,  7,  "thorns"  in  Prov.,  xxiv,  31  and 
Sophon.,  ii,  9,  according  to  which  texts  it  must  be 
large  enough  for  people  to  sit  under,  and  must  develop 
rapidly  in  uncultivated  lands.  Its  translation  as 
"thistles"  or  "nettles"  is  unsuitable,  for  these  plants 
do  not  reach  the  proportions  required  by  Job,  xxx,  7, 


PLANTS 


152 


PLANTS 


hence  it  is  generally  believed  to  be  either  the  acanth, 
Acanthixs  spiiwsus,  or  rest-harrow,  two  species  of 
which,  Ononis  antiquorum,  and  particularly  0.  leio- 
spernm,  Boiss.,  are  very  common  in  the  Holy  Land.  (2) 
Heb.  barqanim  (Judges,  viii,  7,  16)  probably  corre- 
sponds to  the  numerous  species  of  Bubus  which  abound 
in  Palestine;  according  to  Moore  (Judges,  ad  loc), 
Phaceo pappus  scoparius,  Boiss.,  is  intended.  (3)  Heb. 
khedeq  (Mich.,  vii,  4).  See  Mad-apple.  (4)  Heb. 
Shamir  (Is.,  v,  6;  ix,  18;  x,  17;  xxxii,  13),  the  flexible 
Faliuriis  acideatus,  Lam.,  Arab,  samur,  the  supposed 
material  of  Christ's  crown  of  thorns.  (5)  Heb.  shayth 
(Is.,  vii,  23-5),  a  word  not  found  outside  of  Isaias,  and 
possibly  designating  prickly  bushes  in  general. 

Broom.     See  Juniper. 

Bucklhorn.     See  Bramble. 

Bulrush  represents  three  Heb.  words:  (1)  gome 
(Ex.,  ii,  3;  Is.,  xviii,  2;  xxxv,  7),  Cyperus  papyrus,  is 
now  extinct  in  Egypt  (cf.  Is.,  xix,  6-7),  where  it  was 
formerly  regarded  as  the  distinctive  plant  of  the 
country  (Strab.,  xvii,  1.5)  and  the  Nile  was  styled 
"the  papyrus-bearer"  (Ovid.,  "Metam.",  xv,  7.53), 
but  still  grows  aroimd  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  Lake 
Huleh.  (2)  'Agmon{k.Y.,  Is.,  Iviii,  5;  D.  V.  "circle") 
is  variously  rendered  (D.  V.  Is.,  xix,  15;  Job,  xl,  21). 
The  plant  whose  flexibility  is  alluded  to  in  Is.,  Iviii,  5, 
A.  V.  appears  to  be  either  the  common  reed,  Arundo 
donax,  or  some  kind  of  rush:  J  uncus  communis,  J. 
maritimus,  Lam.,  J.  acutus  are  abundant  in  Palestine. 
(3)  Suph  (Is.,  xix,  6;  A.  V.  "flag";  etc.),  Egypt.  tUf, 
probably  designates  the  various  kinds  of  rush  and 
sea-weeds  (Jon.,  ii,  6).  Yam  Suph  is  the  Hebrew  name 
for  the  Red  Sea. 

Bur,  so,  D.V.,  Os.,  ix,  6;  x,  8,  translating  Vulg.  lappa, 
"burdock",  for  Heb.  khoakh  and  qosh.  Khoakh  recurs 
in  Prov.,  xxvi,  9;  Cant.,  ii,  2  (D.  V.  "thorns");  IV 
Kings,  xiv,  9;  II  Par.,  xxv,  18;  Job,  xxxi,  40  (D.  V. 
"thistle");  "thorn"  is  the  ordinary  meaning  of  qosh. 
If  burdock  is  the  equivalent  of  khoakh,  then  Lappa 
major,  D.  C,  growing  in  Lebanon  is  signified,  as  Lappa 
minor,  D.  C,  is  unknown  in  Palestine;  however,  the 
many  kinds  of  thistles  common  in  the  East  suit 
better  the  description.  Yet,  from  the  resemblance  of 
Arab,  khaukh  with  Heb.  khoakh,  some  species  of  black- 
thorn or  sloe  tree  Primus  ursina,  and  others,  Arab. 
khaukh  al-dib  might  be  intended. 

Burnet.     See  Thistle  (5). 

Bush,  Burning,  Heb.  seneh,  "thorny"  (Ex.,  iii, 
2-4;  Deut.,  xxxiii,  16),  probably  a  kind  of  whitethorn 
of  goodly  proportions  (Cratcegus  sinailica,  Boiss.) 
common  throughout  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula.  Arab. 
sanna  is  applied  to  all  thorny  shrubs. 

Calamus,  Heb.  qaneh  (Ex.,  xxx,  23;  Ezech.,  xxvii,  19; 
Cant.,  iv,  14,  and  Is.,  xliii,  24;  D.  V.  "sweet  cane"; 
Jer.,  vi,  20:  "sweet-smelling  cane"),  a  scented  reed 
yielding  a  perfume  entering  into  the  composition  of 
the  spices  burned  in  sacrifices  (Is.,  xliii,  24;  Jer.,  vi, 
20)  and  of  the  oil  of  unction  (Ex.,  xxx,  23-5).  The 
qaneh  is,  according  to  some,  Andropogon  schcmanthy^, 
which  was  used  in  Egypt  for  making  the  Kyphi  or 
sacred  perfume;  according  to  others,  AcoT-itsaromaiicMS. 

Cane,  Sweet  (Cant.,  iv,  14;  Is.,  xliii,  24).  See 
Calamus. 

Cane,  Sweet-smelling  (Jer.,  vi,  20).    See  Calamus. 

Camphire  (A.  V.,  Song  of  Sol.,  i,  14;  D.  V.  iv,  13; 
"cypress").  From  Heb. /cop/ier.  The  modern  " cam- 
phor" was  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Pliny  identifies 
Cyprus  with  the  ligustrum  of  Italy,  but  the  plant  is  no 
other  than  the  henna  tree  (Lawsonia  alba)  the  Orientals 
arc  so  fond  of.  Its  red  sweet-scented  spikes  (D.  V., 
Cant.,  i,  13:  "clusters")  yield  the  henna  oil;  from  its 
powdered  leaves  is  obtained  the  reddish-orange  paste 
with  which  Eastern  women  stain  their  finger  and  toe 
nails  and  dye  their  hair.  Ascalon  and  Engaddi  were 
particularly  renowned  for  their  henna. 

Caper,  Heb.  abiyyonah  (D.  V.,  Eccl.,  xii,  5),  the 
fruit  of  the  caper  tree,  probably  Capparis  spinosa; 


C.  herbacea,  and  C.  cegypliaca  are  also  found  in  Pales- 
tine. 

Carob,  Greek  Kepi.Ti.ov  (Luke,  xv,  16),  translated 
"husks"  (A.  v.;  D.  V.),  the  coarse  pods  of  the  locust 
tree,  Ceratonia  siliqua,  "St.  John's  bread-tree". 

Cassia,  Heb.  qiddah  (Ex.,  xxx,  24;  Ezech.,  xxvii,  19; 

D.  V.  "stacte").  Egypt,  qad,  the  aromatic  bark  of 
Cinnamomum  cassia,  BL,  of  India,  an  ingredient  of 
the  oil  of  unction  (Ex.,  xxx,  24),  and  the  Egyptian 
Kyphi.  In  Ps.  xliv  (A.  V.,  xlv,  8),  9,  qep,'ah,  the 
Aramaic  equivalent  of  qiddah,  is  possibly  an  explana- 
tion of  'ahaloth.  There  is  no  Biblical  reference  to  the 
cassia,  from  which  the  senna  of  medicine  is  obtained. 

Cedar,  indiscriminately  applied  to  Cedrus  libani, 
C.  bermudensis,  Juniperus  virginiana,  and  Cu- 
pressus  thyoides,  as  Heb.  'erez  was  used  for  three 
different  trees:  (1)  The  cedar  wood  employed  in 
certain  ceremonies  of  purification  (Lev.,  xiv,  4,  6; 
49-52;  Num.,  xix,  6)  was  either  Juniperus  phanicea, 
or  J.  oxycedrus,  which  pagans  burned  during  sacri- 
fices and  at  funeral  piles  (Hom.,  "Odyss.",  v,  60; 
Ovid.,  "Fast.",  ii,  558),  and  Pliny  calls  "little  cedar" 
(Nat.  Hist.,  XIII,  i,  30).  (2)  The  tree  growing  "by 
the  water  side  "  (Num.,  xxiv,  6)  appears  from  Ez.,  xxxi, 
7,  to  be  the  Cedrus  libani,  which  usually  thrives  on  dry 
mountain  slopes.  (3)  In  most  of  the  other  passages 
of  Holy  Writ,  Cedrus  libani,  Barr,  is  intended,  which 
"prince  of  trees",  by  its  height  (Is.,ii,  13;  Ezech.,  xxxi, 
3, 8;Am.,ii,  9),  appropriately  figured  the  mighty  East- 
ern empires  (Ezech.,  xxxi,  3-18,  etc.).  From  its  trunk 
ship-masts  (Ezech.,  xxvii,  5),  pillars,  beams,  and  boards 
fortemples  and  palaces  (III  Kings,  vi,  9;  vii,  2)  were 
made;  its  hard,  close-grained  wood,  capable  of  re- 
ceiving a  high  polish,  was  a  suitable  material  for  carved 
ornamentations  (III  Kings,  vi,  IS)  and  images  (Is., 
xliv,  14-5) .  Cedar  forests  were  a  paradise  of  aromatic 
scent,  owing  to  the  fragrant  resin  exuding  from  every 
pore  of  the  bark  (Cant.,  iv,  1 1 ;  Osee,  xiv,  7) ;  they  were 
"theglory  of  Libanus"  (Is.,  xxxv,  2;  Ix,  13),  as  well 
as  a  source  of  riches  for  their  possessors  (III  Kings, 
V,  6  sqq.;  I  Par.,  xxii,  4)  and  an  object  of  envy  to 
the  powerful  monarchs  of  Nineveh  (Is.,  xxxvii,  24; 
inscr.  of  several  Assyrian  kings) . 

Cedrat,  Citrus  medica,  or  C.  cedra  is.  according  to 
the  Syriac  and  Arabic  Bibles,  the  Targum"  of 
Onkelos,  Josephus  (Ant.  Ill,  x,  4)  and  the  Talmud 
(Sukka,  iii,  5),  the  hadar  (D.  V.  "the  fairest  tree") 
spoken  of  in  Lev.,  xxiii,  40,  in  reference  to  the  feast  of 
Tabernacles. 

Centaurea.     See  Thistles. 

Charlock.     See  Mustard. 

Chestnut-tree.     See  Plane-tree. 

Cinnamon,  Heb.  qinnamon  (Ex.,  xxx,  23;  Prov., 
vii,  17;  Cant.,  iv,  14;  Ecclus.,  xxiv,  20;  Apoc,  xviii, 
13),  the  inner  aromatic  bark  of  Cinnamomum  zeylan- 
icum,  Nees,  an  ingredient  of  the  oil  of  unction  and  of 
the  Kyphi. 

Citron,  Citrus  limonum,  supposed  by  some  Rab- 
bis to  be  intended  in  the  text  of  Lev.,  xxiii,  40: 
"boughs  of  hadar",  used  regularlj'  in  the  service  of  the 
synagogue  and  hardly  distinguishable  from  cedrat. 

Cockle,  A.  v..  Job,  xxxi,  40,  for  Heb.  be'osha:  D.  V. 
"thorns".  The  marginal  renderings  of  A.  V.  and 
R.  V.  "stinking  weeds",  "noisome  weeds",  are  much 
more  correct.  D.  V.,  Matt.,  xiii,  24-30,  translates  the 
Greek  fifdpia  by  cockle.  The  two  names  used  in  the 
original  text  point  to  plants  of  quite  different  char- 
acters: (1)  According  to  etymology,  be'osha  must 
refer  to  some  plant  of  offensive  smell;  besides  the 
stink-weed  (Datura  stramonium)  and  the  ill-smell- 
ing goose-weeds  (Solanmn  nigrum)  there  are  several 
fetid  arums,  henbanes,  and  mandrakes  in  Palestine, 
hence  be'osha  appears  to  be  a  general  term  applicable 
to  all  noisome  and  harmful  plants.  In  the  English 
Bibles,  Is.,  v,  2,  4,  the  plural  form  is  translated  by 
"wild  grapes  ",  a  weak  rendering  in  view  of  the  terrible 
judgment  pronounced  against  the  vineyard  in  the  con- 


PLANTS 


153 


PLANTS 


text;  be'ushim  may  mean  stinking  fruits,  as  he'osha 
means  stinking  weeds.  (2)  fifdno,  from  Aram,  zonin, 
stands  for  Lolium  temulentum,  or  bearded  darnel, 
the  only  grass  with  a  poisonous  seed,  "entirely  like 
wheat  till  the  ear  appears".  The  rendering  of  both 
versions  is  therefore  inaccurate. 

Colocynth,  Citrullus  colocynthis,  Schr.,  Cucumis  c, 
probably  the  "wild  gourd"  of  IV  Kings,  iv,  38-40, 
common  throughout  the  Holy  Land.  In  III  Kings, 
vi,  18;  vii,  24,  we  read  about  carvings  around  the 
inside  of  the  Temple  and  the  brazen  sea,  probably 
representing  the  ornamental  leaves,  stems,  tendrils, 
and  fruits  of  the  colocynth. 

Coriander  seed  (Ex.,  xvi,  31;  Num.,  xi,  7),  the  fruit 
of  Coriandrum  sativum,  allied  to  aniseed  and  caraway. 

Com,  a  general  word  for  cereals  in  English  Bibles, 
like  dagan  in  Heb.  Wheat,  barley,  spelt  (fitches), 
vetch,  millet,  pulse;  rye  and  oats  are  neither  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  nor  cultivated  in  the  Holy  Land. 

Corn,  \Vi)Ucr,  Heb.  kussemeth  (D.  V.,  Ex.,  ix,  32; 
A.  V.  "rye"),  rendered  "spelt"  in  Is.,  xxviii,  25,  yet 
the  close  resemblance  of  Arab,  kirsanah  with  Heb. 
suggests  a  leguminous  plant,  Vicia  ervilia. 

Cotton,  Heb.  or  Persian  karpas,  Gossypium  herb- 
aceum,  translated  "green".  Probably  the  shesh  of 
Egypt  and  the  bug  of  Syria  (Ezech.,  xxvii,  7, 16,  "fine 
linen")  were  also  cotton. 

Cucumber,  Heb.  qishshu'im  (Num.,  xi,  5;  Is.,  i,  8), 
evidently  the  species  Cucumis  chate  (cf.  Arab,  qith- 
Iha),  indigenous  in  Egypt;  C.  saiivus  is  also  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  Palestine. 

Cummin,  Heb.  kammon,  Arab,  kammun,  the  seed  of 
Cuminum  cyminum  (Is.,  xxviii,  25,  27;  Matt.,  xxiii, 
23). 

Cypress,  in  D.  V.,  Cant.,  i,  16  (A.  V.,  17)  a  poor 
translation  of  Heb.  'ef  shemen  (see  Oil  tree) ;  elsewhere 
Heb.  beros/i  is  rendered  "fir  tree";  inEcclus.,  xxiv,  17, 
the  original  word  is  not  known.  Among  the  identifica- 
tions proposed  for  beroth  are  Pinus  halepensis,  Miel., 
and  Cupressus  sempervirens,  the  latter  more  probable. 

Cyprus  (Cant.,  i,  13;  iv,  13).    See  Camphire. 

Darnel,  bearded.    See  Cockle  (2). 

Dill  (R.  v.,  Matt.,  xxiii,  23).    See  Anise. 

Ear  of  corn  translates  three  Heb.  words:  (1) 
shibboleth,  the  ripe  ear  ready  for  harvest;  (2)  melilah, 
the  ears  that  one  may  pluck  to  rub  in  the  hands,  and 
eat  the  grains  (Deut.,  xxiii,  25;  Matt.,  xii,  1;  Mark, 
ii,  23;  Luke,  vi,  1);  (3)  abi6,  the  green  and  tender  ear 
of  corn. 

Ebony,  Heb.  hobnim,  Arab,  ehnus  (Ezech.,  xxvii, 
15),  the  black  heart  wood  of  Diospyros  ebenum,  and 
allied  species  of  the  same  genus,  imported  from  coasts 
of  Indian  Ocean  by  merchantmen  of  Tyre. 

Elecainpane.     See  Thistles  (6). 

Elm  translates:  (1)  Heb.  thidhar  (D.  V.,  Is.,  xli,  19; 
Is.,  Ix,  13:  "pine  trees"),  possibly  Ulmus  campestris, 
Sm.  (Arab,  derdar);  (2)  Heb.  'elah  (A.  V.,  Hos.,iv,  13; 
D.  V.  "turpentine  tree").    See  Terebinth. 

Figs  (Heb.  te'enim),  the  fruit  of  the  fig  tree  (Heb. 
te'enah),  Ficus  carica,  growing  spontaneously  and 
cultivated  throughout  the  Holy  Land.  The  fruit 
buds,  which  appear  at  the  time  of  the  "latter  rains" 
(spring),  are  called  "green  figs"  (Cant.,  ii,  13;  Heb. 
pag,  cf.  Beth-phage),  which,  "late  in  spring"  (Matt., 
xxiv,  32),  ripen  under  the  overshadowing  leaves, 
hence  Mark,  xi,  13,  and  the  parable  of  the  barren 
fig  tree  (Matt.,  xxi,  19,  21;  Mark,  xi,  20-6;  Luke, 
xiii,  6-9).  Precociously  ripening  figs  (Heb.  bikkurah) 
are  particularly  relished;  the  ordinary  ripe  fruit  is 
eaten  fresh  or  dried  in  compressed  cakes  (Heb. 
debelah:  I  Kings,  xxv,  18,  etc.).  Orientals  still  re- 
gard figs  as  the  best  poultice  (IV  Kings,  xx,  7;  Is., 
xxxviii,  21;  St.  Jerome,  "In  Isaiam",  xxxviii,  21,  in 
P.  L.,  XXIV,  396). 

Fir,  applied  to  all  coniferous  trees  except  the  cedar, 
but  should  be  restricted  to  the  genera  Abies  and  Picea, 
meant  by  Heb.  siakh  (Gen.,  xxi,  15;  D.  V.  "trees";  cf. 


Arab,  shukh).  Among  these,  Abies  cilicia,  Kotsch, 
and  Picea  orienlalis  are  found  in  the  Lebanon,  Amanus 
and  northward. 

Fitches,  Heb.  kussemeth  (Ezech.,  iv,  9),  possibly 
Vicia  ervilia,  rendered  "gith"  by  D.  V.,  "rye"  and 
"spelt"  by  A.  V.  and  R.  V.  in  Is.,  xxviii,  25. 

Flag,  Heb.  akhu  (A.  V.,  Gen.,  xh,  2,  18:  "meadow"; 
D.  V.  "marshy  places",  "green  places  in  a  marshy 
pasture";  Job,  viii,  11:  D.  V.  "sedge-bush"),  a  plant 
growing  in  marshes  and  good  for  cattle  to  feed 
upon,  probably  Cyperus  esculentus. 

Flax,  Heb.  pistah  (Ex.,  ix,  31;  Deut.,  xxii,  11: 
"linen  ;  Prov.,  xxxi,  13),  Linum  usitatissimum,  very 
early  cultivated  in  Egypt  and  Palestine. 

Flower  of  the  field,  Heb.  khabbaggeleth  (Is.,  xxv,  1), 
kh.  sharon  (Cant.,  ii,  1),  like  Arab.  bUseil,  by  which 
Narcissus  lazelta  is  designated  by  the  Palestinians. 
Possibly  A'^.  serotinus,  or  fall  Narcissus,  was  also 
meant  by  Heb.,  which  some  suppose  to  mean  the 
meadow-saffron  {Colchicum  variegatum,  C.  steveni), 
abundant  in  the  Holy  Land. 

Forest  translates  five  Heb.  words:  (1)  Y'a'ar,  forest 
proper;  (2)  horesh,  "wooded  height";  (3)  gebak,  a 
clump  of  trees;  (4)  'abhim,  thicket;  (5)  pardeg, 
orchard.  Among  the  numerous  forests  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  are:  Forest  of  Ephraim,  which,  in  the 
Canaanite  period,  extended  from  Bethel  to  Bethsan; 
that  between  Bethel  and  the  Jordan  (IV  Kings,  ii, 
24);  Forest  of  Hareth,  on  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Judean  hills;  Forest  of  Aialon,  west  of  Bethoron; 
Forests  of  Kiriath  Yearim ;  the  forest  where  Joatham 
built  castles  and  towers  (II  Par.,  xxvii,  4)  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Juda;  that  at  the  edge  of  the  Judean  desert 
near  Ziph  (I  Kings,  xxiii,  15);  Forest  of  the  South 
(Ezech.,  XX,  46,  47) ;  and  those  of  Basan  (Is.,  ii,  13)  and 
Ephraim  (II  Kings,  xviii,  6).  Lebanon,  Carmel,  Her- 
mon  were  also  covered  with  luxuriant  forests. 

Frankincense  (Heb.  lebonah)  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  incense  (Heb.  qelorah),  which  confusion 
has  been  made  in  several  passages  of  the  English 
Bibles,  e.  g..  Is.,  xliii,  23;  Ix,  6  (A.  V.);  Jer.,  vi,  20. 
Incense  was  a  mixture  of  frankincense  and  other 
spices  (Ex.,  XXX,  34-5).  Arabian  frankincense,  the 
frankincense  par  excellence,  is  the  aromatical  resin  of 
Boswellia  sacra,  a  tree  which  grows  in  southern  Arabia 
(Arab,  luban);  B.  papyrifera  of  Abyssinia  yields 
African  frankincense,  which  is  also  good. 

Fuller's  herb  (Mai.,  iii,  2).    See  Borith. 

Galbanum,  Heb.  khelhenah  (Ex.,  xxx,  34;  Ecclus., 
xxiv.  21),  a  gum  produced  by  Ferula  galbaniflua, 
Boiss.  and  other  umbelliferous  plants  of  the  same 
genus.  Its  odour  is  pungent,  and  it  was  probably 
used  in  the  composition  of  incense  to  drive  away  in- 
sects from  the  sanctuary. 

Gall  translates  two  Heb.  words:  (1)  mererah,  which 
stands  for  bile;  (2)  rosh,  a  bitter  plant  associated  with 
wormwood,  and  growing  "in  the  furrows  of  the  field" 
(Osee,  X,  4;  D.  V.  "bitterness"),  identified  with: 
poison  hemlock  (A.  V.,  Hos.,  x,  4),  Conium  maculatum, 
not  grown  in  the  fields;  colocynth,  Citrullus  colo- 
cynthis, not  found  in  ploughed  ground;  and  darnel, 
Lolium  temulentum,  not  bitter.  Probably  the  poppy, 
Papaver  rheas,  or  P.  somniferum,  Arab,  ras  elhishhash, 
is  meant. 

Garlic,  Allium  sativum,  Heb.  shum  (cf.  Arab. 
thum),  a  favourite  article  of  food  in  the  East.  The 
species  most  commonly  cultivated  is  the  shallot. 
Allium  ascalonicum. 

Gith,  Heb.  quegakh  (Is.,  xxviii,  25,  27),  Nigella 
sativa;  A.  V.  "fitches"  is  wrong,  nor  does  quegakh 
stand  for  the  nutmeg  flower,  as  G.  E.  Post  suggests. 

Goose-weed.     See  Cockle. 

Gopher  wood  (Gen.,  vi,  14;  D.  V.  "timber  planks"), 
a  tree  suitable  for  shipbuilding:  cypress,  cedar,  and 
other  resinous  trees  have  been  proposed,  but  inter- 
preters remain  at  variance. 

Gourd,  Heb.  qiqayou  (Jon.,  iv,  6-10;  D.  V.  "ivy"). 


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154 


PLANTS 


the  bottle-gourd,  Cucurbila  lagenaria,  frequently  used 
to  overshadow  booths  or  as  a  screen  along  trellises. 

Gourd,  Wild.     See  Colocynlh. 

Grape.     See  Vine. 

Grape,  Wild.     See  Cockle. 

Grass  translates  four  Heb.  words:  (1)  deshe',  pasture 
or  tender  grass,  consisting  mainly  of  forage  plants; 
(2)  yerek,  verdure  in  general;  (3)  khagir,  a  good  equiv- 
alent for  grass;  (4)  'esebh,  herbage,  including  vege- 
tables suitable  for  human  food.  It  occurs  frequently 
in  the  Bible,  as  in  Gen.,  xlvii,  4;  Num.,  xxii,  4;  Job, 
vi,  5;  XXX,  4  (see  Mallows);  xl,  1.5;  Matt.,  vi,  30;  etc. 

Grove,  English  rendering  of  two  Hebrew  words :  (1) 
asherah,  a  sacred  pole  or  raised  stone  in  a  temple 
enclosure,  which  "groves"  do  not  concern  us  here; 
(2)  'eshel,  probably  the  tamarisk  tree  (q.  v.;  cf.  Arab. 
'athl),  but  translated  "groves"  in  Gen.,  xxi,  33,  and 
rendered  elsewhere  by  "wood",  as  in  I  Kings,  xxii, 
6;  xxxi,  13. 

Hay,  Heb.  hasas  (Prov.,  xxvii,  25),  a  dried  herb  for 
cattle.  "Stubble"  in  Is.,  v,  24;  xxjdii.  11,  also 
translates  hasa^. 

Hazel.     See  Almond  tree. 

Heath,  Heb. 'a/  ar  aro'er  (A.  V.,  Jer.,  xvii,  6;  xlviii, 
6;  D.  V.  "tamaric",  "heath"),  a  green  bush  bearing 
red  or  pink  blossoms,  and  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  only  species  in  Palestine  is  the  Erica 
vertidUata,  Forskal.  The  E.  muUiflora  is  abundant 
in  the  Mediterranean  region. 

Hemlock,  Heb.  rosh  (A.  V.,  Hosea,  x,  4;  Amos,  vi, 
12;  D.  V.  "bitterness";  13,  "wormwood"),  an  um- 
belliferous plant  from  which  the  poisonous  alkaloid, 
conia,  is  derived.  Conium  maculatum  and  Mthusa 
cynapium  are  found  in  Sjrria.  The  water-hemlock 
is  found  only  in  colder  zones.     See  Gall. 

Henna.     See  Camphire. 

Herb.     See  Grass. 

Herbs,  Bitter,  Heb.  meorim  (Exod.,  xii,  8;  Num., 
ix,  11;  D.  V.  "wild  lettuce"),  comprise  diverse 
plants  of  the  family  of  CompositEe,  which  were  eaten 
with  the  paschal  lamb.  Five  species  are  known: 
wild  lettuce,  Heb.  hazeret;  endive,  ulsin;  chicory, 
tamka;  harhabina  and  maror,  whose  translation  is 
variously  rendered  a  kind  of  millet  or  beet,  and  the 
bitter  coriander  or  horehound. 

i/oZTO  (Dan.,  xiii,  58;  Is.,  xliv,  14;  A.  V.  "cypress") 
probably  Heb.  tirzah,  a  kind  of  evergreen-oak. 

Husks.     See  Carob. 

Hyssop,  Heb.  'ezob,  Arab,  zufa,  an  aromatic  herb 
forming  a  dwarf  bush.  The  Hysoppus  officinalis, 
Linne  (Exod.,  xii,  22;  Lev.,  xiv,  4,  6,  49,  51-2; 
Num.,  xix,  6;  Ps.,  1,  9;  Heb.,  ix,  19),  was  used  in 
aspersion.  In  III  Kings,  iv,  33,  hyssop  is  a  species  of 
moss  {Orthotricum  saxalile;  Pottia  trunculata)  spoken 
of  in  contrast  to  the  grandeur  of  the  cedar.  The 
"hyssop"  mentioned  in  John,  xix,  29,  is  written 
"reed"  in  Matt.,  xxvii,  48,  and  Mark,  xv,  36. 

Ivy  (Jon.,  iv,  6-10;  see  Gourd),  the  Hedera  helix, 
(II  Mach.,  vi,  7),  which  grows  wild  in  Palestine. 

Juniper  (D.  V.,  Ill  Kings,  xix,  4-5;  Job,  xxx,  4; 
A.  v.,  Ps.  cxx,  4;  D.  V.,  cxix,  "that  lay  waste",  a 
mistranslation),  an  equivalent  of  Heb.  rothem.  a  sort 
of  broom  (Retama  relem,  cf.  Arab,  ratam). 

Knapweed.     See  Thistles. 

Ladanum,  Heb.  lot  (D.  V.  "stacte",  A.  V.  "myrrh", 
in  Gen.,  xxxvii,  25;  xliii,  11),  a  gum  from  several 
plants  of  the  genus  Cisius  (rock-rose):  C.  villosus 
and  C.  salviifolius  are  very  abundant.  In  Ecclus., 
xxiv,  21,  "storax",  Heb.  libneh,  is  the  equivalent  of 
Greek  a-raKT-^,  used  by  Septuagint  in  the  above 
passages  of  Gen.;  whether  ladanum  was  meant  is 
not  clear,  as  it  is  frequently  the  Greek  rendering  of 
Heb.  nataf. 

Leeks,  Heb.  khagir  (Num.,  xi,  5),  also  rendered 
"grass",  a  vegetable,  Allium  porrum. 

Lentils,  Heb.  'adashim  (Gen.,  xxv,  34;  II  Kings, 
xvii,  28;    Ezeoh.,  iv,  9),  Arab,   adas,  Ervum  lens,  or 


Lens  esculenta,  Moench.,  an  important  article  of  diet. 

Lentisk.    See  Balm;  Mastic  tree. 

Lign  aloes.    See  Aloes. 

Lily.  (1)  Heb.  shushan,  Arab,  susan,  a  generical 
term  apphcable  to  many  widely  different  flowers,  not 
only  of  the  order  Liliacece,  but  of  Iridacece,  Amarylli- 
dacece,  and  others.  Lilium  candidum  is  cultivated 
everywhere;  Gladiolus  illyricus,  Koch,  G.  segetum, 
Gawl,  G.  atroviolaceus,  Boiss.,  are  indigenous  in  the 
Holy  Land;  Iris  sari,  Schott,  I.  palestina,  Baker,  /. 
lorteti,  Barb.,  /.  helenoe,  are  likewise  abundant  in  pas- 
tures and  swampy  places.  (2)  The  "  lilies  of  the  field  " 
surpassing  Solomon  in  glory  were  lilylike  plants; 
needless  to  suppose  that  any  others,  e.  g.  the  wind- 
flower  of  Palestine,  were  intended. 

Lily  of  the  valleys,  Heb.  khabbaggeleth.  See  Flower 
of  the  field. 

Locust  tree.    See  Carob. 

Lotus.  (1)  A  water  plant  of  the  order  Nymphoe- 
aceoe,  the  white  species  of  which,  Nymphoea  lotus,  was 
called  in  Egyptian  seshni,  sushin,  like  the  Heb. 
shushan,  which  may  have  been  applied  to  water-lilies, 
but  the  lotus  was  probably  intended  in  III  Kings, 
vii,  19,  22,  26,  49.  (2)  A  tree,  Heb.  ge  'dim  (A.  V. 
Job,  xl,  21,  22;  D.  V.,  16,  17:  "shadow",  "shades"), 
Zizyphus  lotus,  very  common  in  Africa  on  the  river 
banks. 

Mad-apple,  Heb.  khedeq  (Prov.,  xxvi,  9:  D.  V. 
"thorn";  Mich.,  vii,  4:  "briers"),  Arab,  khadaq, 
Solanum  coagulans,  Forskal,  of  the  same  genus  as  our 
mad  apple,  found  near  Jericho.  Solanum  cordatum, 
Forskal,  may  also  be  intended. 

Mallows,  a  mistranslation  in  A.  V.,  Job,  xxx,  4,  for 
the  orache  or  sea-purslain,  A iripZea;  haliinus,  from  Heb. 
malluakh,  derived  from  melakh,  "salt",  as  halimus 
from  fiXs.  According  to  Galen.,  the  extremities  are 
edible;  the  Talmud  tells  us  that  the  Jews  working 
in  the  re-construction  of  the  Temple  (520-15  B.  c.) 
ate  it  (Kiddushim,  iii,  fol.  663-). 

Mandrake,  from  Heb.  duda',  meaning  "love  plant", 
which  Orientals  believe  ensures  conception.  All  in- 
terpreters hold  Mandragora  officinaruni  to  be  the  plant 
intended  in  Gen.,  xxx,  14,  and  Cant.,  vii,  13. 

Manna  of  commerce  is  a  sugary  secretion  of  various 
Oriental  plants,  Tamarix  mannifera,  Ehr.,  Alhagi 
camelorum.  Fish.,  Cotoneaster  nummularia,  Fraxinus 
ornus,  and  F.  rotundifolia;  it  has  none  of  the  qualifica- 
tions attributed  to  the  manna  of  Ex.,  xvi. 

Mastic  tree,  an  alliteration  of  the  Greek  a-xivoi, 
(Txicrei,  Aram,  pistheqa-pesaq  (Dan.,  xiii,  54),  the  lent- 
isk, Pistada  lentiscus,  common  in  the  East,  which 
exudes  a  fragrant  resin  extensively  used  to  flavour 
sweetmeats,  wine,  etc.    See  Balm. 

Meadow,  A.  V.,  Gen.,  xh,  2,  18  (D.  V.  "marshy 
places"),  for  Heb.  akhu.    See  Flag;   Sedge-bush. 

Meadow  saffron.    See  Flower  of  the  field. 

Melon,  Heb.  'abhattikhim  (Num.,  xi,  5),  like  Arab. 
bottikh,  old  Egypt,  buttuqa,  seems  to  have  a  generic 
connotation,  yet  it  designated  primarily  the  water- 
melon {Citrullus  vulgaris,  Shrad .),  and  secondarily  other 
melons.  The  passage  of  Numbers  refers  only  to  the 
melons  of  Egypt,  and  there  is  no  mention  in  the  Bible 
of  melons  of  Palestine,  yet  they  were  in  old  times  cul- 
tivated as  extensively  as  now. 

Mildew,  Heh.  yeraqon,  occurs  three  times  in  D.  V. 
and  with  it  is  mentioned  shiddaphon,  variously  ren- 
dered (II  Par.,  vi,  28:  "blasting";  Amos,  iv,  9: 
"burning  wind";  Agg.,  ii,  18:  "blasting  wind"). 
In  Deut.,  xxviii,  22,  and  III  Kings,  viii,  37,  yeraqon 
is  translated  "blasting"  (A.  V.  "mildew"),  and 
shiddaphon,  "corrupted  air"  Translators  evidently 
had  no  definite  idea  of  the  nature  and  difference  of 
these  two  plagues.  Yeraqon,  or  mildew,  is  caused  by 
parisitic  fungi  like  Pucdnia  graminis  and  P.  straminis 
which  suck  out  of  the  grain,  on  which  they  develop  on 
account  of  excessive  moisture.  Shiddaphon,  or  smut, 
manifests  itself,  in  periods  of  excessive  drought,  and 


PLANTS 


155 


PLANTS 


is  caused  by  fungi  of  the  genus  Usiilago,  which,  when 
fully  developed,  with  the  aid  of  the  khamsin  wind, 
"blast"  the  grain. 

Millet,  Heb.  dokhan  (Ezech.,  iv,  9),  Arab,  dokhn,  is 
applied  to  Panicum  miliaceum,  and  Setaria  italica, 
Kth.  The  rendering  "millet",  in  D.  V.,  Is.,  xxviii,  25, 
is  not  justified,  as  Heb.  nisman,  found  here,  means 
"put  in  its  place" 

Mint  (Matt.,  xxiii,  23;  Luke,  xi,  42).  Various 
species  are  found  in  Palestine:  Mentha  sylvestris, 
the  horse-mint,  with  its  variety  M.  viridis,  the 
spear-mint,  grow  everywhere;  M.  saliva,  the  garden- 
mint,  is  cultivated  in  all  gardens;  M.  piperita,  the 
peppermint,  M.  aqualica,  the  water-mint,  M.  pule- 
gium,  the  pennyroyal,  are  also  found  in  abundance. 
Mint  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Law  among  tithable  things, 
but  the  Pharisaic  opinion  subjecting  to  tithe  all  ed- 
ibles acquired  force  of  law. 

Mulberry,  Heb.  bekd  im  (A.  V.,  II  Kings,  v,  23-4; 
I  Par.,  xiv,  14-5;  D.  V.  "pear  tree"),  a  tree,  two 
species  of  which  are  cultivated  in  Palestine:  Morus 
alba,  M.  nigra.  Neither  this  nor  pear-tree  is  a 
likely  translation;  the  context  rather  suggests  a  tree 
the  leaves  of  which  rustle  like  the  aspen,  Populus 
iremula.  In  D.  V.  Luke,  xvii,  6,  "mulberry  tree"  is 
probably  a  good  translation. 

Mustard.  Several  kinds  of  mustard-plant  grow  in 
the  Holy  Land,  either  wild,  as  the  charlock,  Sinapis 
arvensis,  and  the  white  mustard,  <S.  alba,  or 
cultivated,  as  S.  nigra,  which  last  seems  the  one 
intended  in  the  Gospel.  Our  Lord  compares  the  king- 
dom of  God  to  a  mustard  seed  (Matt.,  xiii,  31-2),  a 
familiar  term  to  mean  the  tiniest  thing  possible  (cf. 
Talmud  Jerus.  Peah,  7;  T.  Babyl.  Kethub.,  iiib), 
"which  a  man  .  .  .  sowed  in  his  field"  and  which 
"when  it  is  grown  up,  it  is  greater  than  all  herbs"; 
the  mustard  tree  attains  in  Palestine  a  height  of  ten 
feet  and  is  a  favourite  resort  of  linnets  and  finches. 

Myrrh  translates  two  Heb.  words:  (1)  mor  (cf. 
Arab,  morr),  the  aromatic  resin  produced  by  Balsam- 
odendron  myrrha,  Nees,  which  grows  in  Arabia  and 
subtropical  east  Africa,  was  extensively  used  among  the 
ancients,  not  only  as  a  perfume  (Ex.,  xxx,  23;  Ps. 
xliv,  9;  Prov.,  vii,  17;  Cant.,  i,  12;  v,  5),  but  also 
for  embalming  (John,  xix,  39)  and  as  an  anodyne 
(Mark,  xv,  23);    (2)  lot,  see  Ladanum. 

Myrtle,  Heb.  hadas  (Is.,  xli,  19;  Iv,  13;  Zaoh.,  i,  8, 
10,  11),  Myrtus  communis,  Arab,  hadas,  an  ever- 
green shrub  especially  prized  for  its  fragrant  leaves, 
and  found  in  great  abundance  in  certain  districts  of 
Palestine.  Its  height  is  usually  three  to  four  feet, 
attaining  to  eight  feet  in  moist  soil,  and  a  variety  cul- 
tivated in  Damascus  reaches  up  ten  to  twelve  feet; 
hence  an  erroneous  translation  in  almost  all  the  above 
Scriptural  passages. 

Nard,  pistic  (R.  V.  margin,  Mark,  xiv,  3).  See 
Spikenard. 

Nettles  translates  two  Heb.  words:  (1)  kharul,  plur. 
kharulim  (A.  V.,  Job,  xxx,  7;  D.  V.  "briers";  Soph., 
ii,  9;  Prov.,  xxiv,  31;  D.  V.  "thorns"),  see  Bramble; 
(2)  qimmosh,  qirmneshonim  (Prov.,  xxiv,  31;  A.  V. 
"thorns";  Is.,  xxxiv,  13;  Osee,  ix,  6):  correctly  ren- 
dered "nettles"  {Urtica  urens,  (7.  dioica,  U. 
pilulifera,  U.  membranacea,  Poir.),  which  are  found 
everywhere  on  neglected  patches,  whilst  the  deserts 
abound  with  Forskahlea  tenacissima,  a  plant  akin  to 
the  Urtica. 

Nut,  equivalent  of  two  Heb.  words :  (1)  'egoz  (Cant., 
vi,  10),  Arab,  jauz,  the  walnut  tree,  universally  cul- 
tivated in  the  East;  (2)  botnim  (A.  V.,  Gen.,  xliii,  11), 
probably  the  pistachio  nut,  Arab.  butm.  See  Pis- 
tachio. 

Oak,  Heb.  ayl,  'elah,  elon,  'allah,  'allon  are  thus 
indiscriminately  translated.  From  Osee  iv,  13,  and 
Is.,  vi,  13,  it  appears  that  the  'elah  is  different  from 
the  'alien;  in  fact,  'ayl,  'elah,  'elon,  are  understood 
by    some    to  be    the    terebinth   'allah    and    'allon 


representing  the  oak.  The  genus  Quercus  is  largely 
represented  in  Palestine  and  Syria,  as  to  the  number 
of  individuals  and  species,  seven  of  which  have  been 
found:  (1)  Quercus  robur  is  represented  by  two 
varieties:  Q.  cedrorum  and  Q.  pinnatifida;  (2)  Q. 
infectoria;  (3)  Q.  ilex;  (4)  Q.  coccifera,  or  holm 
oak,  of  which  there  are  three  varieties:  Q.  calliprinos, 
Q.  palestina,  and  Q.  pseudo-coccifera,  this  latter,  a 
prickly  evergreen  oak  with  leaves  like  very  small 
holly,  most  common  in  the  land,  especially  as  brush- 
wood; (5)  Q.  cerris;  (6)  Q.  cegylops,  the  Valonia 
oak,  also  very  common  and  of  which  two  varieties 
are  known:  Q.  ithaburensis  and  Q.  look,  Ky.;  (7)  Q. 
libani,  Oliv. 

Oil  tree,  Heb.  'es  shemen  (Is.,  xli,  19;  III  Kings, 
vi,  23,  31-3;  II  Esd.,  viii,  15),  the  olive-tree  in 
D.  v.,  the  oleaster  in  R.  V.,  and  variously  rendered  in 
A.  v.:  "oil  tree",  "olive  tree"  and  "pine"  To  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  different  passages  where  the 
'es  shemen  is  mentioned,  it  must  be  a  fat  tree,  pro- 
ducing oil  or  resin,  an  emblem  of  fertility,  capable  of 
furnishing  a  block  of  wood  out  of  which  an  image  ten 
feet  high  may  be  carved,  it  must  grow  in  mountains 
near  Jerusalem,  and  have  a  dense  foliage.  Wild 
olive,  oleaster,  Elaeagnus  angustifolius  (Arab,  haleph). 
Balanites  cegyptiaca,  Del.  (Arab,  zaqqum),  are  there- 
fore excluded;  some  kind  of  pine  is  probably  meant. 

Olive  tree,  Olea  europcjea,  one  of  the  most  character- 
istic trees  of  the  Mediterranean  region,  and  universally 
cultivated  in  the  Holy  Land.  Scriptural  allusions  to 
it  are  very  numerous,  and  the  ruins  of  oil-presses  mani- 
fest the  extensive  use  of  its  enormous  produce :  olives, 
the  husbandman's  only  relish;  oil  which  serves  as 
food,  medicine,  unguent,  and  fuel  for  lamps;  finally 
candles  and  soap.  The  olive  tree  was  considered  the 
symbol  of  fruitfulness,  blessing,  and  happiness,  the 
emblem  of  peace  and  prosperity. 

Olive,  Wild  (Rom.,  xi,  17,  24),  not  the  oleaster, 
Eloeagnus  angustifolia,  common  throughout  Pales- 
tine, but  the  seedling  of  the  olive,  on  which  the  Olea 
europoea  is  grafted. 

Onion,  Heb.  begalim  (Num.,  xi,  5),  Allium  cepa, 
universally  cultivated  and  forming  an  important  and 
favourite  article  of  diet  in  the  East. 

Orache.     See  Mallows. 

Palm  tree,  Heb.  thamar  (Ex.,  xv,  27),  tomer 
(Judges,  iv,  5),  Phoenix  daclylifera,  the  date  palm, 
The  palm  tree  flourishes  now  only  in  the  maritime 
plain,  but  the  Jordan  Valley,  Engaddi,  Mount  Olivet, 
and  many  other  localities  were  renowned  in  antiquity 
for  their  palm  groves.  In  fact,  the  abundance  of  palm 
trees  in  certain  places  suggested  their  names:  Phoe- 
nicia (from  Greek  <t>oivi^),  Engaddi,  formerly  named 
Hazazon  Thamar,  i.  e.,  "Palm  grove",  Jericho,  sur- 
named  "the  City  of  Palm  trees",  Bethany,  "the 
house  of  dates",  are  among  the  best  known.  Dates 
are  a  staple  article  of  food  among  the  Bedouins;  un- 
like figs,  they  are  not  dried  into  compressed  cakes,  but 
separately;  date  wine  was  known  throughout  the 
East  and  is  still  made  in  a  few  places ;  date  honey 
(Heb.  debash;  cf.  Arab,  dibs)  has  always  been  one  of 
the  favourite  sweetmeats  of  the  Orientals.  There  are 
many  allusions  in  Scripture  to  palm  trees,  which  are 
also  prominent  in  architectural  ornamentation  (Heb. 
timmorah,  III  Kings,  vi,  29). 

Paper  reed,  Heb.  aroth  (A.  V.,  Is.,  xix,  7)  preferably 
rendered  "the  channel  of  the  river"  (D.  V.),  as  the 
allusion  seems  to  be  to  the  meadows  on  the  ba.nks  of 
the  Nile. 

Pear  tree.    See  Mulberry. 

Pen,  in  Ps.  xliv,  2  (A.  V.,  xiv,  1);  Jer.,  viii,  8,  is 
probably  the  stalk  of  Arundo  donax,  which  the  ancients 
used  for  writing,  as  do  also  the  modern  Orientals. 

Pennyroyal.    See  Mint. 

Peppermint.    See  Mint. 

Pine  tree  translates  the  Heb.  words:  (1)  'oren  (Is., 
xliv,  14;   A.  V.    "ash",    possibly  Pinus   pinea;    (2) 


PLANTS 


156 


PLANTS 


thidlmr  (Is.,  Ix,  13;  Is.,  xli,  19;  D.  V.  "elm"),  the  elm 
(q.  V.)  rather  than  pine. 

Pistachio,  Heb.  botnim  (Gen.,  xhii,  11),  probably 
refers  to  the  nut-fruits  of  Pistacia  vera,  very  common 
in  Palestine;  yet  Arab,  butm  is  applied  to  Pistacia 
terebinthus. 

Plane  tree,  Heb.  armon  (Gen.,  xxx,  37;  Ezeoh.,  xxxi, 
8;  A.  V.  "chestnut  tree";  Eoclus.,  xxiv,  19).  Platanus 
orientalis,  found  throughout  the  East,  fulfills  well 
the  condition  implied  in  the  Heb.  name  ("peeled"),  as 
the  outer  layers  of  its  bark  peel  off.  A.  V.  translation 
is  erroneous,  for  the  chestnut  tree  does  not  flourish 
either  in.  Mesopotamia  or  Palestine. 

Pomegranate,  the  fruit  of  Punica  granatum,  a 
great  favourite  in  the  Orient,  and  very  plentiful  in 
Palestine,  hence  the  many  allusions  to  it  in  the  Bible. 
Pomegranates  were  frequently  taken  as  a  model  of 
ornamentation;  several  places  of  the  Holy  Land  were 
named  after  the  tree  (Heb.  rimmon):  Rimmon,  Geth- 
Remmon,  En-Rimmon,  etc. 

Poplar, 'Reh.  libneh  (Gen.,  xxx,  37;  Osee.,  iv,  13), 
Arab,  labna,  Slyrax  officinalis,  certainly  identified 
with  the  tree,  from  the  inner  layer  of  whose  bark  the 
officinal  storax  is  obtained. 

Poppy.     See  Gall. 

Pulse  renders  two  Heb.  words:  (1)  qali  occurs  twice 
in  II  Kings,  xvii,  28,  and  is  translated  by  "parched 
corn"  and  "pulse" ;  the  allusion  is  to  cereals,  the  seeds 
of  peas,  beans,  lentils,  and  the  like,  which,  in  the 
East,  are  roasted  in  the  oven  or  toasted  over  the  fire; 
(2)  zero'im,  zer'onim  (Dan.,  i,  12,  16)  refer  to  no  spe- 
cial plants,  but  possibly  to  all  edible  summer  vege- 
tables. 

Reed,  a  general  word  translating  several  Heb.  names 
of  plants:  agmon,  gome,  §iXph  (see  Bulrush)  and  qa7ieh 
(see  Calamus). 

Rest-harrow.     See  Briers. 

Rock-rose.     See  Ladanum. 

Rose.  (1)  Heb.  khabbas^eleih  (A.  V.,  Song  of  Sol.  ii,  1 ; 
Is.,  XXXV,  1)  is  probably  the  narcissus  (see  Flower  of 
the  field).  (2)  Wis.,  ii,  8,  seems  to  indicate  the  ordi- 
nary rose,  though  roses  were  known  in  Egypt  only  at 
the  epoch  of  the  Ptolemies.  (3)  The  rose  plant 
mentioned  in  Ecclus.,  xxiv,  18;  xxxix,  17,  is  rather  the 
oleander,  Nerium  oleander,  very  abundant  around 
Jericho,  where  it  is  doubtful  whether  roses  ever 
flourished  except  in  gardens,  although  seven  different 
species  of  the  genus  Rosa  grow  in  Palestine. 

Rue  (Luke,  xi,  42),  probably  Ruta  chalepensis, 
slightly  different  from  R.  graveolens,  the  officinal 
rue.  St.  Luke  implies  that  Pharisees  regarded  the 
rue  as  subject  to  tithe,  although  it  was  not  mentioned 
in  the  Law  among  tithable  things  (Lev.,  xxvii,  30; 
Num.,  xviii,  21;Deut.,  xiv,  22).  This  opinion  of  some 
overstrict  Rabbis  did  not  prevail  in  the  course  of  time, 
and  the  Talmud  {Shebiith,  ix,  1)  distinctly  excepts  the 
rue  from  tithe. 

Rush  (Job,  viii,  11).     See  Bulrush. 

Rye,  Heb.  kussemeth  (A.  V.,  Ex.,  ix,  32;  Is., 
xxviii,  25)  like  Arab,  kirsanah,  which  suggests  a 
leguminous  plant,  Vicia  ervilia,  Septuagint  ren- 
ders it  "spelt";  rye  is  unknown  in  Bible  lands  and 
thrives  only  in  colder  climates,  hence  a  wrong  trans- 
lation. 

Saffron,  Heb.  karkom  (Cant.,  iv,  14),  cf.  Arab. 
kurkum,  a  fragrant  plant,  Crocus  sativus,  grown  in 
the  East  and  in  Europe  for  seasoning  dishes,  bread, 
etc. 

Sandal-wood.     See  Algum. 

Sea-purslain.     See  Mallows. 

Sedge,  Heb.  suph  (D.  V.,  Ex.,  ii,  3),  a  generic 
name  for  rush.     See  Bulrush. 

Sedge-bush,  Heb.  'akhu  (D.  V.,  Job,  viii,  11:  Gen., 
xli,  2,  IS;  "marshy  places";  A.  V.,  "meadow")  prob- 
ably designates  all  kinds  of  green  plants  hving  in 
marshes  (of.  Egypt,  akhah),  in  particular  Cyperus 
esculentu^.    See  Flag. 


Setim  wood,  the  gum  arable  tree.  Acacia  Seyal,  Del., 
which  abounds  in  the  oasis  of  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula 
and  in  the  sultry  Wadys  about  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
wood  is  light,  though  hard  and  close-grained,  of  a  fine 
orange-brown  hue  darkening  with  age,  and  was  re- 
puted incorruptible. 

Shrub,  Heb.  ndagus  (D.  V.,  Is.,  vii,  19;  Iv,  13),  a 
particular  kind  of  shrub,  probably  some  jujube  tree, 
either  Zizyphus  vulgaris.  Lam.,  or  Z.  spina-christi 
Willd. 

Sloe.     See  Bur. 

Smut.     See  Mildew. 

Soap.     See  Borith. 

Sodom,  Vine  of  (Deut.,  xxxii,  32).     See  Vine. 

Spear-mint.     See  Mint. 

Spelt,  A.  V.  and  R.  V.  for  kussemeth  (Ezech.,  iv,  9). 
See  Fitches.  R.  V.  for  qegakh  (Ex.,  ix,  32;  Is.,  xxviii, 
25).     See  Oith. 

Spices  translates  three  Heb.  words;  (1)  sammun,  a 
generic  word  including  galbanum  onycha,  the  opercu- 
lum of  a  strombus,  andstacte(2)  basam,  another  generic 
term  under  which  come  myrrh,  cinnamon,  sweet  cane, 
and  cassia  (3)  neko  'oth,  possibly  the  same  substance 
as  Arab,  neka'ath.     See  Astragalus. 

Spices,  Aromatical  (IV  Kings,  xx,  13;  Is.,  xxxix,  2), 
a  mistranslation  for  "precious  things"  See  Astra- 
galus. 

Spikenard  (A.V.  Songof  Sol.,i,  12;  D.V.,  11;  iv,  14; 
Mark,  xiv,  3;  John,  xii,  3),  a  fragrant,  essential  oil  ob- 
tained from  the  root  of  Nardostachys  jatamansi,  D.  C, 
a  small  herbaceous  plant  of  the  Himalayas,  which  is 
exported  all  over  the  East,  and  was  known  even  to  the 
Romans;  the  perfume  obtained  from  it  was  very 
expensive. 

Stacte  translates  four  Heb.  words:  (1)  nataph  (Ex., 
xxx,  34),  a  fragrant  gum  identified  with  the  storax 
(see  Poplar),  and  with  myrrh  in  drops  or  tears;  (2) 
ahaloth  (D.  V.,  Ps.  xliv,  9;  A.  V.,  xiv,  8:  "aloes", 
q.  v.);  (3)  lot  (Gen.,  xxxvli,  25;  xliii,  11),  aee Ladanum; 
(4)  qiddah  (Ezech.,  xxvii,  19),  see  Cassia. 

Storax.  (1)  Gen.,  xliii,  11:  see  Astragalus;  (2) 
Ecclus.,  xxiv,  21:  see  Poplar;  Stacte  (1). 

Sweet  cane.     See  Cane. 

Sycamine  (A.  V.,  Luke,  xvii,  6;  D.  V.  "mulberry 
tree").  As  St.  Luke  distinguishes  a-vKdfums  (here) 
from  crvKo/iop^a  (xix,  4),  they  probably  differ;  a-vxa-vlyos 
is  admitted  by  scholars  to  be  the  black  mulberry, 
Morus  nigra. 

Sycamore  or  Sycomore,  Heb.  shiqmim  or  shiqmoth 
(III  Kings,  X,  27;  Ps.  Ixxvin,  47,  D.  V.,  Ixxvii,  47, 
"mulberry";  Is.,  ix,  10;  A.  V.  Amos.,  vn,  14),  not  the 
tree  commonly  called  by  that  name,  Acer  pseudo-plata- 
nus,  but  Ficus  sycomorus,  formerly  more  plentiful 
in  Palestine. 

Tamarisk,  Heb.  eshel  (Gen.,  xxi,  33:  "grove"; 
I  Kings,  xxii,6;  xxxi,  13:  D.  V.  "wood",  A.  V.  "tree"), 
Arab,  'athl,  a  tree  of  which  eight  or  nine  species  grow 
in  Palestine. 

Teil  tree  (A.  V.,  Is.,  vi,  13),  a  mistranslation  of  Heb. 
'elah,  which  is  probably  the  terebinth. 

Terebinth  (D.  V.,  Is.,  vi,  13),  Pistacia  terebinthus, 
the  turpentine  tree,  for  Heb.' ayl,' elah,' elon  (aee  Oak); 
it  grows  in  dry  localities  of  south  and  eastern  Palestine 
where  the  oak  cannot  thrive.  The  turpentine,  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  pine  trees,  is  a  kind  of  pleasant- 
smelling  oil,  obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark, 
and  is  widely  used  in  the  East  to  flavour  wine,  sweet- 
meats, etc. 

Thistles,  or  numerous  prickly  plants,  are  one  of  the 
special  features  of  the  flora  of  the  Holy  Land;  hence 
they  are  designated  by  various  Hebrew  words,  incon- 
sistently translated  by  the  versions,  where  guess-work 
seems  occasionally  to  have  been  employed  although 
the  general  meaning  is  certain:  (1)  barqanim,  see 
Briers;  (2)  dardar,  Arab,  shaukat  ed-dardar,  possibly 
Centaureas,  star-thistles  and  knapweeds;  (3)  khedeq, 
see  Mad-apple;  (4)  khoakh  (see  Bur),  a  plant,  which 


PLASDEN 


157 


PLASENCIA 


grows  amidst  ruins  (Is. ,xxiv,  13),  in  fallow-lands  (Osee, 
ix;  6),  with  lilies  (Cant.,  ii,  2),  and  in  fields  where  it  is 
harmful  to  corn  (Job,  xxxi,  40),  all  which  features  suit 
well  the  various  kinds  of  thistles  (Carduus  pycno- 
cephalus,  C.  argentatus,  Circium  lanceolatmn,  C.  ar- 
vense,  Attractilis  comosa,  Carlhamus  oxyacanlha,  Sco- 
lymus  maculatus),  most  abundant  in  Palestine;  (5) 
sirim,  the  various  star-thistles,  or  perhaps  the  thorny 
burnet,  plentiful  in  ruins;  (6)  sirpad,  from  the  Greek 
rendering,  probably  the  elecampane,  Inula  viscosa, 
common  on  the  hills  of  the  Holy  Land;  (7)  qiinmesh- 
onim,  see  Nettles;  (8)  shayilh  and  (9)  shamir,  see 
Briers. 

Thorns,  used  in  the  English  Bibles  to  designate 
plants  like  thistles,  also  includes  thorny  plants,  such 
as:  (1)  'atad,  see  Bramble;  (2)  mcsukah,  the  general 
name  given  to  a  hedge  of  any  kind  of  thorny  shrubs; 
(3)  na'agug,  see  Shrub;  (4)  silldn  (cf .  Arab,  sula),  some 
kind  of  strong  thorns;  (5)  sarabhim,  tangled  thorns 
forming  thickets  impossible  to  clear;  (6)  qinnim,  an 
unidentified  thorny  plant;  (7)  gof,  a  generic  word  for 
thorny  bushes;  (8)  sikkiin  (cf.  Arab,  shauk),  also  a 
generic  name. 

Thyine  wood,  probably  Thuya  articulala,  Desf., 
especially  in  Apoc,  xviii,  12.     See  Algum. 

Turpentine  tree.     See  Terebinth. 

Vetches  (D.  V.,  Is.,  xxviii,  25).     See  Fitches. 

Vine,  the  ordinary  grape-vine,  Vitis  vinifera,  of 
which  many  varieties  are  cultivated  and  thrive  in 
the  Holy  Land.  In  Old  Testament  times  vine  and 
wine  were  so  important  and  popular  that  in  it  they 
are  constantly  mentioned  and  alluded  to,  and  a 
relatively  large  vocabulary  was  devoted  to  expressing 
varieties  of  plants  and  produce.  In  Ezech.,  xv,  6,  Heb. 
(;afgafah  is  rendered  "vine",  see  Willow. 

Vine,  Wild  (IV  Kings,  iv,  39),  probably  a  wild 
gourd-vine,  most  likely  the  Colocynth. 

Vine  of  Sodom  (Deut.,  xxxii,  32),  possibly  the  well 
known  shrub,  "Apple  of  Sodom",  Calotropis  procera, 
Willd.,  which  peculiar  plant  grows  round  the  Dead 
Sea  and  produces  a  fruit  of  the  size  of  an  apple,  and 
"fair  to  behold",  which  bursts  when  touched  and  con- 
tains only  white  silky  tufts  and  small  seeds,  "dust 
and  ashes"  (Josephus). 

Walnut.     See  Nut. 

Water-mint.     See  Mint. 

Wheat,  from  Heb.  bar  and  dagan,  also  translated 
"corn"  and  applicable  to  all  cereals,  is  properly  in 
Heb.  khittah  (cf .  Arab,  khintah),  of  which  two  varieties 
are  especially  cultivated  in  Palestine:  Triticum  wsti- 
vum,  summer  wheat,  and  T.  hybernum,  winter  wheat; 
the  harvest  takes  place  from  May  (Ghor)  to  June 
(highlands).  Corn  is  threshed  by  cattle  or  pressed 
out  with  a  sledge,  and  winnowed  with  a  shovel,  by 
throwing  the  grain  against  the  wind  on  threshing 
floors  upon  breezy  hills. 

Willow.  (1)  Heb.  gafgafah  (A.  V.,  Ezech.,  xvii,  5;  D. 
v., "  vine  "),  Arab,  safsaf,  probably  willow  though  some 
prefer  Elwagnus  hortensis,  Marsh.,  from  Arab,  zaiza- 
fun.  (2)  Heb.  'arabim  (Lev.,  xxiii,  40;  Job,  xl,  17; 
Ps.  cxxxvi,  2,  A.  V.  cxxxvii;  Is.,  xliv,  4),  like  Arab. 
gharab,  hence  the  willow.  'Arabim,  used  only  in  the 
plur.,  probably  designates  all  willows  in  general  {Salix 
safsaf,  S.  alba,  S.  fragilis,  S.  babylonica,  or  weeping 
willow,  are  frequent  in  the  Palestinian  Wadys), 
whereas  gafgafah  may  point  out  some  particular  spe- 
cies possibly  the  weeping  willow. 

Wheel  (Ps.  Ixxxii,  14)  probably  refers  to  some  kind 
of  Centaurea,  as  does  "whirlwind"  (Is.,  xvii,  13). 

Wormwood,  Heb.  la'anah  (Apoc,  viii,  11),  plants  of 
the  genus  Artemisia,  several  species  of  which  (A. 
monosperma,  Del.,  A.  herba-alba,  Asso.,  A.  judaica, 
A.  annua,  A.  arborescens)  are  common  in  Palestine, 
notably  on  tablelands  and  in  deserts.  The  charac- 
teristic bitterness  of  the  Artemisias,  coupled  with  their 
usual  dreariness  of  habitat,  aptly  tjrpified  for  Eastern 
minds  calamity,  injustice,  and  the  evil  results  of  sin. 


Balfour,  The  Plants  of  the  Bible  (London,  1885) ;  Bona  via,  The 
Flora  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  its  Outcomes  (Westminster, 
1894) :  Duns,  Biblical  Natural  Science,  being  the  expl.  of  all  refer- 
ences in  Holy  Scripture  to  geology,  botany,  etc.  (London,  1863-5) ; 
Groser,  The  Trees  and  Plants  mentioned  in  the  Bible  (London, 
1895);  Hooker  and  Tristram,  P^ari^s  of  the  Bible,  with  the  chief 
allusions  collected  and  explained  in  Aids  to  the  Stuilent  of  the  Holy 
Bible  (London);  Knight,  Bible  Plants  and  Animals  (London, 
1889) ;  Post,  Flora  of  Syria,  Palestine  and  Sinai,  from  the  Taurus 
to  the  Ras  Muhammad,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  Syrian 
desert  (Beirut,  1896);  Smith,  Bible  Planf,^,  their  hiMory,  with  a  re- 
view of  the  opinions  of  various  writers  regarding  their  identification 
(London,  1878) ;  Tristram,  The  Natural  History  of  the  Bible  (Lon- 
don, 1889) ;  Idem,  Tlie  Fauna  and  Flora  of  Palestine  (London, 
1SS4);  Zeller,  Wild  Flowers  of  the  Holy  Land  (London,  1876); 
BoissiER,  Flora  Orientalis  (Bale  and  Geneva,  1867-88) ;  Celsius, 
Hierobotariicon,  sine  de  plantis  Sacrce  Scripturtc  dissertaiiones  breves 
(Upsala,  1745-7) ;  Foi^kal,  Flora  ^gypliaco-Arabica  (Copen- 
hagen, 1776) ;  HiLLER,  Hierophyticon,  sive  Commentarius  in  loca 
Scripturm  Sacrce  quee  plantarum  faciunt  mentionem  (Treve:^,  1725) ; 
Lemnius,  Similitudinum  ac  parabolarum,  quce  in  Bibliis  ex  herbis 
desumuntur,  dilucida  explicatio  (Frankfort,  1626) ;  Linne,  Flora 
Palestinm  (Upsala,  1756) ;  Ursinus,  Arboretum  biblicum  (Nurem- 
berg, 1699) ;  Idem,  Arboreti  biblici  continuatio  (Nuremberg,  1699) ; 
CuLTRERA,  Botanique  biblique  (Geneva,  1861);  Fillion,  Atlas 
d'histoire  naturelle  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1884);  Gandoger,  Plantea 
de  Judee  in  Bulletin  de  la  SociMe  botanique  de  France,  XXXIII, 
XXXV,  XXXVI  (Paris) ;  Idem,  articles  on  several  plants  in 
ViGOUROux,  Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895 — ) ;  Hamilton, 
La  botanique  de  la  Bible  (Nice,  1871);  Levesque,  articles  on  vari- 
ous plants  in  ViG.,  Diet,  Bibl.;  Loret,  La  flore  pharaonique, 
d'apris  les  documents  hiiroglyphiques  et  les  specimens  decouverts 
dans  les  tombes  (Paris,  1892) ;  FoNCK,  StreifzUge  durch  die  Biblische 
Flora  (Freiburg,  1900) ;  Kinzler,  Biblische  Naturgesch.  (Calw 
and  Stuttgart,  1884) ;  Low,  Aramdische  Pflamennamen  (Leipzig, 
1881) :  Oedmann,  Vermischte  Sammlungen  aus  der  Naturkunde 
zur  Erkl&rung  der  Heiligen  Schrift  (Leipzig,  1786-95) ;  Rosen- 
mCller,  Handbuch  der  Biblischen  Altertumskunde,  IV,  1:  Bi- 
blische Naturgesch.  (Leipzig,  1830) ;  Woenig,  Die  Pjlanzen  im 
alien  Mgypten  (Leipzig,  1886);  Cultrera,  Flora  Bibtica,  ovvero 
spiegazione  delle  plante  menzionate  nella  Sacra  Scrittura  (Palermo, 
1861). 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 
Plasden,    Polydore,   Venerable.      See  White, 
Eustace,  Venerable. 

Plasencia,  Diocese  of  (Placentina),  comprises 
the  civil  provinces  of  Cdceres,  Salamanca,  and  Bada- 
joz.  Its  capital  has  a  population  of  8044.  The  city  of 
Plasencia  was  founded  by  Alfonso  VIII  on  the  site  of 
Ambroz,  which  he  had  conquered  from  the  Moors. 
He  gave  it  the  name  of  Placentia,  "that  it  may  be 
pleasing  to  God  and  man"  (ut  Deo  placeat  et  homini- 
bus),  and  sought  to  have  it  made  a  see  bj^  the  pope, 
which  Clement  III  did  in  1189.  In  1190,  the  see  was 
occupied  by  Bricio  and,  at  his  death  in  1211,  by  Do- 
mingo, a  native  of  Beja,  who  was  more  warrior  than 
shepherd,  fighting  at  Las  Navas  de  Tolosa  at  the  head 
of  the  men  of  Plasencia,  and  subsequently  directing 
his  movements  against  Jaen,  conquering  Priego,  Doja, 
Montejo,  and  other  towns.  He  assisted  at  the  Lat- 
eran  Council  of  1215,  with  Archbishop  Rodrigo  Jime- 
nez de  Rada,  whom  he  served  as  vicar  when  the 
archbishop  became  legate  in  Spain.  Dying  in  1235, 
Domingo  was  succeeded  by  Adan,  third  Bishop  of  Pla- 
sencia, a  no  less  warlike  prelate,  who  with  four  other 
bishops  accompanied  St.  Ferdinand  to  the  conquest  of 
C6rdoba,  where  the  five  consecrated  the  mosque  as  a 
Christian  cathedral.  His  successors,  Ximeno  Simon, 
and  two  Pedros,  devoted  themselves  mainly  to  the 
government  of  their  diocese;  Juan  Alonso  assisted  at 
the  Cortes  of  1288,  where  he  obtained  from  Sancho 
confirmation  of  the  privileges  already  granted  to 
Plasencia.  His  successor  Diego  spent  much  time  at 
Valladolid  with  the  king. 

The  cathedral  was  originally  built  on  a  lofty  site, 
near  the  citadel,  afterwards  occupied  by  the  Church  of 
St.  Vincent  the  Martyr,  then  by  that  of  St.  Anne  and 
lastly  by  the  Jesuit  college,  now  an  almshouse.  An- 
other cathedral  was  begun  early  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury; this  edifice,  in  the  Early  Spanish  Gothic  style,  is 
now  the  parish  church  of  Santa  Maria.  At  the  end  of 
its  cloister  are  seen  the  arms  of  Bishop  Gonzalo  de  Sta. 
Maria,  in  whose  time  the  cloister  was  finished,  and  the 
first  solemn  procession  was  held  there,  26  March,  1348. 
This  cathedral  had  hardly  been  built  when  it  began  to 
seem  too  poor  for  the  see — one  of  the  richest  in  Spain.  In 
1498,  in  the  episcopate  of  Gutierre  Alvarez  de  Toledo, 


PLATA 


158 


PLATINA 


the  twenty-fourth  bishop,  another  cathedral  was  be- 
gun in  Late  Gothic,  and  completed  in  Renaissance. 
The  high  altar  is  the  work  of  Gregorio  Herndndez,  a 
famous  sculptor  of  Valladolid;  the  choir  grille  was 
made  by  Juan  Bautista  Celma  in  1604;  the  stalls  are 
noteworthy,  rivalling  those  of  the  cathedral  of  Bada- 
joz.  In  the  sanctuary,  on  the  Gospel  side,  is  the  tomb 
of  Bishop  Pedro  Ponce  de  Le6n,  inquisitor  general, 
who  died  at  Jaraycedo,  18  January,  1.573.  In  the 
winter  chapter  house  are  a  "Nativity"  by  Veldzquez 
and  a  "St.  Augustine"  by  Espanoleto.  The  adjoining 
college  was  founded  in  1.5.54  by  Bishop  Gutierre  de 
Varagas  de  Carvajal,  a  native  of  Madrid,  one  of  the 
most  notable  occupants  of  the  see.  The  parish  Church 
of  St.  Xicolas,  also  at  Plasencia,  contains  the  tombs  of 
Hernan  Perez  dc  Monroy,  the  champion  of  King  Pe- 
dro I,  and  Pedro  de  Carvajal,  Bishop  of  Coria.  The 
Church  of  S.  Juan  Bautista,  outside  the  walls,  has  been 
converted  into  a  match  factory.  The  noteworthy 
church  of  S.  ^^icente  formerly  belonged  to  the  Do- 
minicans; in  its  chapel  of  St.  John  is  the  magnificent 
tomb  with  kneeling  effigy  of  jMartin  Nieto,  knight 
commander  of  the  nine  towns,  in  the  Order  of  St. 
John,  and  comendador  of  Yebencs. 

The  episcopal  palace  was  rebuilt  at  the  expense  of 
Bishop  Francisco  Laso  de  La  Vega  (1737),  on  the  site 
of  one  that  dated  from  the  fifteenth  century.  Besides 
the  almshouse  already  mentioned,  there  are  the  hos- 
pital of  Sta.  Maria,  popularly  known  as  Dona  Engra- 
cia  de  Monroy,  which  was  restored  by  Bishop  Laso; 
and  the  hospital  of  La  Merced,  known  as  Las  Llagas 
(The  Wounds),  intended  for  persons  suffering  from 
wounds  or  accidental  injuries.  The  conciliar  seminary 
of  PurisimaConcepci6n  was  founded  in  1670  by  Bishop 
Diego  Sarmiento  Valladares  and,  later  on,  reorgan- 
ized by  Bishops  Antonio  Carillo  Mayoral  and  Ci- 
priano  Varela.  In  1853  Bishop  Jos6  Avila  y  Lamas  in- 
stalled it  in  the  convent  of  S.  Vicente. 

The  Diocese  of  Plasencia  was  formerly  suffragan  of 
Santiago,  but  under  the  last  concordat  (1851)  it  be- 
came suffragan  of  Toledo.  In  this  diocese  is  the  fa- 
mous Hieronymite  monastery  of  Yuste,  to  which 
Charles  V  retired  after  his  abdication.  The  ancient 
monastery  itself  has  been  destroyed,  but  the  dwelling 
built  for  the  emperor  is  preserved,  as  well  as  the 
church.  In  1547  the  Count  and  Countess  of  Oropesa 
caused  this  monastery  to  be  rebuilt  in  Renaissance 
architecture.  The  vaultings  of  the  church  were  recon- 
structed in  1860;  above  them  are  white-washed  walls 
with  the  emperor's  arms,  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other, 
a  black  wooden  casket  which  contained  the  body  of 
Charles  V,  in  a  leaden  case,  until  1574,  when  it  was  re- 
moved to  the  Escorial.  Plasencia  has  had  many  dis- 
tinguished sons;  among  them  Juan  de  Carvajal,  cre- 
ated a  cardinal  by  Eugene  IV,  filled  many  important 
posts  under  the  Holy  See  and  rendered  important  ser- 
vices at  the  Council  of  Basle  and  in  the  war  against 
the  Turks,  while  his  cousin,  Bernardino  de  Carvajal, 
presided  in  the  conclaves  which  elected  Adrian  VI  and 
Clement  VII  (see  Car\ajal).  Among  others  were 
the  jurists,  Alfonso  de  Acevedo  and  Juan  Gutti&rez; 
the  chroniclers  Lorenzo  Galindez  de  Carvajal  and 
Alonso  Ferniindez;_and  Diego  de  Chaves,  confessor 
to  Philip  II.  Within  this  diocese  is  the  native  home 
of  the  conquerors  of  America:  Hernando  Cort(5s,  a 
native  of  the  ^•ilIage  of  Medellin;  and  the  Pizarros, 
natives  of  Trujillo.  The  bishops  of  Plasencia  were 
lords  of  Jaraycejo,  the  town  of  Miajadas,  and  other 
domains. 

FesnXndez,  Hist,  y  Anales  de  .  .  Plasencia  (Madrid,  1627) ; 
PONZ,  Viaj't  de  Espafla,  VII  (2nd  ed.,  Madrid,  1784) ;  Aldehete, 
Guia  ecle^idslica  de  Espafia  (Madrid,  1888) ;  Crdnica  general  de 
Espafia  (Madrid,  1870) ;  Diaz  y  Perez,  Extremadura  in  Espafla, 
sus  monumentos  y  artes  (Barcelona,  1887). 

Ram6n  Rniz  Amado 
Plata,  La.    See  La  Plata,  Diocese  op. 
Platina,  Bartolomeo,  originally  named  Sacchi, 


b.  at  Piadena,  near  Mantua,  in  1421;  d.  at  Rome, 
1481.  He  first  enlisted  as  a  soldier,  and  was  then 
appointed  tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  Marquis  Ludovico 
Gonzaga.  In  1457  he  went  to  Florence,  and  studied 
under  the  Greek  scholar  Argyropulos.  In  1462  he 
proceeded  to  Rome,  probably  in  the  suite  of  Cardinal 
Francesco  Gonzaga.  After  Pius  II  had  reorganized 
the  College  of  Abbreviators  (1463),  and  increased  its 
number  to  seventy,  Platina  in  May,  1464,  was  elected 
a  member.  When  Paul  II  abolished  the  ordinances  of 
Pius,  Platina  with  the  other  new  members  was  de- 
prived of  his  office.  Angered  thereat,  he  wrote  a 
pamphlet  insolently  demanding  from  the  pope  the 
recall  of  his  restrictions.  When  called  upon  to  justify 
himself  he  answered  with  insolence  and  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  being  released 
after  four  months  on  condition  that  he  remain  at 
Rome.  In  February,,  1486,  with  about  twenty  other 
Humanists,  he  was  again  imprisoned  on  suspicion  of 
heresy  and  of  conspiring  against  the  life  of  the  pope, 
but  the  latter  charge  was  dropped  for  lack  of  evidence 
while  they  were  acquitted  on  the  former.  But  not 
even  Platina  denies  that  the  members  of  the  Roman 
Academy,  imbued  with  half-pagan  and  materialistic 
doctrines,  were  found  guilty  of  immorality.  The 
story  about  his  constancy  under  trial  and  torture  is 
unfounded. 

After  his  release,  7  July,  1469,  he  expected  to  be 
again  in  the  employ  of  Paul  II,  who,  however,  de- 
clined his  services.  Platina  threatened  vengeance 
and  executed  his  threat,  when  at  the  suggestion  of 
Sixtus  IV  he  wrote  his  "Vitae  Pontificum  Platinse 
historici  liber  de  vita  Christi  ac  omnium  pontificum 
qui  hactenus  ducenti  fuere  et  XX  "  (Venice,  1479) .  In 
it  he  paints  his  enemy  as  cruel,  and  an  archenemy  of 
science.  For  centuries  it  influenced  historical  opinions 
until  critical  research  proved  otherwise.  In  other 
places  party  spirit  is  evident,  especially  when  he 
treats  of  the  condition  of  the  Church.  Notwith- 
standing, his  "Lives  of  the  Popes"  is  a  work  of  no 
small  merit,  for  it  is  the  first  systematic  handbook  of 
papal  history.  Platina  felt  the  need  of  critical  re- 
search, but  shirked  the  examination  of  details.  By 
the  end  of  1474  or  the  beginning  of  1475  Platina 
offered  his  nianuscript  to  Sixtus  I V ;  it  is  still  preserved 
in  the  Vatican  Library.  The  pope's  acceptance  may 
cause  surprise,  but  it  is  probable  he  was  ignorant 
of  its  contents  except  in  so  far  as  it  concerned  his  own 
pontificate  up  to  November,  1474.  After  the  death 
of  Giandrea  Bussi,  Bishop  of  Aleria,  the  pope  ap- 
pointed Platina  librarian  with  a  yearly  salary  of  120 
ducats  and  an  official  residence  in  the  Vatican.  He 
also  instructed  him  to  make  a  collection  of  the  chief 
pri\'ilegesof  the  Roman  Church.  This  collection,  whose 
value  is  acknowledged  by  all  the  annalists,  is  still 
preserved  in  the  Vatican  archives.  In  the  preface 
Platina  not  only  avoids  any  antagonism  towards  the 
Church  but  even  refers  with  approbation  to  the  pun- 
ishing of  heretics  and  schismatics  by  the  popes, 
which  is  the  best  proof  that  Sixtus  IV,  by  his  marks 
of  favour,  had  won  Platina  for  the  interests  of  the 
Church.  Besides  his  principal  work  Platina  wrote 
several  others  of  smaller  importance,  notably: 
"Historia  inclita  urbis  Mantuse  et  serenissimse 
familiee  Gonzagae".  The  new  Pinacotheca  Vaticana 
contains  the  magnificent  fresco  by  Melozzo  da  Forti. 
It  represents  Sixtus  IV  surrounded  by  his  Court  and 
appointing  Platina  prefect  of  the  Vatican. 

As  a  paragraph  from  Platina's  "Vitae  Pontificum'' 
first  gave  rise  to  the  legend  of  the  excommunication 
of  Halley's  comet  by  Callistus  III,  we  here  give  the 
legend  briefly,  after  recalling  some  historical  facts. 
After  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453),  Nicolas  V 
appealed  in  vain  to  the  Christian  princes  for  a  cru- 
sade. Callistus  III  (1455-58),  immediately  after  his 
succession,  sent  legates  to  the  various  Courts  for  the 
same  purpose;  and,  meeting  with  no  response,  pro- 


PLATO 


159 


PLATO 


mulgated  a  Bull  29  June,  1456,  prescribing  the  follow- 
ing: (1)  all  priests  were  to  say  during  Mass  the 
"oratio  contra  paganos";  (2)  daily,  between  noon 
and  vespers,  at  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  everybody  had  to 
say  three  Our  Fathers  and  Hail  Marys;  (3)  proces- 
sions were  to  be  held  by  the  clergy  and  the  faithful  on 
the  first  Sunday  of  each  month,  and  the  priests  were 
to  preach  on  Faith,  patience,  and  penance;  to  expose 
the  cruelty  of  the  Turks,  and  urge  all  to  pray  for  their 
deUverance.  The  first  Sunday  of  July  (4  July),  the 
first  processions  were  held  in  Rome.  On  the  same  day 
the  Turks  began  to  besiege  Belgrade.  On  14  July 
the  Christians  gained  a  small  advantage,  and  on  the 
twenty-first  and  twenty-second  the  Turks  were  put 
to  flight. 

In  the  same  year  Halley's  comet  appeared.  In 
Italy  it  was  first  seen  in  June.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
month  it  was  still  visible  for  three  hours  after  sunset, 
causing  great  excitement  everywhere  by  its  extraor- 
dinary splendour.  It  naturally  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  astrologers  as  may  appear  from  the  long 
"judicium  astrologicum "  by  Avogario,  of  Ferrara, 
dated  17  June,  1456;  it  was  found  again  by  Celoria 
among  the  manuscripts  of  Paolo  Toscanelli,  who  had 
copied  it  himself.  The  comet  was  seen  till  8  July. 
It  is  evident,  from  all  the  documents  of  that  time, 
that  it  had  disappeared  from  sight  several  days  before 
the  battle  of  Belgrade.  These  two  simultaneous 
facts — the  publication  of  the  Bull  and  the  appear- 
ance of  the  comet — were  connected  by  Platina  in  the 
following  manner:  "Apparente  deinde  per  aliquot 
dies  cometa  crinito  et  rubeo :  cum  mathematici  ingen- 
tem  pestem :  charitatem  annonae :  magnam  aliquam 
cladem  futuram  dicerent:  ad  avertendam  iram  Dei 
CaUstus  aliquot  dierum  supplicationes  decrevit :  ut  si 
quid  hominibus  immineret,  totum  id  in  Thurcos  chris- 
tiani  nominis  hostes  converteret.  Mandavitpraeterea 
ut  assiduo  rogatu  Deus  flecteretur  in  meridie  campanis 
signum  dari  fidelibus  omnibus:  ut  orationibus  eos 
juvarent:  qui  contra  Thurcos  continuo  dimicabant" 
(A  maned  and  fiery  comet  appearing  for  several  days, 
while  scientists  were  predicting  a  great  plague,  dear- 
ness  of  food,  or  some  great  disaster,  Callistus  de- 
creed that  supplicatory  prayers  be  held  for  some  days 
to  avert  the  anger  of  God,  so  that,  if  any  calamity 
threatened  mankind,  it  might  be  entirely  diverted 
against  the  Turks,  the  foes  of  the  Christian  name. 
He  likewise  ordered  that  the  bells  be  rung  at  midday 
as  a  signal  to  all  the  faithful  to  move  God  with  as- 
siduous petitions  and  to  assist  with  their  prayers 
those  engaged  in  constant  warfare  with  the  Turks). 

Platina  has,  generally  speaking,  recorded  the  facts 
truly;  but  is  wrong  at  one  point,  viz.,  where  he  says 
that  the  astrologers'  predictions  of  great  calamities 
induced  the  pope  to  prescribe  pubhc  prayers.  The 
Bull  does  not  contain  a  word  on  the  comet,  as  the 
present  writer  can  testify  from  personal  examination 
of  the  authenticated  document. — A  careful  investi- 
gation of  the  authenticated  "Regesta"  of  CalUstus 
III  (about  one  hundred  folios),  in  the  Vatican  archives, 
shows  that  the  comet  is  not  mentioned  in  any  other 
papal  document.  Nor  do  other  writers  of  the  time 
refer  to  any  such  prayers  against  the  comet,  though 
many  speak  both  of  the  comet  and  of  the  prayers 
against  the  Turks.  The  silence  of  St.  Antoninus, 
J^chbishop  of  Florence  (1446-59),  is  particularly 
significant.  In  his  "Chronicorum  libri  tres"  he 
enumerates  accurately  all  the  prayers  prescribed  by 
Callistus;  he  also  mentions  the  comet  of  1456  in  a 
chapter  entitled,  "De  cometis,  unde  causentur  et 
quid  significent" — but  never  refers  to  prayers  and 
processions  against  the  comet,  although  all  papal 
decrees  were  sent  to  him.  Aeneas  Sylvius  and  St. 
John  Capistrano,  who  preached  the  crusade  in  Hun- 
gary, considered  the  comet  rather  as  a  favourable 
omen  in  the  war  against  the  Turks. 

Hence  it  is  clear  that  Platina  has  looked  wrongly 


upon  the  Bull  as  the  outcome  of  fear  of  comets.  The 
historians  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
contented  themselves  with  quoting  Platina  more  or 
less  accurately  (Calvisius  1605,  Spondanus  1641, 
Lubienietski  1666).  Fabre  (1726)  in  his  continuation 
of  the  "Histoire  Ecclesiastique"  by  Floury  gave  a 
somewhat  free  paraphrase.  Bruys  (1733),  an  apos- 
tate (who  afterwards  entered  the  Church  again), 
copies  Fleury-Fabre  adding  "que  le  Pape  profita  en 
habile  homme  de  la  superstition  et  de  la  credulity 
des  peuples"  It  is  only  when  we  come  to  Laplace's 
"Exposition  du  Systeme  du  monde  ",  that  we  find  the 
expression  that  the  pope  ordered  the  comet  and  the 
Turks  to  be  exorcized  (conjure),  which  expression  we 
find  again  in  Daru's  poem  "  L' Astronomic  "  Arago 
(Des  ComStes  en  g^n^ral  etc.  Annuaire  du  Bureau 
des  Longitudes  1832,  244)  converts  it  into  an  excom- 
munication. Arago's  treatise  was  soon  translated 
into  all  the  European  languages,  after  which  time  the 
appearance  of  the  comet  (1456)  is  hardly  ever  men- 
tioned, but  this  historical  lie  must  be  repeated  in 
various  shapes.  Smyth  (Cycle  of  celestial  objects) 
speaks  of  a  special  protest  and  excommunication 
exorcizing  the  Devil,  the  Turks,  and  the  comet. 
Grant  (History  of  physical  astronomy)  refers  to  the 
publication  of  a  Bull,  in  which  CalHstus  anathema- 
tized both  the  Turks  and  the  Comet.  Babinet  (Revue 
des  deux  mondes,  23  ann.,  vol.  4,  1853,  831)  has  the 
pope  "lancer  un  timide  anatheme  sur  la  comete  et 
sur  les  ennemis  de  la  Chr6tient6",  wfiilst  in  the  battle 
of  Belgrade  "les  Freres  Mineurs  aux  premiers  rangs, 
invoquaient  I'exorcisme  du  pape  contre  la  comete" 
In  different  ways  the  legend  is  repeated  by  Chambers, 
Flammarion,  Draper,  Jamin,  Dickson  White,  and 
others.  However,  the  truth  is  gaining  ground  and  it 
is  hoped  the  story  of  the  excommunicated  comet  will 
soon  be  relegated  to  the  realm  of  fables. 

Pastor,  Geschichte  d.  Pdpste,  I,  II,  passim;  Mtjratoei,  Rer. 
italic,  scriptores,  XX  (1731),  477,  611-14;  Bissolati,  Vite  di  due 
iUusiri  cremonesi  (Milan,  1856) ;  Delsaulx,  Calixte  III  et  la 
comHe  de  Halley;  Collection  de  pricis  historiques  (Brussels,  1859), 
301-5;  Gehahd,  Of  a  Bull  and  a  comet  in  The  Month  (Feb., 
1907);  Thirion,  La  com&te  de  Halley.  Son  histoire  et  la  legende 
de  son  excommunication  in  Revue  des  quest,  sc,  3rd  series,  XVI 
(Brussels),  670-95;  Stein,  Calixte  III  et  la  comete  de  Halley  in 
Specola  astronomica  Vaiicana,  II  (1909);  Hagen,  Die  Fabel  von 
d.  Kometenbulle  in  Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach,  LXVIII  (1910), 
413. 

J.  Stein. 

Plato  and  Platonism. — I.  Life  of  Plato. — Plato 
(UMtuv,  the  broad-shouldered)  was  born  at  Athens  in 
428  or  427  b.  c.  He  came  of  an  aristocratic  and 
wealthy  family,  although  some  writers  represented 
him  as  having  felt  the  stress  of  poverty.  Doubtless 
he  profited  by  the  educational  facilities  afforded  young 
men  of  his  class  at  Athens.  When  about  twenty  years 
old  he  met  Socrates,  and  the  intercourse,  which  lasted 
eight  or  ten  years,  between  master  and  pupil  was 
the  decisive  influence  in  Plato's  philosophical  career. 
Before  meeting  Socrates  he  had,  very  likely,  developed 
an  interest  in  the  earlier  philosophers,  and  in  schemes 
for  the  betterment  of  political  conditions  at  Athens. 
At  an  early  age  he  devoted  himself  to  poetry.  All 
these  interests,  however,  were  absorbed  in  the  pursuit 
of  wisdom  to  which,  under  the  guidance  of  Socrates, 
he  ardently  devoted  himself.  After  the  death  of 
Socrates  he  joined  a  group  of  the  Socratic  disciples 
gathered  at  Megara  under  the  leadership  of  Euclid. 
Later  he  travelled  in  Egypt,  Magna  Grsecia,  and 
Sicily.  His  profit  from  these  journeys  has  been  exag- 
gerated by  some  biographers.  There  can,  however,  be 
no  doubt  that  in  Italy  he  studied  the  doctrines  of  the 
Pythagoreans.  His  three  journeys  to  Sicily  were, 
apparently,  to  influence  the  older  and  younger  Dion- 
ysius  in  favour  of  his  ideal  system  of  government. 
But  in  this  he  failed,  incurring  the  enmity  of  the  two 
rulers,  was  cast  into  prison,  and  sold  as  a  slave.  Ran- 
somed by  a  friend,  he  returned  to  his  school  of  phil- 
osophy at  Athens.     This  differed  from  the  Socratic 


PLATO 


160 


PLATO 


School  in  many  respects.  It  had  a  definite  location 
in  the  groves  near  the  gymnasium  of  Academus,  its 
tone  was  more  refined,  more  attention  was  given  to 
literary  form,  :iud  there  was  less  indulgence  in  the  odd, 
and  even  vulgar  method  of  illustration  which  charac- 
terized the  Socratic  manner  of  exposition.  After  his 
return  from  his  third  journey  to  Sicily  he  devoted 
himself  unremittingly  to  writing  and  teaching,  until 
his  eightieth  year,  when,  as  Cicero  tells  us,  he  died  in 
the  midst  of  his  intellectual  labours  ("scribens  est 
mortuus")  ("De  Seneot.",  v,  13). 

II.  Works. — It  is  practically  certain  that  all 
Plato's  genuine  works  have  come  down  to  us.  The 
lost  works  ascribed  to  him,  such  as  the  "Divisions" 
and  the  "Unwritten  Doctrines",  are  certainly  not 
genuine.  Of  the  thirty-six  dialogues,  some — the 
"Phaidrus",  "Protagoras",  "Pha^do",  "The  Repub- 
Uc",  "The  Banquet"  etc. — are  undoubtedly  genuine; 
others — e.  g.  the  "Minos" — may  with  equal  certainty 
be  considered  spurious;  while  still  a  third  group — the 
"Ion",  "Greater  Hippias",  and  " First  Alcibiades " — 
is  of  doubtful  authenticity.  In  all  his  writings  Plato 
uses  the  dialogue  with  a  skill  never  since  equalled. 
That  form  permitted  him  to  develop  the  Socratic 
method  of  question  and  answer.  For,  while  Plato 
elaborated  to  a  high  degree  the  faculty  by  which  the 
abstract  is  understood  and  presented,  he  was  Greek 
enough  to  follow  the  artistic  instinct  in  teaching  by 
means  of  a  clear-cut  concrete  type  of  philosophical 
excellence.  The  use  of  the  myth  in  the  dialogues  has 
occasioned  considerable  difficulty  to  the  commentators 
and  critics.  When  we  try  to  put  a  value  on  the  con- 
tent of  a  Platonic  myth,  we  are  often  baffled  by  the 
suspicion  that  it  is  all  meant  to  be  subtly  ironical,  or 
that  it  is  introduced  to  cover  up  the  inherent  contra- 
dictions of  Plato's  thought.  In  any  case,  the  myth 
should  never  be  taken  too  seriously  or  invoked  as  an 
evidence  of  what  Plato  really  believed. 

III.  Philosophy. — (1)  The  Starling-Point. — The 
immediate  starting-point  of  Plato's  philosophical 
speculation  was  the  Socratic  teaching.  In  his  attempt 
to  define  the  conditions  of  knowledge  so  as  to  refute 
sophistic  scepticism,  Socrates  had  taught  that  the 
only  true  knowledge  is  a  knowledge  by  means  of  con- 
cepts. The  concept,  he  said,  represents  all  the  reality 
of  a  thing.  As  used  by  Socrates,  this  was  merely  a 
principle  of  knowledge.  It  was  taken  up  by  Plato  as  a 
principle  of  Being.  If  the  concept  represents  all  the 
reahty  of  things,  the  reality  must  be  something  in  the 
ideal  order,  not  necessarily  in  the  things  themseh-es, 
but  rather  above  them,  in  a  world  by  itself.  For  the 
concept,  therefore,  Plato  substitutes  the  Idea.  He 
completes  the  work  of  Socrates  by  teaching  that  the 
objectively  real  Ideas  are  the  foundation  and  justifi- 
cation of  scientific  knowledge.  At  the  same  time,  he 
has  in  mind  a  problem  which  claimed  much  attention 
from  pre-Socratic  thinkers,  the  problem  of  change. 
The  Eleatics,  following  Parmenides,  held  that  there 
is  no  real  change  or  multiplicity  in  the  world,  that 
reality  is  one.  Heraclitus,  on  the  contrary,  regarding 
motion  and  multiplicity  as  real,  maintained  that  per- 
manence is  only  apparent.  The  Platonic  theory  of 
Ideas  is  an  attempt  to  solve  this  crucial  question  by  a 
metaphysical  compromise.  The  Eleatics,  Plato  said, 
are  right  in  maintaining  that  reality  does  not  change; 
for  the  Ideas  are  immutable.  Still,  there  is,  as  Hera- 
clitus contended,  change  in  the  world  of  our  expe- 
rience, or,  as  Plato  terms  it,  the  world  of  phenomena. 
Plato,  then,  supposes  a  world  of  Ideas  apart  from  the 
world  of  our  experience,  and  immeasurably  superior 
to  it.  He  imagines  that  all  human  souls  dwelt  at  one 
time  in  that  higher  world.  When,  therefore,  we  behold 
in  the  shadow-world  around  us  a  phenomenon  or 
appearance  of  anything,  the  mind  is  moved  to  a  re- 
membrance of  the  Idea  (of  that  same  phenomenal 
thing)  which  it  formerly  contemplated.  In  its  delight 
it  wonders  at  the  contrast,  and  by  wonder  is  led  to 


recall  as  perfectly  as  possible  the  intuition  it  enjoyed 
in  a  previous  existence.  This  is  the  task  of  philosophy. 
Philosophy,  therefore,  consists  in  the  effort  to  rise 
from  the  knowledge  of  phenomena,  or  appearances,  to 
the  noumena,  or  realities.  Of  all  the  Ideas,  however, 
the  Idea  of  the  beautiful  shines  out  through  the 
phenomenal  veil  more  clearly  than  any  other;  hence, 
the  beginning  of  all  philosophical  activity  is  the  love 
and  admiration  of  the  Beautiful. 

(2)  Division  of  Philosophy. — The  different  parts 
of  philosophy  are  not  distinguished  by  Plato  with  the 
same  formal  precision  found  in  Aristotelean  and  post- 
Aristotelean  systems.  We  may,  however,  for  con- 
venience, distinguish :  (a)  Dialectic,  the  science  of  the 
Idea  in  itself;  (b)  Physics,  the  knowledge  of  the  Idea 
as  incorporated  or  incarnated  in  the  world  of  phenom- 
ena, and  (c)  Ethics  and  Theory  of  the  State,  or  the 
science  of  the  Idea  embodied  in  human  conduct  and 
human  society. 

(a)  Dialectic. — This  is  to  be  understood  as  synony- 
mous not  with  logic  but  with  metaphysics.  It  sig- 
nifies the  science  of  the  Idea,  the  science  of  reality, 
science  in  the  only  true  sense  of  the  word.  For  the 
Ideas  are  the  only  realities  in  the  world.  We  observe, 
for  instance,  just  actions,  and  we  know  that  some  men 
are  just.  But  both  in  the  actions  and  in  the  persons 
designated  as  just  there  exist  many  imperfections; 
they  are  only  partly  just.  In  the  world  above  us 
there  exists  justice,  absolute,  perfect,  unmixed  with 
injustice,  eternal,  unchangeable,  immortal.  This  is 
the  Idea  of  justice.  Similarly,  in  that  world  above  us 
there  exist  the  Ideas  of  greatness,  goodness,  beauty, 
wisdom,  etc.,  and  not  only  these,  but  also  the  Ideas  of 
concrete  material  objects  such  as  the  Idea  of  man,  the 
Idea  of  horse,  the  idea  of  trees,  etc.  In  a  word,  the 
world  of  Ideas  is  a  counterpart  of  the  world  of  our 
experience,  or  rather  the  latter  is  a  feeble  imitation 
of  the  former.  The  Ideas  are  the  prototypes,  the 
phenomena  are  ectypes.  In  the  allegory  of  the  cave 
(Republic,  VII,  514  d)  a  race  of  men  are  described 
as  chained  in  a  fixed  position  in  a  cavern,  able  to 
look  only  at  the  wall  in  front  of  them.  When  an 
animal,  e.  g.  a  horse,  passes  in  front  of  the  cave,  they, 
beholding  the  shadow  on  the  wall,  imagine  it  to  be  a 
reality,  and  while  in  prison  they  know  of  no  other 
reality,  \^'hen  they  are  released  and  go  into  the  light 
they  are  dazzled,  but  when  they  succeed  in  distin- 
guishing a  horse  among  the  objects  around  them,  their 
first  impulse  is  to  take  that  for  a  shadow  of  the  being 
which  they  saw  on  the  wall.  The  prisoners  are  "like 
ourselves",  says  Plato.  The  world  of  our  experience, 
which  we  take  to  be  real,  is  only  a  shadow-world. 
The  real  world  is  the  world  of  Ideas,  which  we  reach, 
not  by  sense-knowledge,  but  by  intuitive  contempla- 
tion. The  Ideas  are  participated  by  the  phenomena; 
but  how  this  participation  takes  place,  and  in  what 
sense  the  phenomena  are  imitations  of  the  Ideas,  Plato 
does  not  fully  explain;  at  most  he  invokes  a  negative 
principle,  sometimes  called  "Platonic  Matter",  to 
account  tor  the  "falling-off"  of  the  phenomena  from 
the  perfection  of  the  Idea.  The  limitating  principle 
is  the  cause  of  all  defects,  decay,  and  change  in  the 
world  around  us.  The  just  man,  for  instance,  falls 
short  of  absolute  justice  (the  Idea  of  Justice),  because 
in  men  the  Idea  of  justice  is  fragmentated,  debased, 
and  reduced  by  the  principle  of  limitation.  Towards 
the  end  of  his  life,  Plato  leaned  more  and  more 
towards  the  Pythagorean  number-theory,  and,  in  the 
"Timaius"  especially,  he  is  inclined  to  interpret  the 
Ideas  in  terms  of  mathematics.  His  followers  em- 
phasized this  element  unduly,  and,  in  the  course  of 
neo-PIatonic  speculation,  the  Ideas  were  identified 
with  numbers.  There  was  much  in  the  theory  of  Ideas 
that  appealed  to  the  first  Christian  philosophers.  The 
emphatic  affirmation  of  a  supermundane,  spiritual 
order  of  reality  and  the  equally  emphatic  assertion  of 
the  caducity  of  things  material  fitted  in  with  the 


PLATO 


161 


PLATO 


essentially  Christian  contention  that  spiritual  in- 
terests are  supreme.  To  render  the  world  of  Ideas 
more  acceptable  to  Christians,  the  Patristic  Plato- 
nists  from  Justin  Martyr  to  St.  Augustine  maintained 
that  that  world  exists  in  the  mind  of  God,  and  that 
this  was  what  Plato  meant.  On  the  other  hand, 
Aristotle  understood  Plato  to  refer  to  a  world  of  Ideas 
self-subsisting  and  separate.  Instead,  therefore,  of 
picturing  to  ourselves  the  world  of  Ideas  as  existing 
in  God,  we  should  represent  God  as  existing  in  the 
world  of  Ideas.  For,  among  the  Ideas,  the  hierarchical 
supremacy  is  attributed  to  the  Idea  of  God,  or  Abso- 
lute Goodness,  which  is  said  to  be  for  the  supercelestial 
universe  what  the  sun  in  the  heavens  is  for  this 
terrestrial  world  of  ours. 

(b)  Physics. — The  Idea  incorporated,  so  to  speak, 
in  the  phenomenon  is  less  real  than  the  Idea  in  its 
own  world,  or  than  the  Idea  embodied  in  human  con- 
duct and  human  society.  Physics,  i.  e.,  the  knowledge 
of  the  Idea  in  phenomena,  is,  therefore,  inferior  in  dig- 
nity and  importance  to  Dialectic  and  Ethics.  In  fact, 
the  world  of  phenomena  has  no  scientific  interest  for 
Plato.  The  knowledge  of  it  is  not  true  knowledge,  nor 
the  source,  but  only  the  occasion  of  true  knowledge. 
The  phenomena  stimulate  our  minds  to  a  recollection 
of  the  intuition  of  Ideas,  and  with  that  intuition  scien- 
tific knowledge  begins.  Moreover,  Plato's  interest  in 
nature  is  dominated  by  a  teleological  view  of  the 
world  as  animated  with  a  World-Soul,  which,  con- 
scious of  its  processes,  does  all  things  for  a  useful 
purpose,  or,  rather,  for  "the  best",  morally,  intellec- 
tually, and  ajsthetically.  This  conviction  is  apparent 
especially  in  the  Platonic  account  of  the  origin  of  the 
universe,  contained  in  the  "Timaeus",  although  the 
details  regarding  the  activity  of  the  demiurgos  and  the 
created  gods  should  not,  perhaps,  be  taken  seriously. 
Similarly,  the  account  of  the  origin  of  the  soul,  in  the 
same  dialogue,  is  a  combination  of  philosophy  and 
myth,  in  which  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  the  one 
from  the  other.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  Plato  holds 
the  spiritual  nature  of  the  soul  as  against  the  material- 
istic Atomists,  and  that  he  believes  the  soul  to  have 
existed  before  its  union  with  the  body.  The  whole 
theory  of  Ideas,  in  so  far,  at  least,  as  it  is  applied  to 
human  knowledge,  presupposes  the  doctrine  of  pre- 
existence.  "All  knowledge  is  recollection"  has  no 
meaning  except  in  the  hypothesis  of  the  soul's  pre- 
natal intuition  of  Ideas.  It  is  equally  incontrovertible 
that  Plato  held  the  soul  to  be  immortal.  His  convic- 
tion on  this  point  was  as  unshaken  as  Socrates' s.  His 
attempt  to  ground  that  conviction  on  unassailable 
premises  is,  indeed,  open  to  criticism,  because  his 
arguments  rest  either  on  the  hypothesis  of  previous 
existence  or  on  his  general  theory  of  Ideas.  Never- 
theless, the  considerations  which  he  offers  in  favour  of 
immortality,  in  the  "Phaedo",  have  helped  to 
strengthen  all  subsequent  generations  in  the  belief  in 
a  future  life.  His  description  of  the  future  state  of  the 
soul  is  dominated  by  the  Pythagorean  doctrine  of 
transmigration.  Here,  again,  the  details  are  not  to  be 
taken  as  seriously  as  the  main  fact,  and  we  can  well 
imagine  that  the  account  of  the  soul  condemned  to 
return  in  the  body  of  a  fox  or  a  wolf  is  introduced 
chiefly  because  it  accentuates  the  doctrine  of  rewards 
and  punishments,  which  is  part  of  Plato's  ethical  sys- 
tem. Before  passing  to  his  ethical  doctrines  it  is 
necessary  to  indicate  one  other  point  of  his  psychol- 
ogy. The  soul,  Plato  teaches,  consists  of  three  parts: 
the  rational  soul,  which  resides  in  the  head;  the  iras- 
cible soul,  the  seat  of  courage,  which  resides  in  the 
heart;  and  the  appetitive  soul,  the  seat  of  desire, 
which  resides  in  the  abdomen.  These  are  not  three 
faculties  of  one  soul,  but  three  parts  really  distinct. 

(c)  Ethics  and  Theory  of  the  State. — Like  all  the 
Greeks,  Plato  took  for  granted  that  the  highest 
good  of  man,  subjectively  considered,  is  happiness 
{eidM/xovla).    Objectively,   the  highest  good  of  man 

XII.— H 


is  the  absolutely  highest  good  in  general,  Goodness 
itself,  or  God.  The  means  by  which  this  highest  good 
is  to  be  attained  is  the  practice  of  virtue  and  the 
acquisition  of  wisdom.  So  far  as  the  body  hinders 
these  pursuits  it  should  be  brought  into  subjection. 
Here,  however,  asceticism  should  be  moderated  in  the 
interests  of  harmony  and  symmetry — Plato  never 
went  the  length  of  condemning  matter  and  the  human 
body  in  particular,  as  the  source  of  all  evil — for  wealth, 
health,  art,  and  innocent  pleasures  are  means  of 
attaining  happiness,  though  not  indispensable,  as 
virtue  is.  Virtue  is  order,  harmony,  the  health  of  the 
soul;  vice  is  disorder,  discord,  disease.  The  State  is, 
for  Plato,  the  highest  embodiment  of  the  Idea.  It 
should  have  for  its  aim  the  establishment  and  cultiva- 
tion of  virtue.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  man,  even 
in  the  savage  condition,  could,  indeed,  attain  virtue. 
In  order,  however,  that  virtue  may  be  established 
systematically  and  cease  to  be  a  matter  of  chance  or 
haphazard,  education  is  necessary,  and  without  a 
social  organization  education  is  impossible.  In  his 
"Republic"  he  sketches  an  ideal  state,  a  polity  which 
should  exist  if  rulers  and  subjects  would  devote  them- 
selves, as  they  ought,  to  the  cultivation  of  wisdom. 
The  ideal  state  is  modelled  on  the  individual  soul.  It 
consists  of  three  orders:  rulers  (corresponding  to  the 
reasonable  soul),  producers  (corresponding  to  desire), 
and  warriors  (corresponding  to  courage).  The  char- 
acteristic virtue  of  the  producers  is  thrift,  that  of  the 
soldiers  bravery,  and  that  of  the  rulers  wisdom.  Since 
philosophy  is  the  love  of  wisdom,  it  is  to  be  the 
dominant  power  in  the  state:  "Unless  philosophers 
become  rulers  or  rulers  become  true  and  thorough 
students  of  philosophy,  there  shall  be  no  end  to  the 
troubles  of  states  and  of  humanity"  (Rep.,  V,  473), 
which  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that  those  who 
govern  should  be  distinguished  by  qualities  which  are 
distinctly  intellectual.  Plato  is  an  advocate  of  State 
absolutism,  such  as  existed  in  his  time  in  Sparta. 
The  State,  he  maintains,  exercises  unlimited  power. 
Neither  private  property  nor  family  institutions  have 
any  place  in  the  Platonic  state.  The  children  belong 
to  the  State  as  soon  as  they  are  born,  and  should  be 
taken  in  charge  by  the  State  from  the  beginning,  for 
the  purpose  of  education.  They  should  be  educated 
by  officials  appointed  by  the  State,  and,  according  to 
the  measure  of  ability  which  they  exhibit,  they  are  to 
be  assigned  by  the  State  to  the  order  of  producers, 
to  that  of  warriors,  or  to  the  governing  class.  These 
impractical  schemes  reflect  at  once  Plato's  discontent 
with  the  demagogy  then  prevalent  at  Athens  and  his 
personal  predilection  for  the  aristocratic  form  of 
government.  Indeed,  his  scheme  is  essentially  aris- 
tocratic in  the  original  meaning  of  the  word;  it 
advocates  government  by  the  (intellectually)  best. 
The  unreality  of  it  all,  and  the  remoteness  of  its 
chance  to  be  tested  by  practice,  must  have  been  evi- 
dent to  Plato  himself.  For  in  his  "Laws"  he  sketches 
a  modified  scheme  which,  though  inferior,  he  thinks, 
to  the  plan  outlined  in  the  "Republic",  is  nearer  to 
the  level  of  what  the  average  state  can  attain. 

IV.  The  Platonic  School. — Plato's  School,  like 
Aristotle's,  was  organized  by  Plato  himself  and  handed 
over  at  the  time  of  his  death  to  his  nephew  Speu- 
sippus,  the  first  scholarch,  or  ruler  of  the  school.  It 
was  then  known  as  the  Academy,  because  it  met  in 
the  groves  of  Academus.  The  Academy  continued, 
with  varying  fortunes,  to  maintain  its  identity  as  a 
Platonic  school,  first  at  Athens,  and  later  at  Alex- 
andria until  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
It  modified  the  Platonic  system  in  the  direction  of 
mysticism  and  demonology,  and  underwent  at  least 
one  period  of  scepticism.  It  ended  in  a  loosely  con- 
structed eclecticism.  With  the  advent  of  neo- 
Platonism  (q.  v.),  founded  by  Ammonius  and  devel- 
oped by  Plotinus,  Platonism  definitively  entered  the 
cause  of  Paganism  against  Christianity.     Neverthe- 


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less,  the  groat  majority  of  the  Christian  philosophers 
do-rni  to  St.  Augustine  were  Platonists.  They  appre- 
ciated the  uplifting  influence  of  Plato's  psychology 
and  metaphysics,  and  recognized  in  that  influence  a 
powerful  ally  of  Christianity  in  the  warfare  against 
materialism  and  naturalism.  Those  Christian  Plato- 
nists underestimated  Aristotle,  whom  they  generally 
referred  to  as  an  "acute"  logician  whose  philosophy 
favoured  the  heretical  opponents  of  orthodox  Chris- 
tianity. The  Middle  Ages  completely  reversed  this 
verdict.  The  first  scholastics  knew  only  the  logical 
treatises  of  Aristotle,  and,  so  far  as  they  were  psychol- 
ogists or  metaphysicians  at  all,  they  drew  on  the  Plato- 
nism  of  St.  Augustine.  Their  successors,  however,  in 
the  twelfth  century  came  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
psychology,  metaphysics,  and  ethics  of  Aristotle,  and 
adopted  the  Aristotelean  view  so  completely  that 
before  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  Stagyrite 
occupied  in  the  Christian  schools  the  position  occu- 
pied in  the  fifth  century  by  the  founder  of  the  Acad- 
emy. There  were,  however,  episodes,  so  to  speak,  of 
Platonism  in  the  history  of  Scholasticism — e.  g.,  the 
School  of  Chartres  in  the  twelfth  century — and 
throughout  the  whole  scholastic  period  some  prin- 
ciples of  Platonism,  and  especially  of  neo-Platonism, 
wore  incorporated  in  the  Aristotelean  system  adopted 
by  the  schoolmen.  The  Renaissance  brought  a  re- 
vival of  Platonism,  due  to  the  influence  of  men  like 
Bessarion,  Plethon,  Ficino,  and  the  two  Mirandolas. 
The  Cambridge  Platonists  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
such  as  Cudworth,  Henry  More,  Cumberland,  and 
Glanville,  reacting  against  humanistic  naturalism, 
"spiritualized  Puritanism"  by  restoring  the  founda- 
tions of  conduct  to  principles  intuitionally  known  and 
independent  of  self-interest.  Outside  the  schools  of 
philosophy  which  are  described  as  Platonic  there  are 
many  philosophers  and  groups  of  philosophers  in 
modern  times  who  owe  much  to  the  inspiration  of 
Plato,  and  to  the  enthusiasm  for  the  higher  pursuits 
of  the  mind  wliich  they  derived  from  the  study  of  his 
works. 

The  standard  printed  edition  of  Plato^s  works  is  that  of  Ste- 
PHANUS  (Paris,  1578).  Among  more  recent  editions  are  Bekker 
(Berlin,  1816-23),  Fihmin-Didot  (Paris,  1866—).  The  best  Eng- 
lish tr.  is  JowETT,  The  Dialogues  of  Plato  (Oxford,  1871;  3rd  ed., 
New  Yorlc,  1892).  For  exposition  of  Plato's  system  of.  Zeller, 
Plato  and  the  Ohh  r  Academy,  tr.  Alleyne  and  Goodwin  (London, 
1888) :  Grote,  Ploti<  and  the  Other  Companions  of  Socrates  (Lon- 
don, 1885);  Pateh,  Plato  ond  Platonism  (London,  1893); 
Turner,  History  of  Philosophy  (Boston,  1903),  93  sq.; 
FouiLL^B,  La  philoso-phie  de  Platon  (Paris,  1892) ;  Huit,  La  vie  et 
Vosuvre  de  Platon  (Paris,  1803) ;  Windelband,  Platon  (Stuttgart, 
1901) ;  LuTOSLAWSKi,  Origin  and  Growth  of  Plato's  Logic  (London, 
1897) .  For  history  of  Platonism  cf .  Bussell,  The  School  of  Plato 
(London,  1896) ;  Huit,  Le  plalonisme  d  Byzance  et  en  Italic  d  la  fin 
du  moyen-dge  (Brussels,  1894) ;  articles  in  Annates  de  philosophie 
chretienne,  new  series,  XX-XXII;  Tarozzi,  La  tradizione  pla- 
toiiica  nel  medio  evo  (Trani  Vecchi,  1892). 

William  Turnbb. 

Play,  Pierre-Guillaumb-Fr:6d£ric,  Le,  French 
economist,  b.  at  La  Eivifere  (Calvados),  11  April,  1806; 
d.  at  Paris,  5  April,  1882.  His  childhood  was  spent 
among  Christian  people,  with  a  poor  widowed  mother. 
From  the  college  of  Havre  he  went  (1824)  to  Paris, 
where  he  followed  the  scientific  courses  of  the  College 
St.  Louis,  the  polytechnic  school,  and  the  school  of 
mines.  At  the  polj'technic  school  he  had  as  fellow- 
pupils  the  economist  Michel  Chevalier,  Pere  Gratry, 
and  the  philosopher  Jean  Reynaud.  In  1829  with  Rey- 
naud  he  made  a  journey  on  foot  through  the  Rhine 
provinces,  Hanover,  Brunswick,  Prussia,  and  Belgium 
to  study  mining,  customs,  and  social  institutions. 
On  his  return  an  accident  in  the  course  of  a  chem- 
ical experiment  caused  him  eighteen  months  of  suffer- 
ing and  deformed  his  hands  for  life.  He  became  secre- 
tary of  the  "Annales  des  mines"  and  of  "Statistique 
de  I'industrie  min^rale",  and  professor  of  metallurgy 
at  the  school  of  mines  (1840).  Each  year  he  travelled 
six  months,  studying  metallurgy  and  social  problems, 
and  questioning  traders,  workmen,  owners,  and  peas- 
ants.   He  spoke  five  languages  and  understood  eight. 


His  life  may  be  divided  into  two  periods:  from  1833- 
55  he  invented,  applied,  and  perfected  his  method ;  from 
1855-82  he  explained,  developed,  and  perfected  his 
doctrine.  In  1833  he  visited  Spain;  in  1835  and  1816 
Belgium;  1836  and  1842,  Great  Britain;  1837  and 
1844,  Russia;  1845,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway; 
1844  and  1845,  Germany;  1846,  Austria,  Hungary, 
and  Northern  Italy.  Extracts  from  his  correspond- 
ence with  his  wife  and  mother  during  his  travels 
were  published  in  1899.  During  his  sojourns  in  Russia 
he  was  consulted  by  Nicholas  I  on  various  projects  of 
reform,  and,  having  undertaken  at  the  instance  of 
Prince  Anatol  Demidoff  a  scientific  expedition  into 
the  coal  regions  of  Donetz,  the  prince  entrusted  him 
with  the  superintendence  of  his  gold,  silver,  platinum, 
copper,  and  iron  mines,  which  employed  45,000  men 
in  the  Ural  region. 

His  conversations  with  Comte  de  Rayneval, 
French  ambassador  at  Madrid,  to  whom  he  had  been 
recommended  by  Boieldieu,  convinced  him  that  the 
forced  division  of  inheritances  established  by  the  Code 
Napoleon  had  evil  social  consequences.  His  visit  to 
the  Baron  de  Tamm,  who  directed  2300  workmen  at 
Osterby,  near  Upsala,  showed  him  what  might  be 
done  by  resident  owners  anxious  for  the  welfare  of 
their  people,  and  his  theory  of  "social  authorities" 
slowly  took  form  in  his  mind.  Among  the  peasants 
and  blacksmiths  of  the  Ural  region  he  observed  a  social 
condition  very  similar  to  the  ancient  French  feudal 
regime,  and  his  statements  regarding  the  comfort  of 
these  people  coincided  with  those  of  Gu^rard  and 
Leopold  Delisle  concerning  the  prosperous  condition 
of  the  French  agricultural  classes  during  the  early 
centuries  of  feudalism.  He  thus  formed  ideas  quite 
at  variance  with  the  juridical  and  historical  concep- 
tions propagated  by  the  men  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. His  "method  of  observation",  the  rules  of  which 
he  gradually  formulated,  was  in  contradiction  to  the  in- 
dividualism of  the  French  Revolution.  It  consisted 
in  studying,  not  the  individual,  but  the  family  (which 
is  the  real  social  unit) ,  and  in  studying  types  of  families 
among  the  stationary  element  of  the  population  whose 
members  lead  uniform  lives  and  faithfully  preserve 
their  local  customs. 

From  1848,  during  the  months  he  spent  in  Paris, 
Le  Play  held  weekly  gatherings  of  persons  of  various 
opinions  interested  in  the  social  question;  among 
them  were  Jean  Reynaud,  Lamartine,  Frangois  Arago, 
Carnot,  Lanjuinais,  Tocqueville,  Montalembert, 
Sainte-Beuve,  Ag^nor  de  Gasparin,  AbbiS  Dupanloup, 
Thiers,  Auguste  Cochin,  and  Charles  Dupin.  During 
the  social  troubles  which  followed  the  Revolution  of 
1848  these  men  besought  Le  Play  to  abandon  his  teach- 
ing at  the  school  of  mines  and  to  devote  himself  ex- 
clusively to  the  exposition  of  his  social  system.  But 
Le  Play,  ever  scrupulous,  considered  it  necessary  to 
make  further  journeys  to  Switzerland,  the  Danube 
provinces,  and  Central  Turkey  (1848),  Auvergne 
(1850),  England  and  Western  Germany  (1851),  Aus- 
tria and  Russia  (1853).  However,  in  1855  he  pub- 
lished "Les  ouvriers  europdens",  describing  the  ma- 
terial and  moral  life  of  thirty-six  families,  among 
widely  different  races,  which  he  had  studied  at  close 
range.  The  School  of  Le  Play  continues  this  series  of 
valuable  monographs  in  a  periodical  entitled  "Les 
ouvriers  des  deux  mondes".  The  English  economist 
Higgs  declared  that  Le  Play's  monographs  on  four 
English  families  are  the  best  available  account  of 
English  popular  life  from  the  economic  point  of  view. 
Taine,  the  French  historian,  after  studying  the  origins 
of  contemporary  France  for  his  great  work,  wrote: 
"By  his  methodical,  exact,  and  profound  researches, 
Le  Play  has  done  a  great  service  to  politics  and,  in 
consequence,  to  history."  Luzzatti,  a  Jew  who  later 
became  president  of  the  Italian  ministry,  wrote  to 
Le  Play:  "After  drinking  at  all  sources,  I  draw  inspira- 
tion for  my  studies  from  your  method  alone. "    And  it 


PLAY 


163 


PLAY 


was  in  conformity  with  Le  Play's  method  that  Carroll 
D.  Wright,  head  of  the  Boston  Bureau  of  Statistics 
and  later  Commissioner  of  Labour  at  Washington, 
had  6000  monographs  dealing  with  labour  problems 
compiled;  in  acknowledging  the  influence  of  the  study 
of  Le  Play,  he  says,  "1  received  from  it  a  new  inspira- 
tion which  completely  changed  the  trend  of  my 
thoughts."  Le  Play  had  intended  to  add  to  "Les 
ouvriers  europfiens"  a  final  chapter  setting  forth  cer- 
tain doctrinal  conclusions,  but  at  the  last  he  held  them 
back  to  let  them  mature,  and  simply  wrote:  "If 
required  to  point  out  the  force  which,  operating  at 
each  extremity  of  the  social  scale,  suffices,  strictly 
speaking,  to  render  a  people  prosperous,  we  should 
unhesitatingly  answer:  at  the  bottom,  foresight;  at 
the  top,  religion.  In  analysing  facts  and  comparing 
figures,  social  science  always  leads  real  observers  to  the 
principles  of  the  Divine  law."  In  1856  Le  Play 
founded  the  Soci6t6  d' Economic  Sociale  with  the 
intention  of  preparing  public  opinion  to  accept  his 
conclusions. 

In  1855  (second  period)  Napoleon  III  appointed 
Le  Play  councillor  of  State  and  reposed  in  him  a  con- 
fidence which  steadily  increased.  He  also  requested 
Le  Play  to  write  a  book  on  the  social  principles  which 
seemed  to  him  requisite  for  the  prosperity  of  society. 
Le  Play  consented  and,  in  1864,  published  his  "Re- 
forme  sociale  en  France,  d^duite  de  I'observation 
compar^e  des  peuples  europ6ens".  In  the  first  chap- 
ter, "  La  religion  ",  he  defends  the  religious  idea  against 
Darwinism  and  Scepticism,  but  at  that  date  the  va- 
rious religions  seemed  to  him  but  external  forms, 
equally  respectable  and  inspired  by  the  same  religious 
sentiment;  he  does  not  decide  in  favour  of  any.  He 
defends  God,  respects  Jesus  Christ,  but  fails  to  appre- 
ciate the  Church.  From  his  observations  he  concluded 
that  the  doctrine  of  the  original  goodness  of  man  is 
false,  that  the  tendency  to  evil  is  ingrained  in  human 
nature,  that,  therefore,  a  law  is  needed  to  compel  man 
to  do  good  in  order  to  attain  happiness,  and  he  hails 
this  law  in  the  Decalogue  but  makes  little  account  of 
the  Gospel.  The  work  was  a  sort  of  social  apologetic 
for  the  Decalogue ;" the  erring",  he  writes,  "on  whom 
the  traditional  truths  have  no  longer  any  influence,  are 
led  back  by  the  facts  which  the  method  of  observation 
brings  to  light."  The  book  met  with  great  success. 
Sainte-Beuve  proclaimed  him  "a  rejuvenated  Bonald, 
progressive  and  scientific"-  Montalembert  wrote: 
"Le  Play  has  produced  the  most  original,  most  use- 
ful, most  courageous,  and,  in  every  respect,  the  strong- 
est book  of  the  century.  He  not  only  possesses  more 
eloquence  than  the  illustrious  Tocqueville,  but  much 
more  practical  perspicacity  and  above  all  greater 
moral  courage.  I  repeat,  what  I  admire  most  in  him 
is  the  courage  which  impels  him  to  fight  with  raised 
visor  against  most  of  the  dominant  prejudices  of  his 
time  and  country.  In  this,  even  more  than  in  his  pro- 
digious knowledge  of  facts,  will  consist  his  true  great- 
ness in  the  intellectual  history  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury."  Napoleon  III  entrusted  the  organization  of 
the  Exposition  Universelle  of  1867  to  Le  Play,  whom 
he  made  commissary  general,  and,  at  his  request,  the 
emperor  created  a  new  order  of  reward  in  favour  of 
"establishments  and  localities  throughout  the  world 
which  give  the  best  examples  of  social  peace".  But 
despite  public  opinion  and  the  sympathy  of  the  em- 
peror, the  jurists  opposed  Le  Play's  ideas  regard- 
ing testamentary  liberty.  As  early  as  1865  Baron 
de  V^auce,  a  member  of  the  corps  legislatif,  pro- 
posed that  the  Government  should  study  the  modifi- 
cation of  the  laws  of  inheritance,  but  his  proposal 
received  the  votes  of  only  forty-one  deputies.  The 
emperor,  however,  on  two  occasions  had  investiga- 
tions made  with  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  tes- 
tamentary freedom  in  favour  of  small  holdings,  but 
the  project  was  opposed  by  the  jurists  and  failed.  In 
November,  1869,  he  urged  Le  Play  to  make  another 


effort  to  win  over  five  senators  to  this  view,  but  this 
attempt,  also,  was  unsuccessful. 

It  was  at  the  emperor's  suggestion  that,  in  January, 
1870,  Le  Play  in  his  "L' organisation  du  travail"  gave 
a  r6sum6  of  the  principles  expounded  in  "La  Reforme 
sociale".  The  emperor  also  asked  him  to  present  to 
two  of  his  ministers  the  conclusions  of  this  book  as 
expressing  the  imperial  opinion,  but  further  action 
was  prevented  by  the  outbreak  of  war  and  the  fall  of 
the  empire.  In  1871,  after  the  war  and  the  Commune, 
Le  Play  published  his  book  "  L'organisation  de  la 
famille"  and  his  pamphlet  on  "La  paix  sociale  aprfea 
le  d^sastre",  and  to  propagate  his  ideas  he  founded 
in  France  "  Unions  de  la  paix  sociale".  His  ideas  met 
with  little  political  success;  the  project  laid  before  the 
National  Assembly,  25  June,  1871,  for  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  laws  of  inheritance  was  without  result. 
Le  Play  grouped  about  him  eminent  economists  such 
as  Focillon,  Claudio  Jannet,  Cheysson,  and  Rostand. 
In  1875  he  published  "La  Constitution  de  I'Angle- 
terre " ;  in  1876,  "La  reforme  en  Europe  et  le  salut  de 
la  France";  in  1877-79,  the  second  edition  of  his 
"Ouvriers  europ6ens",  which,  enriched  with  new  de- 
tails, is  a  sort  of  compendium  of  the  social  history 
of  Europe  from  1855;  and  in  1881,  "La  Constitution 
essentielle  de  I'humanit^".  In  1881  also  appeared  the 
review,  "La  rdforme  sociale",  which,  even  to-day, 
propagates  Le  Play's  ideas. 

The  social  doctrine  elaborated  in  his  works  is  as 
follows:  In  all  prosperous  nations  there  are  certain 
institutions  which  accompany  and  explain  this  pros- 
perity. These  institutions  are  (1)  the  observance  of 
the  Decalogue;  (2)  public  worship — on  this  point  Le 
Play  devotes  some  beautiful  passages  to  the  role  of 
the  Catholic  clergy  in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada 
(which  he  calls  the  model  nation  of  our  time),  ex- 
presses his  fear  that  the  concordatory  regime  in  France 
will  produce  a  Church  of  bureaucrats,  and  dreams  of  a 
liberty  such  as  exists  in  America  for  the  Church  of 
France;  (3)  testamentary  freedom,  which  according 
to  him  distinguishes  peoples  of  vigorous  expansion 
while  the  compulsory  division  of  inheritances  is  the 
system  of  conquered  races  and  inferior  classes.  It  is 
only,  he  asserts,  under  the  former  system  that 
familles-souches  can  develop,  which  are  established 
on  the  soil  and  are  not  afraid  of  being  proUfic;  (4) 
legislation  punishing  seduction  and  permitting  the 
investigation  of  paternity;  (5)  institutions  founded 
by  large  land  owners  or  industrial  leaders  to  uplift 
the  condition  of  the  workman.  Le  Play  feared  the 
intervention  of  the  State  in  the  labour  system  and 
considered  that  the  State  should  encourage  the  social 
authorities  to  exercise  what  he  calls  "patronage",  and 
should  reward  the  heads  of  industry  who  founded 
philanthropic  institutions.  The  League  for  Social 
Service,  organized  at  New  York  in  1898  by  Mr. 
Tolman,  apphed  these  ideas  of  Le  Play;  (6)  liberty 
of  instruction,  i.  e.  freedom  from  State  control;  (7) 
decentralization  in  the  State.  He  greatly  admired  the 
English  ideas  of  self-government.  In  his  latest  works 
the  Catholic  tendency  becomes  more  and  more  clearly 
defined.  Le  Play  desired  to  collaborate  with  the 
clergy  in  the  work  of  social  reform;  he  believed  that 
fidelity  to  God's  law,  an  essential  need  of  societies, 
could  not  be  better  guaranteed  than  by  the  doctrines, 
sacraments,  and  worship  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
One  of  his  last  public  acts  was  a  proceeding  in  behalf 
of  the  Church's  right  to  teach,  which  was  threatened 
by  the  projects  of  M.  Jules  Ferry.  He  obtained  from 
his  friend  St.  George  Mivart  a  statement,  signed  by 
Gladstone,  Lord  Rosebery,  and  numerous  professors 
of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  London,  regarding  the 
English  idea  and  practice  of  liberty  of  instruction. 

Le  Play  was  very  influential  in  Catholic  circles.  In 
his  Lenten  pastoral  for  1881,  Cardinal  de  Bonnechose 
compared  him  to  "those  ancient  sages  of  Greece  who 
went  to  Egypt  and  the  most  remote  countries  of  the 


PLEGMUND 


164 


PLENARY 


Orient,  to  glean  from  sanctuary  to  sanctuary  the 
primitive  traditions  of  the  human  race"  The  future 
Cardinal  Lavigerie  wrote  to  him,  "You  are  one  of  the 
men  whom  I  most  respect  and  admire."  Although 
the  "(Euvre  dea  ceroles  catholiques  ouvriers", 
founded  in  1870  by  the  Comte  de  Mun  and  the 
Marquis  de  la  Tour  du  Pin,  held  on  the  subject  of  the 
State  s  intervention  in  the  labour  system  very  differ- 
ent ideas  from  those  of  Le  Play,  the  marquis  claimed 
Le  Play  as  one  of  his  masters,  because  of  the  latter' s 
attacks  on  Rousseau's  theory  of  the  original  goodness 
of  man  and  on  the  juridical  and  social  ideas  of  the  men 
of  the  French  Revolution. 

Le  Play,  Voyages  en  Europe:  extraiis  de  sa  correspondance 
(Paris,  1899);  Aubdrtin,  FrUiric  Le  Play  (Paris,  1906);  Db 
CUKJON,  Fredirie  Le  Play  (Poitiers,  1899);  De  Ribbe,  Le  Play 
(Paris,  1906) ;  Dimier,  Les  mattres  de  la  contre  revolution  au  19^ 
siecle  (Paris,  1907) ;  Fgtes  du  centenaire  de  Le  Play  et  XXV"  congrhs 
de  la  sociele  intemaiionule  d'economie  sociale  (Paris,  1907) ;  Bau- 
NARD,  La  foi  et  ses  victoires,  II  (Paris,  1884),  chapter  on  Le  Play's 
religious  attitude. 

Geobges  Goyau. 

Plegmund,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  d.  2  Aug., 
914.  He  was  a  Mercian,  and  spent  his  early  life  near 
Chester  as  a  hermit  on  an  island  called  after  him  Pleg- 
mundham  (the  present  Plemstall).  His  reputation 
for  piety  and  learning  caused  King  Alfred  to  summon 
him  to  court,  where  he  helped  the  king  in  his  literary 
work.  In  890  he  was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury and  went  to  Rome  to  receive  the  pallium  from 
Pope  Formosus.  When  the  acts  and  ordinations  of 
Formosus  were  condemned  in  897  and  the  condemna- 
tion was  confirmed  in  905,  the  position  of  Plegmund 
became  questionable,  and  in  908  he  paid  a  second 
visit  to  Rome,  probably  to  obtain  confirmation  by  Ser- 
gius  III  of  his  acts  as  archbishop,  and  to  arrange  a 
subdivision  of  the  West  Saxon  episcopate.  This  was 
carried  out  the  following  year,  when  Plegmund  conse- 
crated seven  bishops  on  one  day,  five  for  Wessex  and 
two  others.  He  died  in  extreme  old  age  and  was  buried 
in  his  cathedral  at  Canterbury. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  ann.  890,  891  and  923,  gives  the  last- 
named  year  as  the  date  of  his  death,  which  is  certainly  wrong,  and 
confounds  him  with  Archbishop  jEthelhelm  in  Rolls  Series  (1861); 
William  of  Malmesbury,  Gesta  Ponlificum  in  R.  S.  (1870) ; 
Idem,  Gesta  Regum  in  R.  S.  (1887-89) ;  Gervase  of  Canterbury, 
Historical  Works  in  R.  S.  (1879-80) ;  Kemble,  Codex  Diplomaticue 
jEvi  Saxonici  (London,  1839-48);  Stubbs,  Registrum  Sacrum 
Anglicanum  (Oxford,  1858);  Hardy,  Descriptive  Catalogue  (Lon- 
don, 1862-71):  Hook,  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury 
(London,  1860-84) ;  Birch,  Cartularium  Saxonicum  (London, 
1885-93);  Searle,  Anglo-Saxon  Bishops,  Nobles,  and  Kings 
(Cambridge,  1899) ;  Henfeey,  Guide  to  Study  of  English  Coins 
(London,  1885). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Plenarium,  a  book  of  formulae  and  texts.  Plena- 
rium  or  Plenarius  (Liber)  is  any  book  that  contains 
completely  all  matters  pertaining  to  one  subject  other- 
wise found  scattered  in  several  books.  Thus,  in  the 
life  of  Bishop  Aldrich  (Baluze,  "Miscell.",  I,  iii,  29) 
we  read  of  a  Plenarium,  or  Breviarium,  which  seems  to 
be  a  book  of  church  rents  (Binterim,  "Denkwiirdig- 
keiten",  IV,  i,  239).  The  entire  mortuary  office.  Ves- 
pers, Matins,  Lauds,  and  Mass,  is  called  Plenarium. 
A  complete  copy  of  the  four  Gospels  was  called  an 
' '  E vangeliarium  plenarium ' ' .  Under  this  heading  we 
might  class  the  "Book  of  Gospels  "at  Lichfield  Cathe- 
dral, and  the  "Book  of  Gospels"  given  by  Athelstan 
to  Christ  church  in  Canterbury,  now  in  the  library  of 
Lambeth  Palace  (Rock,  "Church  of  our  Fathers",  I, 
122).  Some  Plenaria  gave  all  the  writings  of  the  New 
Testament,  others  those  parts  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
that  were  commonly  read  in  the  Divine  service  and 
bore  the  name  " Lectionarium  plenarium"  (Becker, 
"Catal.  bibl.  ant.",  188.5,  28,  no.  237;  68,  no.  650, 
659).  A\'hen  priests  in  their  missionary  labours  began 
to  be  scattered  singly  in  different  places,  and  when,  in 
consequence,  co-celebration  of  the  Sacred  Mysteries 
was  rendered  impossible,  and  private  Masses  became 
more  frequent,  the  complete  Missal  or  "Missale  ple- 


narium" came  into  use.  Early  vestiges  of  it  may  be 
found  in  the  ninth  century,  and  in  the  eleventh  or 
twelfth  century  the  "Missale  plenarium"  was  found 
everywhere  and  contained  all  necessary  prayers  for 
the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  which  until  then 
had  to  be  taken  from  different  books,  the  "Sacramen- 
tary",  "Lectionary",  "Evangelistary",  "Antipho- 
nary",  and  "Gradual"  (Zaccaria,  "Bibl.  rit.",  I 
[Rome,  1876],  50).  In  Germany  the  name  Plenarium 
denoted  a  popular  book,  giving  the  German  transla- 
tion of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  for  the  Sundays  and 
festivals  of  the  entire  year  together  with  a  short  expo- 
sition and  instruction.  Later  editions  add  also  the 
Introit,  Gradual  etc.,  of  the  Masses.  The  last  book 
of  the  kind  bearing  the  title  Plenarium  was  printed 
in  1522  at  Basle. 

AiuZOG,  Die  deutschen  Plenarien  im  15.undzuanfangdesl6.jh. 
(Freiburg,  1874),  and  the  commentaries  on  the  work  in  Theol. 
Quartalschrift  (1874),  690,  and  Hist.-polit.  Blatter  (1876),  17. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Plenary  Council,  a  canonical  term  applied  to 
various  kinds  of  ecclesiastical  synods.  The  word 
itself,  derived  from  the  Latin  plenarium  (complete 
or  full),  indicates  that  the  council  to  which  the  term  is 
applied  [concilium  plenarium,  coyicilium  ■plenum)  rep- 
resents the  whole  number  of  bishops  of  some  given 
territory.  Whatever  is  complete  in  itself  is  plenary. 
The  oecumenical  councils  or  synods  of  the  Universal 
Church  are  called  plenary  councils  by  St.  Augustine 
(C.  ilia,  xi,  Dist.  12),  as  they  form  a  complete  repre- 
sentation of  the  entire  Church.  Thus  also,  in  eccle- 
siastical documents,  provincial  councils  are  denomi- 
nated plenary,  because  all  the  bishops  of  a  certain 
ecclesiastical  province  were  represented.  Later  usage 
has  restricted  the  term  plenary  to  those  councils 
which  are  presided  over  by  a  delegate  of  the  Apostolic 
See,  who  has  received  special  power  for  that  purpose, 
and  which  are  attended  by  all  the  metropolitans  and 
bishops  of  some  commonwealth,  empire,  or  kingdom, 
or  by  their  duly  accredited  representatives.  Such 
plenary  synods  are  frequently  called  national  coun- 
cils, and  this  latter  term  has  always  been  in  common 
use  among  the  English,  Italian,  French,  and  other 
peoples. 

I.  Plenary  councils,  in  the  sense  of  national  synods, 
are  included  under  the  term  particular  councils  as 
opposed  to  universal  councils.  They  are  of  the  same 
nature  as  provincial  councils,  with  the  accidental 
difference  that  several  ecclesiastical  provinces  are 
represented  in  national  or  plenary  synods.  Provincial 
councils,  strictly  so-called,  date  from  the  fourth 
century,  when  the  metropolitical  authority  had  be- 
come fully  developed.  But  synods,  approaching 
nearer  to  the  modern  signification  of  a  plenary  coun- 
cil, are  to  be  recognized  in  the  synodical  assemblies 
of  bishops  under  primatial,  exarchal,  or  patriarchal 
authority,  recorded  from  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies, and  possibly  earUer.  Such  were,  apparently, 
the  s3mods  held  in  Asia  Minor  at  Iconium  and  Syn- 
nada  in  the  third  century,  concerning  the  re-baptism 
of  heretics;  such  were,  certainly,  the  councils  held 
later  in  the  northern  part  of  Latin  Africa,  presided 
over  by  the  Archbishop  of  Carthage,  Primate  of 
Africa.  These  latter  councils  were  officially  desig- 
nated plenary  councils  {Concilium,  Plenarium,  iolius 
Africce).  Their  beginnings  are  without  doubt  to  be 
referred,  at  least,  to  the  fourth,  and  possibly  to  the 
third  century.  Synods  of  a  somewhat  similar  nature 
(though  approaching  nearer  to  the  idea  of  a  general 
council)  were  the  Council  of  Aries  in  Gaul  in  314 
(at  which  were  present  the  Bishops  of  London, 
York,  and  Caerleon),  and  the  Council  of  Sardica  in 
343  (whose  canons  were  frequently  cited  as  Nicene 
canons) .  To  these  we  might  add  the  Greek  Council  in 
Trullo  (692).  The  popes  were  accustomed  in  former 
ages  to  hold  synods  which  were  designated  Councils 
of  the  Apostolic  Sec.     They  might  be  denominated, 


PLESSIS 


165 


PLESSIS 


to  a  certain  extent,  emergency  synods,  and  though 
they  were  generally  composed  of  the  bishops  of  Italy, 
yet  bishops  of  other  ecclesiastical  provinces  took  part 
in  them.  Pope  Martin  I  held  such  a  council  in  649, 
and  Pope  Agatho  in  680.  These  synods  were  imitated 
by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  who  convoked, 
on  special  occasions,  a  synodus  eridemousa,  at  which 
were  present  bishops  from  various  provinces  of  the 
Greek  world  who  happened  to  be  sojourning  in  the 
imperial  city,  or  were  summoned  to  give  counsel  to 
the  emperor  or  the  patriarch  concerning  matters  that 
required  special  episcopal  consultation.  Still  further 
narrowed  down  to  our  present  idea  of  plenary  councils 
are  the  synods  convoked  in  the  Prankish  and  West- 
Gothic  kingdoms  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century, 
and  designated  national  councils.  The  bishops  in 
these  synods  were  not  gathered  together  because 
they  belonged  to  certain  ecclesiastical  provinces,  but 
because  they  were  under  the  same  civil  government, 
and  consequently  had  common  interests  which  con- 
cerned the  kingdom  in  which  they  lived  or  the  people 
over  whom  they  ruled. 

II.  As  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  is  necessary  for  the 
person  who  presides  over  a  plenary  or  national  synod, 
this  name  has  been  refused  to  the  assemblies  of  the 
bishops  of  France,  which  met  without  papal  authori- 
zation in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
These  comitia  cleri  Oallicani  were  not  really  plenary 
councils.  The  more  noted  among  them  were  those 
held  at  Paris  in  1681  and  1682  (Collect.  Lacens.,  I, 
793  sq.).  Convocations  of  ecclesiastics  {Assemblees 
du  Clerge)  were  frequent  in  France  before  the  Revo- 
lution of  1789.  They  consisted  of  certain  bishops 
deputed  by  the  various  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  the 
kingdom,  and  of  priests  elected  by  their  equals  from 
the  same  provinces,  to  deliberate  on  the  temporal 
affairs  of  the  French  churches,  and  more  particularly 
on  the  assistance,  generally  monetary,  to  be  accorded 
to  the  Government.  After  the  establishment  of  the 
empire.  Napoleon  I  held  a  great  convention  of  bishops 
at  Paris,  and  is  said  to  have  been  much  incensed 
because  Pius  VII  did  not  designate  it  a  national 
council  (Coll.  Lacens.,  VI,  1024).  Similarly,  mere 
congresses  of  bishops,  even  of  a  whole  nation,  who 
meet  to  discuss  common  ecclesiastical  affairs,  with- 
out adhering  to  synodal  forms,  are  not  to  be  called 
national  or  plenary  Councils,  because  no  one  having 
the  proper  jurisdiction  has  formally  summoned  them 
to  a  canonical  synod.  Such  episcopal  conventions 
have  been  praised  by  the  Holy  See,  because  they 
showed  unity  among  the  bishops  and  zeal  for  assert- 
ing the  rights  of  the  Church  and  the  progress  of  the 
Catholic  cause  in  their  midst,  in  accordance  with  the 
sacred  canons  (Coll.  Lacens.,  V,  1336),  but,  as  the 
requisite  legal  forms  and  proper  hierarchical  authority 
are  wanting,  these  congresses  of  bishops  do  not  con- 
stitute a  plenary  council,  no  matter  how  full  the 
representation  of  episcopal  dignitaries  may  be. 

III.  A  plenary  or  national  council  may  not  be 
convoked  or  celebrated  without  the  authority  of 
the  Apostolic  See,  as  was  solemnly  and  repeatedly 
declared  by  Pius  IX  (Coll.  Lacens.,  V,  995,  1336). 
This  has  always  been  the  practice  in  the  Church,  if 
not  explicitly,  at  least  from  the  fact  that  recourse 
could  always  be  had  to  the  Holy  See  against  decisions 
of  such  councils.  Now,  however,  express  and  special 
papal  authorization  is  required.  He  who  presides 
over  the  council  must  have  the  necessary  jurisdiction, 
which  is  accorded  by  special  Apostolic  delegation. 
In  the  United  States,  the  presidency  of  such  synods  has 
always  been  accorded  by  the  Holy  See  to  the  archbishops 
of  Baltimore.  In  their  case,  a  papal  delegation  is  nec- 
essary, for  although  they  have  a  precedence  of  honour 
over  all  the  other  American  metropolitans,  yet  they 
have  no  primatial  or  patriarchal  jurisdiction.  It  is 
not  uncommon  for  the  pope  to  send  from  Rome  a 
special  delegate  to  preside  over  plenary  councils. 


IV.  Summons  to  a  national  or  plenary  council  is  to 
be  sent  to  all  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the  nation, 
and  they  are  obliged  to  appear,  unless  prevented  by  a 
canonical  hindrance;  to  all  administrators  of  dioceses 
sede  plena  or  vacua,  and  to  vicars  capitular  sede  vacante; 
to  vicars  Apostolic  possessed  of  episcopal  jurisdiction; 
to  the  representatives  of  cathedral  chapters,  to  abbots 
having  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction.  In  the  United 
States,  custom  has  sanctioned  the  summoning  of  auxil- 
iary, coadjutor,  and  visiting  bishops;  provincials  of 
religious  orders;  all  mitred  abbots;  rectors  of  major 
seminaries,  as  well  as  priests  to  serve  as  theologians 
and  canonists. 

V.  Only  those  who  have  a  right  to  a  summons  have 
also  a  right  to  cast  a  decisive  vote  in  councils.  The 
others  may  give  only  a  consultive  vote.  The  fathers 
may,  however,  empower  auxiliary,  coadjutor,  and 
visiting  bishops,  as  well  as  procurators  of  absent 
bishops  to  cast  a  decisive  vote.  The  Third  Plenary 
Council  of  Baltimore  allowed  a  decisive  vote  also  to 
a  general  of  a  religious  congregation,  because  this  was 
done  at  the  Vatican  Council.  At  the  latter  council, 
however,  such  vote  was  granted  only  to  generals  of 
regular  orders,  but  not  to  those  of  religious  congre- 
gations (Nilles,  part  I,  p.  127).  At  Baltimore,  a 
decisive  vote  was  refused  to  abbots  of  a  single  monas- 
tery, but  conferred  on  arch-abbots. 

VI.  In  particular  councils,  the  subject-matter  to  be 
treated  is  what  concerns  discipline,  the  reformation 
of  abuses,  the  repression  of  crimes,  and  the  progress 
of  the  Catholic  cause.  In  former  times,  such  councils 
often  condemned  incipient  heresies  and  opinions  con- 
trary to  sound  morals,  but  their  decisions  became 
dogmatic  only  after  solemn  confirmation  by  the 
Apostolic  See.  Thus,  the  Councils  of  Milevis  and 
Carthage  condemned  Pelagianism,  and  the  Council 
of  Orange  (Arausicanum)  Semipelagianism.  Such 
latitude  is  not  allowed  to  modern  synods,  and  the 
Fathers  are  warned,  moreover,  that  they  are  not  to 
restrict  opinions  which  are  tolerated  by  the  Catholic 
Church. 

VII.  Decrees  of  plenary  councils  must  be  sub- 
mitted, before  promulgation,  for  the  confirmation, 
or  rather  recognition  and  revision  of  the  Holy  See. 
Such  recognition  does  not  imply  an  approval  of  all 
the  regulations  submitted  by  the  council,  and  still 
less  of  all  the  assertions  contained  in  the  synodal  acts. 
Many  things  are  merely  tolerated  by  the  Apostohc 
See  for  the  time  being.  The  submission  to  Rome  is 
mainly  for  the  correction  of  what  is  too  severe  or 
inaccurate  in  the  decrees.  Bishops  have  the  power 
of  relaxing  decrees  of  a  plenary  council  in  particular 
cases  in  their  own  dioceses,  unless  the  council  was 
confirmed  in  forma  specifica  at  Rome.  In  like  manner, 
when  no  specific  confirmation  of  the  decrees  has  been 
accorded,  it  is  lawful  to  appeal  from  these  councils. 
In  modern  times,  it  is  not  usual  for  the  Holy  See 
to  confirm  councils  in  forma  specifica,  but  only  to 
accord  them  the  necessary  recognition.  If,  conse- 
quently, anything  be  found  in  their  acts  contrary 
to  the  common  law  of  the  Church,  it  would  have  no 
binding  force  unless  a  special  apostolic  derogation 
were  made  in  its  favour.  Mere  recognition  and  revi- 
sion would  not  suffice. 

Smith,  Elements  0/  Ecclesiastical  Law,  I  (New  York,  1895); 
Nilles,  Commentaria  in.  Cone.  Plen.  Bait.  Ill  (Innsbruck,  1888) ; 
Craisson,  Manuale  Totius  Juris  Canonici,  III  (Paris,  1899); 
Bouix,  De  Concilia  (Paris,  1884). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Flessis,  JosEPH-OcTAVB,  Bishop  of  Quebec,  b.  at 
Montreal,  3  March,  1763;  d.  at  Quebec,  4  Dec,  1822. 
He  studied  classics  at  Montreal  and  philosophy  at 
Quebec,  was  appointed  in  1783  secretary  to  Bishop 
Briand,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1786.  In  1797  he 
was  named  vicar-general  and  chosen  for  coadjutor. 
The  bulls  having  been  delayed  by  the  imprisonment 
and  death  of  Pius  VII,  Plessis  was  only  consecrated  in 


PLESSIS 


166 


PLOCK 


1801 .  He  assumed  the  greater  part  of  the  administra- 
tion, his  superior  remaining  at  Longueuil;  by  the 
latter's  death  in  1806  he  became  Bishop  of  Quebec. 
The  programme  of  the  oligarchy  then  in  power  com- 
prised the  organization  of  an  exclusively  Protestant 
school  system;  and  the  subjection  of  ecclesiastical 
influence  to  the  royal  supremacy  and  the  governor's 
good  pleasure,  in  the  erection  of  parishes  and  the  nomi- 
nation of  pastors.  Plessis's  aim  was  to  obtain  the  civil 
recognition  of  bishop  and  clergy,  without  forfeiting  any 
right  or  privilege  of  the  Church.  His  title  of  Bishop  of 
Quebec,  assumed  by  all  his  predecessors  before  and 
since  the  Conquest,  was  odious  to  the  officials  and  to 
the  Anglican  bishop.  Plessis,  by  his  firm  yet  deferen- 
tial attitude,  his  prudence  and  moderation,  and  his 
loyalty  to  the  Crown,  removed  all  opposition.  He 
wisely  resisted  every  offer  of  temporal  betterment  to 
maintain  the  fulness  of  his  spiritual  jurisdiction. 
When  the  American  Congress  in  1812  declared  war 
with  England,  Plessis  aroused  the  loyalty  of  the 
French  Canadians,  who  by  remarkable  victories,  nota- 
bly at  Ch&teauguay,  saved  Canada  to  Great  Britain. 
The  bishop  was  honoured  with  a  seat  in  the  Legislative 
Council,  his  title  and  dignity  officially  recognized,  and 
the  creation  of  vicariates  Apostolic  in  Upper  Canada, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  Prince  Edward  Island  approved  of. 
He  succeeded  in  preventing  the  application  of  the 
odious  monopolizing  educational  law  called  the  "  Royal 
Institution  ".  An  energetic  and  enlightened  patron  of 
education,  he  redeemed  Nicolet  College,  generously 
contributing  to  reorganize,  enlarge,  and  endow  it;  he 
likewise  favoured  the  foundation  of  St-Hyacinthe  Col- 
lege, whose  regulations  he  wrote,  and  established  a 
Latin  school  at  St-Roch  to  prepare  students  for  semi- 
nary or  college. 

Three  times  after  his  consecration  he  visited  every 
parish  in  Lower  Canada;  in  1811  and  1812  he  trav- 
elled through  the  Maritime  Provinces,  and  in  1816  to 
Upper  Canada.  Long  since  convinced  of  the  necessity 
of  dividing  his  immense  diocese,  he  strove  to  create 
new  sees.  Nova  Scotia  was  separated  in  1817.  To 
realize  the  formation  of  other  dioceses  in  Upper  Can- 
ada, in  the  North-West,  in  Prince  Edward  Island,  and 
at  Montreal,  Plessis  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  1819  to 
negotiate  with  Rome  and  England.  Anticipating  the 
conclusion  of  the  case  pending  before  the  British  Gov- 
ernment, Rome  had  made  Quebec  a  metropolitan  see, 
with  two  of  the  above-named  for  suffragans.  The  new 
archbishop  successfully  counteracted  English  suscepti- 
bilities, alarmed  at  his  promotion,  and  obtained  the 
other  two  dioceses  he  had  in  view.  He  likewise  suc- 
ceeded in  preventing  the  Sulpicians  from  losing  by  ex- 
propriation their  seigniory  of  the  Island  of  Montreal. 
Public  opinion  had  improved  since  Briand's  time.  On 
his  return  voyage,  Plessis,  at  the  request  of  Propa- 
ganda, visited  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore.  When  in 
1822  the  House  of  Commons  proposed  a  bill  for  the 
legislative  Union  of  the  two  Canadas,  whereby  the 
French  Catholic  province  would  have  been  the  suf- 
ferer, Plessis,  though  stricken  with  the  disease  that 
was  to  end  his  life,  undertook  an  active  campaign  by 
letter  to  avert  the  disaster.  His  advice  and  influence 
strengthened  the  delegates  who  had  been  sent  to  Eng- 
land to  prevent  the  passing  of  the  bill. 

T&rTj, LesEDSqueadeQiiSbec  (Quebec,  1889);  Ferland,  Joseph- 
Octave  Plessis  (Quebec,  1864) ;  Baker,  True  stories  of  New  Eng- 
land Captives  (Cambridge,  1897).  LlONEL  LlNDSAY. 

Plessis  d'  Argentre,  Charles  du.  See  Abgentrie. 

Plethon,  Georgius  Gemistds,  b.  in  Constantinople 
about  13.5.'),  d.  in  the  Peloponnesus,  14,50.  Out  of  vene- 
ration for  Plato  he  changed  his  name  from  Gemistos  to 
Plethon.  Although  he  wrote  commentaries  on  Aris- 
totle's logical  treatises  and  on  Porphyry's  "Isagoge", 
he  was  a  professed  Platonist  in  philosophy.  Owing, 
most  probably,  to  the  influence  of  Mohammedan 
teachers,  he  combined  with  Platonism,  or  rather  with 
Neo-Platonism,  the  most  extraordinary  kind  of  Orien- 


tal mysticism  and  magic  which  he  designated  as 
Zoroastrianism.  It  was  due,  no  doubt,  to  these  ten- 
dencies of  thought  that  he  openly  abandoned  Chris- 
tianity and  sought  to  substitute  paganism  for  it  as  a 
standard  of  life.  When  he  was  about  fifteen  years  old 
he  visited  Western  Europe  in  the  train  of  the  Emperor 
John  Palaeologus.  After  his  return  to  Greece,  he  settled 
at  Misithra  in  the  Peloponnesus,  the  site  of  ancient 
Sparta,  and  there  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life. 
In  1438,  although  he  was  then  in  his  eighty-third  year, 
he  again  accompanied  the  Emperor  to  Italy,  where  he 
was  designated  as  one  of  the  six  champions  of  the 
Orthodox  Church  in  the  Council  of  Florence.  His 
interest  in  ecclesiastical  matters  was,  however,  very 
shght.  Instead  of  attending  the  Council,  he  spent  his 
time  discoursing  on  Platonism  and  Zoroastrianism  to 
the  Florentines.  It  was  his  enthusiasm  for  Platonism 
that  influenced  Cosimo  de  Medici  to  found  a  Platonic 
Academy  at  Florence.  In  1441  Plethon  had  returned 
to  the  Peloponnesus,  and  there  he  died  and  was  buried 
at  Misithra  in  1450.  In  1465  his  remains  were  carried 
to  Rimini  and  placed  in  the  church  of  St.  Francis, 
where  an  inscription,  curiously  enough,  styles  him 
"Themistius  Byzantinus"  Among  his  disciples  was 
the  learned  Cardinal  Bessarion.  Plethon's  most  im- 
portant works  are  the  "Laws"  written  in  imitation 
of  Plato's  "Laws",  which  was  condemned  by  Gen- 
nadios.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  "On  the 
Differences  between  Plato  and  Aristotle",  in  which 
he  attacks  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  and  asserts 
the  superiority  of  Platonism.  He  also  composed  a 
work  in  defence  of  the  Greek  doctrine  of  the  Pro- 
cession of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  his  philosophical  sys- 
tem he  borrows  largely  from  the  Neo-Platonist, 
Proclus,  and  mingles  with  the  traditional  Neo- 
Platonic  mysticism  many  popular  Oriental  supersti- 
tions. His  influence  was  chiefly  negative.  His  attack 
on  Aristotelianism  was  to  some  extent  effective,  al- 
though opposed  to  him  were  men  of  equal  ability  and 
power,  such  as  Gennadios,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople. He  was  honoured  by  the  Italian  Platonists  as 
the  restorer  of  the  Academy,  and  as  a  martyr  for  the 
cause  of  Platonism. 

The  Laws,  written  about  1440,  was  printed  at  Paris,  1541  and 
(in  Latin  tr.)  at  Basle,  1574.  The  comparison  of  Plato  and  Aris- 
totle was  also  printed  at  Basle,  1574.  Migne,  P.  G.,  CLX,  773 
sqq.,  reprints  these  and  other  Greek  works  of  Plethon,  with 
Latin  tr.  The  best  work  on  Plethon  is  a  dissertation  by  Fritz 
ScHULTZE,  Georgios  Gemistos  Plethon  (Jena,  1871).  See  also 
Sandys,  Hist,  of  Classical  Scholarship,  II  (London,  1908),  60; 
Symonds,  Renaiss.  in  Italy,  Pt.  ii  (New  York,  1888),  198  sqq.; 
Creighton,  Hist,  of  Papacy,  IV  (London,  1901),  41-46. 

William  Turner. 

Plock,  Diocese  op  (Plocensis),  in  Russian  Po- 
land, suffragan  of  Warsaw,  includes  the  district  of 
Plock  and  parts  of  the  districts  of  Lomza  and  War- 
saw. Apparently  the  diocese  was  founded  about  1087, 
through  the  efforts  of  the  legates  sent  to  Poland  by 
Gregory  VII ;  the  first  certain  notice  of  it  is  of  the  year 
1102,  when  Duke  Ladislaus  Hermann  was  buried  in  the 
cathedral  of  Plock.  The  diocese  included  the  region 
between  the  rivers,  Vistula,  Narew,  and  Bug,  and 
extended  as  far  as  the  northern  and  eastern  boundaries 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland  of  that  era.  At  a  later  date 
the  strip  of  land  north  of  theDrewenz  River  was  added 
to  it.  It  therefore  included  the  greater  part  of  the 
Duchy  of  Masovia  and  the  northern  part  of  Podlachia; 
but  was  much  smaller  than  the  two  other  dioceses — 
Gnesen  and  Posen — then  existing  in  Poland.  Its 
bishops  were  under  the  metropolitan  authority  of 
Gnesen.  The  endowment  of  the  bishopric  was  very 
large;  according  to  a  charter  of  Duke  Conrad  of 
Masovia,  in  1239  the  episcopal  landed  property  in- 
cluded 240  villee  and  at  a  later  date  also  20  prmdia. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  these  estates  were  divided 
between  the  bishop  and  the  cathedral  chapter.  The 
Partitions  of  Poland  gave  the  greater  part  of  the  dio- 
cese to  Russia,  and  a  smaller  portion  to  Prussia;  since 


PLOTINUS 


167 


PLOWDEN 


the  publication  by  Pius  VII  of  the  Bull  "De  salute 
animarum"  of  1821,  the  Prussian  section  of  the  diocese 
has  been  incorporated  in  the  Diocese  of  Kulm.  In  the 
readjustment  of  ecclesiastical  conditions  in  Poland, 
Warsaw  was  raised  to  an  archdiocese,  by  the  Bull 
"  Militantis  ecclesise  "  of  12  March,  1817,  and  the  other 
Russo-Polish  dioceses  were  made  suffragan  to  it  by  the 
Bull  "Ex  impensa  nobis"  of  30  June,  1818.  Conse- 
quently Plock  also  was  transferred  from  its  metropoli- 
tan of  Gnesen  to  Warsaw;  at  the  same  time  five  dean- 
eries were  taken  from  it,  thereby  reducing  the  diocese 
to  its  present  size.  Those  estates  of  the  bishopric  that 
had  not  been  secularized  before  this  date  were  taken 
one  after  the  other  by  the  Russian  Government.  The 
Diocese  of  Plock  shared  in  the  sufferings  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  of  Russia.  The  episcopal  see  remained 
vacant  during  the  years  1853-63  and  1885-90;  of 
late  years  the  sect  of  the  Mariavites,  with  the  aid  of 
the  Government,  has  spread  in  the  diocese.  Among 
the  bishops  of  the  present  era,  George  Szembek 
(1901-03)  and  ApoUinaris  Wnukowski  (1904-08) 
were  elevated  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Mohileff;  the 
present  bishop  is  Anthony  Julian  Nowowiejski,  con- 
secrated 6  December,  1908.  The  cathedral  of  Plock 
was  rebuilt  after  a  fire  in  the  years  1136-44,  and  thor- 
oughly restored  in  1903. 

The  diocese  is  divided  into  12  deaneries  and  at  the 
end  of  1909  included,  besides  the  cathedral,  249 
parish  churches,  31  dependent  churches,  275  secular 
priests,  5  regular  priests,  794,100  Catholics.  As  early 
as  1207  the  chapter  consisted  of  5  dignitaries  and  10 
canons;  since  the  publication  of  the  imperial  decree 
of  1865  it  has  consisted  of  4  prelates  (provost,  dean, 
archdeacon,  and  a  "scholasticus")  and  8  canons. 
There  is  also  a  collegiate  chapter  at  Pultusk  consisting 
of  3  prelates  and  4  canons.  The  diocesan  seminary 
for  priests  has  been  in  existence  since  1708;  it  has  10 
professors  and  72  clerics,  and  there  are  also  4  clerics 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Academy  at  St.  Petersburg. 
The  only  houses  of  the  orders  in  the  diocese  are:  a 
Carmelite  monastery  at  Obory,  with  5  fathers  and  1 
lay  brother;  a  convent  of  the  Clarisses  at  Przasnysz, 
with  9  sisters;  5  houses  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  with 
25  sisters,  who  have  charge  of  4  hospitals  and  1 
orphanage. 

RzEPiNSKi,  Vit<E  prcBsulum  Poloni(E,  II  (Warsaw,  1762),  203-72; 
Theineh,  Vetera  Tnonumenta  Polonifs,  I  (Rome,  1860);  Lesc(eub, 
L'Sglise  cath.  en  Pologne  sous  la  domination  russe  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1876);  Encyklopedia  Koscielna,  XIX  (Warsaw,  1893),  569-622; 
Catalogus  ecclesiarum  et  utriusque  cleri  etc,  (Plock,  19()9). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Plotinus.    See  Neo-Platonism. 

Plowden,  Charles,  b.  at  Plowden  Hall,  Shrop- 
shire, 1743;  d.  at  Jougne,  Doubs,  France,  13  June, 
1821.  He  was  lineally  descended  from  Edmund  Plow- 
den, the  celebrated  lawyer.  The  family  adhered 
steadily  to  the  Catholic  faith,  contributed  ten  members 
to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  numerous  subjects  to  vari- 
ous female  orders  (see  Foley,  "Records  of  the  English 
Province".  Plowden  Pedigree,  IV,  537).  Educated  at 
St.  Omer's,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1759,  and 
was  ordained  priest,  at  Rome,  in  1770.  At  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Society,  in  1773,  he  was  minister  of  the 
English  College  at  Bruges:  the  Austro-Belgic  govern- 
ment, in  its  execution  of  the  decree  of  suppression, 
kept  him  imprisoned  for  some  months  after  the  closing 
of  the  college.  He  wrote  an  account  of  its  destruction. 
After  his  release  from  confinement,  he  was  for  a  time 
at  the  Academy  of  Liege,  which  the  prince-bishop  had 
offered  to  the  English  ex-Jesuits.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land, he  became  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  Mr.  Weld,  and 
chaplain  at  Lulworth  Castle,  where  he  assisted  at  the 
consecration  of  Bishop  Carroll,  in  1790.  He  preached 
the  sermon  on  the  occasion,  and  published  an  acccount 
of  the  establishment  of  the  new  See  of  Baltimore. 
Father  Plowden  had  a  large  share  in  the  direction  of 
Stonyhurst  College,  founded  in  1794,  and  by  his  abil- 


ity and  virtue,  "he  promoted  the  credit  and  welfare  of 
that  institution"  (Oliver).  Richard  Lalor  Shiel,  who 
had  been  his  pupil,  speaks  of  him  as  "a  perfect  Jesuit 
of  the  old  school".  After  the  restoration  of  the  Soci- 
ety in  England,  he  was  the  first  master  of  novices,  at 
Hodder.  In  1817,  he  was  declared  Provincial,  and,  at 
the  same  time.  Rector  of  Stonyhurst,  holding  the  lat- 
ter office  till  1819.  Summoned  to  Rome  for  the  elec- 
tion of  the  general  of  the  Society,  he  died  suddenly  on 
his  journey  homeward,  and,  through  mistaken  infor- 
mation as  to  his  mission  and  identity,  he  was  buried 
with  full  mihtary  honours.  His  attendant  had  gath- 
ered the  information  that  he  had  been  at  Rome  in  con- 
nexion with  business  concerning  a  "general",  and  the 
town  authorities,  mixing  things,  concluded  that  he 
was  a  general  of  the  British  army, — hence  the  military 
funeral. 

In  addition  to  his  many  administrative  activities 
and  occupations.  Father  Plowden  was  a  prolific  writer. 
Sommervogel  gives  a  list  of  twenty-two  publications 
of  which  he  was  the  author,  besides  several  works  in 
manuscript  which  have  been  preserved.  He  was  a 
lifelong  correspondent  of  Bishop  Carroll  and  wrote  a 
beautiful  eulogy  on  the  death  of  his  friend  in  1815.  A 
large  collection  of  the  letters  which  they  interchanged, 
originals  or  copies,  exists  at  Stonyhurst  and  George- 
town Colleges,  as  also  in  the  Baltimore  diocesan 
archives.  He  was  a  protaconist  in  the  polemics  that 
distracted  the  Catholic  body  in  England,  in  relation  to 
the  Oath  proposed  as  a  preliminary  to  the  Catholic 
Relief  Bill.  It  was  "  a  desperate  life  and  death  strug- 
gle of  Catholicism  in  England,  during  one  of  the  most 
insidious  and  dangerous  assaults  upon  its  liberties  to 
which  it  had  ever  been  exposed"  Writers  on  both 
sides,  in  the  heat  of  controversy,  employed  language 
which  subsequently  necessitated  explanation,  apolo- 
gies, and  retractions.  Plowden  was  too  outspoken  and 
perfervid  in  some  of  his  utterances,  but  his  spirit  was 
that  of  loyalty  to  the  vicars-Apostolic  and  to  Catholic 
traditions. 

Foley,  Records  of  the  English  Province  S.  J.,  IV  (London, 
1878),  555;  Oliver,  Biography  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  (London), 
184;  Sommervogel,  Bihliothkque  de  la  Compagnie  de  JSsus,  VI 
(Paris,  1895),  903;  Gillow,  Biog.  Diet,  of  the  English  Catholics,  V 
(London) ;  Ward,  The  Dawn  of  the  Catholic  Revival  in  England 
(London,  1909) ;  Hughes,  History  S.  J,  in  North  America  (Lon- 
don, 1910),  doo.  I,  ii. 

E.  I.  Devitt. 

Plowden,  Edmund,  b.  1517-8;  d.  in  London,  6  Feb., 
1584-5.  Son  of  Humphrey  Plowden  of  Plowden 
Hall,  Shropshire,  and  Elizabeth  his  wife ;  educated  at 
Cambridge,  he  took  no  degree.  In  1538  he  was  called 
to  the  Middle  Temple  where  he  studied  law  so  closely 
that  he  became  the  greatest  lawyer  of  his  age,  as  is 
testified  by  Camden,  who  says  that  "as  he  was  sin- 
gularly well  learned  in  the  common  laws  of  England, 
whereof  he  deserved  well  by  writing,  so  for  integrity 
of  life  he  was  second  to  no  man  of  his  profession" 
(Annals,  1635,  p.  270).  He  also  studied  at  Oxford  for 
a  time,  and  besides  his  legal  studies,  qualified  as  a 
surgeon  and  physician  in  1552.  On  Mary's  accession 
he  became  one  of  the  council  of  the  Marches  of  Wales. 
In  1553  he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for 
Wallingford  and  in  the  following  year  was  returned  for 
two  constituencies,  Reading  and  Wootten-Bassett; 
but  on  12  Jan.,  1554-5,  he  withdrew  from  the  House, 
dissatisfied  with  the  proceedings  there.  Succeeding 
to  the  Plowden  estates  in  1557,  he  lectured  on  law  at 
Middle  Temple  and  New  Inn;  in  1561  he  became 
treasurer  of  Middle  Temple  and  during  his  treasurer- 
ship  the  fine  hall  of  that  inn  was  begun.  His  fidelity 
to  the  Catholic  faith  prevented  any  further  promotion 
under  Elizabeth,  but  it  is  a  family  tradition  that  the 
queen  offered  him  the  Lord  Chancellorship  on  condi- 
tion of  his  joining  the  Anglican  Church.  He  success- 
fully defended  Bishop  Bonner  against  the  Anglican 
Bishop  Home,  and  helped  Catholics  by  his  legal 
knowledge.    On  one  occasion  he  was  defending  a  gen- 


PLOWDEN 


168 


PLOWDEN 


Edmund  Plowden 


tleman  charged  with  hearing  Mass,  and  detected  that 
the  service  had  been  performed  by  a  layman  for  the 
purpose  of  informing  against  those  who  were  present, 
whereon  he  exclaimed,  "The  case  is  altered;  no  priest, 
no  Mass",  and  thus  secured  an  acquittal.  This  inci- 
dent gave  rise  to  the  common  legal  proverb,  "The  case 
is  altered,  quoth  Plowden"  He  himself  was  required 
to  give  a  bond  in  1569  to  be  of  good  behaviour  in  re- 
ligious matters  for 
a  year,  and  in  1580 
he  was  delated  to 
the  Privy  Council 
for  refusing  to  at- 
tend the  Anghcan 
service,  though  no 
measures  seem  to 
have  been  taken 
against  him.  His 
works  were:  "Les 
comentaries  ou  les 
reportes  de  Ed- 
munde  Plowden" 
(London,  1571), 
often  reprinted 
and  translated  into 
English;  "  Les 
Quares  del  Mon- 
sieur Plowden" 
(London,  no  date), 
included  in  some 
editions  of  the  Re- 
ports; "A  Treatise 
on  Succession",  MSS.  preserved  among  the  family 
papers.  Its  object  was  to  prove  that  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  was  not  debarred  from  her  right  to  the  English 
throne  by  her  foreign  birth  or  the  will  of  Henry  VIII. 
Several  MSS.  legal  opinions  are  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum  and  the  Cambridge  University  Libra- 
ries. He  married  Catherine  Sheldon  of  Beoley  and  by 
her  had  three  sons  and  three  daughters.  There  is  a 
portrait  effigy  on  his  tomb  in  the  Temple  Church,  and 
a  bust  in  the  Middle  Temple  Hall  copied  from  one  at 
Plowden. 

Plowden,  Records  of  Plowden  (privately  printed,  1887); 
Cooper,  Athenai  Cantabrigienses  (Cambridge,  1858) ;  A  Wood,  ed. 
Bliss,  Athence  Oxonienses  (London,  1813-20) ;  Dodd,  Church 
Bistory,  I  (Brussels,  vere  Wolverhampton,  1737-42) ;  Foss,  Judges 
of  England,  V  (London,  1848-64) ;  Foley,  Records  Eng.  Ptov.  S.  J. 
(giving  Plowden  pedigree),  IV  (London,  1878);  Cooper  in  Diet. 
Nat.  Biog.;    GiLLOW,  Bihl.  Diet   Eng,  Cath, 

Edwin  Burton. 

Plowden,  Fbancis,  son  of  William  Plowden  of  Plow- 
den Hall,  b.  at  Shropshire,  8  June,  1749;  d.  at  Paris, 
4Jan.,  1819.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Omer's  and  entered 
the  Jesuit  novitiate  at  Watten  in  1766.  When  the 
Society  was  suppressed,  he  was  teaching  at  the  College 
at  Bruges.  Not  being  in  Holy  Orders  he  was,  by  the 
terms  of  suppression,  relieved  of  his  first  vows,  and 
soon  afterwards  married  Dorothea,  daughter  of  George 
Phillips  of  Carnarvonshire.  He  entered  the  Middle 
Temple  and  practised  as  a  conveyancer,  the  only 
department  of  the  legal  profession  open  to  Catholics 
under  the  Penal  Laws.  After  the  Relief  Act  of  1791 
he  was  called  to  the  Bar.  His  first  great  work,  "Jura 
Anglorum",  appeared  in  1792,  It  was  attacked  in  a 
pamphlet  by  his  brother  Robert,  a  priest  under  the  title 
of  "  A  R  Oman  Catholic  Clergyman ' ' .  The  book  was  so 
highly  thought  of  that  the  University  of  Oxford  pre- 
sented him  with  the  honorary  Degree  of  D.C.L.,  a 
unique  distinction  for  a  Catholic  of  those  days.  His 
improvidence,  extreme  views,  and  untractable  dispo- 
sition made  his  life  a  troubled  one.  Having  fallen  out 
with  the  Lord  Chancellor,  he  ceased  to  practise  at  the 
bar  and  devoted  himself  to  writing. 

His  "Historical  Review  of  the  state  of  Ireland" 
(1803)  was  written  at  the  request  of  the  Government; 
but  it  was  too  outspoken  a  condemnation  to  meet  their 
views,  and  was  attacked  by  Sir  Richard  Musgrave  in 


the  "Historical  Review"  and  also  by  the  "British 
Critic ' ' .  Plowden  answered  by  a  "  Postliminious  Pref- 
ace", giving  an  account  of  his  communications  with 
Addington,  and  also  by  a  "Historical  Letter"  to  Sir 
Richard  Musgrave.  While  in  Dublin  (1811),  he  pub- 
lished his  work  "Ireland  since  the  Union",  which  led 
to  a  prosecution  on  the  part  of  the  Government  for 
libel,  resulting  in  a  verdict  of  £5000  damages.  Plow- 
den considered  that  this  had  been  awarded  by  a 
packed  jury  and  was  determined  not  to  pay  it.  He 
escaped  to  Paris  where  he  spent  the  remaining  years 
of  his  life  in  comparative  poverty.  He  continued  to 
write  at  intervals,  his  "Historical  Letters"  to  Sir  John 
Cox  Hippisley  (1815)  containing  important  matter 
connected  with  the  question  of  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion. His  other  works  are:  "The  Case  Stated"  (Cath. 
Relief  Act,  1791);  "Church  and  State"  (London, 
1795);  "Treatise  on  Law  of  Usury"  (London,  1796); 
' '  The  Constitution  of  the  United  Kingdom ' '  (London, 
1802) ;  "Historical  Letter  to  Rev.  C.  O'Conor"  (Dub- 
lin, 1812);   "Human  Subornation"  (Paris,  1824). 

Cooper  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v.;  Gillow,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng. 
Cath.,  a.  v.;  Kirk,  Biographies;  Foley,  Records  Eng.  Ptov.  S.  J., 
IV,  VII  (London,  1878-80),  giving  pedigree  of  Plowdens;  Ward, 
Dawn  of  Cath,  Revival  (London,  1909) ;   Gent's  Magazine  (1829). 

Bernakd  Ward. 

Plowden,  Robert,  elder  brother  of  Charles  (su- 
pra), b.  27  Jan.,  1740;  d.  at  Wappenbury,  27  June, 
1823.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1756,  and 
was  ordained  in  1763.  After  some  years  spent  at 
Hoogstraet  in  Belgium,  as  director  of  the  Carmelite 
Nuns,  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  stationed  at 
Arlington,  Devon,  from  1777  to  1787.  Appointed  to 
Bristol,  he  had  a  wider  field  for  his  zeal  and  ability :  at 
his  coming,  the  Catholics  had  only  one  wretched  room 
in  a  back  alley  for  a  chapel;  Father  Plowden's  exer- 
tions resulted  in  the  erection  of  St.  Joseph's  Church, 
together  with  a  parochial  residence  and  schools.  His 
activity  was  extended  to  the  mission  of  Swansea  and 
the  South  Wales  District,  of  which  he  may  be  consid- 
ered the  principal  founder.  He  remained  at  Bristol 
for  nearly  thirty  years,  beloved  by  his  flock,  and  es- 
teemed by  all  for  his  frank  character,  disinterested  lar 
hours,  and  bounty  to  the  poor.  Removed  from  Bris- 
tol in  1815,  he  became  chaplain  to  the  Fitzherbert 
family  at  Swynnerton  until  1820,  when  he  retired  to 
Wappenbury,  where  he  died.  He  was  a  keen  theolo- 
gian, "a  more  solid  divine  than  his  brother  Charles", 
according  to  Bishop  Carroll — an  unflinching  defender 
of  Catholic  principles  and  practices,  and  a  firm  sup- 
porter of  Bishop  Milner  in  trying  circumstances.  The 
inscription  on  his  tomb  commemorates  his  candour, 
zeal,  and  learning.  He  translated  from  the  French: 
"The  Elevation  of  the  Soul  to  God",  which  passed 
through  several  editions  in  England;  American  edi- 
tions, Philadelphia,  1817,  and  New  York,  1852. 

Foley,  Records  of  the  English  Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
IV,  554 :  Oliver,  Collections  S.  J. 

E.  I.  Devitt. 

Plowden  (alias  Salisbury),  Thomas,  b,  in  Oxford- 
shire, England,  1594;  d.  in  London,  13  Feb.,  1664; 
grandson  of  Edmund  Plowden,  the  great  lawyer;  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus,  1617;  sent  on  the  English 
Mission  about  1622.  He  was  seized,  with  other  fath- 
ers, by  the  pursuivants  in  1628,  at  Clerkenwell,  the 
London  residence  of  the  Jesuits.  He  filled  various  re- 
sponsible offices  of  the  order,  and  laboured  on  the 
perilous  English  Mission  until  his  death.  He  trans- 
lated from  the  Italian  of  D.  Bartoli  "The  Learned 
Man  Defended  and  Reformed"  (London,  1660). 

Foley,  Records  of  the  English  Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  I, 
VII. 

E.  I.  Devitt. 

Plowden,  Thomas  Percy,  b.  at  Shiplake,  Oxford- 
shire, England,  1672;  d.  at  Watten,  21  Sept.,  1745; 
joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1693.    He  wasrectorof 


PLTJMIER 


169 


PLUNKET 


the  English  College,  Rome,  1731-34;  superior  at 
Ghent,  1735-39;  and  rector  of  St.  Omers,  1739-42. 
He  translated  Father  Segneri's  "Devout  Client  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin",  and  wrote  the  preface  to  it.  He  died 
at  the  novitiate  of  Watten. 

Foley,  Records  of  the  English  Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
IV,  VII. 

E.  I.  Devitt. 

Plumier,  Charles  (botanical  abbreviation.  Plum.), 
French  botanist,  b.  at  Marseilles,  20  April,  1646;  d.  at 
Puerto  de  Sta  Maria  near  Cadiz,  20  November,  1704. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  order  of  the 
Minims.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics and  physics,  made  physical  instruments, 
and  was  an  excellent  draughtsman,  painter,  and 
turner.  On  being  sent  to  the  French  monastery  of 
Trinit£l  dei  Monti  at  Rome,  Plumier  studied  botany 
with  great  zeal  under  two  members  of  the  order,  and 
especially  under  the  well-known  Cistercian  botanist, 
Paolo  Boccone.  After  his  return  to  France  he  became 
a  pupil  of  Tournefort,  whom  he  accompanied  onbotan- 
ical  excursions.  He  also  explored  the  coasts  of  Pro- 
vence and  Languedoo.  His  work,  of  permanent  value 
for  the  science  of  botany,  began  in  1689,  when,  by 
order  of  the  government,  he  accompanied  Surian  to 
the  French  Antilles.  As  this  first  journey  proved  very 
successful,  Plumier  was  appointed  royal  botanist;  in 
1693,  by  command  of  Louis  XIV,  he  made  his  sec- 
ond journey,  and  in  1695  his  third  journey  to  the  An- 
tilles and  Central  America.  While  in  the  West  Indies 
he  was  greatly  aided  in  his  work  by  the  Dominican 
Labat.  In  1704,  when  about  to  start  on  his  fourth 
journey,  intending  to  visit  the  home  of  the  true  cin- 
chona tree  in  Peru,  he  was  taken  ill  with  pleurisy  and 
died.  He  is  the  most  important  of  the  botanical 
explorers  of  his  time.  All  natural  scientists  of  the 
eighteenth  century  spoke  of  him  with  admiration. 
According  to  Cuvier  he  was  "perhaps  the  most  indus- 
trious investigator  of  nature",  while  Haller  said,  "vir 
ad  incrementum  rei  herbarise  natus"  (a  man  born  to 
extend  the  knowledge  of  botany).  Tournefort  and 
Linnaeus  named  in  his  honour  the  genus  Plumeria, 
which  belongs  to  the  family  of  the  Apocynacew  and  is 
indigenous  in  about  forty  species  to  Central  America; 
it  is  now  called  Plumiera,  with  the  name  of  Plumieroi- 
dece  for  its  first  sub-family.  Plumier  accomplished  all 
that  he  did  in  fifteen  years  (1689-1704) ;  his  labours 
resulted  in  collections,  descriptions,  and  drawings. 

His  first  work  was,  "Description  des  plantes  de 
I'Amerique"  (Paris,  1693);  it  contained  108  plates, 
half  of  which  represented  ferns.  This  was  followed  by 
"Nova  plantarum  americanarum  genera"  (Paris, 
1703-04),  with  40  plates;  in  this  work  about  one  hun- 
dred genera,  with  about  seven  hundred  species,  were 
redescribed.  At  a  later  date  Linnaeus  adopted  in  his 
system,  almost  without  change,  these  and  other  newly 
described  genera  arranged  by  Plumier.  Plumier  left 
a  work  in  French  and  Latin  ready  to  be  printed  en- 
titled "Traits  des  fougeres  de  I'Amerique"  (Paris, 
1705),  which  contained  172  excellent  plates.  The 
publication  "Filicetum  Americanum"  (Paris,  1703), 
with  222  plates,  was  compiled  from  those  already 
mentioned.  Plumier  also  wrote  another  book  of  an 
entirely  different  character  on  turning,  "L'Art  de 
tourner"  (Lyons,  1701;  Paris,  1749);  this  was  trans- 
lated into  Russian  by  Peter  the  Great;  the  manu- 
script of  the  translation  is  at  St.  Petersburg.  At  his 
death  Plumier  left  thirty-one  manuscript  volumes 
containing  descriptions,  and  about  6000  drawings, 
4000  of  which  were  of  plants,  while  the  remainder 
reproduced  American  animals  of  nearly  all  classes, 
especially  birds  and  fish.  The  botanist  Boerhave  had 
508  of  these  drawings  copied  at  Paris;  these  were 
published  later  by  Burmann,  Professor  of  Botany  at 
Amsterdam,  under  the  title:  "Plantarum  americana- 
rum, quas  olim  Carolus  Plumierus  detexit",  fasc.  I-X 


(Amsterdam,  1755-60),  containing  262  plates.  Plu- 
mier also  wrote  treatises  for  the  "Journal  des  Sa- 
vants" and  for  the  "Memoires  de  Trevoux"  By  his 
observations  in  Martinique,  Plumier  proved  that  the 
cochineal  belongs  to  the  animal  kingdom  and  should 
be  classed  among  the  insects. 

Haller,  Bibliotheca  hotanica,  II  (Zurich,  1772) ;  Sprengel, 
Geschichte  der  Botanik,  II  (Leipzig,  1818) ;  Jessen,  Botanik  d. 
Qegenwart  u.  Vorzeit  (Leipzig,  1864). 

Joseph  Rompel. 

Flunket,  Oliveb,  Venerable,  Archbishop  of  Ar- 
magh and  Primate  of  all  Ireland,  b.  at  Loughcrew 
near  Oldcastle,  County  Meath,  Ireland,  1629;  d.  11 
July,  1681.  His  is  the  brightest  name  in  the  Irish 
Church  throughout  the  whole  period  of  persecution. 
He  was  connected  by  birth  with  the  families  which 
had  just  then  been  ennobled,  the  Earls  of  Roscommon 
and  Fingall,  as  well  as  with  Lords  Louth  and  Dunsany. 
Till  his  sixteenth  year,  his  education  was  attended  to 
by  Patrick  Plunket,  Abbot  of  St.  Mary's,  Dublin, 
brother  of  the  first  Earl  of  Fingall,  afterwards  Bishop, 
successively,  of  Ardagh  and  Meath.  He  witnessed  the 
first  triumphs  of  the  Irish  Confederates,  and,  as  an 
aspirant  to  the  priesthood,  set  out  for  Rome  in  1645, 
under  the  care  of  Father  Scarampo,  of  the  Roman  Ora- 
tory. As  a  student  of  the  Irish  College  of  Rome,  which 
some  twenty  years  before  had  been  founded  by  Cardi- 
nal Ludovisi,  his  record  was  particularly  brilliant. 
The  Rector,  in  after  years,  attested  that  he  "devoted 
himself  with  such  ardour  to  philosophy,  theology,  and 
mathematics,  that  in  the  Roman  College  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus  he  was  justly  ranked  amongst  the  foremost 
in  talent,  diligence,  and  progress  in  his  studies,  and  he 
pursued  with  abundant  fruit  the  course  of  civil  and 
canon  law  at  the  Roman  Sapienza,  and  everywhere,  at 
all  times,  was  a  model  of  gentleness,  integrity,  and 
piety."  Promoted  to  the  priesthood  in  1654,  Dr. 
Plunket  was  deputed  by  the  Irish  bishops  to  act  as 
their  representative  in  Rome.  Throughout  the  period 
of  the  Cromwellian  usurpation  and  the  first  years  of 
Charles  II's  reign  he  most  effectually  pleaded  the 
cause  of  our  suffering  Church,  whilst  at  the  same  time 
he  discharged  the  duties  of  theological  professor  at 
the  College  of  Propaganda.  In  the  Congregation  of 
Propaganda,  9  July,  1669,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
primatial  see  of  Armagh,  and  was  consecrated,  30 
Nov.,  at  Ghent,  in  Belgium,  by  the  Bishop  of  Ghent, 
assisted  by  the  Bishop  of  Ferns  and  another  bishop. 
The  pallium  was  granted  him  in  Consistory  28  July, 
1670. 

Dr.  Plunket  lingered  for  some  time  in  London, 
using  his  influence  to  mitigate  the  rigour  of  the  admin- 
istration of  the  anti-Cathohc  laws  in  Ireland,  and  it 
was  only  in  the  middle  of  March,  1670,  that  he  entered 
on  his  apostolate  in  Armagh.  From  the  very  outset 
he  was  most  zealous  in  the  exercise  of  the  sacred  min- 
istry. Within  three  months  he  had  administered  the 
Sacrament  of  Confirmation  to  about  10,000  of  the 
faithful,  some  of  them  being  sixty  years  old,  and, 
writing  to  Rome  in  December,  1673,  he  was  able  to 
announce  that  "during  the  past  four  years",  he  had 
confirmed  no  fewer  than  48,655  people.  To  bring 
this  Sacrament  within  the  reach  of  the  suffering  faith- 
ful he  had  to  undergo  the  severest  hardships,  often 
with  no  other  food  than  a  little  oaten  bread ;  he  had  to 
seek  out  their  abodes  on  the  mountains  and  in  the 
woods,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  was  under  the  broad  canopy 
of  heaven  that  the  Sacrament  was  administered,  both 
flock  and  pastor  being  exposed  to  the  wind  and  rain. 
He  made  extraordinary  efforts  to  bring  the  blessings 
of  education  within  the  reach  of  the  Catholic  youth. 
In  effecting  this  during  the  short  interval  of  peace  that 
marked  the  beginning  of  his  episcopate  his  efforts 
were  most  successful.  He  often  refers  in  his  letters  to 
the  high  school  which  he  opened  at  Drogheda,  at  this 
time  the  second  city  in  the  kingdom.  He  invited 
Jesuit  Fathers  from  Rome  to  take  charge  of  it,  and 


PLUNKET 


170 


PLUNKET 


very  soon  it  had  one-hundred-and-fifty  boys  on  the 
roll,  of  whom  no  fewer  than  forty  were  sons  of  the 
Protestant  gentry.  He  held  frequent  ordinations, 
celebrated  two  Provincial  Synods,  and  was  untiring  in 
rooting  out  abuses  and  promoting  piety. 

One  incident  of  his  episcopate  merits  special  men- 
tion: There  was  a  considerable  number  of  so-called 
Tories  scattered  through  the  province  of  Ulster,  most 
of  whom  had  been  despoiled  of  their  property  under 
the  Act  of  Settlement.  They  banded  themselves  to- 
gether in  the  shelter  of  the  mountain  fastnesses  and, 
as  outlaws,  lived  by  the  plunder  of  those  around  them. 
Anyone  who  sheltered  them  incurred  the  penalty  of 
death  from  the  Government,  anyone  who  refused  them 
such  shelter  met  with  death  at  their  hands.  Dr. 
Plunket,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Lord  Lieutenant, 
went  in  search  of  them,  not  without  great  risk,  and 
re;isoning  with  them  in  a  kind  and  paternal  manner 
induced  them  to  renounce  their  career  of  plundering. 
He  moreover  obtained  pardons 
for  them  so  that  they  were  able 
to  transfer  themselves  to  other 
countries,  and  thus  peace  was 
restored  throughout  the  whole 
province.  The  contemporary 
Archbishop  of  Cashel,  Dr.  Bren- 
nan,  who  was  the  constant  com- 
panion of  Dr.  Plunket,  in  a 
few  words  sketches  the  fruitful 
zeal  of  the  primate:  "During 
the  twelve  years  of  his  residence 
here  he  proved  himself  vigil- 
ant, zealous,  and  indefatigable, 
nor  do  we  find,  within  the  mem- 
ory of  those  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, that  any  primate  or  met- 
ropolitan visited  his  diocese 
and  province  with  such  solici- 
tude and  pastoral  zeal  as  he 
did, — benefitting,  as  far  as  was 
in  his  power,  the  needy;  where- 
fore he  was  applauded  and  hon- 
oured by  both  clergy  and  peo- 
ple." 

The  storm  of  persecution 
burst  with  renewed  fury  on 
the  Irish  Church  in  1673;  the 
schools  were  scattered,  the 
chapels  were  closed.  Dr.  Plunket,  however,  would 
not  forsake  his  flock.  His  palace  thenceforward  was 
some  thatched  hut  in  a  remote  part  of  his  diocese. 
As  a  rule,  in  company  with  the  Archbishop  of  Cashel, 
he  lay  concealed  in  the  woods  or  on  the  mountains, 
and  with  such  scanty  shelter  that  through  the  roof 
they  could  at  night  count  the  stars  of  the  sky.  He 
tells  their  hardships  in  one  of  his  letters:  "The  snow 
fell  hea^'ily,  mixed  with  hailstones,  which  were  very 
hard  and  large.  A  cutting  north  wind  blew  in  our 
faces,  and  the  snow  and  hail  beat  so  dreadfully  in  our 
eyes  that  up  to  the  present  we  have  scarcely  been  able 
to  see  with  them.  Often  we  were  in  danger  in  the 
valleys  of  being  lost  and  suffocated  in  the  snow,  till  at 
length  we  arrived  at  the  house  of  a  reduced  gentleman 
who  had  nothing  to  lose.  But,  for  our  misfortune,  he 
had  a  stranger  in  his  house  by  whom  we  did  not  wish 
to  be  recognized,  hence  we  were  placed  in  a  garret 
without  chimney,  and  without  fire,  where  we  have 
been  for  the  past  eight  days.  May  it  redound  to  the 
glory  of  God,  the  salvation  of  our  souls,  and  of  the 
flock  entrusted  to  our  charge." 

'Writs  for  the  arrest  of  Dr.  Plunket  were  repeatedly 
issued  by  the  Government.  At  length  he  was  seized  and 
cast  into  prison  in  Dublin  Castle,  6  Doc,  1679,  and  a 
whole  host  of  perjured  informers  were  at  hand  to 
swear  his  life  away.  In  Ireland  the  character  of  those 
witnesses  was  well  known  and  no  jury  would  listen 
to  their  perjured  tales,  but  in  London  it  was  not  so, 


From  the  original  portrait  (in  crayons)  talien  during 
his  confinement  in  Newgate 


and  accordingly  his  trial  was  transferred  to  London. 
In  fact,  the  Shaftesbury  Conspiracy  against  the  Cath- 
olics in  England  could  not  be  sustained  without  the 
supposition  that  a  rebellion  was  being  organized  in 
Ireland.  The  primate  would,  of  course,  be  at  the 
head  of  such  a  rebeUion.  His  visits  to  the  Tories  of 
Ulster  were  now  set  forth  as  part  and  parcel  of  such  a 
rebellion.  A  French  or  Spanish  fleet  was  chartered 
by  him  to  land  an  army  at  Carlingford  Bay,  and  other 
such  accusations  were  laid  to  his  charge.  But  there 
was  no  secret  as  to  the  fact  that  his  being  a  Catholic 
bishop  was  his  real  crime.  Lord  Brougham  in  "  Lives 
of  the  Chief  Justices  of  England"  brands  Chief  Jus- 
tice Pemberton,  who  presided  at  the  trial  of  Dr.  Plun- 
ket, as  betraying  the  cause  of  justice  and  bringing 
disgrace  on  the  English  Bar.  This  Chief  Justice  set 
forth  from  the  bench  that  there  could  be  no  greater 
crime  than  to  endeavour  to  propagate  the  Catholic 
Faith,  "than  which  (he  declared)  there  is  not  any- 
thing more  displeasing  to  God 
or  more  pernicious  to  mankind 
in  the  world."  Sentence  of  death 
was  pronounced  as  a  matter  of 
course,  to  which  the  primate 
replied  in  a  joyous  and  emphatic 
voice :"  Deo  Gratias  " 

On  Friday,  11  July  (old  style 
the  1st),  1681,  Dr.  Plunket, 
surrounded  by  a  numerous 
guard  of  military,  was  led  to 
Tyburn  for  execution.  Vast 
crowds  assembled  along  the 
route  and  at  Tyburn.  As  Dr. 
Brennan,  Archbishop  of  Cashel, 
in  an  official  letter  to  Propa- 
ganda, attests,  all  were  edified 
and  filled  with  admiration,  "be- 
cause he  displayed  such  a  se- 
renity of  countenance,  such  a 
tranquillity  of  mind  and  eleva- 
tion of  soul,  that  he  seemed 
rather  a  spouse  hastening  to  the 
nuptial  feast,  than  a  culprit  led 
forth  to  the  scaffold".  From 
the  scaffold  he  delivered  a  dis- 
course worthy  of  an  apostle  and 
martyr.  An  eye-witness  of 
the  execution  declared  that  by 
his  discourse  and  by  his  heroism  in  death  he  gave  more 
glory  to  rehgion  than  he  could  have  won  for  it  by  many 
years  of  a  fruitful  apostolate.  His  remains  were  gathered 
with  loving  care  and  interred  apart  in  St.  Giles'  church- 
yard. In  the  first  months  of  1684  they  were  transferred 
to  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Lambspring  in  Ger- 
many, whence  after  200  years  they  were  with  due 
veneration  translated  and  enshrined  in  St.  Gregory's 
College,  Downside,  England.  The  head,  in  excellent 
preservation,  was  from  the  first  enshrined  apart,  and 
since  1722  has  been  in  the  care  of  the  Dominican  Nuns 
at  their  Siena  Convent  at  Drogheda,  Ireland.  Pil- 
grims come  from  all  parts  of  Ireland  and  from  distant 
countries  to  venerate  this  relic  of  the  glorious  martyr, 
and  many  miracles  are  recorded. 

The  name  of  Archbishop  Plunket  appears  on  the 
list  of  the  264  heroic  servants  of  God  who  shed  their 
blood  for  the  Catholic  Faith  in  England  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries,  which  was  officially 
submitted  for  approval  to  the  Holy  See,  and  for  which 
the  Decree  was  signed  by  Leo  XIII  9  Dec,  1886,  au- 
thorizing their  Cause  of  Beatification  to  be  submitted 
to  the  Congregation  of  Rites.  The  Venerable  Oliver 
Plunket's  martyrdom  closed  the  long  series  of  deaths 
for  the  Faith,  at  Tyburn.  The  very  next  day  after 
his  execution,  the  bubble  of  conspiracy  burst.  Lord 
Shaftesbury,  the  chief  instigator  of  the  persecution, 
was  consigned  to  the  Tower,  and  his  chief  perjured 
witness  Titus  Gates  was  thrown  into  gaol.     For  a  few 


PLUSCARDEN 


171 


PLYMOUTH 


years  the  blessings  of  comparative  peace  were  restored 
to  the  Church  in  Ireland. 

Writings. — The  Martyr's  discourse  at  Tyburn  was 
repeatedly  printed  and  translated  into  other  lan- 
guages. Dr.  Plunket  published  in  1672  a  small 
octavo  of  fifty-six  pages  with  the  title  "Jus  Prima- 
tiale";  or  the  Ancient  Pre-eminence  of  the  See  of 
Armagh  above  all  other  archbishoprics  in  the  kingdom 
of  Ireland,  asserted  by  "O.  A.  T.  H.  P.",  which 
initials  represent  "Oliverus  Armacanus  Totius  Hiber- 
nia;  Primas  ",  i.  e.  "  Oliver  of  Armagh,  Primate  of  All 
Ireland  " 

MoRAN,  Memoir  of  the  Yen.  Oliver  Plunketi  (Dublin,  1861) ; 
Idem,  Life  of  Oliver  Plunketi  (Dublin,  1895);  Tdkm,  Spicileg,  Os- 
soriense  (3  vols.,  Dublin,  1874-85) ;  Idem,  Canonization  of  the 
Yen.  Oliver  Ptunkett  in  Irish  Bed.  Record,  XII  (1902),  385-415; 
O'Shev,  Martyrdom  of  Primate  Plunkett  in  American  Cath.  (?uar- 
terly,  XXIX  (1904),  377-94;  HoRNE,  Beatification  of  the  Yen. 
Oliver  Plunkett  in  Downside  Review,  2i  March,  1908,  page  15; 
Camm  in  Heroes  of  Faith  (New  York,  1910);  DoRGAN,  The  Last 
Martyr  for  the  Faith  in  England  in  Ave  Maria  (18  Feb.,  1911), 
193  3qq.;  Tablet  (London,  10  Feb.,  1883). 

Patrick  Feancis  Cardinal  Moran. 

Pluscarden  Priory  was  founded  in  1230  by  Alex- 
ander III,  King  of  Scotland,  six  miles  from  Elgin, 
Morayshire,  for  monks  of  the  Valliscaulian  Order, 
whose  mother-house  was  that  of  Val-des-Choux,  Bur- 
gundy. Pluscarden  was  the  first  of  the  three  Scottish 
monasteries  of  the  order  whose  observance  was  a  com- 
bination of  the  Carthusian  and  Cistercian  rule.  In 
1454  Nicholas  V  transferred  the  two  surviving  monks 
of  the  Benedictine  priory  of  Urquhart  to  form  one 
community  with  the  six  monks  of  Pluscarden,  the 
latter  assuming  the  Benedictine  rule  and  habit.  Plus- 
carden thus  became  a  dependency  of  Dunfermline 
Abbey,  whose  sacrist,  William  de  Boyis,  was  appointed 
prior.  Mr.  Macphail,  a  non-Catholic,  refutes  the 
calumny  that  the  union  was  due  to  the  "very  licen- 
tious ' '  lives  of  the  Valliscaulian  monks.  The  last  prior, 
Alexander  Dunbar,  died  in  1560,  and  Alexander  Seton, 
later  Earl  of  Dunfermline,  a  secret  Catholic,  became 
commendator ;  in  consequence,  the  monks  were  never 
dispersed.  Theynumberedthirteeninl524;  inl586one 
still  survived.  After  various  vicissitudes  the  property 
was  acquired  by  John,  third  Marquess  of  Bute,  who 
partially  restored  the  buildings.  The  nave  of  the 
church  was  never  completed.  The  aisleless  choir  (56 
feet  long),  and  the  transepts  (measuring  92  feet),  are 
roofless.  In  the  north  wall  of  the  chancel  is  a  "sacra- 
ment house" — the  stone  tabernacle  occasionally  met 
with  in  Scottish  churches.  Stone  steps  connect  the 
transept  with  the  dormitory.  Consecration  crosses 
and  the  remains  of  interesting  frescoes  are  still  visible. 
A  northern  chapel  was  added  by  Prior  Dunbar;  with 
this  exception  the  architecture  is  chiefly  Early  English. 
East  of  the  cloister  garth — 100  feet  square — stands 
the  calefactory,  its  vaulted  roof  upheld  by  two  pillars; 
this  long  served  for  a  Presbyterian  kirk.  The  well- 
preserved  chapter-house  has  stone  benches  round  the 
walls,  and  a  central  pillar  supports  the  groining.  The 
dormitory  above  was  formerly  used  as  a  tenants'  ball- 
room. The  buildings,  standing  in  lovely  surround- 
ings, are  full  of  charm.  Some  holly  trees  in  the  garden 
are  probably  relics  of  monastic  days. 

Birch,  Ordinale  Conventus  Vallis  Caulium  (London,  1900) ; 
Macphail,  History  of  the  Religious  House  of  Pluscardyn  (1881) ; 
Skene,  The  Book  of  Pluscarden  in  Historians  of  Scotland  eeriea 
(Edinburgh,  1880). 

Michael  Barrett. 

Plymouth,  Diocese  of  (Plymuthensis,  Plt- 
MaTH/E),  consists  of  the  County  of  Dorset,  which 
formed  a  portion  of  the  old  Catholic  Diocese  of  Salis- 
bury, whose  last  ruler,  Cardinal  Peto,  died  in  March, 
1558;  also  of  the  Counties  of  Devon  and  Cornwall 
with  the  Scilly  Isles,  which  formed  the  ancient  Dio- 
cese of  Exeter,  whose  last  Catholic  bishop,  James 
Turberville,  died  on  1  November,  1570.  Since  the  Ref- 
ormation these  counties  have,  with  more  or  less  of 
the  rest  of  England,  been  governed  by  three  arch- 


priests  and  fourteen  vicars  Apostolic,  the  last  of 
whom,  called  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Western  District 
(1848),  was  William  Hendren,  Bishop  of  Uranopolis. 
In  the  Brief  "Universahs  Ecclesia;"  (29  September, 
1850),  Pius  IX  separated  the  three  counties  from  the 
Western  District  and  formed  them  into  the  new  Dio- 
cese of  Plymouth:  the  rest  of  the  district  to  be  the  new 
Diocese  of  Clifton,  to  which  Bishop  Hendren  was 
forthwith  translated,  and  the  Diocese  of  Plymouth 
was  placed  under  his  temporary  administration. 

Reverend  George  Errington  (1804-86)  of  St.  John's 
Church,  Salford,  was  appointed  by  the  Holy  See  first 
Bishop  of  Plymouth,  and  on  25  July,  1851,  conse- 
crated there,  together  with  the  first  Bishop  of  Salford, 
by  Cardinal  Wiseman.  On  7  August  he  was  installed 
at  St.  Mary's  church,  East  Stonehouse,  Devon,  which 
mission  included  its  neighbour,  Plymouth,  wherein  no 
Catholic  place  of  worship  existed.  In  this  Ultima 
thule  and  poor  district  he  found  17  secular  and  6  regu- 
lar priests,  and  23  missions  including  three  institutes 
of  nuns.  No  railways  had  reached  the  diocese  except 
the  Great  Western  to  Plymouth,  and  a  short  mining 
railway  established  between  Truro  and  Penzance  at 
the  extreme  of  Cornwall.  A  goodly  number  of  the 
clergy  did  not  belong  to  the  diocese  but  were  tempo- 
rarily accepted.  On  26  November,  1853,  the  bishop 
established  his  cathedral  chapter,  consisting  of  a  pro- 
vost and,  by  permission  from  Rome  under  the  above 
difficulties,  seven  instead  of  ten  canons  for  the  time. 
In  February,  1854,  he  held  a  synod  at  Ugbrooke  Park, 
the  seat  of  Lord  Clifford  of  Chudleigh,  and,  amongst 
his  synodal  acts,  established  a  clerical  conference 
with  its  dean  for  each  county.  By  30  March,  1855,  he 
had  traversed  the  whole  diocese  for  purpose  of  visita- 
tion and  conferring  confirmation,  when  bulls  from 
Rome  of  that  date  appointed  him  Archbishop  of  Tre- 
bizond  and  Coadjutor  cum  jure  successionis  to  Cardi- 
nal Wiseman  of  Westminster.  William  Vaughan 
(1814-1902),  Canon  of  the  Clifton  Diocese,  was  nomi- 
nated second  Bishop  of  Plymouth,  and  on  16  Septem- 
ber, 1855,  consecrated  by  Cardinal  Wiseman  in  Clif- 
ton pro-cathedral.  Encouraged  by  generous  offers  of 
assistance  from  Edmund  Polifex  Bastard  of  Kitley, 
Yealmpton,  Devon,  and  from  Miss  Letitia  Trelawny 
of  Cornwall,  Bishop  Vaughan  on  28  June,  1856,  laid  the 
foundation  stone  of  the  Cathedral  of  Our  Immaculate 
Lady  and  St.  Boniface,  Apostle  of  Germany  (b.  at 
Crediton,  Devon),  solemnly  opened  it  on  25  March, 
1858,  and  on  22  September,  1880,  in  the  twenty-fifth 
year  of  his  episcopate,  he  consecrated  the  Cathedral. 
He  attended  the  Vatican  Council  throughout,  in  1869- 
70.  Between  10-12  March,  1888,  the  diocese,  by  a 
triduum  of  prayer,  celebrated  the  bishop's  Golden 
Jubilee  of  fifty  years'  priesthood.  By  the  end  of  1891 
the  Diocese  of  Plymouth,  through  the  bishop's  ener- 
getic supervision,  became  well  established.  It  had  49 
secular  and  48  regular  clergy,  52  public  churches,  and 
15  chapels  of  communities,  as  well  as  ten  orders  of 
men  and  sixteen  of  nuns.  Early  in  1891  Bishop 
Vaughan  requested  from  Rome  a  coadjutor-bishop. 
Leo  XIII  elected,  from  the  Plymouth  Chapter's  terna, 
Charles  Graham  (1834),  canon  of  Plymouth,  on  25 
September,  1891.  On  28  October  following  he  was 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Cisamos,  with  right  of 
succession,  by  Bishop  Clifford  of  Clifton,  in  the  Plym- 
outh cathedral.  Bishop  Vaughan  retired  to  St. 
Augustine's  Priory,  Newton  Abbot,  Devon,  where,  on 
24  October,  1902,  he  died  in  his  eighty-ninth  year,  and 
was  buried  in  the  priory  cemetery.  In  October,  1902, 
Dr.  Graham  became  third  Bishop  of  Plymouth.  Be- 
tween 19  and  21  December,  1907,  the  diocese  cele- 
brated with  a  triduum  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his 
priesthood :  on  this  occasion  he  added  a  fresh  member 
to  the  cathedral  chapter.  After  a  severe  illness  in 
1910,  Bishop  Graham  tendered  his  resignation  of  the 
see,  which  was  accepted  9  Feb.,  1911. 

The  recent  expulsion  of  religious  from  France  has, 


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during  1910,  raised  the  number  of  communities  of 
nuns  in  this  diocese  to  twenty-nine.  The  Catholic 
liopulation  is  about  one  in  a  hundred,  that  is,  12,000, 
most  of  whom,  being  employed  in  the  Government 
Army  and  Navy  establishments,  reside  in  Plymouth, 
Stonohouse,  and  Devonport.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that 
Bishop  John  Carroll  of  Baltimore,  founder  of  the 
Hierarchy  of  the  Church  in  the  United  Sta,tes  of 
America,  was  on  15  August,  1790,  consecrated  in  Lul- 
worth  Church,  Dorset,  by  Bishop  Walmesley,  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  the  W^estern  District.  The  Faith  never 
failed  during  the  Reformation  at  Lanherne,  Cornwall, 
and  at  Chideock,  Dorset,  through  the  fidelity  of  the 
Lords  Arundell.  Blessed  Cuthbert  Mayne  (q.  v.),  the 
protomartyr  of  pontifical  seminarists,  was  a  native  of 
Devon. 

()Li\'EH,  Collections  (1857);  Brother  Foley,  Records  of  the 
Enqlish  /^rorince  iS.  J.  (London,  1877-83) :  Challoner,  Memoirs 
of  Mi^-^ionary  Priests;  Brady,  English  Hierarchy  (London, 
1877). 

C.  M.  Graham. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  the  name  given  to  a  wide- 
spread Protestant  sect  originally  called  by  its  own 
members  "The  Brethren",  which  came  into  being  by 
gradual  development  in  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  members  themselves  protest 
against  the  name: — "Who  are  these  'Plymouth 
Brethren'?  I  do  not  own  the  name.  I  am  a  brother 
of  every  believer  in  the  Lord  Jesus,  and,  if  I  lived  in 
Plymouth,  the  Elder  might  call  me  a  'Pljrmouth 
Brother ' ;  but  I  do  not  live  there,  hence  I  do  not  own 
the  name"  (Davis,  "Help  for  Enquirers",  p.  20). 
Several  influences  concurred  towards  the  rise  of  the 
body,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  point  to  any  one  name 
as  that  of  the  founder.  Its  first  origin  seem  to  have 
been  in  Dublin  where,  in  1828,  an  Englishman, 
Anthony  Norris  Groves,  then  a  student  of  Trinity 
College,  was  a  member  of  a  small  body  of  churchmen 
who  met  for  prayer  and  conference  on  the  Scriptures 
and  spiritual  subjects.  The  members  were  profoundly 
impressed  by  the  necessity  of  a  visible  union  of  Chris- 
tendom, the  centre  of  which  they  conceived  to  be  the 
death  of  Christ  as  set  forth  in  the  Rite  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  At  first  the  members  did  not  withdraw  from 
their  respective  communions,  but  the  first  step  in  that 
direction  was  suggested  by  Groves,  who  advanced  the 
view  "that  believers  meeting  together  as  disciples  of 
Christ  were  free  to  break  bread  together,  as  their  Lord 
had  admonished  them;  and  that,  in  so  far  as  the  apos- 
tles served  as  a  guide,  every  Lord's  Day  should  be  set 
apart  for  thus  remembering  the  Lord's  death  and 
obeying  His  parting  command. "  This  view,  that  the 
ministration  of  the  sacraments  and  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel  was  the  common  right  of  all  Christians, 
became  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  assemblies  of 
The  Brethren  which  now  began  to  spring  up  in  other 
]ilaces  besides  Dublin.  An  important  development 
was  soon  brought  about  by  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Dublin  Assembly,  John  Nelson  Darby,  an  ex-barrister 
who  had  taken  orders  in  the  Episcopalian  Church  of 
Ireland  and  then  seceded  therefrom.  Having  always 
advocated  entire  separation  from  all  other  communi- 
ties as  the  only  effective  way  of  procuring  true  unity, 
he  at  length  succeeded  in  attaining  this  purpose,  and 
is  accordingly  by  some  considered  as  the  founder  of 
the  Plymouth  Brethren,  a  distinction  which  others 
claim  for  Groves. 

The  growth  of  the  Brethren  had  been  largely  helped 
by  the  spread  of  Darby's  first  pamphlet,  "The  Nature 
and  Unity  of  the  Church  of  Christ ",.  which  he  had 
published  in  1S2S,  and  in  1830  a  public  assembly  was 
opened  in  .\ungier  St.,  Dublin.  Darby  then  started 
on  a  tour  with  the  view  of  propagating  his  ideas, 
visiting  Paris,  Oxford,  and  Cambridge.  At  Oxford  he 
met  Benjamin  Wills  Newton,  an  EngUsh  clergyman, 
who  first  invited  him  to  Plymouth,  where  Newton  was 
the  chief  member  of  an  assembly  of  Brethren  which 


was  very  active  in  the  neighbourhood.  From  this 
assembly  came  the  name  "Brethren  from  Plymouth" 
or  more  shortly  "Plymouth  Brethren",  by  which  the 
body  was  subsequently  known.  From  1830  to  1838 
the  movement  spread  rapidly,  and  assemblies  were 
opened  in  most  of  the  large  towns  in  England.  In 
1838  Darby  went  to  Switzerland,  where  he  spent 
seven  years  in  propagating  the  views  of  the  sect  with 
considerable  success.  At  the  present  day  the  canton 
of  Vaud  is  the  stronghold  of  the  "Brethren"  on  the 
continent,  and  scattered  assemblies  are  also  found  in 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  In  1845  the  revolution 
in  Vaud  caused  Darby  to  return  to  England,  but  he 
proved  a  very  disturbing  element,  and  from  his  reap- 
pearance must  be  dated  the  unending  quarrels  and 
dissensions  which  have  ever  since  been  a  marked 
feature  of  Plymouth  Brethrenism.  In  1845  having 
quarrelled  with  Newton  on  the  interpretation  of  cer- 
tain prophecies,  he  accused  him  of  denying  the  au- 
thority of  the  Holy  Ghost  by  assuming  even  a  limited 
presidency  over  the  assembly.  This  resulted  in  the 
secession  of  Darby  with  a  hundred  followers.  In  1848 
there  was  another  cleavage — into  Neutrals  and  Ex- 
clusivcs.  The  Neutral  Brethren,  also  known  as  Open 
Brethren,  supported  the  action  of  the  Bethesda  con- 
gregation at  Bristol  which  received  Newton's  followers 
into  communion.  The  Exclusive  Brethren  or  Darby- 
ites,  who  included  the  majority  of  the  members,  held 
aloof.  These  have  undergone  further  divisions  since 
then,  so  that  at  the  present  time  there  are  several  dif- 
ferent bodies  of  Plymouth  Brethren.  As  these  bodies 
differ  among  themselves  on  doctrinal  as  well  as  on  dis- 
ciplinary points,  it  is  only  possible  hereto  outline  their 
teaching  in  a  very  broad  way,  passing  over  the  points 
of  difference  between  the  warring  sections. 

Doctrine. — The  underlying  principle  of  the  teach- 
ing of  the  Plymouth  Brethren,  and  one  which  explains 
their  action  in  endeavouring  to  attract  to  themselves 
"the  saints  in  the  different  systems  and  to  teach  them 
to  own  and  act  upon  the  true  principles  of  the  assem- 
bly of  God"  (Mackintosh,  "Assembly  of  God",  p.  24), 
is  that  the  Church  described  in  the  New  Testament 
has  fallen  into  utter  corruption,  so  that  it  is  con- 
demned by  God  to  extinction.  This  corruption  was 
due  to  the  Church  admitting  good  and  evil  alike 
within  her  pale,  and  admitting  an  ordained  ministry 
to  exist.  They  hold  that  the  Church  was  intended  to 
contain  the  righteous  only,  and  that  all  official  minis- 
try is  a  denial  of  the  spiritual  priesthood  which  belongs 
to  all  believers  and  a  rejection  of  the  guidance  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  From  this  it  follows  that  entire  separa- 
tion from  all  other  Christian  churches  and  denomina- 
tions is  necessary  as  a  first  condition  of  salvation. 
But  some  principle  is  needed  to  unite  those  who  have 
thus  separated  themselv('s  from  other  believers.  This 
principle  is  union  with  Christ  effected  by  the  power  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  said  to  preside  in 
the  assembly  and  to  select  from  those  present,  who 
all  have  an  equal  right  to  minister,  the  person  or  per- 
sons who  are  to  be  His  mouthpiece.  The  will  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  recognized  by  the  existence  of  His  gifts, 
that  is  the  power  to  exhort  or  to  comfort  or  to  teach. 
Whoever  possesses  these  gifts  is  bound  to  use  them  for 
the  common  good,  but  the  assembly  selects  from  the 
gifted  persons  the  particular  one  who  is  to  be  the  min- 
ister for  the  time  being.  Such  an  election  is  considered 
as  inspired  by  God.  It  is  employed  to  ascertain  both 
who  is  to  lead  the  worship  and  who  is  to  preach,  but 
women  are  debarred  from  ministering  in  either  way. 
The  chief  act  of  worship  is  the  Lord's  Supper,  which 
is  given  precedence  over  all  prayer  and  preaching: 
"Beware  of  thinking  anything  can  be  of  equal  moment 
with  duly  showing  forth  the  Lord's  death.  The  Sup- 
per of  the  Lord  claims  an  unequivocal  prominence  in 
the  worship  of  the  Saints."  (Kelly,  op.  cit.  inf.,  lec- 
ture iii)  The  weekly  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
is  incumbent  on  all,  and  no  member  is  allowed  to 


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neglect  this  and  remain  in  the  society.  Evil  living  or 
erroneous  doctrine  are  also  visited,  first  by  remon- 
strance, tlien  by  judicial  condemnation  and  expulsion. 
Infant  baptism  is  an  open  question  among  them,  but 
the  majority  of  assemblies  practise  the  baptism  of 
believers  by  immersion  without  regard  to  previous 
baptism.  They  reject  confirmation  altogether. 
Though  they  disown  an  ordained  ministry,  yet  they 
admit  a,  distinction  between  those  teachers  whose 
ministry  is  to  the  church  and  those  whose  ministry  is 
to  outsiders.  The  latter  are  regarded  by  them  as 
evangelists  given  to  the  world  by  Christ  and  qualified 
by  the  Holy  Ghost.  They  may  devote  their  lives  to 
preaching  the  Gospel,  and  must  not  request,  though 
they  may  accept,  contributions.  Their  theology  is 
Calvinistic,  laying  great  stress  on  original  sin  andpre- 
destination,  and  with  regard  to  morals  exhibiting 
marked  Antinomian  tendencies. 

In  their  doctrine  of  justification  they  attach  great 
importance  to  establishing  a  close  connexion  between 
that  gift  of  God  and  the  resurrection  of  Christ. 
Darby  in  his  treatise,  "The  Resurrection  as  the  Fun- 
damental Truth  of  the  Gospel",  writes:  "The  saints 
are  regarded  by  God,  as  risen  in  Christ,  and  conse- 
quently as  perfectly  justified  from  all  their  sins;  but 
how  does  the  Saint  actually  now  participate  in  bless- 
ings so  great?  It  is  by  partaking  of  that  life  in  the 
power  of  which  Christ  has  risen."  And  a  little  later, 
"I  share  in  the  righteousness  of  God  by  being  quick- 
ened with  that  life  in  the  power  of  which  Christ  was 
raised  from  the  dead  coming  up  out  of  the  grave,  all 
our  trespasses  being  forgiven."  It  has  been  stated 
that  the  general  doctrine  of  the  brethren  on  justifica- 
tion was  influenced  by  the  teaching  of  Newman  (Brit- 
ish Quarterly  Review,  Oct.,  1873),  but  the  resemblance 
is  merely  superficial  and  the  differences  are  fundamen- 
tal. The  Brethren  claim  that  once  the  gift  of  justifi- 
cation is  received  it  can  never  be  lost,  and  they  carry 
this  view  to  such  lengths  that  some  of  their  writers 
hold  that  a  Christian  ought  not  to  pray  for  the  for- 
giveness of  sins,  as  to  do  so  would  imply  doubt  of  the 
fullness  of  mercy  already  received.  They  also  consider 
Justification  as  entirely  independent  from  Baptism, 
which  is  regarded  as  an  ordinance  of  Christ  binding 
on  believers  but  destitute  of  spiritual  efficacy  in  itself. 

The  majority  of  Plymouth  Brethren  hold  millena- 
rian  views  respecting  the  Second  Advent  of  Christ. 
From  the  beginning  they  attached  great  importance 
to  the  study  of  prophecy,  and,  though  they  are  strong 
believers  in  the  literal  and  verbal  inspiration  of  Scrip- 
ture, they  have  always  made  a  point  of  mystical  inter- 
pretation. The  result  has  been  that  they  have  arrived 
at  several  strange  conclusions,  peculiar  to  their  own 
party.  Thus  they  distinguish  two  advents  of  Christ 
yet  to  come,  the  Trapova-la,  when  He  will  receive  the 
Church,  and  the  iin<pdveia,  when  He  will  finally  come 
to  take  possession  of  the  earth  in  glory.  The  former 
may  be  expected  at  any  time  and  may  even  be  secret, 
but  the  latter  will  be  heralded  by  signs.  When  the 
former  occurs  all  true  believers,  living  and  dead,  will 
be  carried  to  heaven,  an  event  described  as  the 
"Rapture",  and  then  the  judgments  of  God  as  fore- 
told in  the  Apocalypse  will  fall  upon  the  earth.  The 
Roman  Empire  (identified  with  the  Beast)  is  to  be 
revived  as  a  special  agency  of  Satan,  and  its  head  will 
ultimately  claim  divine  honours  and  be  received  by 
the  Jews,  then  restored  to  Palestine,  as  their  Messias. 
A  faithful  remnant  of  the  chosen  people  alone  will 
remain  in  the  world  as  a  witness  to  God,  but  this 
remnant  looks  forward  only  to  earthly  glory  under 
Christ  when  He  shall  come  to  take  possession  of  the 
earth.  When  this  happens  Christ's  empire  on  earth 
will  be  established  visibly  with  Jerusalem  as  its  capital. 
The  saints  of  the  Rapture  will  reign  above  the  earth, 
the  Jewish  remnant  will  rule  on  the  earth  and  will 
enjoy  great  power  and  material  prosperity.  At  the 
end  of  the  millennium  there  will  be  a  great  rebellion 


against  Christ,  headed  by  Satan,  and  then  will  come 
the  final  judgment  as  described  in  the  Apocalypse, 
though  it  follows  that  this  will  be  of  a  different  nature 
from  that  which  the  Catholic  Church  teaches  us  to 
expect.  For  the  saints  will  not  be  judged  at  all,  their 
resurrection  having  taken  place  more  than  a  thousand 
years  before  that  of  the  wicked.  When  the  wicked 
have  been  sent  to  their  doom,  the  new  Jerusalem 
including  the  saints  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  saints 
of  the  Rapture,  and  the  martyrs  of  the  Jewish  Rem- 
nant, will  descend  out  of  heaven  from  God,  and  from 
that  time  forth  the  tabernacle  of  God  shall  be  with 
men.  This  fantastic  interpretation  involves  a  break 
with  all  Christian  tradition  and  necessitates  a  novel 
exegesis  of  much  of  the  Scriptures,  especially  the 
Apocalypse  and  Isaias. 

One  feature  of  Plymouth  Brethrenism  which  calls 
for  remark  is  the  special  aversion  in  which  it  is  held  by 
other  Protestant  sects.  This  is  doubtless  due  primarily 
to  its  methods  of  proselytism,  which  are  peculiar.  An 
Anglican  writer  (Dictionary  of  Religion,  cit.  inf.)  com- 
plains that  "the  body  has  in  the  main  always  directed 
its  propagandist  efforts  far  less  towards  the  large  re- 
siduum which  unhappily  lies  outside  of  all  churches 
than  to  those  professing  Christianity  in  Churches 
already  existing.  Some  of  them  have  gone  so  far  as 
to  openly  avow  that  their  mission  is  '  to  the  awakened 
in  the  Churches'  and  such  efforts  as  they  do  make  in 
mission  work  or  city  evangelization  are  as  a  rule  sin- 
gularly unsuccessful.  It  is  this  which  has  brought 
upon  them  the  common  reproach  of  being  'sheep- 
stealers  rather  than  shepherds.' "  In  their  proselytism 
they  have  made  large  use  of  the  Press.  In  1834  the 
Brethren  established  a  quarterly  periodical  called 
"The  Christian  Witness",  carried  on  after  1S49  as 
the  "The  Present  Testimony".  This  is  now  supple- 
mented by  several  other  periodicals  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  pamphlets  and  tracts  which  are  offered  for  sale 
at  the  depots  they  have  established  in  most  large 
towns.  Their  chief  writers,  besides  Darby  himself, 
whose  collected  works  fill  thirty-two  volumes,  are  C. 
H.  Mcintosh  and  William  Kelly  who  have  written  a 
large  number  of  commentaries  on  various  parts  of  the 
Bible,  and  Charles  Stanley  who  wrote  on  Justification 
in  the  Risen  Christ,  the  Sabbath  question  and  similar 
topics.  One  scripture  scholar  of  distinction,  Dr. 
Samuel  Prideaux  Tregelles,  severed  his  connexion 
with  them  before  his  death.  But  their  theological 
literature  has  not  produced  any  work  of  value,  and, 
though  voluminous,  has  already  passed  into  oblivion. 
It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  virulence  of  the  inter- 
necine controversies  which  they  have  carried  on  inces- 
santly, for  in  separating  themselves  from  other  bodies 
the  Plymouth  Brethren  have  signally  failed  to  find 
union  in  their  midst,  and  the  bitter  quarrels  which 
have  marked  the  eighty  years  of  their  existence  have 
become  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  sect.  This  their 
own  writers  have  admitted,  and  it  was  one  of  Darby's 
followers,  W.  H.  Dorman,  who  on  separating  from  him 
wrote:  "No  religious  movement,  perhaps,  ever  so 
thoroughly  succeeded  in  defeating  its  own  ends;  in- 
stead of  union  it  has  produced  the  most  hopeless  and 
heartless  contentions  and  divisions  that  perhaps  ever 
passed  current  under  the  specious  pretence  of  zeal  for 
Christ  and  care  for  the  truth."  It  is  difficult  to  ascer- 
tain particulars  as  to  the  present  condition  of  the  body 
as  they  do  not  publish  anything  in  the  nature  of  a  year- 
book and  refrain  from  collecting  or  furnishing  returns. 

Miller,  The  Brethren:  their  origin,  progress  and  testimony 
(London,  1879);  Teulon,  History  and  Doctrines  of  the  Plymouth 
Brethren  (London.  1883) ;  Reid,  Plymouth  Brethrenism  unveiled 
and  refuted  (Edinburgh,  1875) ;  Dabby,  Collected  works  (32  vols., 
London,  1867-83) ;  Kelly,  Lectures  on  Fundamental  Truths  con- 
nected with  the  Church  of  God  (London,  1869) ;  Groves,  Memoir  of 
Anthony  Norris  Groves;  Anon,  Plymouth  Brethrenism,  reprinted 
from  British  Quarterly  Review  of  Oct.,  1873  (London,  1S74); 
Rogers,  Church  Systems  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (London,  LSSl ) ; 
Benham,  Diet,  of  Religion  (London,  1887);  Neatby,  Hist,  of  the 
Plymouth  Brethren  (London,  1902).  EdwIN  BurTON. 


PNEUMATOMACHI 


174 


POETRY 


Pneumatomachi  (Macedonians),  a  heretical 
Beet  which  flourished  in  the  countries  adjacent  to  the 
Hellespont  during  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  They  denied  the 
divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  hence  the  name  Pneu- 
matomachi {iryeviiaTojxdxoi)  or  Combators  against  the 
Spirit.  Macedonius,  their  founder,  was  intruded 
into  the  See  of  Constantinople  by  the  Arians  (342 
A.  D.),  and  enthroned  by  Constantius,  who  had  for 
the  second  time  expelled  Paul,  the  CathoKc  bishop. 
He  is  known  in  history  for  his  persecution  of  Novatians 
and  Catholics;  as  both  maintained  the  consubstan- 
tiality  of  the  Son  with  the  Father.  He  not  only  ex- 
pelled those  who  refused  to  hold  communion  with 
him,  but  imprisoned  some  and  brought  others  before 
the  tribunals.  In  many  cases  he  used  torture  to 
compel  the  unwilling  to  communicate,  forced  bap- 
tism on  unbaptized  women  and  children  and  de- 
stroyed many  churches.  At  last  his  cruelty  provoked 
a  rebellion  of  the  Novatians  at  Mantinium,  in 
Paphlagonia,  in  which  four  imperial  cohorts  were  de- 
feated and  nearly  all  slain.  His  disinterment  of  the 
body  of  Constantine  was  looked  upon  as  an  indignity 
to  the  Protector  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  and  led  to  a 
conflict  between  Arians  and  anti-Arians,  which  filled 
the  church  and  neighbourhood  with  carnage.  As  the 
disinterment  had  taken  place  without  the  emperor's 
sanction,  Macedonius  fell  into  disgrace,  and  Con- 
stantius caused  him  to  be  deposed  by  the  Acacian 
party  and  succeeded  by  Eudoxius  in  360.  This  de- 
position, however,  was  not  for  doctrinal  reasons,  but 
on  the  ground  that  he  had  caused  much  bloodshed 
and  had  admitted  to  communion  a  deacon  guilty  of 
fornication.  Macedonius  continued  for  some  time  to 
live  near  Constantinople  and  cause  trouble.  He  died 
about  364.  It  is  thought  that  during  these  last  years 
he  formulated  his  rejection  of  the  Divinity  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  founded  his  sect.  His  intimacy  with 
Eleusius  of  Cysicus  makes  this  probable.  Some 
scholars,  however,  reject  the  identification  of  Mace- 
donians and  Pneumatomachians,  apparently  on  in- 
sufficient grounds  and  against  the  authority  of 
Socrates,  a  contemporary  historian  living  at  Con- 
stantinople. The  Council  of  Nicaea  had  used  all  its 
energies  in  defending  the  Homoousion  of  the  Son  and 
with  regard  to  the  Spirit  had  already  added  the  words : 
"We  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost"  without  any  quali- 
fication. The  Macedonians  took  advantage  of  the 
vagueness  and  hesitancy  of  expression  in  some  of  the 
early  Fathers  to  justify  and  propagate  their  error. 
The  majority  of  this  sect  were  clearly  orthodox  on 
the  Consubstantiality  of  the  Son;  they  had  sent  a 
deputation  from  the  Semi-Arian  council  of  Lampsacus 
(364  A.  D.)  to  Pope  Liberius,  who  after  some  hesita- 
tion acknowledged  the  soundness  of  their  faith;  but 
with  regard  to  the  Third  Person,  both  pope  and 
bishops  were  satisfied  with  the  phrase:  "We  believe 
in  the  Holy  Ghost."  While  hiding  in  the  desert  dur- 
ing his  third  exile,  Athanasius  learned  from  his  friend 
Serapion  of  Thumis  of  a  sect  acknowledging  NicEea, 
and  yet  declaring  the  Holy  Ghost  a  mere  creature  and 
a  ministering  angel  (on  the  strength  of  Heb.,  i,  14). 
Athanasius  wrote  at  once  to  Serapion  in  defence  of  the 
true  Doctrine,  and  on  his  return  from  exile  (362  a.  d.) 
held  a  council  at  Alexandria  which  resulted  in  the 
first  formal  condemnation  of  the  Pneumatomachi.  A 
syiiodal  letter  was  sent  to  the  people  of  Antioch  ad- 
vising them  to  require  of  all  converts  from  Arianism 
a  condemnation  against  "those  who  say  that  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  a  creature  and  separate  from  the  essence 
of  Christ.  For  those  who  while  pretending  to  cite 
the  faith  confessed  at  Nicaea,  venture  to  blaspheme 
the  Holy  Spirit,  deny  Arianism  in  words  only,  while 
in  thought  they  return  to  it."  Nevertheless,  during 
the  following  decade  the  heresy  seems  to  have  gone 
on  almost  unchecked  except  in  the  Patriarchate  of 
Antioch  where  at  a  synod  held  in  363  Meletius  had 


proclaimed  the  orthodox  faith.  In  the  East  the  mov- 
ing spirit  for  the  repression  of  the  error  was  Amphi- 
lochius  of  Iconium,  who  in  374  besought  St.  Basil  of 
Csesarea  to  write  a  treatise  on  the  true  doctrine  con- 
cerning the  Holy  Ghost.  This  he  did,  and  his  treatise 
is  the  classical  work  on  the  subject  {irepl  toS  &ylov  n. 
M.  32).  It  is  possible  that  he  influenced  his  brother 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  to  write  his  treatise  against  the 
Macedonians,  of  which  only  a  part  has  come  down 
to  us  and  which  appears  to  be  based  on  the  words: 
"Lord  and  life-giver  who  proceeds  from  the  Father". 
These  words,  apparently  taken  from  the  Creed  of 
Jerusalem,  had  been  used  by  St.  Epiphanius  of 
Salamis  in  his  "Ancoratus"  when  combating  this 
error  (374  a.  d.).  Amphilochius  of  Iconium,  as 
Metropolitan  of  Lycaonia,  wrote  in  concurrence 
with  his  bishops  a  synodal  letter  to  the  bishops  of 
Lycia,  which  contains  an  excellent  statement  of  the 
true  doctrine  (377  a.  d.).  In  Constantinople  (379) 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus  pronounced  his  brilliant  theo- 
logical oration  on  this  subject.  The  West  likewise 
upheld  the  truth  in  a  synod  held  in  Illyria  and  men- 
tioned by  Theodoret  (H.  E.,  IV,  8)  and  by  Pope 
Damasus  in  his  letter  to  Paulinus  of  Antioch.  The 
heresy  was  condemned  in  the  First  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  internal  divisions  soon  led  to  its  . 
extinction.  Socrates  (H.  E.,  V,  24)  states  that  a  cer- 
tain Macedonian  presbyter,  Eutropius,  held  con- 
venticles of  his  own  while  others  followed  Bishop 
Carterius.  Eustathius  of  Sebaste,  Sabinus,  and  Eleu- 
sius of  Cyricus  seem  to  have  been  leaders  whom  the 
sect  repudiated  (for  Eustathius,  see  Basil,  Ep., 
CCLXIII,  3).  In  June  383  Theodosius  tried  by 
means  of  a  conference  to  bring  the  Arian  factions  to 
submission.  Eleusius  handed  in  his  symbol  of  faith 
as  representing  the  Macedonians,  as  he  had  repre- 
sented them  with  Marcianus  of  Lampsacus  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople.  After  this  fruitless  at- 
tempt at  reconciliation  the  Macedonians  with  other 
heretics  incurred  all  the  severities  of  the  Theodosian 
code  and  within  a  generation  disappeared  from  his- 
tory. Socrates  and  Sozomus  mention  a  certain 
Marathonius,  made  Bishop  of  Nicomedia  by  Mace- 
donius, who  obtained  such  a  leading  position  in  the 
sect  that  they  were  often  styled  after  him  Mara- 
thonians.  Through  St.  Jerome,  St.  Augustine,  St. 
Damasus,  and  Rufinus,  the  name  Macedonians  be- 
came the  customary  designation  in  the  West.  No 
writings  of  Macedonius  are  extant,  but  Pneumato- 
machian  writings  are  mentioned  by  Didymus  the 
Bhnd,  who  wrote  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  Holy 
Ghost  in  thirty-six  chapters  (translated  into  Latin  by 
St.  Jerome  at  the  command  of  Pope  Damasus),  and 
who  refers  in  his  later  work  (379)  on  the  Trinity  (II, 
7,  8,  10)  to  some  "Brief  Expositions"  of  Macedonian 
doctrines  which  he  possessed. 

LooFS,  Eustathius  von  Sebaste  (Halle,  1898) ;  Schermann, 
Gottheit  d.  H.  Geist,  n.  d.  griech.  Vdtern  d.  IV  Jahrh.  (Leipzig, 
1901);  Fuller  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biogr.,  s.  v.;  Hehgenroether, 
Histoire  de  I'Eglise,  II  (Paris,  1901),  99. 

J.  P.  Akendzen. 

Podlachia.     See  Lublin,  Diocese  of. 

Poetry,  Hebrew,  of  the  Old  Testament. — Since 
the  Bible  is  divinely  inspired,  and  thus  becomes  the 
"written  word"  of  God,  many  devout  souls  are  averse 
from  handling  it  as  literature.  But  such  a  view  tends 
to  lose  sight  of  the  second  causes  and  human  constit- 
uents without  which,  in  fact.  Holy  Scripture  has  not 
been  given  to  us.  The  Bible,  as  a  concrete  whole,  is 
something  definite  in  make,  origin,  time,  and  circum- 
stances, all  of  which  must  be  taken  into  account  if  we 
desire  to  reach  its  true  meaning.  It  is  history  and  it  is 
literature;  it  lies  open  consequently  to  investigation 
under  these  lights,  and  if  they  are  neglected  miscon- 
ceptions will  follow.  The  fact  that  spiritual  or  super- 
natural influences  have  moulded  phenomena  does  not 
withdraw  from  scientific  inquiries  anything  which  is 


POETRY 


175 


POETRY 


properly  amenable  to  them.  "God  speaks  to  man- 
kind", said  medieval  Jewish  commentators,  "in  the 
language  of  the  children  of  men."  This  observation, 
while  it  justifies  verbal  criticism,  points  out  the  way  to 
it.  Literature  demands  a  special  study;  and  Hebrew 
literature,  because  it  is  sacred,  all  the  more,  inasmuch 
as  the  outcome  of  misunderstandings  in  regard  to  it 
has  ever  been  disaster.  No  one  can  read  attentively 
the  poorest  version  of  the  Old  Testament  without  feel- 
ing how  strong  a  vein  of  poetry  runs  through  its  pages. 
We  need  not  venture  on  a  definition  of  what  poetry 
means;  it  is  a  peculiar  form  of  imagination  and  expres- 
sion which  bears  witness  to  itself.  Verse  has  been 
called  by  Ernest  Hello,  "that  rare  splendour,  born  of 
music  and  the  word  " ;  now  assuredly  in  writings  such 
as  many  of  the  Psalms,  in  the  Prophets,  the  Book  of 
Job,  and  Proverbs  we  recognize  its  presence.  On  the 
other  hand,  from  the  great  collection  of  documents 
which  we  term  Chronicles  (Paralipomena),  Ezra,  and 
Nehemias,  this  quality  is  almost  entirely  absent ;  mat- 
ter and  style  announce  that  we  are  dealing  with  prose. 
We  open  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  we  find  our  judgment 
confirmed  by  the  editors  of  the  Massora — the  received 
and  vocalized  text.  Conspicuously,  where  the  title 
indicates  "songs"  (shirim,  Ex.,  xv,  1;  Num.,  xxi,  17), 
the  lines  are  parted  into  verse;  for  instance,  Deut., 
xxxii.  Judges,  v,  II  Kings,  xxii.  But  more.  As  Gins- 
burg  tells  us,  "In  the  best  M.S.S.  the  lines  are  poeti- 
cally divided  and  arranged  in  hemistichs"  throughout 
the  Psalter,  Proverbs,  and  Job.  And  this  was  enjoined 
by  the  Synagogue.  Yet  again,  the  punctuation  by  the 
period  (soph  pasuk),  which  marks  a  complete  state- 
ment, coincides  with  a  rhythmical  pause  in  nearly  all 
such  passages,  demonstrating  that  the  ancient  redactors 
between  200  and  600  a.  d.  agreed  as  to  sense  and  sound 
with  the  moderns  who  talie  the  same  citations  for 
poetry.  So  emphatic  indeed  is  this  impression  that, 
however  we  print  either  text  or  rendering,  the  disjecta 
membra  poetce  will  be  always  visible.  Hebrew  forms  of 
verse  have  been  much  disputed  over;  but  the  com- 
bination of  a  lively  picturesque  meaning  with  a  defi- 
nite measure  is  beyond  denial  in  the  places  alleged. 
Such  are  the  "Songs  of  Sion"  (Ps.  cxxxvii,  3).  This 
was  known  and  felt  from  the  earliest  times.  Josephus 
describes  the  Hebrew  poets  as  writing  in  "hexameter" 
(Antiq.,  II,  xvi);  St.  Jerome  speaks  of  their  "hexam- 
eters and  pentameters";  while  in  his  own  transla- 
tions he  has  constantly  succeeded  in  a  happy  rhythm, 
not,  however,  giving  verse  for  verse.  He  is  markedly 
solemn  and  musical  in  the  Latin  of  the  Book  of  Job. 
The  English  A.  V.  abounds  in  magnificent  effects  of  a 
similar  kind.  Given,  in  short,  the  original  structure, 
it  would  be  almost  impossible  not  in  some  degree  to 
reproduce  it,  even  in  our  Western  versions. 

But  on  what  system  was  the  poetry  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament composed?  Rabbi  Kimchi  and  Eben  Ezra  had 
caught  sight  of  an  arrangement  which  they  termed 
kaful,  or  doubling  of  enunciation.  But  to  bring  this 
out  as  a  principle  was  reserved  for  Bishop  R.  Lowth, 
whose  lectures  "De  sacra  poesi  Hebrseorum"  (1741 
begun,  finally  published  1753)  became  the  starting 
point  of  all  subsequent  inquiries.  In  his  Preface  to 
Isaiah  (1778,  German  1779)  he  gave  fresh  illustrations, 
which  led  on  to  Herder's  more  philosophical  handling 
of  the  subject  (1782-3).  Lowth  convinced  scholars 
that  Hebrew  verse  moved  on  the  scheme  of  parallelism, 
statement  revolving  upon  statement,  by  antiphon 
or  return,  generally  in  double  members,  one  of 
which  repeated  the  other  with  variations  of  words  or 
some  defiection  of  meaning.  Equal  measures,  more  or 
less  identical  sense,  these  were  its  component  parts. 
Degrees  in  likeness,  and  the  contrast  which  attends  on 
likeness,  gave  rise,  said  Lowth,  to  synonymous,  anti- 
thetic, or  synthetic  arrangement  of  members.  Modern 
research  inclines  to  take  the  mashal  or  similitude  as  a 
primitive  norm  for  Hebrew  verse  in  general;  and 
Prov.,  X,  is  quoted  by  way  of  showing  the  three  varie- 


ties indicated  by  Lowth.  Evidently,  given  a  double 
measure,  it  admits  of  combinations  ever  more  subtle 
and  involved.  We  will  speak  of  other  developments 
later.  But  the  prevailing  forms  were  exhibited  in 
Lowth's  "Prajlections".  Recent  comparisons  of  this 
device  with  similar  structures  in  Babylonian,  Assyrian 
and  Egyptian  poetical  remains  discover  its  extreme 
antiquity  (see  for  the  first  Schrader;  for  Egypt,  W. 
Max  Mliller,  1899;  and  on  the  whole,  C.  A.  Briggs, 
"Gen.  Introd.  to  H.  Script.",  1899).  It  might  seem 
fanciful  to  call  the  type  from  which  parallelism  orig- 
inates "echo-music",  yet  nothing  is  more  likely  than 
that  the  earliest  rhythm  was  a  kind  of  echo,  whereby 
the  object  of  expression  became  fixed  and  emphasized. 
See  the  remarkable  instances  in  Deborah's  chant 
(Judges,  V,  26-30)  etc.  Here  we  must  observe  how  the 
logic  of  feeling,  as  distinguished  from  the  logic  of 
reasoning,  controls  the  poet's  mind.  That  mind,  until 
a  late  period,  was  not  individual,  but  collective ;  it  was 
the  organ  of  a  tribe,  a  public  worship,  a  national  belief; 
hence,  it  could  shape  its  ideas  only  into  concrete  forms, 
real  yet  symbolical;  it  expressed  emotions,  not  ab- 
stractions, and  it  was  altogether  concerned  with  per- 
sons, human  or  superhuman.  Poetry,  thus  inspired, 
glances  to  and  fro,  is  guided  by  changing  moods,  darts 
upon  living  objects,  and  describes  them  from  its  own 
centre.  It  is  essentially  subjective,  and  a  lyrical 
outcry.  It  does  not  argue ;  it  pleads,  blames,  praises, 
breaks  into  cursing  or  blessing,  and  is  most  effective 
when  most  excited.  To  such  a  temperament  repeti- 
tion becomes  a  potent  weapon,  a  divine  or  deadly 
rhetoric  of  which  the  keynote  is  passion.  Its  tense  is 
either  the  present  (including  the  future  perceived  as 
though  here  and  now),  or  a  moving  past  seen  while  it 
moves. 

Passion  and  vision — let  us  take  these  to  be  the 
motive  and  the  method  of  all  such  primitive  poetry. 
We  may  compare  11  Kings,  xxiii,  2,  David's  last  words, 
"The  sweet  Psalmist  of  Israel,  said  'The  spirit  of  the 
Lord  spake  by  me,  and  His  word  was  on  my  tongue ' " ; 
or  Ps.  xliv,  2,  "My  heart  bursts  out  with  a  goodly 
matter,  my  tongue  is  the  pen  of  a  ready  writer";  or 
Job,  xxxii,  18,  "I  am  full  of  words,  the  spirit  within 
constraineth  me";  but  especially  Num.,  xxiv,  4,  "He 
hath  said,  the  man  who  heard  the  words  of  God,  who 
saw  the  vision  of  the  Almighty,  falling  into  a  trance, 
but  having  his  eyes  open".  These  declarations  lead 
up  to  impassioned  metrical  utterances,  while  they  be- 
token the  close  relation  which  unites  Hebrew  poetry 
with  prophecy.  Both  alike  are  a  pouring  forth  of  feel- 
ings too  violent  to  be  held  in,  aroused  by  contemplation 
not  of  the  abstract  or  the  general,  but  of  persons  and 
events,  in  their  living  power.  To  this  belongs  the  idea 
of  recurrence.  Curtius  observes  acutely,  "The  grad- 
ual realization  and  repetition  of  an  action  are  regarded 
by  language  as  nearly  akin."  (Elucidations,  143, 
quoted  by  Driver,  "Treatise  on  the  Use  of  Tenses  in 
Hebrew",  xv.)  The  whole  being  moves  as  the  object 
impresses  it;  speech,  music,  dancing,  gesture  leap  out, 
as  it  were,  to  meet  the  friend  or  enemy  who  draws 
nigh.  The  Semites  term  their  religious  festivals  a 
"hag",  i.  e.  a  dance  (Ex.,  xii,  14;  xxxii,  5,  19;  Deut., 
xvi,  10,  12;  and  frequently),  of  which  the  reminiscence 
is  vividly  shown  in  the  whirling  motion  and  repeated 
acclamations  practised  by  dervishes  among  Moham- 
medans to  this  day.  We  may  thus  connect  the  lyrical 
drama  out  of  which  in  due  course  the  Hebrews  devel- 
oped their  temple-liturgy  and  the  Psalms,  with  Greek 
dithyrambs,  the  chorus  of  the  Athenian  stage,  and  the 
anapaestic  strophes  danced  thereon  to  a  lively  musical 
accompaniment.  When  past  or  future  is  caught  up 
after  this  manner,  made  present  as  though  seen,  and 
flung  into  a  series  of  actions,  the  singer  prophesies. 
For  what  else  is  prophecy  than  the  vision  of  things 
absent  in  space  or  time,  or  hidden  from  common  eyes? 
The  state  of  mind  corresponding  is  "trance"  ("deep 
Bleep",  Gen.,  XV,  12;  Job,  iv,  13;  Ezech.,  viii,  1).   The 


POETRY 


176 


POETRY 


literary  form,  then,  in  which  primitive  rehgion  and 
law,  custom  and  public  life,  were  embodied,  implies  a 
poetic  heightening  of  the  ordinary  mood,  with  effects 
in  speech  that  may  fall  at  length  under  deliberate 
rules;  but  asrulesmultiply,  the  spirit  either  evaporates 
or  is  diffused  pretty  equally  over  an  eloquent  prose. 
That  all  human  language  was  once  poetical  appears 
everywhere  probable  from  researches  into  folk-lore. 
That  repetition  of  phrase,  epithet,  sentiment  came 
earlier  than  more  elaborate  metres  cannot  well  be 
denied.  That  religion  should  cleave  to  ancient  forms 
while  policy,  law,  and  social  intercourse  move  down 
into  the  "cool  element  of  prose",  we  understand  with- 
out diiBculty.  Why  the  mediating  style  belongs  to  the 
historian  we  can  also  perceive;  and  how  the  "epic  of 
gods"  is  transformed  by  slow  steps  into  the  chronicle 
and  the  reasoned  narrative. 

It  does  not  seem,  indeed,  that  the  Israelites  ever 
possessed  a  true  epic  poetry,  although  their  kinsfolk, 
the  Babylonians,  have  left  us  well-known  specimens, 
e.  g.,  in  the  Gilgamesh  tablets.  But  this  extensive 
form  of  Assyrian  legend  has  not  been  imitated  in  the 
Old  Testament.  G.  d'Eichthal,  a  Catholic,  first  under- 
took in  his  "Texte  prim,  du  premier  rccit  dela  Cr(5a- 
tion"  (1875)  to  show  that  Genesis,  i,  was  a  poem. 
The  same  contention  was  urged  by  Bishop  Clifford 
("Dublin  Review",  1SS2),  and  C.  A.  Briggs  ventures 
on  resolving  this  narrative  into  a  five-tone  measure. 
Of  late,  other  critics  would  perceive  in  the  song  of 
Lamech,  in  the  story  of  the  flood  and  of  Babel,  frag- 
ments of  lost  heroic  poems.  It  is  common  knowledge 
that  the  so-called  "creation-epic"  of  Assurbanipal  is 
written  in  four-line  stanzas  with  a  caesura  to  each  line. 
But  of  this  no  feature  seems  really  discernible  in  the 
Hebrew  Genesis  (consult  Gunkel,  "Genesis",  and 
' '  Schopf ung  und  Chaos  " ) .  There  is  no  distin  ct  metre 
except  an  occasional  couplet  or  quatrain  in  Gen.,  i-x. 
But  Ps.  civ,  on  the  wonders  of  God's  works;  Ps.  cv, 
cvi,  on  His  dealings  with  Israel;  Job,  xxxviii-xlii,  on 
the  mysteries  of  nature  and  Providence;  Prov.,  viii, 
22-32,  on  creati\'e  wisdom,  might  ha\e  been  wrought 
by  genius  of  a  different  type  into  the  narrative  we  de- 
fine as  epical.  Why  did  Israel  choose  another  way? 
Perhaps  because  it  sought  after  religion  and  cared 
hardly  at  all  for  cosmogonies.  The  imagination  of 
Hebrews  looked  forward,  not  into  the  abysses  of  past 
time.  And  mythology  was  condemned  by  their  belief 
in  monotheism.  Psalms  are  comprehended  under  two 
heads, — "Tehillim",  hymns  of  praise,  and  "Tephil- 
loth",  hymns  of  prayer,  arranged  for  chanting  in  the 
Temple-services.  They  do  not  include  any  very  an- 
cient folk-songs;  but  neither  can  we  look  on  them  as 
private  devotional  exercises.  Somewhat  analogous 
are  the  historic  blessings  and  cursings,  of  a  very  old 
tradition,  attributed  to  Jacob  (Gen.,  xlix)  and  Moses 
(Deut.,  xxviii,  xxxii-iii).  Popular  poetry,  not  connect- 
ing itself  with  priestly  ritual,  touches  life  at  moments  of 
crisis  and  pour.-^  out  its  grief  over  death.  Much  of  all 
this  Holy  Scripture  has  handed  down  to  us.  The 
Book  of  Lamentations  is  founded  on  the  Kinah,  the 
wailing  chant  improvised  by  women  at  funerals  in  a 
measure  curiously  broken,  one  full  verse  followed  by 
one  deficient,  which  reminded  St.  Jerome  of  the  penta- 
meter. It  seems  to  be  aboriginal  among  Semites  (cf. 
Amos,  V,  2;  Jer.,  xlviii,  36;  Ezech.,  xix,  1;  Ps.  xix, 
8-10).  Martial  songs,  of  which  Judges,  v;  Num.,  xxi; 
Jos.,  x;  I  Kings,  xviii,  are  specimens,  formed  the  lost 
"Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord"  From  another  lost 
roll,  the  "Book  of  Jashar",  i.  e.,  of  the  Upright  or  of 
Lsrael,  we  derive  the  lament  of  Da^dd  over  Saul  and 
Jonathan,  as  well  as  in  substance  Solomon's  prayer  at 
the  dedication  of  the  Temple  (II  Kings,  i,  3;  III  Kings, 
viii,  .53).  However  we  interpret  Canticles,  it  is  cer- 
tainly a  round  of  wedding-songs  and  is  high  poetry; 
Ps.  xlv  is  an  epithalamium  of  the  same  character. 
The  song  of  the  vineyard  may  be  added  to  our  list 
(Is.,  V,  1).     Historically,  at  all  events,  the  Book  of 


Psalms  is  late  and  supposes  prophecy  to  have  gone 
before  it. 

A  second  stage  is  attained,  the  nearest  approach  in 
the  Hebrew  Testament  to  philosophy,  when  we  reach 
the  gnomic  or  "wisdom"  poetry.  Proverbs  with  its 
two  line  antitheses  gives  us  the  standard,  passing 
into  larger  descriptions  marked  by  numerals  and  end- 
ing in  the  acrostic  or  alphabetical  praise  of  the  "val- 
iant", i.  e.,  the  "virtuous"  woman.  Job  takes  its 
place  among  the  great  meditative  poems  of  the  world 
like  "Hamlet"  or  "Faust",  and  is  by  no  means  of 
early  date,  as  was  once  believed.  In  form  it  may  be 
assigned  to  the  same  type  as  Prov.,  i-x;  but  it  rises 
almost  to  the  level  of  drama  with  its  contrasted  speak- 
ers and  the  interposition  of  Jahweh,  which  serves  to  it 
as  a  denouement.  Notwithstanding  its  often  corrupt 
text  and  changes  consequent  on  re-editing  at  later 
times,  it  remains  unquestionably  the  highest  achieve- 
ment of  inspired  Hebrew  verse.  Ecclesiastes,  with  its 
mingled  irony  and  sadness,  falls  into  a  purely  didactic 
style;  it  has  traces  of  an  imperfect  lyrical  mood,  but 
belongs  to  the  prose  of  reflection  quite  as  much  as 
Seneca  or  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  Hebrew  text  of  Ben 
Sira,  thus  far  recovered,  is  of  a  loftier  kind,  or  c^'en  a 
prelude  to  the  New  Testament.  As  regards  the 
Prophets,  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  oracles  were 
uttered  in  verse  at  Shiloh  and  other  ancient  shrines, 
just  as  at  Delphi;  or  that  inspired  men  and  women 
threw  their  announcements  commonly  into  that  shape 
for  repetition  by  their  disciples,  to  whom  they  came  as 
the  "word  of  the  Lord".  To  prophesy  was  to  sing 
accompanied  by  an  instrument  (IV  Kings,  iii,  15). 
The  prophetic  records,  as  we  now  have  them,  were 
made  up  from  comparatively  brief  poems,  declaring 
the  mind  of  Jahweh  in  messages,  "burdens",  to  those 
whom  the  seer  admonished.  In  Amos,  Osee,  Micheas, 
Isaias,  the  original  chants  may  still  be  separated  and 
the  process  of  joining  them  together  is  comparatively 
slight.  Prophecy  at  first  was  preaching;  but  as 
it  became  literature  its  forms  passed  out  of  verse 
(which  it  always  handled  somewhat  freely)  into  prose. 
The  Book  of  Ezechiel,  though  abounding  in  symbol 
and  imagery,  cannot  be  deemed  a  poem.  Yet  from 
the  nature  of  their  mission  the  Prophets  appealed  to 
that  in  man's  composition  which  transcends  the  finite, 
and  their  works  constantly  lift  us  to  the  regions  of 
poetic  idealism,  however  fluctuating  the  style  between 
a  strict  or  a  looser  measure  of  time.  Divine  oracles 
given  as  such  fall  into  verse ;  expanded  or  commented 
on,  they  flow  over  into  a  less  regular  movement  and 
become  a  sort  of  rhytlimical  prose.  Our  Latin  and 
English  translations  often  render  this  effect  admi- 
rably; but  attentive  readers  will  note  in  the  English 
A.  V.  many  unconscious  blank  verses,  sometimes  the 
five  foot  iambic,  and  occasionally  classic  hexameters, 
e.  g.,  "How  art  thou  fallen  from  heaven,  O  Lucifer, 
son  of  the  morning!"  (Is.,  xiv,  12).  There  is  likewise 
in  Hebrew  a  recognized  poetical  vocabulary,  though 
some  critics  deny  it,  and  the  grammar  keeps  a  few 
archaic  forms.  We  can  distinguish  popular  unwritten 
prophecy  as  lasting  from  unknown  periods  down  to 
Amos.  From  Amos  to  Esdras  the  prophets  all  write, 
still  under  poetic  influences,  but  their  singing  has  de- 
clined into  a  metaphor.  The  rhapsodists  (nioshelim) 
give  place  more  and  more  to  the  rabbim.  We  hear 
the  last  echoes  of  Hebrew  sacred  poetry  in  St.  Luke's 
Gospel;  for  the  "Benedictus",  the  "Magnificat",  the 
"Nunc  Dimittis",  though  in  Greek,  arc  songs  of  Is- 
rael, moulded  on  Old  Testament  reminiscences. 

Now  we  come  into  a  debatable  land,  where  critics 
dispute  endlessly  over  the  essence  and  make  of  Bib- 
lical versification,  beyond  the  lines  drawn  by  Lowth. 
What  metrical  system  docs  Hebrew  follow?  Take  the 
single  line;  does  it  move  by  quantity,  as  Latin  and 
Greek,  or  by  accent,  as  English?  If  by  accent,  how 
is  that  managed?  Should  we  reckon  to  each  kind  of 
verse  a,  definite  number  of  syllables,  or  allow  an  in- 


POGGIO 


177 


POGGIO 


definite?  Since  no  Jewish  "Poetics"  have  been  pre- 
served from  any  age  of  the  Bible,  we  have  only  the 
text  itself  upon  which  to  set  up  our  theories.  But  if 
we  consider  how  many  fragments  of  divers  periods 
enter  into  this  literature,  and  how  all  alike  have  boon 
passed  through  the  mill  of  a  late  uncritical  recension, 
— we  mean  the  Massora — can  we  suppose  that  in 
every  c-aso,  or  even  in  general,  we  enjoy  so  much  evi- 
dence as  is  required  tor  a  solid  judgment  on  this 
matter?  Infinite  conjecture  is  not  science.  One  re- 
sult of  which  we  may  be  certain  is  that  Plebrew  vorse 
never  proceeded  by  quantity;  in  this  sense  it  has  no 
metre.  A  second  is  that  the  poetical  phrase,  be  it 
long  or  short,  is  governed  by  tone  or  stress,  rising  and 
falling  naturally  with  the  speaker's  emotion.  A  third 
would  grant  in  the  more  antique  forms  a  freedom  which 
the  development  of  schools  and  the  fixedness  of  liturgy 
could  not  but  restrain  as  years  went  on.  At  all  times, 
it  has  been  well  said  by  W.  Max  Mtiller,  "the  lost 
melody  was  the  main  thing";  but  how  little  we  do 
know  of  Hebrew  music?  Under  those  complicated 
difficulties  to  fix  a  scale  for  the  lines  of  verse,  beyond 
the  rhythm  of  passionate  utterance,  can  scarcely  be 
attempted  with  success. 

G.  Bickell,  from  1879  onwards,  undertook  in  many 
volumes  to  reduce  the  anarchy  of  Old  Testament 
scansion  by  applying  to  it  the  rules  of  Syriac,  chiefly 
as  found  in  St.  Ephrem.  He  made  the  penultimate 
tonic  for  syllables,  counted  them  regularly,  and  held 
all  lines  of  even  syllables  to  be  trochaic,  of  uneven 
iambic.  On  such  a  Procrustean  bed  the  text  was  tor- 
tured into  uniformity,  not  without  ever  so  many 
changes  in  word  and  sense,  while  the  traditional  read- 
ings were  swept  aside  though  supported  by  the  ver- 
sions (see  his  "Metrices  biblicse  regulse  exemplis  illus- 
trata;",  1S79,  "Carmina  Vet.  Test,  metrice",  1882; 
Job,  Ecclesiastes,  Proverbs).  This  deaUng,  at  once 
arbitrary  and  fanciful,  leaves  us  with  so  uncertain  a 
text  that  our  problem  is  utterly  transformed,  and  the 
outcome  is  scepticism.  Yet  Bickell  has  indicated  the 
true  poetic  measure  by  his  theory  of  main  accents, 
such  as  travellers  note  in  the  modern  songs  of  Pales- 
tine. Julius  Ley  constructs  a.  system  on  the  tone- 
syllable  which,  preceded  by  unaccented  syllables  and 
followed  by  one  that  has  "a  dying  fall",  constitutes 
the  metre.  His  unit  is  the  verse  formed  by  parallel 
lines;  he  admits  the  coesura;  with  regard  to  text 
and  vocalization  he  is  conservative  ("Grundztige  d. 
Rhythmus,  d.  ^'ers.  u.  Strophenbau  in  d.  hebr.  Poesie  ", 
1875;  "Leittaden  d.  Metrik  Der  heb.  Poesie",  1887). 
A  third  writer,  Grimme,  while  not  discarding  the 
received  vowel-signs,  gives  them  a  new  value,  and 
combines  quantity  with  accent.  Probably,  our  con- 
clusion should  be  that  none  of  these  ingenious  theories 
will  explain  all  the  facts;  and  that  we  had  better  let 
the  text  alone,  marking  only  where  it  seems  to  be 
corrupt. 

Another  amusement  of  Hebrew  scholars  has  been 
the  discovery  and  delimitation  of  "  strophes " 
(Koster,  1831),  or  of  larger  units  embracing  several 
verses.  Bickell  and  many  recent  critics  allow  the 
four-line  combination.  Anything  more  is  very  doubt- 
ful. In  Ps.  xlii,  and  elsewhere,  a  sort  of  refrain  occurs, 
which  corresponds  to  the  people's  answer  in  Catholic 
litanies;  but  this  does  not  enter  into  the  verse-struc- 
ture itself.  C.  A.  Briggs,  who  clings  resolutely  to  the 
idea  of  complex  Hebrew  metre,  extravagates  on  the 
subject,  by  taking  the  "whole  of  sense"  for  a  rhyth- 
mical whole.  We  must  obey  the  plain  law  of  parallel- 
ism, and  allow  a,  three-line  arrangement  where  the 
words  themselves  demand  it.  But  much  of  what  is 
now  written  concerning  the  hidden  links  of  Old  Testa- 
ment poetry  is  like  the  Cabbala,  perversely  and  need- 
lessly wrong.  The  lamentation  verse  lends  itself  to 
strophe;  and  beginnings  of  it  may  well  exist,  provided 
we  do  not  assimilate  this  hard  and  severe  language  to 
the  gracious  flexures  which  were  native  in  Hellenic 
XII.— 12 


composition.  There  is  a  species  of  "canon"  or  fugue 
in  the  fifteen  chants  called  "Songs  of  Ascent" — our 
"Gradual"  Psalms — an  ambiguous  title  referring  per- 
haps to  this  feature  as  well  as  to  the  pilgrim  journey 
they  denoted.  Various  poems  and  especially  the 
great  Ps.  cxviii  (Hebrew  cxix)  are  arranged  alphabeti- 
cally; so  the  Book  of  Lamentations;  Pro  v.  xxxi; 
Ecclus.,  li,  13-29.  In  Talnmdic  and  Rabbinical  writ- 
ings the  Psalms  cxiii-cxviii  (Hebrew)  are  taken  as  one 
composition  and  known  as  the  "Plallel  of  Egypt", 
intended  to  be  sung  on  the  feast  of  Hanukkah  or  of 
Machabees  (I  Mach.,  iv,  59).  Ps.  cxxx-id,  Hebrew 
(Vulgate  cxxxv)  "Confitemini  Domino",  is  the  "Great 
Hallel",  and  Ps.  cxlvi-cxlviii  make  up  another  collec- 
tion of  these  "Alleluia"  hymns.  In  Hebrew  poetry 
when  rhymes  occur  they  are  accidental;  alliteration, 
assonance,  word-play  belong  to  it.  We  find  in  it 
everywhere  vehemence  of  feeling,  energetic  and  abrupt 
expression,  sudden  changes  of  tense,  person,  and  fig- 
ure, sometimes  bordering  on  the  grotesque  from  a 
Western  point  of  view.  It  reveals  a  fine  sense  of  land- 
scape and  abhors  the  personification  familiar  to 
Greeks,  whereby  things  lower  than  man  were  deified. 
In  sentiment  it  is  by  turns  sublime,  tender,  and  ex- 
ceedingly bitter,  full  of  a  yearning  after  righteousness, 
which  often  puts  on  the  garb  of  hatred  and  vengeance. 
"From  Nature  to  God  and  from  God  to  Nature"  has 
been  given  by  Hebrews  themselves  as  the  philosophy 
which  underlies  its  manifestations.  It  glorifies  the 
Lord  of  Israel  in  His  counsels  and  His  deeds.  In 
prophecy  it  judges;  in  psalmody  it  prays;  in  lamenta- 
tion it  meditates  on  the  sufferings  which  from  of  old 
the  chosen  people  have  undergone.  Though  it  com- 
poses neither  an  epic  nor  a  tragedy,  it  is  the  voice 
of  a  nation  that  has  counted  its  heroes  in  every  age, 
and  that  has  lived  through  vicissitudes  unequalled  in 
pathos,  in  terror,  in  a  never  defeated  hope.  By  all 
these  elements  Hebrew  poetry  is  human;  by  some- 
thing more  mysterious,  but  no  less  real,  breathed  into 
its  music  from  on  high,  it  becomes  divine. 

Meiek,  D.  Form  d.  hehr.  Poesie  (Tubingen,  1853)  seems  to 
anticipate  Ley's  theory  of  verse;  Bellerman,  Versuch  iiher  d. 
Metrik  d.  Hebr.  (Berlin,  1813) ;  Zunz,  Synagogale  Poesie  d.  M.  A. 
(Berlin,  1853);  Ewald,  D.  Dichter  d.  A.  B.,  I  (2nd  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1866) ;  Neteler,  Grundzilge  d.  Metrik  d.  Psalmen  (Miinster,  1879) ; 
Briggs,  Biblical  Studies  (1883)  and  other  works;  IBudde,  D.  Volks- 
lied  Israels  im  Munde  d.  Propheten  in  Preuss.  Jahrb.,  Sept.,  1893; 
Dec,  1895;  Idem  in  Hasting,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.  Poetry, 
Hebrew;  Muller,  D,  Propheten  in  ihrer  urspriinglichen  Form 
(Vienna,  1896) ;  Zenker,  D.  Chorgesdnge  im  Buch  d.  Psalmen 
(Freiburg,  1896);  Ivonig,  Stillstik,  Rhetorik,  Poetik  etc.  in  A.  T. 
(Leipzig,  1900) ;  modern  views  in  Ency.  Biblica,  1902,  older  in 
Hamburger,  Realency.  of  Judaism,  1896;  medieval  and  late  Heb. 
poetry,  see  Jewish  Ency, 

William  Bakry. 

Poggio  Bracciolini,  Giovanni  Fbancesco,  Ital- 
ian humanist  and  historian;  b.  at  Terranuova,  near 
Arezzo,  in  1380;  d.  at  Florence,  10  Oct.,  1459.  He 
studied  at  Florence  and  went  to  Rome  about  1402. 
Boniface  IX  made  him  one  of  the  Apostolic  secretaries, 
which  position  he  held  under  Innocent  VII,  Gregory 
XII,  Alexander  V,  and  John  XXIII.  The  deposition  of 
John  XXIII  and  the  delays  of  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance afforded  him  leisure  to  search  the  libraries  of  the 
monasteries  of  Germany  and  France.  In  1415 
he  discovered  at  Cluny  a  manuscript  containing 
the  following  discourses  of  Cicero :  "Pro  Cluentio", 
"Pro  S.  Roscio",  "Pro  Murena",  "Pro  Milone", 
and  "Pro  Caelio".  This  manuscript  was  sent  to 
Florence  where  Francesco  Barbaro  deciphered  it 
with  great  difficulty.  Later  Poggio  discovered  at 
St.  Gall's  the  first  complete  text  of  QuintiUan's 
"Institutio  Oratoria",  of  which  Petrarch  had  known 
only  fragments,  a  portion  of  Valerius  Flaccus 
(I-IV,  317),  commentaries  on  Cicero,  among  others 
that  of  Asconius,  a  commentary  of  Priscian 
on  twelve  verses  of  Virgil,  and  a  manuscript  of 
Vitruvius.  During  another  search  through  the  mon- 
asteries, probably   Einsiedeln,   Reichenau  on   Lake 


POGGIO 


178 


POITIERS 


Constance,  and  Weingarten,  he  discovered  Vegetius, 
already  known   by  Petrarch,  Festus  in  the  abridg- 
ment of  Paul  the  Deacon,  Lucretius,  Manilius,  SiUus 
Italicus,    Ammianus   Marcellinus,   the   grammariaiis 
Caper,  Eutyches,  and  Probus.     It  was  during  this 
journey   or    the   next   that    Poggio    discovered    the 
"Silv£E"  of  Statins.    In  1417  he  went  as  far  as  Larigres, 
France,  whore  he  recovered  seven  discourses  of  Cicero, 
three   on   the   agrarian   law,    "Pro   Rabirio",    "Pro 
Roscio  Comoedo",  and  "In  Pisonem"     This  journey 
also  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  manuscript  of 
Columella.    Unfortunately  most  of  these  manuscripts 
exist  now  only  in  copies.     One  in  his  own  hand  at 
Madrid  (Bib.  Nat.,  X,  81)  contains  Asconius  and  the 
first  part  of  Valerius  Flaccus.     After  the  Council  of 
Constance  Poggio  accompanied  Martin  V  to  Italy  and 
stayed  with  him  at  Mantua  (1418).    In  1423  he  be- 
came   his    secre- 
tary.   On  his  re- 
turn from  a  jour- 
ney   to    England 
Poggio  discovered 
an  incomplete 
Petronius  at  Co- 
logne and  Nonius 
Marcellus      at 
Paris.      Niccoli 
admitted   him  to 
his    confidence 
with  regard  to  the 
"History"      of 
Tacitus,  of  which 
he  made  a  secret. 
He  shared  in  the 
discovery  of    the 
lesser  writings  of 
Tacitus  by  Enoch 
of  Ascoli,  in  that 
of  Aulus  Gellius, 
of  Quintus   Cur- 
tius  and  the  last 
twelve  works    of 
Plautus  by  Nich- 
olas of  Cusa.     In  1429  he  made  a  copy  of  the  "De 
aqua;  ductibus"  of  Frontinus.    In  1429  he  published 
his  dialogue  on  avarice,  in  which  he  attacked  especially 
the  professors  of  law  and  the  Mendicant  Friars. 

Shortly  after  the  death  of  Martin  V  (20  February, 
4.31)  he  began  to  write  the  four  books  of  his  "De 
Varietate  Fortunte",  in  the  first  of  which  he  describes 
the  ruins  of  Rome.  Indeed  it  may  be  said  that  he  was 
the  first  to  practise  archaeology  systematically.  He 
brought  from  Switzerland  the  valuable  booklet  of  a 
ninth-century  pilgrim,  the  Anonymous  Einsiedlensis, 
and  he  preceded  J.  B.  de  Rossi  in  studying  it.  He 
compared  the  ruins  which  he  saw  with  the  texts  of 
writers  and  endeavoured  to  decipher  the  inscriptions. 
He  collected  some  of  his  letters  and  in  1440  issued  a 
dialoKue  on  nobility.  In  1450  an  outbreak  of  the  pest 
sent  Nicholas  V  to  Fabriano  and  Poggio  to  his  birth- 
place where  he  completed  the  compilation  of  the 
"Facetia'"  This  is  a  collection  of  witty  sayings, 
anecdotes,  quidproquos,  and  insolence,  mingled  with 
obscenities  and  impertinent  jesting  with  religious  sub- 
jects. In  14.51  Poggio  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Prospero 
Colonna  his  "Historia  disceptativa  oonvivalis",  in 
three  books,  of  which  the  third  alone  is  interesting. 
Poggio  maintains  against  Leonardo  Bruni  of  Arezzo 
that  there  was  only  one  language  spoken  at  Rome  by 
the  people  and  the  educated  classes.  This  question 
had  a  practical  bearing  for  the  Italians  upon  whom  it 
was  incumbent  to  create  their  literary  language,  but 
Poggio's  sole  ideal  was  Latin  literature.  Poggio  him- 
self wrote  only  in  Latin,  into  which  tongue  he  trans- 
lated the  history  of  Diodorus  Siculus  and  the  "Cyro- 
pffldia"  of  Xcnophon.  In  June,  1453,  Poggio  was 
summoned  by  the  Medicis  to  Florence  where  he  was 


given  charge  of  the  chancery  of  the  republic.  Here 
he  composed  his  last  works,  the  dialogue  "  De  Miseriis 
humanae  condioionis",  a  translation  of  Lucian's 
"Golden  Ass",  and  the  ten  books  of  his  history  of 
Florence  from  1350  to  1455,  a  work  much  admired  by 
contemporaries,  but  written  in  a  diffuse  style,  and 
partial.  No  mention  has  been  made  of  his  occasional 
writings,  eulogies,  discourses,  invectives,  but  reference 
must  be  made  to  his  numerous  quarrels  with  other 
humanists,  Filelfo,  George  of  Trebizond,  Tommaso 
Rieti,  Lorenzo  Valla  (author  of  "Antidotus  in  Pog- 
gium").  In  all  these  disputes  Poggio  showed  the 
same  fecundity  of  low  insults  and  calumnies  as  his 
opponents.  Poggio's  works  were  collected  at  Basle 
(in  folio,  1513).  His  letters  were  issued  in  a  special 
edition  by  Tonelli  (3  vols.,  1832-61). 

Shepherd,  Life  of  Poggio  Bracciolini  (London,  1802) ;  Voigt, 
D.  Wiederbelebung  d.  klassischen  AUerlums,  3rd  ed.,  I,  235  sq.; 
Stmonds,  The  Renaissance  in  Italy,  II  (London,  1875-86),  230 
sq.;  Sandys,  A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  I,  26,  38,  162; 
Sabbadini,  Ciceronianismo,  20;  Idem,  Le  scoperte  dei  codici  latini 
egrecine'  secoli  X IV  e  XV  (Florence,  1905),  76;  Clark,  Anecdota 
Oxoniensia,  X  (1905). 

Patjl  Lejay. 

Poggio  Mirteto,  Diocese  op  (Mandelensis),  in 
the  province  of  Perugia,  central  Italy.  The  city  is 
situated  on  a  pleasant  height,  by  the  River  Sole,  in  a 
fertile  region,  where  pot-herbs,  cereals,  grapes,  and 
pastures  are  cultivated,  and  where  ancient  ruins  of 
villas  and  of  aqueducts  are  numerous;  the  villa  of 
Terentius  Varro  was  in  this  neighbourhood.  Poggio 
Mirteto  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Abbot  of 
Farfa,  and  the  present  home  of  the  bishop  was  the 
abbot's  residence.  The  Abbey  of  Farfa,  however,  like 
that  of  San  Salvatore  Maggiore,  passed  to  the  Diocese 
of  Sabina,  from  which  the  territory  of  the  See  of 
Poggio  Mirteto  was  taken  in  1841;  the  old  collegiate 
church  became  the  cathedral,  and  a  seminary  was 
established.  The  first  bishop  was  Nicolo  Crispigni. 
The  diocese  has  38  parishes,  with  32,600  inhabitants, 
2  religious  houses  of  men,  and  8  of  sisters,  under  whose 
direction  are  the  schools  for  girls  in  several  communes. 
(See  Fakfa,  Abbey  of.) 

U.  Benigni. 

Pogia  (ri  TluyXa),  titular  see  in  Pamphylia  secunda. 
Pogla  is  mentioned  only  by  Ptolemy,  V,  5,  possibly 
by  Hierocles,  "Synecdemus",  680,  4,  but  the  name  is 
written  Socla  and  it  refers  without  doubt  to  another 
locality.  Money  was  coined  with  the  pagan  Uury\4(.iv 
(Head,  "Historia  numorum",  591).  At  present  it  is 
the  town  of  Foughla,  sandjak  of  Adalia,  vilayet  of 
Koniah.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus,  I,  1027)  men- 
tions two  bishops  Paul,  present  at  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  and  Nicephorus  at  the  Council  of 
Nicsea  (787).  The  "Notitiae  Episcopatuum "  con- 
tinue to  mention  the  see  among  the  suffragans  of 
Perge  as  late  as  the  thirteenth  century. 

Radet,  The  Cities  of  Pisidia,  extract  from  the  Revue  ArcM- 
ologique  (Paris,  1893),  p.  13. 

S.   PBTEinilS. 

Poissy.  Religious  Conference  of.  See  Dis- 
cussions, Religious. 

Poitiers,  Diocese  of  (Pictavensis),  includes  the 
Departments  of  Vienne  and  Deux-Sfevres,  and  is  suf- 
fragan of  Bordeaux.  The  Concordat  of  1802  added 
to  the  see  besides  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Poitiers  a  part 
of  the  Dioceses  of  La  Rochelle  and  Saintes  (see  La 
Rochelle).  Mgr  Duchesne  holds  that  its  earliest 
episcopal  catalogue  represents  the  ecclesiastical 
tradition  of  Poitiers  in  the  twelfth  century.  The 
catalogue  reckons  twelve  predecessors  of  St.  Hilary, 
among  them  Nectarius,  Liberius,  and  Agon,  and 
among  his  successors  Sts.  Quintianus  and  Maxentius. 
Mgr  Duchesne  does  not  doubt  the  existence  of  these 
saints  but  questions  whether  they  were  bishops  of 
Poitiers.  According  to  him,  St.  Hilary  (350-67  or  8) 
is  the  first  bishop  of  whom  we  have  historical  evidence. 


POITIERS 


179 


POITIERS 


Chuhch  of  Notre-Dame-la-Grande,  Poitiers  (Famous  as  a  Shrine) 
(Facade,  XII  Century) 


Among  his  successors  were  St.  Pientius  (e.  544-60) ; 
St.  Fortunatus  (c.  599);  St.  Peter  (1087-1115),  exiled 
by  William  IX,  Count  of  Poitiers,  whose  divorce  he 
refused  to  sanction;  Gilbert  de  la  Porr6e  (1142-54); 
Blessed  William  Tempier  (1184-97),  who,  as  Mgr 
Barbier  de  Montault  has  shown,  was  irregularly  ven- 
erated as  a  saint  in 
certain  parts  of  the 
diocese  since  he  died 
subsequent  to  the 
declaration  of  Alex- 
ander III  which  re- 
served canonizations 
to  the  Holy  Seo; 
Blessed  Gauthior  de 
Bruges  (1278-1306); 
Arnauld  d'Aux  (1306 
-12),  made  cardinal 
in  1312;  Guy  de 
Malsec  (1371-5),  who 
became  cardinal  in 
1376;  Simon  de 
Cramaud  (1385-91), 
indefatigable  op- 
ponent of  the  anti- 
pope,  Benedict  XIII, 
and  who  again  ad- 
ministered the  dio- 
cese (1413-23)  and 
became  cardinal  in 
1413;  Louis  de  Bar  (1394-5),  cardinal  in  1397;  Jean 
de  la  Tremouille  (1505-7),  cardinal  in  1507;  Gabriel 
de  Gramont  (1532-4),  cardinal  in  1507;  Claude  de 
Longwy,  Cardinal  de  Givry  (1538-52),  became  car- 
dinal in  1533;  Antonio  Barberini  (1652-7),  cardinal 
in  1627;  Abb6  de  Pradt  (1805-9),  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  Mechlin, 
Pie  (1849-80),  car- 
dinal in  1879.  St. 
Emmeram  (q.  v.) 
was  a  native  of 
Poitiers,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  BoUandists 
and  Mgr  Duchesne 
the  documents  which 
make  him  Bishop  of 
of  Poitiers  (c.  650) 
are  not  trustworthy; 
on  the  other  hand 
Bernard  Sepp  (Ana- 
lec.  Boll.,  VIII)  and 
Dom  Chamard  claim 
that  he  did  hold  the 
see,  and  s\icceeded 
Didon,  bishop  about 
666  or  668  according 
to  Dom  Chamard. 

As  early  as  312 
the  Bishop  of 
Poitiers  established 
a  school  near  his 
cathedral;  among  its 
scholars  were  St. 
Hilary,  St.  Maxen- 
tius.  Bishop  Maximus  of  Trier,  and  his  two  brothers 
St.  Maximinus  of  Chinon  and  St.  Jouin  of  Marne, 
St.  Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Trier,  and  the  poet  Ausonius. 
In  the  sixth  century  Fortunatus  taught  there,  and  in 
the  twelfth  century  intellectual  Europe  flocked  to 
Poitiers  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^e. 
Charles  VII  erected  a  university  at  Poitiers,  in  op- 
position to  Paris,  where  the  majority  of  the  faculty 
had  hailed  Henry  VI  of  England,  and  by  Bull  of  28 
May,  1431,  Eugene  IV  approved  the  new  university. 
In  the  reign  of  Louis  XII  there  were  in  Poitiers  no 
less  than  four  thousand  students — French,  Italians, 
Flemings,    Scots,    and    Germans.     There   were    ten 


Baptistery  of  Saint-Jean,  Poitiers 
(Merovingian,   IV  Century) 


colleges  attached  to  the  university.  In  1540,  at  the 
College  Ste.  Marthe,  the  famous  Marc  Antoine  Muret, 
whom  Gregory  XIII  called  in  later  years  the  torch 
and  the  pillar  of  the  Roman  School,  had  a  chair. 
The  famous  Jesuit  Maldonatus  and  five  of  his  con- 
freres went  in  1570  to  Poitiers  to  establish  a  Jesuit 

college  at  the  request 
of  some  of  the  in- 
habitants. After  two 
unsuccessful  at- 
tempts, they  were 
given  the  College  Ste. 
Marthe  in  1605. 
P6re  Garasse,  well 
known  for  his  vio- 
lent polemics  and 
who  died  of  the 
plague  at  Poitiers  in 
1637,  was  professor 
there  (1607-8),  and 
had  as  a  pupil  the 
great  French  prose 
writer,  Guez  de  Bal- 
zac. Among  other 
students  at  Poitiers 
were  Achille  de  Har- 
lay.  President  de 
Thou,  the  poet 
Joachim  du  Bellay, 
the  chronicler.  Bran- 
tome  Descartes,  Vifete  the  mathematician,  and  Bacon, 
afterwards  Chancellor  of  England.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  Jesuits  sought  affiliation  with  the 
university  and  in  spite  of  the  lively  opposition  of  the 
faculties  of  theology  and  arts  their  request  was 
granted.     Jesuit  ascendancy  grew;    they  united  to 

Ste.  Marthe  the  Col- 
lege du  Puygareau. 
Friction  between 
them  and  the  uni- 
versity was  continu- 
ous, and  in  1762  the 
general  laws  against 
them  throughout 
France  led  to  the 
Society  leaving  Poi- 
tiers. Moreover, 
from  1674  the  Jesuits 
had  conducted  at 
Poitiers  a  college  for 
clerical  students  from 
Ireland.  In  1806  the 
State  reopened  the 
school  of  law  at  Poi- 
tiers and  later  the 
faculties  of  litera- 
ture and  science. 
These  faculties  were 
raised  to  the  rank 
of  a  university  in 
1896.  From  1872  to 
1875  Cardinal  Pie 
was  engaged  in  re- 
establishing the  fac- 
ulty of  theology.  As  a  provisional  effort  he  called  to 
teach  in  his  Grand  S^minaire  three  professors  from  the 
CoUegio  Romano,  among  them  Pere  Schrader,  the  com- 
mentator of  the  Syllabus,  who  died  at  Poitiers  in  1875. 
At  Ligug^  in  the  diocese,  St.  Martin  founded  the 
first  monastery  in  Gaul,  to  which  were  attached  a 
catechetical  school  and  a  baptistery.  This  monastery, 
afterwards  eclipsed  by  that  of  Marmoutiers  founded 
by  St.  Martin  near  Tours,  was  destroyed  by  the  Nor- 
mans in  865,  and  was  later  a  simple  priory  depending 
on  the  Abbey  of  Maillezais,  and  still  later  belonged  to 
the  Jesuits.  In  1853  the  Benedictines  settled  in 
Ligug6  and  in  1856  it  became  an  abbey.     The  Bene- 


POITIERS 


180 


POITIERS 


dictines  of  Ligug6,  driven  out  in  1880,  took  refuge  at 
Silos  in  Spain;  the  abbey  in  after  years  became  once 
more  a  religious  centre,  but  the  Associations  Law  of 
1901  again  forced  the  monks  into  exile  at  Chevetogne 
in  Belgium.  Another  important  monastery  was  that 
of  Ansion,  or  St.  Jouin  of  Marne,  founded  before  500, 
and  subsequently  placed  under  the  Rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict. St.  Generosus,  St.  Paternus  (Pair),  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Avranches,  his  friend  St.  Scubiho,  and  St. 
Aichard,  afterwards  Abbot  of  Jumieges,  were  all 
monks  of  Ansion.  A  Benedictine  abbey  founded  in 
785  by  Roger,  Count  of  Limoges,  and  his  wife  Eu- 
phrasia, was  the  origin  of  the  town  of  Charroux,  and 
was  enriched  with  many  gifts  by  Charlemagne.     The 


Main  Portal  of  the  Cathedral  of  Saint-Pierre,  Poitiers 

Founded  by  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  on  the  Ruins 

of  a  Roman  Basilica,  XII  Century 

Abbey  of  St.  Savin-sur-Gartempe  was  founded  by 
Charlemagne.  Its  church  and  crypt,  studied  in  1836 
by  Prosper  Merim^e,  dates  from  the  eleventh  century, 
and  possesses  a  series  of  frescoes  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  representing  the  history  of  the  world 
from  the  creation  until  Moses,  and  the  martyrdom  of 
SS.  Savinus  and  Cyprian,  which  are  unique  in  the 
history  of  French  mural  painting.  The  church  of  St. 
Peter  of  Chauvigny  (eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries) 
has  some  admirable  sculpture  work;  and  the  town  of 
Poitiers  is  a  veritable  museum  of  religious  art.  Parts 
of  the  baptistery  of  St.  John,  recently  studied  with 
care  by  the  Jesuit  archseologist,  P.  de  la  Croix,  date 
from  the  fourth  century;  and  there  is  evidence  that  in 
the  time  of  Constantine  baptism  by  immersion  was 
practised  in  Poitiers. 

The  church  founded  in  the  fourth  century  by  St. 
Hilary  in  honour  of  SS.  John  and  Paul,  martyrs  and 
where  St.  Hilary  was  buried,  was  afterwards  dedicated 
to  St.  Hilary,  and  reconstructed  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury by  Emma,  Queen  of  England  and  mother  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  and  by  her  architect  Gautier 
Coorland.  The  vaulting  of  the  seven  naves  of  this 
building,  known  to-day  as  St.  Hilary  the  Great,  re- 
minds one  of  Byzantine  cupolas,  and  is  an  imposing 
sight.  The  church  of  St.  Radegunde,  which  has  a 
Roman  apse  (eleventh  century)  and  a  Gothic  nave 
(twelfth  century),  rises  on  the  site  of  a  church  founded 
in  the  sixth  century  in  honour  of  the  virgin  queen  St. 
Radegunde,  who  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Ste. 
Croix.  In  the  crypt  is  her  tomb,  and  facing  it  a 
statue  of  the  saint,  an  "ex  voto"  of  Anne  of  Austria 
in  1G5S,  for  the  cure  of  her  son  Louis  XIV.  The 
church  of  Notre  Dame  la  Grande  has  a  twelfth-cen- 
tury facade,  which,  to  a  height  of  fifty-six  and  a 
breadth  of  forty-eight  feet,  is  completely  covered  with 
Romanesque  carvings  at  one  time  polychrome.  The 
cathedral,  St.  Peter's,  is  a  beautiful  Gothic  building 
begun  in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century  under 


the  reign  of  Henry  II  Plantagenet  of  England  and 
Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  and  consecrated  18  October, 
1379.  The  Hotel  de  Ville  of  Poitiers  contains  some 
frescoes,  masterpieces  of  Puvis  de  Chavannes;  they 
represent  the  victorious  arrival  of  Charles  Martel  at 
Poitiers,  and  Fortunatus  reading  his  poems  to  St. 
Radegunde.  Among  councils  held  at  Poitiers  are 
those  of:  590,  in  which  the  Prankish  princess  and  nun, 
Chrodielda,  was  excommunicated  for  revolt  against 
her  abbess;  1074,  which  dealt  with  the  matrimonial 
affairs  of  William,  Count  of  Poitiers,  and  to  which 
the  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  Isambert,  came  with  a  troop 
of  soldiers  and  dispersed  the  members;  1075,  which 
dealt  with  the  heresy  of  Berengarius,  and  at  which 
Giraud  was  papal  legate;  1078,  in  which  the  papal 
legate  Hugues  passed  laws  against  simony;  1100,  in 
which  Bishop  Norgaud  of  Autun  was  deposed  for 
simony,  Philip  I  of  France  and  his  concubine  Bertrade 
were  excommunicated,  and  the  bishops  narrowly 
escaped  being  stoned  by  the  order  of  the  Count  of 
Poitiers,  who  was  displeased  with  their  decision; 
1106,  at  which  a  crusade  was  proclaimed.  The  Synod 
of  1868,  assembled  to  celebrate  the  fifteenth  centenary 
of  St.  Hilary's  death,  was  attended  by  representatives 
from  every  part  ■  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of 
Bordeaux.  Five  councils  were  held  at  Charroux  in  the 
diocese;  that  of  1027  legislated  against  the  spread  of 
Manichaeism,  and  was  concerned  with  the  "Pax  Dei", 
or  Truce  of  God. 

Poitiers  is  rich  in  historical  souvenirs.  The  neigh- 
bourhood of  Poitiers  was  the  scene  of  two  famous 
battles,  that  of  October,  732,  in  which  Charles  Martel 
defeated  Abd-el-Raman  and  definitively  saved  France 
from  Saracen  invasion,  and  that  of  September,  1356, 
in  which  the  King  of  France,  John  11,  the  Good,  was 
made  prisoner  by  the  English.  In  the  convent  of  the 
Cordeliers  at  Poitiers  dwelt  for  sixteen  months  (June, 
1307-8)  Pope  Clement  V,  while  Phihp  IV,  the  Fair,  of 
France  dwelt  with  the  Jacobins.  Jacques  Molay  and 
seventy-two  Templars  were  questioned  by  Clement  V 
at  Poitiers.  In  1428  when  the  English  held  the 
country  north  of  the  Loire,  Poitiers  was  more  or  less 
the  headquarters  of  Charles  VII,  and  thither  in  March, 
1429,  went  Blessed  Jeanne  d'Arc  to  see  Charles  VII 
and  be  questioned  concerning  her  mission.  The  con- 
vent of  the  Calvarians  was  founded  in  1617  by 
Antoinette  d'Orl^ans,  under  the  inspiration  of  the 
Capuchin  Francis  Le  Clero  du  Tremblay.  "Poitiers, 
a  town  full  of  priests  and  monks",  wrote  La  Fontaine 
in  1633,  during  a,  journey  through  Poitou.  The 
portion  of  the  diocese  which  lies  in  the  Department  of 
Deux-Sevres  was  greatly  disturbed  during  the  six- 
teenth century  by  the  Wars  of  Religion  and  under  the 
French  Revolution  by  the  Wars  of  La  Vendue.  Among 
natives  of  the  diocese  are:  Cardinal  Jean  Balue;  the 
Sainte-Marthes  (see  Gallia  Christiana)  ;  Filleau  de 
la  Bouchetterie  (1600-82),  who,  in  1654,  accused 
Saint-Cyran,  Jansenius,  and  four  other  Jansenists, 
with  having  at  a  meeting  in  1621,  discussed  the  means 
of  substituting  Deism  for  Catholicism;  Mme  de 
Maintenon;  the  Protestant  theologian,  Isaac  Beau- 
sobre  (1659-1738),  the  historian  of  Manichaeism. 
Urbain  Grandier  was  cur6  of  Loudun  in  the  diocese 
and  after  a  famous  trial  was  burned  to  death  there  (18 
August,  1634)  on  the  charge  of  having  bewitched  the 
Ursulines  of  Loudun.  Besides  St.  Radegunde,  the 
great  saint  of  the  diocese,  and  the  saints  already 
named  the  diocese  especially  venerates:  St.  Abra, 
daughter  of  St.  Hilary;  St.  Leonius  (Liene),  friend  of 
St.  Hilary;  St.  Justus,  priest,  who  was  designated  aa 
his  successor  by  St.  Hilary,  but  who  refused  the 
honour  (fourth  century);  SS.  Savinus  and  Cyprian, 
apostles  of  Poitou,  martyred  by  the  Huns  in  438;  St. 
Maxentius  (d.  515),  founder  of  a  monastery  between 
Niort  and  Poitiers,  whence  arose  the  town  of  St. 
Maixent;  St.  Fridolinus,  an  Irishman,  abbot  of  St. 
Hilary's  of  Poitiers  (d.  c.  540) ;   St.  Lubin,  Bishop  of 


POLA 


181 


POLAND 


Chartres,  native  of  Poitou  (d.  556);  St.  Junianus, 
director  of  St.  Radegunde,  founder  and  first  abbot  of 
the  monastery  of  Maire-l'Evescault  (d.  587);  St. 
Agnes  (d.  588);  St.  Disciola  (d.  583),  abbess  and  nun 
of  Ste.  Croix;  St.  L^ger,  Abbot  of  St.  Maxentius  and 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Autun  (616-678) ;  St.  Adelelmus 
(A116aume),  Abbot  of  La  Chaise-Dieu,  Prior  of  Burgos 
(d.  1097),  a  native  of  Loudun;  St.  William  of  Aqui- 
taine.  Count  of  Poitiers  (1099-1137),  excommunicated 
as  a  partisan  of  the  Schism  of  Anacletus,  and  con- 
verted by  St.  Bernard;  and  Blessed  Francis  d'Amboise 
(d.  1485),  whose  father  was  Viscount  de  Thouars; 
Blessed  Th6ophane  V6nard,  missionary,  martyred  in 
Tonkin  in  1861,  born  at  St.  Loup-sur-Thouet  in  the 
Diocese  of  Poitiers;  Ven.  Charles  Cornay,  mission- 
ary in  China,  martyred  in  1839,  a  native  of  Loudun. 

The  chief  shrines  of  the  diocese  are:  Notre-Dame 
la  Grande,  or  Notre-Dame  des  Clefs  at  Poitiers,  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  since  the  thirteenth  century; 
Notre-Dame  de  I'Agenouill^e  at  Azay-sur-Thouet,  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century;  Notre-Dame  de  Piti^,  near  the  Chapelle  St. 
Laurent,  a  celebrated  place  of  pilgrimage  during  the 
Middle  Ages;  Notre-Dame  de  Beauohene,  at  Cerizay, 
a  place  of  pilgrimage  since  the  twelfth  century.  Many 
pilgrims  are  also  drawn  by  the  chapel  built  at 
Ligug6  on  the  site  of  the  cell  of  a  catechumen  whom 
St.  Martin  brought  to  life  in  order  to  baptize  him,  by 
the  crypt  of  St.  Radegunde  at  Poitiers,  and  by  the 
church  at  Margay,  built  in  1884,  the  first  church  to  be 
dedicated  to  St.  Benedict  Labre.  Before  the  applica- 
tion of  the  Associations  Law  of  1901  there  were  in  the 
Diocese  of  Poitiers,  Augustinians  of  the  Assumption, 
Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine 
and  many  congregations  of  teaching  brothers,  a  house 
of  Picpus  Fathers,  who  were  founded  at  Poitiers  early 
in  the  nineteenth  century  by  the  Venerable  P^re 
Coudrin,  and  who  afterwards  changed  their  parent- 
house  to  Paris.  Many  important  congregations  of 
women  originated  in  the  diocese:  The  Daughters  of 
the  Cross  known  as  Sisters  of  St.  Andrew  (mother- 
house  at  La  Puye),  a  nursing  and  teaching  order, 
established  in  1807  by  Ven.  Andr6-Hubert  Fournet, 
pastor  of  St.  Pierre-de-Maill6,  and  his  penitent, 
Elisabeth  Bichier  des  Ages;  this  congregation  has 
houses  in  Spain  and  Italy;  the  Sisters  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  a  teaching  order  founded  in  1854  by 
Pere  P^cot  with  mother-house  at  Niort;  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Philomena,  a  teaching  order  founded  in  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  by  Abb6  Gaillard  with 
mother-house  at  Salvert.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century  the  religious  congregations  in  the 
diocese  had  charge  of  44  nurseries,  1  school  for  the 
blind,  2  schools  for  deaf  and  dumb,  1  orphanage  for 
boys,  7  orphanages  for  girls,  13  hospitals,  1  home  for 
incurables,  1  lunatic  asylum,  2  houses  of  retreat,  and 
6  district  nursing  homes.  In  1905,  at  the  breach  of  the 
Concordat,  the  Diocese  of  Poitiers  had  684,808  in- 
habitants, 69  parishes,  574  auxiliary  parishes,  and  97 
curacies  maintained  by  the  State. 

Gallia  Christiana,  nova,  II  (1720),  1136-1221:  instr.  325-80; 
Cramard,  Hist.  Ecclesiastique  du  Poitou  (3  vols.,  Poitiers,  1874, 
1880,  1890) ;  Auber,  Hist.  gen.  civile  religieuse  et  litteraire  du 
Poitou  (8  vols.,  Poitiers,  1885-8);  Cherg^,  Les  vies  des  saints  du 
Poitou  (Poitiers,  1856) ;  Barrier  de  Montatjlt,  CEuvres  com- 
pletes, IX  (Poitiers,  1894) ;  Beauchet-Filleau,  PouilU  du  Dio- 
cise  de  Poitiers  (Poitiers,  1869);  Chamard,  St  Martin  et  son 
monasthe  de  Liguge  (Poitiers,  1873) ;  Botle,  The  Irish  College  in 
Paris  with  a  brief  recount  of  other  Irish  Colleges  in  France  (London, 
1901);  RoBUCHON,  Paysages  et  monuments  du  Poitou  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1903);  Richard,  Hist,  des  comtes  de  Poitou  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1903):  DE  LA  Croix,  Etude  sommaire  du  baptisthre  St.  jean  de 
Poitiers  (Poitiers,  1903) ;  Idem,  Les  origines  des  anciens  monuments 
Teligieux  de  Poitiers  (1906);  Idem,  La  Chapelle  St.  Sixte  et  les  ca- 
thidrales  de  Poitiers  (1907) ;  Lef^vre  Pontalis.  St.  Hilaire  de 
Poitiers,  etude  arch&ologique  (CJaen,  1905) ;  M^rim^e,  Notes  d'un 
voyage  dans  I'ouest  de  la  France  (Paris,  1836) :  de  la  MAUViNifcRB, 
Poitiers  et  AngouUme,  St.  Savin,  Chauvigny  (Paris,  1908) :  FouR- 
NiER,  Statuts  des  Universites  frani;aises.  III  (Paris,  1892),  283-335; 
PiLOTELLE,  Essai  histor.  sur  Vancienne  university  de  Poitiers  in 
Mimoires  de  la  SociUt  des  antiguaires  de  I'ouest,  XXVII  (1863); 
Dartioes,  Notes  sur  V  University  de  Poitiers  in  Bulletin  de  lafacultS 


des  lettres  de  Poitiers  (1883);    Delfoitr,  Les  Jlsuites  a  Poitiers 
1604-1762  (Paris,  1902).  GeORGES   GoYAU. 

Pola.    See  Parenzo  and  Pola,  Diocese  of. 

Poland. — I.  Geography. — The  western  part  of 
the  Sarmatian  Plain  together  with  the  northern  slopes 
of  the  Carpathians,  i.  e.  the  territory  included  between 
lat.  46°  and  59°  N.,  and  between  long.  32°  and  53°  E. 
of  Ferro,  with  an  area  of  about  435,200  square  miles 
(twice  as  large  as  Germany),  constituted  the  former 
Kingdom  of  Poland.  Very  hkely  Poland  received  its 
name  on  account  of  its  extensive  plains  (in  Polish  the 
word  for  "field",  or  "plain",  is  -pole),  which  are  the 
characteristic  feature  of  its  topography.  As  an  inde- 
pendent country  (i.  e.,  until  the  year  1772),  Poland 
was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Baltic  Sea,  on  the 
east  by  the  Russian  Empire,  on  the  south  by  the  do- 
minions of  the  Tatars  and  Hungary,  on  the  west  by 
Bohemia  and  Prussia.  The  rivers  of  Poland  flow 
either  to  the  north  and  west,  and  empty  into  the  Baltic, 
or  flow  south  into  the  Black  Sea.  The  rivers  that 
empty  into  the  Baltic  are  the  Oder,  Vistula,  Niemen, 
and  the  western  Duna;  those  that  empty  into  the 
Black  Sea  are  the  Dniester,  Boh  (Bug),  and  Dnieper. 
The  climate  is  universally  temperate,  and  the  four 
seasons  are  sharply  defined.  The  chief  industry  has 
always  been  agriculture,  and  little  account  has  ever 
been  made  of  either  commerce  or  manufactures,  al- 
though the  country  was  situated  on  the  direct  line  of 
communication  between  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  various  divisions,  by  the  union  of  which  the 
Kingdom  of  Poland  was  formed,  still  bear  their  orig- 
inal names.  They  are:  (1)  Great  Poland,  in  the  basin 
of  the  Warthe.  Cities :  Gnesen,  Posen  on  the  Warthe ; 
(2)  Kujavia,  north  6f  Great  Poland,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Baltic  ridge  to  the  left  of  the  Vistula.  City:  Brom- 
berg;  (3)  Little  Poland,  the  basin  of  the  upper  and 
middle  Vistula.  Cities:  Cracow,  Sandomir,  Czen- 
stochowa,  Radom;  (4)  Silesia,  at  the  headwaters  of 
the  Vistula  and  on  the  upper  Oder,  belonged  to 
Poland  only  until  the  year  1335.  Capital:  Breslau; 
(5)  Masovia,  in  the  basin  of  the  middle  Vistula. 
Capital:  Warsaw;  (6)  Pomerania,  between  the  Baltic 
Sea,  the  Vistula  and  Netze.  Cities:  Kolberg  and 
Danzig;  (7)  Prussia,  originally  the  country  between 
the  Baltic,  the  Vistula,  the  Niemen  and  the  Drewenz. 
Cities:  Thorn,  Marienburg,  and  Konigsberg;  (8) 
Podlachia,  on  the  rivers  Narew,  and  Bug.  City: 
Bjelsk;  (9)  Polesia,  in  the  valley  of  the  Pripet.  City: 
Pinsk;  (10)  Volhynia,  in  the  basin  of  the  rivers  Styr, 
Horyn,  and  Slucz.    Cities:  Vladimir  and  Kamenetz; 

(11)  Red  Russia,  on  the  Dniester,  San,  Bug,  and  Prut. 
Cities:    Sanok,  Przemysl,  Lemberg,  and  Kolomyia; 

(12)  Podolia,  in  the  basin  of  the  Strypa,  Seret,  Sbrucz, 
and  upper  Boh.  Cities:  Kamenetz,  on  the  Smotrycz, 
Mohileff,  on  the  Dniester,  Buczacz;  (13)  The 
Ukraine,  east  of  the  Dniester  in  the  basin  of  the  Bug 
and  Dnieper.  Cities:  Kieff,  Zhitomir,  Poltava, 
Oczakow,  and  Cherson;  (14)  White  Russia,  on  the 
upper  Dnieper,  Dtina,  and  Niemen.  Cities:  Minsk, 
Vitebsk,  and  Polotsk;  (15)  Lithuania,  on  the  middle 
Niemen,  extending  to  the  Dtina.  Cities:  Vilna, 
Grodno,  Kovno;  (16)  Samland,  to  the  right  of  the 
lower  Niemen.  City:  Worme;  (17)  Courland,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Riga,  with  the  city  of  Mitau,  belonged  to 
Poland  only  indirectly;  (18)  Livonia,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Riga,  and  Esthonia,  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  belonged 
to  Poland  for  a  short  time  only. 

Poland  was,  for  the  most  part,  populated  by 
Poles;  after  the  union  of  Lithuania  with  Poland  were 
added  Ruthenians  and  Tatars,  and  furthermore,  though 
in  no  considerable  numbers,  Jews,  Germans,  Ar- 
menians, Gipsies,  and  Letts.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  Poles  inhabited  the  whole  of  Great  Poland,  Lit- 
tle Poland,  and  a  part  of  Lithuania,  as  well  as  part 
of  the  Ruthenian  territory.  Moreover,  the  nobility, 
the  urban  population,  and  the  upper  and  better  edu- 


POLAND 


182 


POLAND 


cated  classes  in  general  throughout  the  whole  country 
were  either  Poles  or  thoroughly  Polonized.  The  total 
population  was  generally  given  as  nine  milhons.  The 
Ruthenians  inhabited  the  eastern  (White  and  Red 
Russia),  and  the  south-eastern  provinces  (Red  Russia 
and  the  Ukraine) .  The  Lithuanians  formed  the  bulk 
of  the  population  in  Samland  and  the  waywodeships  of 
\\'ilna  and  Troki.  A  pohtical  distinction  was  made 
between  "Crown  Poland"  and  Lithuania.  These  two 
divisions,  which  united  after  1569,  differed  more  par- 
ticularly in  that  each  country  had  its  own  officials. 
After  1569,  also,  the  designation  "Republic  of  Po- 
land" became  customary  to  denote  not  any  definite 
polity,  but  a  league  of  states  (Lithuania  and  Crown 
Poland).  Crown  Poland  was  called  a  kingdom; 
Lithuania,  a.  grand-duchy.  In  1772,  1793,  and  1795 
the  territory  of  Poland  was  divided  among  the  three 
adjoining  states:  Lithuania  and  Little  Russia  were 
given  to  Russia;  the  purely  Polish  territories,  to 
Prussia  and  Austria.  The  new  boundary  between 
these  states  was  formed  by  the  Pilica  and  the  Bug. 
Thus  Russia  received  8500  square  miles  and  6,500,000 
inhabitants;  Prussia,  2700  square  miles  and  3,000,000 
inhabitants;  Austria,  2100  square  miles  and  4,275,000 
inhabitants. 

Napoleon  took  from  Prussia  the  Polish  territories 
annexed  in  1793  and  1795  and  out  of  them  formed 
what  he  called  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw.  New  territorial 
changes  were  effected  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna: 
Prussia  received  a  part  of  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw  as  the 
Grand  duchy  of  Posen;  Russia  received  the  rest  of 
the  Duchy  of  Warsaw  as  a  separate  Kingdom  of 
Poland  (Congress  Poland) ;  Austria  retained  the  terri- 
tories previously  acquired,  under  the  name  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria,  Galicia  now 
has  a  population  of  more  than  seven  millions,  of  whom 
somewhat  less  than  four  millions  are  Poles,  and 
3,074,000,  Ruthenians.  Grouped  according  to  reli- 
gion there  are  3,350,000  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite, 
3,104,000  Greek  Uniats,  and  811,000  Jews. 

The  San,  a  tributary  of  the  Vistula,  divides  Galicia 
into  an  eastern  and  western  part.  The  latter  is  occu- 
pied by  the  Poles,  the  former  by  the  Ruthenians, 
though  there  are  also  many  Poles.  For  administrative 
purposes  Galicia  is  divided  into  seventy-nine  dis- 
tricts. The  intellectual  centre  of  the  country  is 
Cracow  (150,000  inhabitants),  but  the  actual  capital 
is  Lemberg  (250,000  inhabitants).  There  are  two 
universities,  one  at  Cracow  and  one  at  Lemberg,  one 
polytechnic  institute  at  Lemberg,  and  one  commercial 
academy  in  each  of  these  two  cities.  In  the  Polish 
provinces  belonging  to  Prussia  there  are  approx- 
imately four  million  Poles.  In  Silesia  they  constitute 
two-thirds  of  the  population;  they  are  also  found  on 
the  Baltic  and  in  the  provinces  of  East  and  West 
Prussia,  being  most  numerous  (more  than  1,500,000) 
in  the  Grand  duchy  of  Posen.  The  capital,  Posen, 
numbers  about  150,000  inhabitants.  Among  the 
Poles  the  Catholic  religion  predominates.  The  Poles 
under  Russian  rule  are  found  chiefly  in  Congress 
Poland;  also,  in  small  numbers,  in  Lithuania,  Volhy- 
nia,  Podolia,  and  the  Ukraine.  The  total  probably 
amounts  to  nine  millions.  The  capital  of  Russian 
Poland  is  Warsaw,  with  800,000  inhabitants.  The 
Greek  Uniat  Bishopric  of  Chelm  (Kholm),  situated 
within  the  boundaries  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland,  was 
compelled  by  force  to  accept  the  schism  in  1875;  how- 
ever, since  1905,  a  large  majority  of  the  former  Uniats 
have  returned  to  the  Catholic  Church. 

II.  Political  History.— At  the  period  when  the 
authentic  history  of  Poland  begins,  the  Germans  had 
already  become  the  most  powerful  nation  of  Europe, 
and  their  kings  sought  to  extend  their  dominion  to 
the  Slavic  tribes  beyond  the  Elbe.  The  latter  were 
very  soon  partly  exterminated,  partly  subjugated. 
The  eastern  boundary  of  Germany  was  advanced  as 
far  as  the  Oder;    beyond  this  was  PoUsh  territory. 


But  the  German  armies  did  not  halt  there;  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  where  Frankfort  now  stands  they 
crossed  the  Oder  and  attacked  the  Polish  strongholds. 
Mieszko,  the  Polish  ruler  of  Posen  (962-92),  acknowl- 
edged the  German  Emperor  as  his  lord  paramount, 
promising  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute,  and  upon  demand 
to  aid  him  with  an  armed  force.  In  963  Mieszko 
bound  himself  and  his  people  to  embrace  Christianity. 
Christian  missionaries  were  at  once  sent  to  Poland; 
the  first  bishopric  was  that  of  Posen,  which  was  placed 
under  the  supervision  of  the  German  archbishop  at 
Magdeburg.  This  was  the  first  contact  of  the  Poles 
with  European  civilization.  From  Germany  and 
Bohemia  numerous  missionaries  entered  the  country 
to  baptize  the  people,  while  from  all  the  Western 
countries  came  immigrants  and  monks,  and  convents 
began  to  be  built.  The  spread  of  Christianity  was 
greatly  furthered  by  the  two  wives  of  Prince  Mieszko : 
first,  Dabrowska,  a  sister  of  the  King  of  Bohemia, 
and  then  Oda,  formerly  a  nun  whom  Mieszko  had 
married  after  the  death  of  Dabrowska.  Prince 
Mieszko  considered  himself  a  vassal  of  the  pope,  and 
as  such  paid  him  tribute.  From  this  time  on,  the 
Church  contributes  so  much  to  the  national  develop- 
ment that  it  will  be  impossible  to  trace  intelUgently 
the  political  history  of  Poland  without  at  the  same 
time  following  its  ecclesiastical  development. 

Poland  had  hardly  begun  to  play  a  part  in  history 
when  it  acquired  extraordinary  power.  This  was  in 
the  reign  of  the  famous  Boleslaw  Chrobry  (992-1025), 
the  eldest  son  of  the  first  Polish  ruler.  His  dominions 
included  all  the  lands  from  the  Baltic  to  the  country 
beyond  the  Carpathians,  and  from  the  River  Oder  to 
the  provinces  beyond  the  Vistula.  He  had  at  his 
command,  ready  for  instant  service,  a  well-equipped 
army  of  20,000  men.  In  spite  of  his  great  power, 
Boleslaw  continued  to  pay  the  customary  tribute  to 
Germany.  By  his  discreet  diplomacy  he  was  success- 
ful in  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  pope,  as  well  as  of 
the  German  emperor,  to  the  erection  of  an  archiepis- 
copal  see  at  Gnesen,  and  thus  the  Polish  Church  was 
relieved  of  its  dependence  upon  German  archbishops. 
To  emphasize  Poland's  independence  of  Germany, 
Boleslaw  assumed  the  title  of  king,  being  crowned  by 
the  newly  created  archbishop  of  Gnesen  in  1024.  The 
clergy  in  Poland  were  at  that  time  exclusively  of 
foreign  birth;  intimate  relations  between  them  and 
the  people  were  therefore  impossible.  The  latter  did 
not  become  enthusiastic  about  the  new  religion,  nor 
yet  did  they  return  to  paganism,  for  severe  penalties, 
such  as  knocking  out  the  teeth  for  violating  the  pre- 
cept of  fasting,  maintained  obedience  to  the  clergy 
among  the  people. 

After  the  death  of  Chrobry  disaster  befell  the  Poles. 
Their  neighbours  attacked  them  on  all  sides.  The 
son  of  Boleslaw,  Mieczyslaw  II  (1025-34),  unable  to 
cope  with  his  enemies,  yielded  allegiance  to  the  em- 
peror, and  lost  the  title  of  king.  After  his  death  there 
was  an  interregnum  (1034-40)  marked  by  a  series  of 
violent  revolutions.  Hosts  of  rebellious  peasants 
traversed  the  country  from  end  to  end,  furiously 
attacked  castles,  churches,  and  convents,  and  mur- 
dered noblemen  and  ecclesiastics.  In  Masovia  pagan- 
ism was  re-established.  Casimir,  a  son  of  Mieczyslaw 
II,  sumamed  the  Restorer,  recovered  the  reins  of 
government,  with  the  aid  of  Henry  VIII,  restored  law 
and  order,  and  rooted  out  idolatry.  At  his  death  the 
sovereignty  devolved  upon  his  son,  Boleslaw  II, 
Smialy  (1058-79).  This  ruler  was  favoured  by 
fortune  in  his  warlike  undertakings.  His  success  at 
last  led  him  to  enter  upon  a  conflict  with  the  emperor. 
Conditions  at  the  time  were  favourable  to  his  securing 
political  independence.  The  Emperor  Henry  IV  was 
engaged  in  a  struggle  for  supremacy  with  Pope 
Gregory  VII,  who  allied  himself  with  the  vassal 
princes  hostile  to  the  emperor,  among  them  Boleslaw 
Smialy,  to  whom  he  sent  the  kingly  crown.    Poland 


POLAND 


183 


POLAND 


revolted  from  the  empire,  and  the  PoUsh  Church 
began  a  reform  in  accordance  with  Gregory's  decrees. 
By  the  leading  nobles  Boleslaw  was  thoroughly  hated 
as  a  despot;  the  masses  of  the  people  murmured  under 
the  burden  of  incessant  wars;  the  clergy  opposed  the 
energetic  reformation  of  the  Church,  which  the  king 
was  carrying  on,  their  opposition  being  particularly 
directed  against  Gregory's  decree  enforcing  the  celi- 
bacy of  the  clergy.  The  dissatisfied  elements  rose  and 
placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Bohemia, 
Bishop  Stanislaw  even  placed  the  king  under  the  ban 
of  the  Church,  while  the  king  declared  the  bishop 
guilty  of  high  treason  for  allying  himself  with  Bohemia 
and  the  emperor.  The  king's  sentence  was  terribly 
executed  at  Cracow,  where  the  bishop  was  done  to 
death  and  hewn  in  pieces.  In  the  civil  war  which 
ensued  Boleslaw  was  worsted  and  compelled  to  take 
refuge  in  Hungary. 

After  his  death  Poland  had  to  pass  through  severe 
and  protracted  struggles  to  maintain  its  independence. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  its  power  was 
broken  by  the  Bohemians  and  Germans,  and  it  was 
once  more  reduced  to  the  condition  of  an  insignificant 
principality,  under  the  incompetent  Wladislaw  Her- 
man (1081-1101).  At  this  period  the  clergy  consti- 
tuted the  only  educated  class  of  the  entire  population, 
but  they  were  foreigners,  and  the  natives  joined  their 
ranks  but  slowly.  At  all  events  they  are  entitled  to 
extraordinary  credit  for  the  diffusion  of  learning  in 
Poland.  The  convents  were  at  that  time  the  centres 
of  learning;  the  monks  taught  the  people  improved 
methods  of  cultivating  the  soil,  and  built  inns  and 
hospitals.  During  the  whole  of  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries  Poland  was  in  a  most  unfortunate 
condition.  Boleslaw  III,  Krzywousty  (1112-39),  at 
his  death  divided  the  country  into  principalities, 
which  were  bequeathed  to  his  sons  as  hereditary 
possessions.  The  eldest  son  was  to  receive  the  terri- 
tory of  Cracow,  with  his  capital  at  Cracow,  and  to  be 
the  overlord  of  the  whole  country.  In  course  of  time 
the  other  sons  again  divided  their  lands  among  their 
children,  and  thus  Poland  was  split  up  into  smaller 
and  smaller  principalities — a  process  which  proved 
fatal.  The  overlords  were  unable  to  effect  permanent 
reforms;  Wladislaw  II  (1139-46),  Boleslaw  the  Curly- 
haired  (1146-73),  Mieczyslaw  the  Old  (1173-77), 
Casimir  II  the  Just  (1177-94),  Mieczyslaw  the  Old 
(supreme  for  the  second  time,  1194-1202),  Wladislaw 
III  (1202-06).  The  only  spiritual  bond  that  held  the 
dismembered  parts  of  Poland  together  was  the 
Church.  With  this  in  mind  Leszek  the  Wise  (1206- 
27)  increased  popular  respect  for  the  clergy  by  giving 
them  the  right  to  elect  their  bishops,  and  territorial 
jurisdiction  over  church  lands.  His  brother.  Prince 
Conrad  of  Masovia,  about  this  time  summoned  the 
knights  of  the  Teutonic  Order.  The  heathen  tribes 
on  the  borders  of  Poland — Jazygians,  Lithuanians, 
and  Prussians — were  constantly  making  predatory  in- 
cursions into  the  country.  The  Prussians,  who  had 
settled  east  of  the  Vistula,  were  active  in  these  raids. 

To  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  things  a  knightly  order 
established  by  Germans  in  Palestine  was  summoned 
by  Conrad  for  the  conquest  and  Christianization  of 
Prussia.  These  Knights  of  the  Cross,  so  called  from 
the  black  cross  upon  their  white  cloaks,  established 
themselves  on  the  Vistula  in  1228.  They  were  also 
known  as  the  Teutonic  Knights  (Deutschen  Ritter). 
In  a  short  time  they  exterminated  the  Prussians,  to 
replace  whom  German  colonists  were  brought  into 
the  land,  forming  a  powerful  state  controlled  by 
the  order,  a  state  of  strictly  German  character, 
which  soon  directed  its  attacks  against  Poland.  The 
condition  of  Poland,  meanwhile,  was  disastrously 
affected  by  another  cause:  it  was  subdivided  into 
about  thirty  small  states,  and  the  supreme  princes, 
Henry  I  the  Bearded  (1232-38),  Henry  II  the  Pious 
(1238-41),    Boleslaw    (1243-79),    Leszek  the   Black 


(1279-88),  Henry  Probus  (1288-90),  Przemyslaw  II 
(1290-95),  and  Waclaw  II  (1290-1305),  could  find  no 
remedy  for  the  evil.  Moreover,  in  the  years  1241  and 
1259  the  Tatars  invaded  the  country,  completely 
devastated  it,  and  carried  off  vast  multitudes  into 
captivity.  The  territories  thus  depopulated  were 
then  occupied  by  well  organized  colonies  from  Ger- 
many. In  the  early  thirteenth  and  late  fourteenth 
centuries  these  colonists  became  possessed  with  a  de- 
sire to  seize  the  sovereign  power  in  the  State,  weakened 
as  it  was  by  sub-division.  But  the  magnates  of 
Poland  decided  to  oppose  this  scheme  resolutely.  The 
clergy  issued  instructions  at  synods  against  the  ad- 
mission of  Germans  to  church  benefices,  the  church 
being  the  only  power  that  could  supply  any  means  of 
firm  national  or- 
ganization. The 
Archbishop  of 
Gnesen  was  the 
supreme  rehgious 
head  of  all  the  Pol- 
ish principalities. 
The  clergy  of  the 
time,  having  been 
for  fully  a  century 
native  Poles,  culti- 
vated the  Polish 
language  in  the 
churches  and 
schools.  It  was 
among  the  clergy 
that  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  Ger- 
man influence  first 
took  form.  Above 
all,  it  was  the  clergy 
who  took  active 
measures  to  bring 
about  the  union  of 
the  various  divi 


Tomb  of  Casimir  the  Great 
By  Veit  Stoss,  in  the  Cathedral,  Cracow 
sions  of  Poland  into  one  great  kingdom. 

Circumstances  favoured  this  plan.  For  during  this 
period  of  incessant  civil  wars,  Tatar  invasions,  fam- 
ine, contagious  diseases,  conflagrations,  and  floods, 
the  piety  of  the  common  people  was  remarkable. 
Never  before  or  after  was  the  number  of  hermits  and 
pilgrims  so  large,  never  was  the  building  of  convents 
carried  on  so  extensively.  Princes,  princesses,  nobles, 
and  knights  entered  the  various  orders;  large  sums 
of  money  were  given  for  religious  foundations.  To 
this  period  belong  the  Polish  saints  whom  the  Church 
has  recognized.  The  clergy  gained  extraordinary  in- 
fluence. In  the  convent-schools  singing  and  preaching 
was  henceforth  carried  on  in  the  PoUsh  language. 
Germans  were  not  admitted  to  the  higher  dignities  of 
the  Church.  At  the  same  time  the  Pohsh  clergy  pre- 
pared to  bring  about  a  union  of  the  several  states  into 
which  the  country  was  divided.  This  was  accom- 
plished after  many  years  of  war  by  the  energetic 
prince  Wladislaw,  surnamed  the  Short  (1305-33).  He 
determined,  furthermore,  to  have  himself  crowned 
king.  After  receiving  the  kingly  crown  from  the  pope, 
he  crowned  himself  in  the  city  of  Cracow  (1320).  His 
whole  reign  was  spent  in  warfare;  in  a  way,  he  re- 
stored Poland  and  preserved  it  from  foreign  domina- 
tion. His  son  and  successor,  Casimir  the  Great 
(1333-70),  undertook  to  restore  order  in  the  internal 
affairs  of  the  realm,  demoralized  by  a  century  of  al- 
most uninterrupted  warfare.  He  promoted  agricul- 
ture, the  trades,  and  commerce;  he  built  fortresses 
and  cities,  constructed  highways,  drained  marshes, 
founded  villages,  extended  popular  education,  de- 
fended the  laws,  made  them  known  to  the  people  by 
collecting  them  into  a  code  (1347),  established  a 
supreme  court  at  Cracow  (1366),  and  offered  a  refuge 
in  Poland  to  the  Jews,  who  were  then  everywhere  per- 
secuted.    He  also  founded  a  university  at  Cracow 


POLAND 


184 


POLAND 


(1364)  and  organized  a  militia.  When  he  inherited 
the  Principality  of  HaUoz  (Galicia),  a  part  of  Little 
Russia,  he  brought  this  district  to  a  high  degree  of  pros- 
perity by  his  policies.  Ca.simir  died  without  issue, 
and  with  him  the  Piast  dynasty  became  extinct. 

During  Casimir's  reign  the  clergy,  on  account  of 
their  services  in  bringing  about  the  unification  of  the 
kingdom,  gained  extraordinary  popularity,  all  the 
moro  because  they  were  the  only  educated  element 
of  the  nation.  There  were  seven  rehgious  orders: 
Benedictines,  Templars,  Cistercians,  Dominicans, 
Franciscans,  Lateran  Canons,  and  Prsemonstraten- 
sians.  Libraries  and  schools  were  to  be  found  only 
in  the  con\'ents,  where,  also,  the  poor,  the  sick,  and 
the  crippled  received  comfort  and  help.  Besides  pro- 
moting religion,  some  of  the  convents,  especially  those 
of  the  Cistorcians,  sought  to  promote  agriculture  by 
clearrag  forests,  laying  out  gardens,  and  introducing 
new  \'arieties  of  fruits,  etc.  The  Cistercians  em- 
ployed the  lay  members  attached  to  their  order  in 
manual  labour,  under  strict  regulations,  in  their  fields, 
gardens  and  workshops.  The  Norbertine,  Cistercian, 
Dominican,  Franciscan,  and  Benedictine  nuns  de- 
voted themselves  more  particularly  to  the  education 
of  girls.  Laymen  despised  learning  as  something  un- 
worthy of  them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  clergy  only 
unwillingly  admitted  laymen  into  their  schools,  which 
they  regarded  as  preparatory  institutions  for  those 
intending  to  take  orders.  The  finst  schools  were  estab- 
lished by  the  Benedictines  at  Tyniee,  but  as  early  as 
the  thirteenth  century  this  order,  composed  for  the 
most  part  of  foreign-born  members,  ceased  teaching. 
The  secular  clergy  established  schools  in  the  cathe- 
dral, coUeffiate,  and  parish  churches. 

While  Casimir  still  lived  the  nobility  elected  as  his 
successor  Louis,  King  of  Hungary  (1.370-82),  who 
assumed  the  regency  without  opposition  immediately 
after  Casimir's  death.  Under  him  the  relations  exist- 
ing between  the  people  and  the  Crown  underwent 
substantial  changes.  Louis  had  no  sons,  only 
daughters,  and  he  was  anxious  that  one  of  these 
should  occupy  the  Throne  of  Poland.  With  this 
object  in  view  he  began  to  treat  with  the  Polish  nobles. 
The  nobles  assented  to  his  plan  and  in  return  received 
numerous  privileges.  Thereafter  there  was  bargaining 
and  haggling  with  each  new  king,  a  course  which 
finally  resulted  in  the  complete  limitation  of  the  royal 
power.  On  the  other  hand,  the  despotism  of  the 
aristocracy  increased  in  proportion  as  the  power  of  the 
kings  declined,  greatly  to  the  detriment  of  the  other 
estates  of  the  realm.  Louis  was  succeeded,  after  much 
hesitation  on  her  part,  by  Queen  Hedwig  (Jadwiga), 
in  the  year  1384.  The  Poles  urged  her  marriage  to 
Jagiello,  or  Jagellon,  the  Prince  of  Lithuania,  but  on 
condition  that  he  and  all  his  people  should  embrace 
Christianity.  As  soon  as  Jagiello  had  accepted  this 
proposal  and  had  been  baptized,  he  was  crowned 
King  of  Poland  (1386-1434) — on  the  strength  of  being 
the  consort  of  Queen  Hedwig.  Soon  after  the  close  of 
the  coronation  festivities  at  Cracow  a  large  body  of 
ecclesiastics  crossed  into  Lithuania,  where,  after  a 
short  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  heathen  priests,  the 
people  were  baptized  in  vast  multitudes.  One  of  the 
most  important  tasks  of  the  united  kingdom  of 
Poland  and  Lithuania  was  the  final  reckoning  with 
the  Teutonic  Knights,  whose  power  still  threatened 
both  countries.  In  1409  began  a  war  which  was  sig- 
nalized by  the  crushing  defeat  of  the  order  at  Tannen- 
berg-Griinfclde.  The  battle  of  Tannenberg  broke  for 
all  time  the  power  of  the  order,  and  placed  Poland 
among  the  great  powers  of  Europe.  Until  then 
Poland  had  been  looked  upon  as  a  semi-civilized  coun- 
try, where  the  natives  were  little  better  than  savages, 
and  culture  was  represented  by  the  German  clergy 
and  colonists.  With  the  battle  at  Tannenberg  this 
period  of  disrepute  was  at  an  end. 

The  influence  of  the  Polish  clergy  was  still  further 


increased  after  the  union  of  Poland  and  Lithuania, 
The  royal  chancery  was  administered  by  clerics.  The 
clergy  now  (1413-16)  caused  the  adoption  of  a  whole 
series  of  enactments  against  heresy  with  especially 
severe  provisions  against  apostates.  In  the  general 
synods,  in  which  the  Polish  clergy  had  formerly  been 
classed  as  German,  its  representati\-es  in  the  course  of 
time  received  even  greater  attention,  and  the  candi- 
dacy of  Polish  church  dignitaries  for  the  papal  Throne 
was  considered  in  all  seriousness.  Polish  ecclesiastics 
brought  it  about  that  the  adherents  of  the  Eastern 
Schism  in  the  Province  of  Halicz  (Galicia)  made 
their  submission  to  the  Holy  See  at  Florence  in 
1439.  Jagiello's  son,  Wladislaw  (1434-44)  in  the  year 
1440  accepted  the  Hungarian  Crown  also,  in  order 
that,  with  the  united  forces  of  the  two  kingdoms, 
he  might  successfully  resist  the  power  of  the  Turks. 
He  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Turks  (1443), 
but,  continuing  the  war  at  the  pope's  instance,  in 
spite  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  met  with  disaster,  and  fell 
in  the  battle  of  Varna.  His  successors,  Casimir  the 
Jagellon  (1447-92),  John  Albert  (1492-1501),  and  Al- 
exander (1501-06),  wrought  forthe  welfare  of  theState 
with  varying  success.  The  son  of  Alexander,  Sigismund 
I  (1506-48),  sought  to  consolidate  his  military  power 
and  replenish  his  treasury.  He  succeeded  in  redeeming 
the  mortgaged  estates  of  the  Crown,  but  could  not  ob- 
tain the  consent  of  the  nobility  to  the  formation  of  a 
standing  army  and  the  payment  of  regular  taxes.  Sigis- 
mund also  carried  on  several  wars — with  the  Russians, 
the  Tatars,  and  the  \A'allachians.  In  his  reign,  too, 
the  secularization  of  the  domains  of  the  Teutonic 
order  took  place.  The  grand  master,  Albert,  with  the 
whole  chapter  and  a  majority  of  the  knights,  abjured 
their  allegiance  to  the  emperor,  and  adopted  Luther- 
anism,  an  example  followed  by  a  large  part  of  the 
Prussian  nobility  and  all  the  commonalty.  At  the 
same  time  the  land  which  had  heretofore  belonged  to 
the  order  was  proclaimed  as  a  secular  Prussian  prin- 
cipality. Poland,  desirous  of  continuing  its  suzerainty 
over  Prussia,  sanctioned  these  changes  (1525),  on  con- 
dition, however,  that  Albert  should  swear  allegiance 
to  the  Polish  king.  Albert  accepted  these  terms, 
and  Prussia  accordingly  became  a  fief  of  the  Jagellons. 
Towards  the  end  of  Sigismund's  reign,  between  1530 
and  1540,  a  powerful  tendency  towards  reform  in  reli- 
gious matters  manifested  itself  throughout  Poland. 
This  reform  was  indeed  necessary.  At  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
clergy  were  thoroughly  depraved.  As  a  memorial, 
presented  to  the  papal  nuncio  by  the  better  elements, 
proves,  the  bishops  were  concerned  only  about  the 
attainment  of  new  dignities  and  the  collection  of  their 
revenues;  they  oppressed  the  labourers  on  church 
lands,  keeping  them  at  work  even  on  Sundays  and 
holy  days;  the  priests  were  uneducated  and  in  many 
cases  were  only  half -grown  youths;  the  clergy  were 
venal;  monks  dressed  in  silken  robes  often  shared  in 
the  carousals  of  the  nobility.  The  nobles  envied  the 
flourishing  estates  of  the  clergy.  Thus  a  fruitful  soil 
was  provided  for  the  spread  of  heresies  in  Poland. 
The  spread  of  Hussite  doctrines  was  not  arrested  until 
as  late  as  1500.  The  aristocracy,  especially  the 
younger  members,  who  had  attended  foreign  univer- 
sities, now  began  to  turn  more  and  more  to  Calvinism, 
because  this  religion  gave  laymen  a  voice  in  matters 
affecting  the  church.  Complete  freedom  of  speech 
and  belief  was  introduced.  From  all  sides  the  Re- 
formers, driven  from  other  countries  on  account  of 
their  teachings,  migrated  to  Poland,  bringing  with 
them  a  multiplicity  of  sects.  The  depraved  clergy 
were  unable  to  maintain  their  supremacy.  Zebrzy- 
dowski.  Bishop  of  Cracow,  was  wont  to  say  openly: 
"You  may  belie\'e  in  what  you  will,  provided  you 
pay  me  the  tithe"  Moreover,  many  of  the  clergy 
married.  The  aristocracy  regarded  the  new  doctrines 
as  an  advance  upon  the  old,   drove  the  Catholic 


POLAND 


185 


POLAND 


pnests  from  the  villages,  substituted  Protestant 
preachers,  and  ordered  their  dependents  to  attend  the 
Calvinistio  or  Hussite  devotions.  But  the  common 
people  opposed  this  propaganda. 

The  Reformation  failed  in  Poland ;  but  it  stimulated 
the  intellectual  activity  of  the  Poles  and  contributed 
very  largely  to  the  creation  of  a  national  Polish  litera- 
ture in  place  of  the  hitherto  prevalent  Latin  litera- 
ture. The  sectarians  were  compelled  to  employ  the 
vernacular  in  their  addresses,  if  their  teachings  were 
to  be  effective  with  the  masses.  The  Reformation 
gained  momentum  and  growth  especially  after  the 
death  of  Sigismund  I,  when  his  son  Sigismund  Augus- 
tus (1548-72)  succeeded  him.  There  was  at  the  time 
much  discussion  as  to  convoking  a  national  synod  and 
establishing  a  national  Church,  independent  of  Rome. 
The  representatives  of  various  denominations  in  1.550 
demanded  the  abolition  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
and  complete  religious  liberty;  they  furthermore  pro- 
posed the  confiscation  of  church  lands,  the  permission 
of  marriage  to  the  clergy,  and  communion  in  both 
kinds.  But  the  king  would  not  consent  to  these  de- 
mands. The  diet 
even  passed  strin- 
gent laws  against  the 
Protestant  agitators, 
placing  them  on  the 
footing  of  persons 
guilty  of  high  trea- 
son. Nevertheless  a 
decree  was  issued 
forbidding  the  pay- 
ment of  any  and  all 
tribute  to  the  pope; 
at  the  same  time  the 
ecclesiastical  courts 
were  deprived  of 
jurisdiction  in  cases 
of  heresy,  and  the 
civil  power  was  no 
longer  obliged  to  ex- 
ecute their  sentences. 
The  heretics,  how- 
ever, did  not  gain 
complete      equality 


Cracow 
View  of  the  Castle  from  the  East 

of  rights  under  the  law.  This  curtailment  of  their 
liberty  was  because  the  sects  were  at  variance  with 
one  another  and  because,  furthermore,  the  Refor- 
mation was  hardly  more  than  a  matter  of  fashion 
with  the  magnates,  while  the  gentry  and  common 
people  remained  true  to  the  Church;  so  that  the 
heretics  were  unable  to  secure  a  majority  in  any  part 
of  Poland. 

Still  the  number  of  Catholic  churches  converted  to 
Protestant  uses  amounted  to  240  in  Great  Poland  and 
more  than  400  in  Little  Poland,  in  addition  to  which 
the  various  sects  had  built  80  new  churches,  while  in 
Lithuania,  where  Calvinism  was  particularly  prev- 
alent, there  were  320  Reformed  churches.  As  many 
as  2000  famiUes  of  the  nobility  had  abandoned  the 
Faith.  But  the  Protestants,  although  a  very  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  population,  were  rendered 
incapable  of  successful  effort  by  endless  dissensions, 
while  the  Catholics,  led  by  Hosius,  Bishop  of  Ermland 
(see  Ehmland),  sought  to  strengthen  their  position 
more  and  more.  The  latter  took  advantage  of  all  the 
blunders  committed  by  the  sectarians,  organized  the 
better  part  of  the  Pohsh  clergy,  and  with  great  energy 
carried  into  effect  the  reforming  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Trent.  Furthermore,  the  Catholics  adopted  all 
that  was  good  in  the  policy  of  the  heretics.  Polish 
works  no  longer  appeared  in  Latin  but  in  Polish,  and 
it  was  even  decided  to  translate  the  Holy  Scriptures 
into  Polish.  In  the  field  of  science  the  Jesuits  also 
developed  great  activity  after  the  year  1595.  As  a 
result  of  these  measures,  the  dissidents  steadily  lost 
ground;  the  Senate  and  the  Diet  were  exclusively 


Catholic.  The  plan  of  creating  a  national  Church 
lost  ground,  and  at  last  was  entirely  abandoned 
(1570). 

Sigismund  Augustus  endeavoured  to  bring  the  na- 
tions under  his  sway  into  closer  relations  with  one 
another,  and  he  succeeded  in  effecting  the  union  of 
Poland  with  Little  Russia  and  Lithuania  at  the  Diet 
of  Lublin  (1569),  after  which  these  three  countries 
formed  what  was  called  the  Republic  (see  above,  un- 
der I).  With  Sigismund  the  House  of  Jagiello  came 
to  an  end.  After  his  death  the  Archbishop  of  Gnesen, 
Primate  of  Poland,  assumed  the  reins  of  government 
during  the  interregnum.  As  early  as  the  reign  of 
Sigismund  the  Old,  the  nobility  had  secured  a  funda- 
mental law  in  virtue  of  whic^h  the  king  was  to  be 
elected  not  by  the  Senate  but  by  the  entire  nobihty. 
After  the  death  of  Sigismund  the  nobles  elected  Henry 
of  Valois  king  (1574).  But  after  five  months,  upon 
receiving  news  of  his  brother's  death,  he  secretly  left 
Poland  to  assume  the  Crown  of  France.  Stephen 
Bathori,  Prince  of  Transyh'ania,  was  next  chosen 
king.     His  wise  administration  (1576-86)  had  many 

good  results,  more 
particularly  in  ex- 
tending the  boun- 
daries of  the  king- 
dom. After  his  death 
the  Swedish  prince, 
Sigismund  III,  of 
the  House  of  Vasa 
(1587-1632),  was 
elected.  This  king 
was  one  of  the  most 
zealous  champions 
of  Catholicism.  His 
main  object  was,  be- 
sides completely 
checking  the  propa- 
ganda of  the  Refor- 
mation, to  give  Po- 
land a  stable  form 
of  government.  In 
the  very  first  years 
of  his  reign  Cathol- 
icism gained  consid- 
erably. At  this  time,  also,  the  Jesuits  came  into 
Poland  in  larger  numbers  and  very  soon  made 
their  influence  felt  among  the  entire  population. 
Their    schools,    founded    at    enormous    expense   of 


enormous 
energy  and  capital,  were  soon  more  numerously 
attended  than  the  schools  of  the  heretics.  Jesuit 
confessors  and  chaplains  became  indispensable  in 
great  families,  with  the  result  that  the  nobles  gradu- 
ally returned  to  Catholicism.  Among  the  masses  the 
Jesuits  enjoyed  great  esteem  as  preachers  and  also  be- 
cause of  their  self-sacrifice  in  the  time  of  the  plague. 
Lastly,  they  pointed  out  to  the  nobility  the  exalted 
mission  of  Poland  as  a  bulwark  against  the  Turks  and 
Muscovites.  After  the  influence  of  the  heretics  in 
Poland  had  been  destroyed,  the  Society  of  Jesus  re- 
solved to  reclaim  from  the  Greek  schism  the  millions 
of  inhabitants  of  Little  Russia.  To  these  efforts  of 
the  Jesuits  must  be  ascribed  the  important  reunion  of 
the  Ruthenian  bishops  with  Rome  in  1596.  Eccle- 
siastically, the  Polish  dominions  were  at  this  time 
divided  into  two  Latin  archbishoprics  with  fifteen 
suffragan  dioceses,  while  the  Uniat  Greeks  had  three 
archbishoprics  with  five  bishoprics.  The  schismati- 
cal  Greeks  had  the  same  number  of  archbishoprics 
(Metropolia),  besides  four  bishoprics. 

Under  Sigismund  III  Poland  waged  wars  of  self- 
defence  with  Sweden,  Russia,  the  Tatars,  and  the 
Turks.  Poland's  power  at  that  time  was  so  great  that 
the  Russian  boyars  requested  a  Polish  prince,  the  son 
of  Sigismund  III,  to  be  their  ruler;  but  the  king  refused 
his  consent.  Sigismund  transferred  the  royal  resi- 
dence from  Cracow  to  Warsaw.     After  his  death  the 


POLAND 


186 


POLAND 


nobility  elected  Wladislaw  IV  king  (1632-48). 
Towards  the  end  of  this  reign  the  warlike  Cossacks,  a 
tribe  of  Little  Russia  on  the  River  Dnieper  in  the 
Ukraine,  who  defended  the  southeastern  frontier  of 
Poland  against  the  Turks  and  Tatars,  revolted,  joined 
forces  with  the  Tatars,  and  with  their  combined  armies 
inflicted  a  se\'ere  defeat  upon  the  Poles.  But  even 
worse  times  were  in  store  for  Poland  under  the  suc- 
ceeding rulers,  John  Casimir  (1648-68)  and  Michael 
Chorybut  Wisniowiecki  (1669-73).  The  Cossacks 
and  Tatars  made  terrible  ravages  on  the  eastern 
frontiers  of  Poland.  Then  the  Swedes,  under  Charles 
Gustavus,  conquered  (1665)  almost  the  whole  of  Po- 
land; King  Casimir  was  compelled  to  flee  to  Silesia. 
After  that  the  Russians  invaded  the  country  and  oc- 
cupied Kieff,  Smolensk,  Polotsk,  and  Vilna.  In  the 
autumn  of  ltl55  the  State,  as  such,  ceased  to  exist. 
Lithuania  and  the  Ukraine  were  under  the  power  of 
the  Czar;  Poland  had  been  conquered  by  the  Swedes; 
Prussia  was  occupied  by  the  Brandenburgers.  No 
one  dared  offer  any  resistance.  But  when  the  Paulite 
monks  of  Czenstochau  repelled  an  attack  of  2000 
Swedish  troops,  the  spirit  of  the  nobles  and  magnates 
revived.  The  clergy  made  this  a  religious  war,  the 
victory  of  Czenstochowa  was  ascribed  to  the  interces- 
sion of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  whose  gracious  image  was 
venerated  in  that  convent ;  she  was  proclaimed ' '  Queen 
of  the  Crown  of  Poland",  and  John  Casimir,  at  Lcm- 
berg  (1656),  devoutly  placed  himself  and  the  entire 
kingdom  under  her  protection.  In  the  event,  the 
Swedes  were  soon  routed.  The  wars  almost  simul- 
taneously conducted  against  Lutheran  Swedes,  the 
schismatic  Muscovites,  and  Mohammedan  Tatars 
intimately  associated  Catholicism  with  patriotism  in 
the  minds  of  the  Poles.  "  For  Faith  and  Fatherland" 
became  their  watchword. 

Overwhelmed  by  so  many  reverses,  John  Casimir 
abdicated  in  1668.  He  was  succeeded  by  Michael 
Wisniowiecki,  during  whose  reign  anarchy  steadily 
increased.  The  Cossacks  and  Tatars  again  invaded 
Poland,  as  did  a  large  army  of  Turks.  The  latter  were 
defeated,  however,  by  Sobieski,  at  Chotin,  when 
barely  4000  out  of  10,000  escaped  death.  In  grati- 
tude for  this  glorious  achievement  the  nation,  after 
the  death  of  A\'isniowiecki,  elected  John  Sobieski  king 
(1674-96).  An  excellent  general  and  pious  Christian 
knight,  Sobieski,  immediately  after  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  entered  upon  a  struggle  with  the  Turks. 
He  aimed  at  the  complete  annihilation  of  the  Turkish 
power,  and  for  this  purpose  zealously  endeavoured  to 
combine  the  Christian  Powers  against  the  Turks;  he 
also  entered  into  a  defensive  and  offensive  alliance 
with  the  German  Emperor.  'When  the  grand  vizier, 
Kara  Mustafa,  at  the  head  of  about  200,000  men,  had 
crossed  the  German  frontier  and  was  besieging  Vienna, 
Sobieski  with  a  Polish  army  hastened  to  its  relief, 
united  his  forces  with  the  emperor's,  and  utterly  de- 
feated the  Turks  (1683).  This  campaign  was  the 
beginning  of  a  series  of  struggles  between  Poland  and 
Turkey  in  which  the  latter  was  finally  worsted.  Un- 
der Augustus  II,  Elector  of  Saxony,  Sobieski's  im- 
mediate successor  (1697-1733),  Poland  began  to  de- 
cUne.  Charles  XII,  King  of  Sweden,  invaded  Poland 
and  occupied  the  most  important  cities.  The  Elector 
of  Brandenburg,  a  former  vassal  of  Poland,  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  internal  dissensions  to  make  himself 
King  of  Prussia  with  the  consent  of  Augustus  II, 
thereby  increasing  the  number  of  Poland's  enemies  by 
the  addition  of  a  powerful  neighbour.  Charles  XII 
deposed  Augustus  II,  and  a  new  king,  Stanislaus 
Leszczynski  (1704-09),  was  elected  by  the  nobility. 
Civil  war  followed,  and  the  Swedes  and  Russians  took 
ad\'antage  of  it  to  plunder  the  country,  pillaging 
churches  and  convents,  and  outraging  the  clergy. 
Augustus  II  resumed  the  throne  under  the  protection 
of  Russian  troops,  and  Leszczynski  fled  to  France. 

From  that  time  on  Russia  constantly  interfered  in 


the  internal  affairs  of  Poland.  The  next  king,  Augus- 
tus III,  of  Saxony  (1733-63),  was  chosen  through  the 
influence  of  Russia.  The  political  parties  of  Poland 
endeavoured  to  introduce  reforms,  but  Russia  and 
Prussia  were  able  to  thwart  them.  The  king  pro- 
moted learning  and  popular  education;  he  was  in- 
spired with  the  best  intentions  but  was  weak  towards 
Russia.  From  the  very  beginning  Russia  had  the 
partition  of  Poland  in  view,  and  for  that  reason  fo- 
mented discord  among  the  Poles,  as  did  Prussia, 
especially  by  stirring  up  the  magnates  and  the  here- 
tics. As  early  as  1733  the  Diet  deprived  non-Catho- 
lics of  political  and  civil  rights,  and  Russia  made  use 
of  this  fact  to  stir  up  open  revolt.  The  question  of 
equal  rights  for  dissidents  was  discussed,  it  is  true,  at 
one  session  of  the  Diet,  but  in  1766  the  protest  of  the 
papal  nuncio  resulted  in  the  rejection  of  the  proposed 
change.  At  the  same  time  a  keen  agitation  was  car- 
ried on  against  even  the  slightest  concession  in  favour 
of  non-Catholics.  The  latter,  together  with  some  of 
the  aristocracy,  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  abroga- 
tion of  several  aristocratic  prerogatives,  altogether 
80,000  in  number,  placed  themselves  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Russia,  with  the  express  declaration  that 
they  regarded  the  Empress  Catherine  II  as  protec- 
tress of  Poland,  binding  themselves  to  use  their  efforts 
towards  securing  equal  rights  for  the  dissidents,  and 
not  to  change  the  Polish  laws  without  the  consent  of 
Russia.  But  the  patriotic  elements  could  not  submit 
to  so  disgraceful  a  dependence  on  Russia:  they  com- 
bined, in  the  Confederation  of  Bar  (in  Podolia),  in 
defence  of  the  Catholic  Faith  and  the  rights  of  inde- 
pendence under  republican  institutions.  At  the  same 
time,  through  the  efforts  of  the  Carmehte  monk 
Marcus,  the  religious  brotherhood  of  the  Knights  of 
the  Holy  Cross  was  organized. 

The  confederation,  therefore,  was  of  a  religious 
character:  it  desired,  on  the  one  hand,  to  free  Poland 
from  its  dependence  on  Russia,  on  the  other,  to  reject 
the  demands  of  the  dissidents.  After  it  had  declared 
an  interregnum,  the  king's  Polish  regiments  and  the 
Russian  forces  took  the  field  against  it.  The  confed- 
eration had  hardly  been  dispersed  when  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia  occupied  the  Polish  frontier 
provinces  (altogether  about  3800  square  miles  with 
mora  than  four  million  inhabitants).  The  manifesto 
of  occupation  set  forth  as  reasons  for  the  partition: 
the  increasing  anarchy  in  the  republic;  the  necessity 
of  protecting  the  neighbouring  states  against  this 
lawlessness;  the  necessity  of  readjusting  conditions  in 
Poland  in  harmony  with  the  views  and  interests  of  its 
neighbours.  Prussia  received  West  Prussia  and 
Ermland;  White  Russia  fell  to  Russia;  Galicia  was 
given  to  Austria.  In  the  countries  thus  annexed  each 
state  began  to  pursue  its  own  policies.  In  White 
Russia  there  were  many  Ruthenian  Uniats:  the  Rus- 
sian government  at  once  took  active  measures  to  sever 
their  union  with  Rome,  and  bring  them  into  the 
schism.  The  parishes  of  the  Uniats  were  suppressed, 
and  their  property  confiscated.  A  systematic  course 
of  oppression  compelled  them  to  adopt  the  schism. 
Austria  and  Prussia,  in  their  turn,  sought  to  repress 
the  Polish  national  spirit;  in  particular,  colonization 
of  Polish  territory  with  German  colonists  was  begun 
systematically,  and  on  a  vast  scale.  The  Poles  were 
excluded  from  all  official  positions,  which  were  now 
filled  by  Germans  imported  for  that  purpose  in  large 
numbers.     The  state  schools  became  wholly  German. 

Such  treatment  by  the  neighbouring  states  roused 
all  Poland  to  energetic  action,  so  as  to  prevent  a 
second  partition.  The  Poles  now  learned  the  value  of 
popular  education,  and  their  ablest  men  zealously 
applied  themselves  to  improve  the  schools.  The  Four 
Years  Diet  (so  called  because  its  deliberations  lasted 
four  years  without  interruption)  busied  itself  with 
reform,  on  3  May,  1791,  the  Constitution  was  pro- 
claimed.    According  to  this  fundamental  law   the 


POLAND 


187 


POLAND 


Catholic  remained  the  dominant  religion,  but  the 
dissidents  were  granted  complete  civil  equality  and 
the  protection  of  the  law.  The  new  ordinances  curbed 
licentiousness,  and  thus  caused  dissatisfaction,  espe- 
cially among  the  higher  nobility,  who  formed  the  Con- 
federation of  Targowitz  for  the  purpose  of  annulling 
the  Constitution  which  had  just  been  granted,  and 
called  Russian  troops  to  their  assistance.  The  king 
sided  with  this  deluded  faction.  Thus  Russia  and 
Prussia  had  another  opportunity  of  making  annexa- 
tions; once  more  they  both  seized  large  tracts  of  Polish 
territory  and  thus  was  consummated  the  second  parti- 
tion of  Poland  (1793).  The  Poles,  resolved  to  defend 
their  independence,  rose,  under  the  leadership  of 
Tadeusz  Kosciuszko,  against  Russia  and  Prussia. 
Victorious  over  the  Russians  at  Raclawice  (4  April, 
1794),  he  occupied  Warsaw,  but  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  at  Maciejowice  (10  October,  1794). 
The  revolt  had  miscarried:  Russia,  Prussia,  and 
Austria  divided  among  them  the  rest  of  the  Polish 
kingdom.  The  king  abdicated.  And  thus  the  third 
and  last  partition  of  Poland  was  effected  (1795).  The 
occupation  by  hos- 
tile armies  of  the 
territory  thus  di- 
vided proceeded 
without  resistance  on 
the  part  of  the  in- 
habitants. The  Pol- 
ish people  were  ex- 
hausted by  wars  and 
so  humbled  by  nu- 
merous defeats  that 
they  seemed  to  look 
on  with  unconcern. 

After  Poland  had 
disappeared  from  the 
political  map  of  Eu- 
rope, each  of  the 
three  states  which 
had  absorbed  itbegan 
to  carry  out  its  own 
policy  in  t  he  annexed 
territory.  In  Prus- 
sia all  church  lands 
were  confiscated, 
just  as  after  the  first  partition,  and  the  clergy  as 
a  body  were  made  answerable  for  the  political 
crimes  of  individuals.  In  Austria,  likewise,  the 
poUcy  of  germanization  prevailed.  Under  Russian 
rule  official  hostility  to  the  Polish  national  spirit  was 
not  entirely  open,  but  the  persecution  of  the  Uniats 
continued.  In  1796  all  the  Uniat  dioceses,  except 
Plotsk  and  Chelm,  were  suppressed.  Poland  had  lost 
its  independence,  but  liberty-loving  patriots  did  not 
lose  courage,  for  they  counted  on  foreign  aid.  Dabrow- 
ski  and  Kniaziewicz  organized  in  Italy  a  force  com- 
posed of  Polish  emigrants,  the  "Polish  Legions", 
which  served  Napoleon  in  the  hope  that,  out  of  grati- 
tude, he  would  re-establi.sh  the  Polish  Kingdom. 
These  expectations  came  to  nought.  Napoleon  did 
not  re-establish  the  Kingdom  of  Poland,  but,  after  the 
defeat  of  Prussia,  he  created  the  independent  "Grand- 
duchy  of  Warsaw"  which  continued  in  existence  from 
1807  to  1815  out  of  the  Polish  territories  that  were 
affected  by  the  second  and  third  partitions.  This 
small  state  had  an  area  of  1860  square  miles,  with 
2,400,000  inhabitants.  Frederick  Augustus,  King  of 
Saxony,  became  grand-duke.  After  the  war  with 
Austria  in  1809,  the  Grand-duchy  of  Warsaw  became 
a  factor  which  the  European  diplomats  could  not 
afford  to  overlook  in  their  calculations. 

After  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  Czar  Alexander,  in 
the  Congress  of  Vienna,  claimed  the  grand  duchy  for 
himself.  At  first  there  was  some  opposition  to  this 
demand,  but  an  agreement  was  finally  reached,  with 
the  result  that  the  grand-duchy  was  divided:    the 


Cracow 
View  of  the  Castle  from  the  River 


westerly  part,  with  Poson,  fell  to  Prussia;  Cracow, 
with  the  territory  under  its  jurisdiction,  became  a  free 
state,  and  the  rest  of  the  grand-duchy,  with  Warsaw, 
as  the  autonomous  Kingdom  of  Poland,  came  under 
Russian  dominion.  The  new  Kingdom  of  Poland  (or 
Congress  Poland)  was  taken  by  the  Czar  Alexander  I, 
who  had  himself  crowned  as  its  king  in  the  year  1815. 
In  the  territory  annexed  to  Prussia  the  Poles  received 
complete  equality  of  rights,  and  Polish  was  recognized 
as  the  official  language.  But  from  the  very  beginning 
a  difference  was  apparent  in  the  treatment  accorded  to 
districts  whose  inhabitants  were  Poles  and  those  in 
which  the  population  was  mixed.  In  the  latter  regions 
German  officials  were  appointed;  schools  and  courts 
were  conducted  in  German,  and  the  process  of  german- 
izing  the  Polish  minority  was  begun.  A  policy  similar 
to  that  of  Prussia  was  adopted  by  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment in  Congress  Poland,  where  Polish  culture 
was  in  a  particularly  flourishing  condition.  The  new 
Kingdom  of  Poland  was  connected  with  Russia  only 
through  its  rulers,  who  belonged  to  the  reigning  dy- 
nasty of  the  latter  state.    The  governor  was  the  king's 

brother,  the  Grand- 
duke  Constantino. 
His  government  of 
Poland  was  despotic 
in  the  extreme;  he 
paid  not  the  slightest 
regard  to  the  Con- 
stitution, which  had 
been  confirmed  by 
the  king,  but  ruled  as 
in  a  barbarian  coun- 
try. This  despotism 
growing  still  worse 
after  the  death  of 
Alexander  I,  when 
Nicholas  I  succeeded 
him  upon  the  Rus- 
sian throne,  provok- 
ed, on  29  November, 
1830,  an  insurrection 
in  Congress  Poland, 
which  was  put  down, 
however,  by  the 
overwhelming  mili- 
tary force  of  Russia  (end  of  October,  1831).  Thereupon 
the  Czar  Nicholas  abolished  the  Diet  and  the  Polish 
army,  and  assigned  the  government  of  Poland  to 
Russia,  whose  administration  was  characterized  by 
harsh  persecution  of  the  Catholic  faith  and  the  Polish 
nationality.  While  the  Russian  Government  pre- 
served at  least  the  semblance  of  justice  in  Congress 
Poland,  it  did  not  deem  it  necessary  to  restrict  itself 
in  this  respect  in  Lithuania  and  Little  Russia.  All  the 
Polish  schools  were  closed,  and  Russian  schools 
founded  in  their  stead.  Even  the  clergy  were  sub- 
jected to  manifold  restraints:  the  church  lands  were 
confiscated,  admittance  to  the  seminaries  for  the  train- 
ing of  priests  was  made  more  difficult,  and  communi- 
cation with  Rome  forbidden. 

The  suppression  of  the  revolt  in  Congress  Poland 
involved  a  severe  defeat  of  Polish  nationality  in  all 
the  three  neighbouring  states.  In  Galicia  the  system 
of  germanization  grew  more  and  more  oppressive.  In 
the  Grand-duchy  of  Posen  the  use  of  the  Polish 
language  was  restricted,  German  teachers  were  ap- 
pointed in  the  schools,  and  the  prerogatives  of  the 
Poles  were  curtailed.  In  1833  provision  was  made  for 
the  purchase  of  Polish  lands,  the  money  for  this  pur- 
pose being  supplied  from  a  special  public  fund.  At 
this  time  also  the  last  of  the  surviving  convents  were 
suppressed,  and  their  revenues  applied  to  the  sup- 
port of  religious  schools.  The  Prussian  Government 
ventured  even  to  lay  violent  hands  upon  the 
clergy.  In  the  year  1838  the  government  en- 
gaged in  a  dispute  with  Archbishop  Dunin  concern- 


POLAND 


188 


POLAND 


ing  mixed  marriages,  and  the  archbishop,  fearlessly 
defending  the  position  of  the  Church,  was  imprisoned. 
In  Congress  Poland  Russian  became  the  official 
language;  a  large  number  of  schools  were  closed.  At 
the  same  time  an  attempt  was  made  to  introduce 
Russian  settlers  into  Poland,  but  proved  a  complete 
failure.  In  Lithuania  the  persecution  of  the  Uniats 
had  indeed  the  desired  effect,  but  it  brought  discredit 
upon  the  Russian  Government:  in  1839,  at  the  in- 
stance of  Bishop  Siemiaszko,  1300  Uniat  priests  signed 
a  document  announcing  their  desertion  to  the  schism. 
The  Polish  nation,  unable  to  accomplish  anything  by 
fair  means,  had  recourse  to  conspiracies.  A  national 
uprising  in  all  <he  territories  that  had  been  Polish  was 
planned  for  February,  1846,  but  the  insurrection  was 
not  general,  and  wherever  it  made  its  appearance  it 
was  promptly  crushed.  Cracow,  where  the  manifesto 
of  the  insurrection  was  published,  was  permanently 
occupied  by  the  Austrians;  the  Austrian  Government 
incited  the  peasants  against  the  insurgents,  and,  as  a 
bounty  was  furthermore  offered  for  every  corpse,  the 
peasants  attacked  the  residences  of  the  nobility,  set 
them  on  fire,  and  inhumanly  massacred  "the  lords" 
(altogether  2000  nobles). 

In  the  year  1848,  when  the  long-expected  revolution 
broke  out  in  almost  the  whole  of  Western  Europe,  the 
Poles  under  Prussian  rule  also  revolted,  but  without 
success.  In  April,  1848,  serfdom  was  abohshed  in 
Galicia  (in  Prussia  as  early  as  1823),  and  suitable  com- 
pensation out  of  the  public  treasury  was  granted  to 
the  nobility.  After  1848  the  Pohsh  districts  in  Prussia 
and  Austria  received  the  Constitution,  as  did  the 
other  districts  subject  to  those  Governments.  In 
Galicia  conditions  began  to  improve,  especially  after 
the  year  1860,  when  it  was  granted  a  certain  degree  of 
autonomy  and  its  own  diet.  In  Prussia,  too,  the  Con- 
stitution gave  the  Polish  inhabitants  opportunity  to 
develop  their  national  resources  independently.  The 
educated  clergy  devoted  themselves  with  whole- 
hearted zeal  to  elevating  the  morals  of  the  people,  and 
in  this  way  helped  to  form  a  middle  class  that  was 
both  well-to-do  and,  from  a,  national  point  of  view, 
well  instructed.  The  most  unfortunately  situated 
Poles  were  those  under  the  Russian  Government. 
Russian  was  the  language  heard  in  all  the  public 
offices,  to  fill  which  natives  of  Russia  were  introduced 
into  the  country  in  ever-increasing  numbers.  Under 
these  adverse  conditions  Congress  Poland  steadily  de- 
clined; in  ten  years  (1846-56),  the  number  of  inhab- 
itants was  diminished  by  one  million.  The  Govern- 
ment, during  the  long-continued  state  of  war  (not 
suspended  until  1856),  was  of  a  despotic  character. 
The  clergy,  however,  constituted  a  force  not  to  be 
neglected,  for  it  amounted  to  2218  priests,  1808  monks, 
and  521  nuns,  in  191  convents,  while  the  teachers  and 
professors  of  every  sort  numbered  1800.  The  clergy 
exercised  a  vast  influence  over  the  people,  and  all  the 
more  so  because  the  long  struggle  between  the  Gov- 
ernment and  the  Catholic  Church  had  given  the  clergy 
the  character  of  an  opposition  party. 

Conditions  in  Poland  generally  improved  after  the 
year  1856,  after  Russia  had  been  defeated  in  the 
Crimean  War.  The  Government  of  Congress  Poland 
was  entrusted  to  the  Pole  Wielopolski,  who,  with  the 
best  intentions,  attempted  to  check  the  revolutionary 
activity  of  the  Polish  youth  by  too  severe  measures. 
It  was  the  purpose  of  the  younger  Poles  to  awaken  the 
national  spirit  by  means  of  pageants  in  commemora- 
tion of  national  events  and  by  great  parades  of  the 
people  to  give  utterance  to  their  protests.  These 
manifestations  acquired  a  religious  character  from 
their  association  with  practices  of  piety,  an  association 
permitted  by  the  clergy,  who  were  hostile  to  the  Gov- 
ernment. Prayers  were  continually  offered  in  the 
churches  "for  the  welfare  of  the  fatherland"  The 
clergy,  with  Archbishop  Fijatkowski  at  their  head 
favoured  these  manifestations,  upon  the  repetition  of 


which  Russian  troops  entered  the  churches  and  ar- 
rested, not  without  violence,  several  thousands  of  the 
participants.  By  the  bishops'  orders,  the  churches 
were  closed.  In  January,  1863,  an  insurrection  broke 
out  which  was  doomed  to  pitiful  failure.  About  10,000 
men  were  involved,  scattered  in  very  small  bands 
throughout  the  whole  country,  and  wretchedly  armed. 
Opposed  to  them  was  an  army  of  30,000  regular  troops 
with  108  field-pieces.  In  March,  1864,  to  keep  the 
peasants  from  joining  the  insurrection,  the  Russian 
Government  abohshed  serfdom,  and  the  uprising 
collapsed  in  May  of  the  same  year. 

The  Government  now  exerted  all  its  energy  to  blot 
out  Polish  nationality,  especially  in  Lithuania  and 
Little  Russia:  Russian  became  the  official  language 
in  all  schools  and  public  offices;  Poles  were  deprived 
of  their  employments,  and  all  societies  were  sup- 
pressed. Confiscated  lands  were  distributed  among 
Russians,  and  every  pretext  was  seized  to  expropriate 
the  Poles.  A  decree  was  even  issued  forbidding  the 
use  of  the  Polish  language  in  public  places.  Peculiarly 
energetic  measures  were  taken  against  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Lithuania.  Obstacles  raised  by  the  Gov- 
ernment to  hinder  vocations  were  so  effective  that  in 
the  seven  years  immediately  following  1863  not  more 
than  ten  priests  were  ordained  in  Lithuania.  Public 
devotions,  processions,  the  erection  of  wayside 
crosses,  and  the  repair  of  places  of  worship  were  for- 
bidden; convents  were  suppressed;  large  numbers  of 
the  people  forced  to  accept  the  schism.  An  attempt 
was  even  made,  though  unsuccessful,  to  introduce  the 
use  of  Russian  in  some  of  the  popular  devotions.  To 
remove  all  traces  of  Polish  nationality  in  Lithuania 
and  the  LTkraine,  the  Polish  place-names  were 
changed  to  Russian;  in  the  cities,  inscriptions  and 
notices  in  the  Polish  language  were  forbidden;  the 
cabmen  were  obliged  to  wear  Russian  clothing  and 
drive  Great-Russian  teams.  In  the  Kingdom  of 
Poland  conditions  were  the  same.  Pupils  were  for- 
bidden to  speak  even  a  single  Polish  word  in  school. 
In  addition.  Congress  Poland  was  completely  stripped 
of  its  administrative  independence. 

In  1865  diplomatic  relations  were  interrupted  be- 
tween Russia  and  Pius  IX,  who  was  favourably  dis- 
posed towards  the  Poles.  The  Uniat  Church  was 
attacked,  and  then  the  Government  sought  to  organize 
a  national  Polish  Church  independent  of  Rome.  The 
bishops  were  strictly  forbidden  to  entertain  relations 
of  any  kind  with  Rome.  A  college  of  canons  of  the 
most  various  dioceses  was  formed  at  St.  Petersburg, 
to  be  the  chief  governing  body  of  the  Polish  Church, 
in  all  Russia,  but  the  bishops  as  well  as  the  deans  and 
chapters  in  Lithuania  and  Poland  opposed  this 
measure.  Recourse  was  then  had  to  violence  and 
some  of  the  high  dignitaries  of  the  Church  were  de- 
ported to  Russia.  The  clergy,  however,  courageously 
held  their  ground  and  refused  to  yield.  After  the  last 
defeat  of  1863-64,  a  strong  reaction  set  in  among  the 
Poles  of  all  of  the  three  neighbouring  states.  The 
clergy  were  active  in  inspiring  the  people  with  new 
courage.  In  Prussia  the  Polish  clergy  worked  dili- 
gently to  establish  and  maintain  social  and  agricul- 
tural organizations,  as  well  as  societies  and  loan  offices 
for  artisans  and  labourers,  industrial  associations, 
etc. 

The  oppression  of  the  Poles  continued,  especially 
after  Bismarck  became  chiancellor.  The  schools  had 
to  serve  as  instruments  in  the  process  of  germaniza- 
tion;  the  Polish  towns  and  villages  received  German 
names.  Bismarck  also  began  his  conflict  with  the 
Catholic  Church  (see  Kulturkampf)  .  On  the  motion 
of  Bismarck,  the  Prussian  Diet,  in  the  year  1886, 
granted  the  Government  one  hundred  million  marks 
for  the  purpose  of  buying  up  Polish  lands  and  colon- 
izing them  with  German  peasants  and  labourers.  In 
1905  Congress  Poland  was  again  the  scene  of  an  insur- 
rection, which  was  set  on  foot  largely  by  workingmen. 


POLAND 


189 


POLAND 


and  the  Government,  compelled  by  necessity,  some- 
what mitigated  the  existing  hardships. 

III.  Ecclesiastical  History. — Even  before  Po- 
land became  Christian  under  Prince  Mieczyslaw  I 
(962-92),  there  were  Christians  in  PoUsh  territory. 
This  explains  the  comparatively  peaceful  acceptance 
by  the  people  of  a  new  faith  and  a  new  code  of  morals. 
It  may  be  assumed  that  the  Faith  reached  Poland 
from  the  neighbouring  country  of  Moravia  when,  after 
the  Hungarian  invasion,  numerous  Christians  found  a 
refuge  in  Poland,  so  that  there  must  have  been  a, 
certain  number  of  Christians  among  the  heathen  Poles, 
though  no  organized  Church  existed.  Definite  con- 
clusions, however,  as  to  the  progress  of  Christianity 
before  the  accession  of  Mieczyslaw  I  are  impossible. 
This  prince,  having  married  the  Catholic  Dabrowka, 
a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Bohemia,  embraced  Chris- 
tianity, with  all  his  subjects,  in  966.  He  did  this 
partly  because  he  wished  to  protect  himself  against 
the  Germans.  Priests  for  the  new  Christian  parishes 
were  obtained  from  Bohemia  and  Germany.  As  early 
as  970  a  Polish  bishopric  was  established  at  Posen, 
under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Magde- 
burg. In  1000  the 
Emperor  Otto  III 
and  Pope  Sylvester 
II  erected  the  me- 
tropolis of  Gnesen  for 
the  bishoprics  of 
Posen,  Plotsk,  Cra- 
cow, Lebus,  Breslau, 
and  Kolberg. 

The  formation  of 
this  ecclesiastical 
hierarchy  for  Poland 
was  effected  by  a 
clever  political  move 
on  the  part  of  Boles- 
law  the  Great  (992- 
1025),  and  had  im- 
portant results.  For 
since  that  time  the 
Church  of  Poland 
has  ceased  to  be  dependent  on  Germany,  and  has 
been  under  the  protection  and  patronage  of  the 
Polish  princes,  with  whose  history  its  own  is  most 
intimately  connected.  The  Polish  ruler  thus  obtained 
the  right  to  found  and  endow  churches,  to  take  the 
same  important  part  in  the  establishment  of  dioceses 
and  the  appointment  of  bishops  as  the  emperor  took  in 
Germany.  Poland  did  not  cease  to  be  a  German  fief, 
but  in  ecclesiastical  matters  it  became  absolutely  in- 
dependent. Henceforth  Boleslaw  the  Great  assumed 
the  supervision  of  the  Polish  church,  and  the  Church, 
founded  and  organized  with  the  co-operation  of  the 
rulers,  was  placed  in  the  service  of  the  State.  ^  Al- 
though Boleslaw  exercised  his  right  of  supervision 
rather  arbitrarily,  he  nevertheless  always  entertained 
a  great  respect  for  the  clergy.  The  first  bishops  were 
appointed  by  the  pope;  canons  regular  were  ap- 
pointed to  assist  them.  The  Caraaldolese  Order  also 
came  (997)  and  settled  in  Great  Poland,  but  being 
attacked  Ijy  robbers,  who  expected  to  obtain  a  large 
amount  of  booty  from  them,  they  came  to  a  terrible 
end  in  1005.  In  1006  the  Benedictines  came  to  Poland 
and  settled  in  three  places.  They  cleared  forests  and 
spread  religion  and  civilization.  Boleslaw  granted  the 
churches  tithes,  which  the  nobility  were  unwilling  to 
pay;  the  resulting  disturbances  (1022)  were  soon 
suppressed.  The  king  also  procured  for  the  churches 
valuable  gifts,  such  as  vessels  of  silver  and  gold.  After 
the  death  of  his  son  Mieczyslaw  II  (1025-34),  a  strong 
feeling  against  Christianity  and  its  teachers  mani- 


Cathedbal  of  St.  George,  Lemberq 
Greek  (Ruthenian)  Uniat 


ment  of  tithes,  and  the  masses  attacked  the  churches 
and  the  estates  of  the  aristocracy.  Bishops  and 
priests  were  massacred,  and  the  cathedrals  of  Gnesen 
and  Posen  were  destroyed. 

After  six  years  of  such  disturbances  Casimir  I  (1040- 
58),  having  ascended  the  throne,  restored  Christianity 
and  respect  for  the  clergy;  he  also  built  churches  and 
convents.  His  activity  was  contirmed  by  Boleslaw  II 
the  Bold  (1058-80),  so  persistently  that  the  number  of 
Pohsh  bishoprics  had  risen  to  fifteen  by  the  year  1079. 
As  early  as  this  reign  native  Poles  attained  the  episcopal 
dignity.  The  question  of  heathen  marriages,  which 
were  condemned  by  Bishop  Stanislaus  of  Cracow,  gave 
rise  to  a  quarrel  between  the  king  and  the  bishop. 
The  latter,  having  formed  a  conspiracy  with  the 
magnates,  who  were  incensed  at  the  despotic  rule  of 
the  king,  was  slain  by  the  king  himself.  A  revolt, 
caused  by  this  act,  drove  Boleslaw  to  seek  an  asylum 
in  Hungary.  The  church  thereupon  gained  in  esteem 
and  influence  even  in  political  matters.  Bishops  were 
elected  by  the  chapters,  and  consecrated  by  the  arch- 
bishops of  Gnesen  as  metropolitans.    Under  the  next 

ruler,  Wladislaw 
Herman  (1080- 
1102),  the  clergy  took 
a  lively  interest  in 
public  affairs.  Boles- 
law Krzywousty 
(1102-39)  showed  his 
great  concern  for  the 
welfare  of  Church 
and  clergy  by  vari- 
o  u  s  benefactions, 
founding  new  con- 
vents and  embellish- 
ing those  already  in 
existence.  At  this 
period,  too.  Count 
Piotr  Wlast  Dunin 
(d.  1153)  is  said  to 
have  built  forty 
places  of  worship. 
All  of  these  works 
perished  when  Boles- 
law's  will  stirred  up 
a  series  of  terrible  wars  that  raged  for  almost  two 
hundred  years  throughout  Poland.  (See  above: 
II.)  During  these  struggles  the  Church  aloiie  pre- 
served the  national  homogeneity,  and  this  circum- 
stance, more  than  any  other,  increased  the  influence  of 
the  clergy  in  political  matters.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  Henry,  Duke  of  Sandomir,  with  a  numerous 
retinue  of  Polish  nobles  undertook  a  crusade  to  the 
Holy  Land  and  spent  an  entire  year  there.  Upon 
their  return  to  Poland  these  pilgrims  introduced  the 
knightly  orders  of  the  Templars,  of  St.  John,  and  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  clergy,  now  more  numerous, 
held  synods  in  which,  among  other  matters,  education 
was  dealt  with.  At  the  instance  of  the  bishops, 
schools  were  established  in  connexion  with  the 
churches  and  convents.  The  first  provincial  synod  of 
this  kind,  at  Leczyca  (1180),  decreed  excommunica- 
tion as  the  punishment  for  the  robbery  of  church 
property. 

The  clergy  now  began  more  and  more  to  carry  into 
effect  the  plans  of  the  murdered  Bishop  Stanislaus  by 
their  efforts  to  secure  the  supremacy  of  the  Church. 
The  Church  succeeded  in  freeing  itself  from  the  fetters 
with  which  the  temporal  rulers  had  bound  her.  For 
the  reform  for  which  Gregory  had  striven  had  not  been 
carried  out  in  Poland.  While  it  had  long  been  cus- 
tomary in  the  West  for  cathedral  chapters  to  elect  the 
bishops,  so  that  the  Church  was  in  this  respect  no 
longer  dependent  on  the  temporal  power,  in  Poland 
the  bishops  were  still  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  who 


fested  itself  among  the  people;   many  even  relapsed    furthermore  claimed  for  the  state  treasury  certain  fees 
into  paganism.    The  nobility  discontinued  the  pay-    from  the  lands  held  by  the  clergy.     The  pope's  de- 


POLAND 


190 


POLAND 


mand  for  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  had  also  been  dis- 
regarded. Pope  Innocent  III  first  undertook  to  free 
the  Polish  clergy  from  dependence  upon  the  temporal 
sovereign;  he  found  an  active  supporter  in  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Gnesen,  Henry  Kietticz.  The  latter  en- 
forced the  ceUbaoy  of  the  clergy  under  him  and  ob- 
tained for  the  decrees  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  both 
force  and  validity;  he  also  excommunicated  the  senior 
prince,  Wladislaw  Laskonogi  (1202-06),  for  trying  to 
keep  the  Church  in  its  condition  of  dependence  and 
refusing  to  give  up  the  old  royal  prerogatives  of  ap- 
pointment of  bishops,  jurisdiction  over  the  church 
lands,  and  the  exaction  of  fees  and  other  payments 
from  them.  From  that  time  a  growing  movement  for 
the  deliverance  of  the  Church  from  oppression  by  the 
State  is  manifest,  a  rehef  which  had  already  been 
secured  in  the  neighbouring  kingdoms  to  the  west. 
The  Church,  now  freed  from  the  guardianship  of  the 
State,  made  an  energetic  stand  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  princes  and  the  immorality  of  the  people. 
At  the  synods  held  at  this  time  severe  penalties  were 
imposed,  by  the  direction  of  the  papal  legates,  upon 
those  laymen  who  claimed  for  themselves  the  right  of 
granting  benefices.  From  that  time  bishop  and 
prince  were  considered  titles  of  equal  rank  in  Poland. 

In  1210  two  Polish  princes  jointly  conferred  privi- 
leges upon  the  clergy,  thereby  recognizing  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Church,  not  only  within  its  own 
organization,  but  also  (within  the  confines  of  church 
lands)  over  all  its  own  subjects,  together  with  exemp- 
tion from  taxation.  The  Church  of  Poland  was  now 
organized  in  conformity  with  the  canon  law;  it.s  juris- 
diction covered,  not  only  the  clergy,  but  also  the 
inhabitants  domiciled  on  the  church  lands  and,  in 
many  matters,  the  whole  Catholic  community  as  such. 
The  Church  wielded  the  powerful  weapons  of  inter- 
dict and  excommunication.  Church  and  clergy  to- 
gether formed  an  independent  political  division  of  the 
population,  endowed  with  complete  power  of  self- 
government.  Not  only  had  the  dependence  of  the 
bishops  on  the  princes  ceased,  but  the  lesser  clergy, 
too,  no  longer  sought  the  favour  of  the  prince:  it  was 
well  known  to  them  that,  if  they  preserved  the  spirit 
of  the  Church  and  guarded  its  interests,  distinction 
and  honours  awaited  them  within  its  domain.  Thanks 
to  their  really  enormous  financial  resources  and  their 
influence  in  the  domain  of  morals,  the  clergy  repre- 
sented a  power  with  which  temporal  rulers  had  to 
reckon.  The  highest  legislative  bodies  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  in  Poland,  the  sjmods,  provided  for  the 
independence  of  the  Church,  and  occupied  themselves 
in  strengthening  its  influence  over  the  laity.  Litera- 
ture and  all  that  pertained  to  education  were  wholly 
in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  the  members  of  the  various 
religious  orders,  in  particular,  rendering  great  service 
in  this  direction. 

In  this  period,  also,  religious  life  developed  to  a, 
high  degree  among  the  people,  as  a  result  of  the  severe 
afflictions  caused  by  the  wars  and  invasions  of  the 
Tatars  (1241,  1260,  1287).  The  horrors  of  the  time 
acted  as  a  powerful  stimulant  upon  the  general  piety, 
which  revealed  itself  in  reUgious  endowments  and 
privileges  conferred  upon  the  clergy.  In  the  next 
period  (from  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  to  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century)  churches  and  convents 
were  especially  numerous.  The  clergy  added  to  its 
popularity  by  striving  for  the  union  of  the  PoUsh 
principalities  into  a  great  kingdom.  Archbishop 
Pelka,  for  instance,  in  1257  ordered  that  the  people 
should  learn  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Polish,  and  the 
synod  under  Archbishop  S\vinka  (1285)  forbade  the 
granting  of  benefices  to  foreigners  or  the  appointment 
as  teacher  of  any  person  who  was  not  master  of  the 
national  tongue.  The  consolidation  of  Poland  having 
been  effected  under  Lokietek  (1306-33),  the  clergy 
were  dissatisfied  with  him  because  he  would  not 
exempt  them  from  taxation.     This  grievance  gave 


rise  to  a  quarrel  between  the  clergy  and  Lokietek's 
successor,  Casimir  the  Great  (1333-79).  Casimir's 
life  was  far  from  faultless,  and  Bodzanta,  Bishop  of 
Cracow,  after  admonishing  him  without  effect,  placed 
him  under  excommunication.  The  cathedral  vicar, 
Martin  Baryczka,  notified  Casimir  of  this  censure,  and 
the  king  had  him  drowned  in  the  Vistula  (1349). 
Casimir  sought  to  make  amends  for  the  murder  by 
lavish  alms  giving,  pious  bequests,  and  privileges 
granted  to  the  clergy.  At  Cracow  he  founded,  under 
the  patronage  of  the  bishop,  a  more  advanced  school 
or  university — the  first  in  Northern  Europe  (1364) — 
which  was  approved  by  Pope  Urban  V.  He  also 
brought  order  into  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  Little  Rus- 
sia by  establishing  the  archiepisoopal  See  of  Halicz, 
in  1367,  with  Chelm,  Turow,  Przemysl  and  Wlod- 
zimiesz  for  its  suffragans.  The  Archbishopric  of 
Halicz  was  afterwards  transferred  to  Lemberg.  Tho 
archbishops  of  Gnesen  became  the  foremost  princes  of 
the  realm,  and  the  clergy  were  hereafter  relieved  of  all 
taxes.  This  displeased  the  nobility,  who,  moreover, 
had  to  pay  the  tithes  to  the  clergy,  with  the  alterna- 
tive of  exclusion  from  the  Church. 

Under  Louis  of  Hungary  (1370-82)  the  clergy  re- 
ceived new  privileges,  but  in  the  same  reign  the  bish- 
ops of  Poland  began  to  be  nominated  by  the  State: 
the  kings,  having  established  the  bishoprics,  believed 
that  they  had  the  right  of  patronage.  Beginning  with 
the  reign  of  Jagiello  (1386-1434),  the  Church  of  Po- 
land worked  in  a  new  field,  spreading  religion  among 
the  neighbouring  heathen  peoples.  The  Lithuanians 
accepted  Christianity,  and  Jagiello  caused  many 
churches  to  be  built.  But  the  morals  of  the  clergy 
were  declining.  The  Church  of  Poland  took  part,  it 
is  true,  in  the  Synod  of  Constance,  at  which  Hus  was 
burnt,  but  had  not  the  strength  to  oppose  effectively 
the  reactionary  tendency  of  the  nobility,  which  sought 
to  use  heresy  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  influence  of  the 
Church.  That  influence,  attaining  its  maximum 
when  the  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Cracow,  Zbigniew 
Olesnicki,  wielded  political  power  at  Court,  roused  the 
emulation  of  the  secular  lords.  With  the  appearance 
of  Hus  in  Bohemia  there  arose  in  Poland  an  anti- 
church  party  composed  of  Hussites.  The  ecclesiasti- 
cal synods  issued  severe  decrees  against  these  heretics, 
whom  Jagiello,  in  1424,  also  adjudged  guilty  of  high 
treason.  The  Inquisition  became  active  against 
them. 

It  was  clerical  influence,  too,  that  led  King  Wladis- 
law III  (1434r-44)  to  take  the  field  against  the  Turks 
in  defence  of  Christendom.  During  the  reign  of  his 
brother,  Casimir  the  Jagellon  (1446-92),  the  Church 
of  Poland  produced  a  number  of  saintly  men,  and 
was  so  highly  esteemed,  even  in  Bohemia,  that  it  was 
the  general  wish  there  that  the  Pole  Dlugosz  should 
be  made  their  archbishop.  Nevertheless,  the  tem- 
poral power  sought  to  free  itself  from  the  domination 
of  the  spiritual.  The  nobility  insisted  more  and  more 
on  the  taxation  of  the  clergy.  With  the  death  of 
Cardinal  Olesnicki  the  political  power  of  the  Church 
in  Poland  was  at  an  end.  During  the  succeeding 
periods  the  Reformation  made  ominous  progress.  It 
found  a  soil  prepared  for  it  by  the  moral  decline  of  the 
clergy  and  the  indifference  of  the  bishops.  In  1520 
a  Dominican  named  Samuel  rose  against  the  Roman 
Church  at  Posen;  in  1530  Latatski,  Bishop  of  Posen, 
appointed  a  Lutheran  preacher;  in  1540  John  Laski, 
a  priest  of  Gnesen,  renounced  the  Catholic  faith  and 
openly  married,  as  did  many  others;  under  Modrzew- 
ski  efforts  were  made  to  establish  an  independent 
state  church.  King  Sigisniund  I  the  Old  (1506-48), 
a  zealous  Catholic,  was  opposed  to  a  reformation  of 
that  nature;  he  issued  rigorous  edicts  against  the 
preaching  of  the  new  doctrines  and  the  introduction 
of  heretical  writings  (1523,  1.526).  Tho  populace  re- 
mained indifferent  to  the  Reformation,  only  the  nobil- 
ity took  part  in  it.     The  clergy  adopted  precautionary 


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POLAND 


measures:  the  primate  put  all  sectarians  under  the  ban 
of  the  Church,  and  it  was  decided  to  establish  an  eccle- 
siastical court  of  inquisition.  Catholic  congresses 
were  also  assembled.  But  all  these  means  were  in- 
effectual to  check  the  Reformation,  which  was,  in 
fact,  favoured  by  some  of  the  bishops. 

In  1552,  at  the  Diet  of  Piotrkow,  it  was  proposed  to 
summon  a  Polish  national  synod  both  for  Catholics 
and  for  heretics,  and  in  1555  a  resolution  was  adopted, 
by  which  heretics  were  not  to  be  prosecuted  on  ac- 
count of  their  belief  until  the  holding  of  this  synod. 
The  Protestant  preachers  returned  to  Poland  and  the 
sectarians  formed  a  union  against  Catholicism.  Re- 
ligious war  first  broke  out  in  all  its  violence  under 
Sigismund  Augustus  (1548-72),  who  did  not  defend 
Catholicism  with  the  same  conviction  and  firmness 
as  his  father.  His  vacillating  conduct  inspired  the 
heretics  with  courage.  In  1550  demands  were  made 
for  the  abolition  of  celibacy,  celebration  of  Mass  in 
the  vernacular,  and  communion  under  both  forms. 
Bishops  were  deprived  of  the  right  to  sit  in  judgment 
on  heresy.  Monks  were  expelled;  churches  were 
seized.  The  confusion  in  the  land  grew  steadily 
worse.  The  heretics,  themselves  of  the  most  varied 
creeds,  quarrelled  with  one  another.  Alarmed  by 
the  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Poland,  Rome  sent 
Luigi  Lippomano  thither  as  nuncio.  At  this  time, 
too,  the  first  Jesuits  came  to  Poland.  The  papal 
legate,  Commendone,  carried  out  the  reform  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  in  this  way  deprived  the  Re- 
formers of  their  pretext.  He  was  also  able  to  secure 
from  the  king  two  decrees  (1564):  one  against  non- 
Catholic  aliens,  the  other  against  native  Poles  who 
sought  in  any  way  to  injure  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  Jesuits,  introduced  into  Poland  in  1564  by 
Hosius,  Bishop  of  Ermland,  opened  their  schools  in 
many  places,  successfully  conducted  debates  with  the 
heretics,  and  energetically  contended  against  heresy 
both  from  the  pulpit  and  in  writing.  Under  their 
influence  the  families  of  the  magnates  began  to  return 
to  the  Catholic  Church.  In  1571 — the  year  when  the 
Conference  of  Warsaw  secured  freedom  of  belief  for 
the  dissidents — the  Jesuit  houses  in  Poland  were 
organized  into  a  separate  province.  The  heretics  still 
continued  to  cause  disturbances,  but  fortune  deserted 
them.  After  the  short  reign  of  Henry  of  Valois  (1574r- 
75)  Stephen  Bdthori  succeeded  to  the  throne  (1576- 
86).  The  latter  openly  supported  the  Jesuits  in  their 
endeavours,  and  under  his  protection  they  founded  a 
very  large  number  of  new  schools.  The  next  king, 
also,  Sigismund  III  Vasa  (1588-1632),  gave  no  sup- 
port to  the  dissidents;  on  the  contrary,  he  confirmed 
the  rights  of  the  Catholic  Church  (1588)  and,  as  a 
good  Catholic,  so  influenced  many  of  his  magnates  by 
his  pious  life  that  they  returned  to  the  religion  of  their 
fathers.  The  reconciliation  of  the  Ruthenian  Church 
was  effected  in  1595;  and  the  Armenians,  who  were 
domiciled  here  and  there  in  Poland,  also  united  with 
the  CathoUc  Church.  Wladislaw  IV  (1632-48)  in- 
troduced into  Poland  the  Piarists,  who  established 
numerous  schools.  In  his  dealings  with  the  mutually 
hostile  sects  this  king  pursued  a  policy  of  duplicity, 
by  which  a  horrible  war  was  brought  upon  a  later 
generation.  At  this  time  there  were  in  Poland  750 
convents,  representing  20  male  and  15  female  orders. 
He  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  John  Casimir 
(1648-68),  who  had  previously  been  a  Jesuit  (1643) 
and  then  a  Cardinal  (1645).  To  the  general  distress 
of  this  reign  the  dissidents  contributed  not  a,  little. 
For  this  reason,  the  Socinians  (1658),  the  Arians 
(1661),  and  other  sects  were  driven  out  of  Poland. 
In  return  the  king  received  from  the  pope  the  title 
Rex  Orthodoxus.  Bowed  down  by  his  misfortunes,  he 
resigned  the  crown  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris, 
where  he  Uved  until  1672  as  titular  Abbot  of  St.  Ger- 
main. Under  his  successors  upon  the  Polish  throne, 
Michael  Wisniowiecki  (1669-72)  and  John  III  Sobie- 


ski,  the  solicitude  of  the  people  for  the  Faith  and  their 
efforts  to  repress  heresy  steadily  increased. 

When,  after  the  death  of  John  Sobieski,  Frederick 
II,  Elector  of  Saxony,  assumed  the  Government  (1697- 
1733),  he  affirmed  in  his  coronation  oath  that  he 
would  not  confer  any  high  offices  on  the  dissidents, 
although  toleration  was  assured  them.  This  king  had 
abandoned  Protestantism  and  become  a  Cathohc; 
although  a  lukewarm  Catholic,  and  leading  a  repre- 
hensible life,  he  nevertheless  restricted  the  liberties  of 
the  heretics  (1716),  and  they  were  removed  from 
pubUc  office  (1743).  At  the  same  time  violent  dis- 
putes were  carried  on  with  the  clergy  over  appoint- 
ments to  bishoprics,  ecclesiastical  courts,  payment  of 
taxes,  etc.  The  endless  wars  during  the  reign  of  this 
king  led  to  the 
oppression  of 
the  clergy,  im- 
poverishment 
and  deteriora- 
tion of  the 
churches,  and, 
among  the  no- 
bility, to  de- 
moralization 
and  lack  of 
sympathy  for 
the  common 
people  in  their 
distress.  The 
priests  in  their 
sermons  de- 
fended the  peas- 
ants against 
the  tyranny  of 
the  nobility 
and  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  ob- 
taining a  legal 
decision  (1764) 
which  made 
noblemen  lia- 
ble to  the 
death  penalty  for  killing  a  peasant.  Frederick  Augus- 
tus III  (1733-63)  confirmed  the  decrees  issued  during 
the  lifetime  of  his  father  against  the  dissidents,  but 
beyond  this  he  was  wholly  unconcerned  about  church 
and  state. 

The  next  ruler,  Stanislaus  Augustus  Poniatowski 
(1764-95),  was  a  man  of  culture  and  actively  promoted 
popular  education,  but  the  evil  conditions  had  grown 
beyond  his  control.  During  his  reign  the  bonds  of 
matrimony,  the  very  basis  of  all  society,  became  so 
loosened,  and  the  number  of  divorces  reached  such 
an  alarming  total,  that  Benedict  XIV  was  compelled 
to  address  the  Pohsh  bishops  in  three  Bulls  (1741, 
1743,  1748)  in  reference  to  this  evil.  In  addition  to 
this  the  neighbouring  states  began  to  interfere  in 
behalf  of  the  non-Catholics  in  Poland,  demanding 
that  they  should  be  given  the  same  rights  as  Catholics 
(1766);  this,  however,  was  denied.  Thereupon  the 
dissidents  formed  a  confederation  at  Radom  (1767), 
and  the  Diet  was  compelled  to  grant  them  all  the 
rights  enjoyed  by  Catholics  except  the  right  to  the 
Crown.  Independently  of  this,  the  right  to  convoke 
synods  was  granted  them;  mixed  courts,  generally 
with  a  majority  of  non-Catholic  members,  were  ap- 
pointed to  decide  questions  involving  religion.  In 
mixed  marriages  the  sons  were  to  follow  the  refigion 
of  the  father,  the  daughters  that  of  the  mother.  Un- 
restricted permission  was  also  granted  the  dissidents 
to  build  places  of  worship.  Meanwhile  Rome  re- 
minded the  Poles  that,  as  knights  in  the  service  of 
Christ,  it  was  their  duty  to  break  a  lance  for  Catholi- 
cism. In  defense  of  the  Faith  the  Confederation  of  Bar 
was  formed  (1768-72),  but  it  only  added  to  the  confu- 
sion and  misfortune  of  the  country.     Coming  from 


Church  of  Sakhamentek,  Lembebg 
Latin  Rite 


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192 


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France  to  Poland,  freemasonry  spread  especially  in 
the  higher  circles  of  society,  where  French  literature 
had  done  its  work  of  corruption.  Atheism  was 
jjreached  openly  and  acknowledged.  New  palaces 
arose  while  the  churches  fell  into  decay;  the  Theatines 
left  the  country  (1785);  at  this  time  too  the  Society 
of  .Jesus  was  suppressed  (1773),  and  its  possessions 
converted  to  the  use  of  popular  education;  a  com- 
mission on  education  was  created.  With  the  consent 
of  Pius  VI,  several  church  holydays  were  abolished, 
the  number  of  those  retained  being  only  seventeen, 
besides  Sundays.  Further  attacks  on  the  property  of 
the  bishops,  and  especially  of  the  richly  endowed 
orders,  followed. 

At  the  first  Diet,  after  the  coronation  of  King 
Stanislaus  Augustus  (1764),  the  Polish  Church  was 
represented  by  two  archbishops  and  fifteen  bishops. 
The  external  splendour  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
Poland  had  reached  its  zenith.  But  the  political  dis- 
turbances and  wars,  the  repeated  passage  of  armies, 
continued  for  perhaps  a  year  without  interruption,  the 
conflict  with  the  dissidents,  were  extremely  disastrous 
to  the  Church.  After  the  three  partitions  (1773,  1793, 
1795),  the  Government  of  Russia  strove  to  extirpate, 
not  only  Polish  nationality,  but  also  the  Catholic 
Church.  After  the  insurrection  of  1831,  the  Uniats 
were  forced  into  apostasy;  convents  were  suppressed, 
churches  closed.  Even  harsher  measures  were 
adopted  after  1863:  by  a  cabinet  order  of  1864,  the 
property  of  the  Church  was  confiscated,  the  convents 
still  in  existence  suppressed;  in  1867  the  clergy  were 
placed  under  the  authority  of  a  commission  at  St. 
Petersburg,  without  any  regard  to  the  wishes  of  the 
Apostohc  See.  The  liturgical  books  and  devotions  of 
the  schismatics  were  forcibly  introduced  into  the 
churches  of  the  Uniats .  Peasants  who  tried  to  prevent 
the  schismatical  popes  from  entering  the  churches 
were  simply  shot  down ;  the  christening  of  children  as 
Catholics  and  the  solemnization  of  matrimony  in 
Catholic  churches  were  forbidden.  Not  until  after 
the  war  with  Japan  was  an  edict  of  toleration  pro- 
claimed in  Russia,  making  it  permissible  for  schis- 
matics to  be  reconciled  with  Rome.  The  Prussian 
Government  treated  the  Catholic  Poles  no  better  than 
did  the  Russian.  The  Catholic  clergy  in  Prussian 
Poland  was  subordinated  to  the  temporal  power.  The 
election  of  bishops,  prelates,  and  superiors  of  religious 
societies,  in  view  of  the  extensive  right  of  veto,  was 
made  to  depend  upon  the  decision  of  an  administra- 
tive council,  which  receives  the  oath  of  allegiance  from 
the  clergy  and  gives  them  instructions  for  the  celebra- 
tion of  German  national  anniversaries.  In  civil  and 
criminal  proceedings,  too,  the  clergy  is  subject  to  the 
civil  authorities.  The  ecclesiastical  courts  have  juris- 
diction only  in  matters  of  a  purely  religious  character; 
but  they  have  not  the  right  to  order  temporary  or 
permanent  divorce  in  the  case  of  mixed  marriages. 
The  properties  of  the  Catholic  clergy  as  such  were  con- 
fiscated; for  the  support  of  the  clergy  a  part  of  the 
income  of  the  confiscated  estates  and  the  interest  on 
capital,  which  belongs  to  ecclesiastical  corporations, 
but  had  been  lent  to  private  individuals,  was  set  aside. 
In  addition  to  this  the  Government  granted  the  clergy 
permission  to  accept  payment  at  a  fixed  rate  for  the 
performance  of  services  attached  to  their  office.  In 
tJalicia  (Austrian  Poland)  the  patent  of  toleration  of 
Joseph  II,  granted  in  1781,  admitted  Protestants,  Cal- 
vinists  and  schismatics  to  official  positions,  secured 
for  them  freedom  of  religious  beUef,  and  even  the 
permission,  where  there  were  about  100  Protestant 
families  in  a  community,  to  build  churches,  etc.  (but 
without  steeples  and  bells,  and  with  entrances  at  the 
side).  Although  Catholicism  was  recognized  as  the 
dominant  religion,  the  Church  was  nevertheless  sub- 
ject to  the  control  of  the  State.  Without  the  placet 
of  the  State  papal  Bulls  and  pastoral  letters  were 
invaUd.     The  Government  assumed  the  supervision 


and  conduct  of  seminaries  for  the  training  of  priests, 
and  prescribed  the  character  and  method  of  instruc- 
tion in  theology.  In  1782  the  convents  of  the  con- 
templative orders  were  suppressed,  and  their  property 
converted  to  the  fund  for  religious  purposes.  At 
present,  however,  the  Church  is  free  from  state  re- 
strictions in  the  Polish  provinces;  and  as  a  result 
Catholicism  is  here  making  progress. 

IV.  The  Religious  Orders  in  Poland. — The 
Augustinian  Hermits  were  introduced  into  Poland  in 
the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  at  one 
time  had  more  than  thirty-five  convents  there.  At 
present  there  remains  but  one  Augustinian  convent  in 
all  the  territory  that  was  Poland:  that  at  the  Church 
of  St.  Catherine,  Cracow.  A  convent  for  nuns  of  the 
same  order,  connected  with  the  same  church  since  the 
seventeenth  century,  now  serves  for  the  training  and 
education  of  girls. 

The  Basilians  (see  Basil,  Rule  of  Saint),  perse- 
cuted by  the  Greek  Iconoclasts,  migrated  in  large  num- 
bers to  the  Slavic  countries  and  founded  convents  and 
schools.  In  Poland,  particularly,  they  rendered  great 
services  in  the  most  varied  fields  of  ecclesiastical  activ- 
ity. From  them  sprang  excellent  bishops,  archbishops 
metropolitan,  and  their  order  was  known  as  "the 
order  of  prelates"  From  them,  too,  teachers  in  the 
schools,  seminaries,  and  universities  were  recruited. 
Many  of  them  became  famous  in  science  as  well  as  by 
their  virtuous  and  self-sacrificing  life.  The  common 
people  held  this  order  in  high  esteem  and  gladly  fre- 
quented the  devotions  in  their  convents.  The  Basil- 
ians devoted  themselves  to  the  schools  with  a  zeal 
that  shrank  from  no  sacrifice,  expecially  after  the  re- 
form of  1743.  Every  convent  had  its  elementary 
school,  but  they  also  founded  more  advanced  schools, 
particularly  for  students  of  divinity.  Their  schools 
were  attended  for  the  most  part  by  the  children  of  the 
wealthy.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  it 
had  as  many  as  two  hundred  convents  In  the  Polish 
dominions.  After  the  fall  of  Poland  these  convents 
were  suppressed  in  Russia;  only  eleven  of  them  sur- 
vived in  Galicia.  The  Basilian  nuns  were  established 
in  Eastern  Poland.  They  were  suppressed  at  the  same 
time  as  the  Basilian  monks.  At  present  only  two  con- 
vents are  in  existence  in  Galicia. 

The  Benedictines  began  their  activity  in  Poland 
during  the  period  of  the  reorganization  of  Cluny. 
They  were  the  first  missionaries  of  Poland;  whence 
they  came  it  is  impossible  to  determine,  no  historical 
records  of  the  earliest  Benedictines  in  Poland  having 
come  down  to  us.  The  first  historically  authenticated 
houses  of  the  order  date  from  the  reign  of  Boleslaw  I 
Chrobry  (eleventh  century).  This  ruler,  desiring  to 
free  the  Church  in  Poland  from  German  influence,  in- 
troduced Benedictines  from  Italy.  The  order  soon 
exercised  an  incalculable  influence  upon  the  education 
of  the  Poles,  as  well  as  strengthening  the  position 
taken  by  the  Polish  Church  within  its  own  organiza- 
tion. With  the  twelfth  century,  however,  their  bene- 
ficent influence  began  to  decline.  Their  manifold 
activities  ceased  in  the  schools,  and  became  confined 
to  the  immediate  interests  of  the  convents  themselves. 
Among  the  causes  of  their  decay  were  the  enormous 
material  wealth  of  the  order,  the  consequent  excesses 
of  the  lay  abbots,  and  the  discord  between  abbots  and 
subordinates  within  the  order.  A  contributing  cause 
was  the  arbitrary  exemption  of  abbeys  from  the  super- 
vision of  the  abbots-general  of  Tyniez.  Five  of  the 
largest  abbeys  became  absolutely  independent  of  one 
another,  both  in  finance  and  in  internal  organization. 
Prosperity  brought  tepidity  and  relaxation  of  monas- 
tic cllscipline.  The  Benedictines  allowed  themselves 
to  be  outstripped  in  the  social  work  of  the  Church  by 
the  other  religious  orders  that  had  been  introduced 
into  Poland.  Several  attempts  at  reform,  undertaken 
at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  did  not 
achieve  the  desired  result.    The  Partition  of  Poland 


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193 


POLAND 


undermined  the  existence  of  the  Pohsh  Benedictines. 
First  the  possessions  of  the  abbots  were  confiscated 
and  then  the  convents  suppressed.  The  Benedictine 
nuns  had  convents  in  Poland  in  the  INIiddle  Ages. 
Their  rules  were  strict:  they  were  permitted  to  eat 
only  two  meals  a  day;  the  entire  day  was  spent  in 
prayer,  meditation,  spiritual  reading,  and  hearing  two 
Masses,  the  Divine  Office,  and  work.  They  made 
beautiful  church  vestments  and  also  occupied  them- 
selves with  the  copying  of  books.  Strict  discipline 
prevailed  in  the  congregation. 

The  Bernardines,  made  famous  by  St.  John  Capi- 
stran  (1386-1456),  the  pupil  of  St.  Bernardine  of 
Siena,  were  much  sought  everywhere.  Con\  ents  were 
gladly  built  for  them  in  Poland,  where  they  were  in- 
troduced by  John  Casirnir  and  Sbigniew  Olesnizki. 
This  order,  the  largest  in  Poland  with  members  of 
Polish  descent,  rendered  distinguished  service  to  the 
fatherland.  When  the  Franciscans  established  them- 
selves in  Poland  about  the  year  1232,  and  later  also, 
the  Order  of  Tertiaries  began  to  gain  more  and  more 
members  here.  The  Tertiary  Sisters,  members  of  the 
laity,  formed  them- 
selves into  religious 
organizations  for 
prayer  and  good 
works.  From  these 
societies  there  arose 
in  Poland  in  the  year 
1514  an  order  of 
women,  the  so-called 
Bernardine  Nuns. 

The  Brothers  of 
INIercy  were  intro- 
duced into  Poland  in 
the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. Many  of  them 
died  in  the  odour  of 
sanctity.  Whereas 
in  other  countries 
the  care  of  the  sick 
in  general  was  en- 
trusted to  the  reli- 
gious, in  Poland  they 
devoted   themselves 


latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Here,  as  else- 
where, some  of  their  convents  observed  the  milder 
rule  of  Eugene  IV,  while  others  observed  the  more 
severe  rule  of  John  Soreth.  Before  the  partition 
there  were  58  Carmelite  convents  and  9  residences  in 
Poland.  After  the  partition  those  in  the  Polish  prov- 
inces of  Prussia  were  all  suppressed ;  this  happened  in 
Russia  also,  some  being  suppre.ssed  in  1832,  the  rest 
somewhat  later.  Under  Austrian  rule  Joseph  II  re- 
tained only  six  convents,  which  formed  the  Galician 
province  of  the  order.  There  were  also  in  Poland 
Calced  Carmelite  Nuns. 

The  Carmelites  (Discalced)  who,  at  the  pope's  re- 
quest, went  as  missionaries  to  Persia,  passed  through 
Poland  on  their  way.  The  Poles  then  for  the  first  time 
saw  members  of  this  order,  and  it  at  once  found  general 
favour.  In  the  next  year  it  was  introduced  and  in 
time  became  widespread.  Several  convents  of  the 
Discalced  Carmehte  nuns  are  still  in  existence. 

The  Carthusians. — The  time  of  their  first  settle- 
ment in  Poland  is  unknown.  It  is  probable  that  the 
first  superiors  were  foreigners,  possibly  also  the  major- 
ity of  the  monks. 
Natives,  however, 
were  also  received 
into  their  convents, 
and  in  this  way  they 
were  gradually  Polo- 
nized.  They  ob- 
served the  general 
rule  of  the  order,  and 
devoted  themselves 
to  prayer  and  man- 
ual labor,  especially 
to  the  copying  of 
manuscripts. 

The  Cistercians, 
the  most  important 
offshoot  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, were  intro- 
duced into  Poland 
about  the  year  1140, 
when  the  order  had 
been  sanctioned  only 
about  twenty  years. 


to    the    care    of    the  Church  of  St.   Alexander,  Warsaw-Latin  Rite  From    the    very    be- 

insane.  Erected  by  the  Taar  Alexander  I  as  a  memorial  of  his  first  visit  to  Warsaw  in  1835  ginning  they  proved 


The  Camaldolese  came  to  Poland  in  the  year  1605 
from  the  congregation  of  Monte  Corona  near  Perugia. 
They  were  dependent  on  the  mother-house;  not  until 
after  the  partition  of  Poland  did  this  dependence 
cease.  Of  the  five  convents  established  in  Poland 
only  the  hermitage  at  Bielany,  near  Cracow,  is  still  in 
existence. 

The  Canons  Regular  of  St.  John  Lateran,  one  of  the 
oldest  congregations  in  Poland,  were  suppressed  in 
1782  by  Joseph  II;  there  are,  however,  six  convents 
at  present  in  Austria. 

The  Capuchins. — .\s  early  as  1596  King  Sigismund 
had  memorialized  the  Apostolic  See  to  introduce  this 
order  into  Poland,  but  permission  to  introduce  it 
there  was  first  granted  to  King  John  Sobieski.  In 
1681  some  Capuchins  came  to  AVarsaw  and  Cracow. 
Gradually  the  number  of  foreigners  in  the  convents 
grew  smaller;  the  novices  were  mostly  Poles,  so  that 
the  Apostolic  See,  in  1738,  transferred  the  supervision 
of  the  Polish  Capuchins  to  the  Bohemian  provincials. 
When  the  order  had  as  many  as  9  convents,  129 
fathers,  31  novices,  and  73  brothers,  Benedict  XIV 
established  a  separate  Polish  province.  The  Capu- 
chins in  Poland,  as  elsewhere,  won  for  themselves  high 
esteem  and  exerted  a  wholesome  influence  upon  the 
awakening  of  the  religious  sentiment  among  the 
people.  In  Galicia  there  are  at  present  nine  Capu- 
chin convents.  In  Russian  Poland  all  their  convents 
but  one  have  been  suppressed. 

The  Carmehtes  (Calced)  in  Poland  date  from  the 
XII.— 13 


themselves  a  contemplative  order,  devoted  to  man- 
ual labor,  rendering  great  service  to  agriculture  by 
clearing  forests,  bringing  the  land  under  cultivation, 
and  encouraging  the  various  industries.  For  this  reason 
the  order  received  the  hearty  support  of  bishops  and 
magnates.  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
it  spread  through  Poland  with  extraordinary  rapidity, 
and  was  richly  endowed  with  landed  property.  The 
Cistercians  having  come  to  Poland  from  Germany, 
France,  and  Italy,  their  convents  as  late  as  the  six- 
teenth century  preserved  the  individualities  corre- 
sponding to  the  various  nationality  of  their  first 
inmates  respectively.  The  Germans  even  introduced 
German  colonists  into  their  convent  villages.  Sigis- 
mund I  was  the  first  to  forbid  this  seclusion  by  the 
decrees  of  1511  and  1538.  To  the  final  Polonization 
of  the  Cistercian  convents  Lutheranism  was  a  con- 
tributing cause;  for  many  German  monks,  infected 
by  the  teachings  of  Luther,  left  the  convents,  while 
the  rest  cared  little  for  the  rules  of  the  order  or  for 
propriety.  The  places  vacated  by  Germans  were 
filled  by  Poles.  The  reform  of  the  order,  accom- 
plished in  the  year  1580,  purified  and  elevated  the 
fraternal  spirit  of  the  Polish  Cistercians.  In  the 
course  of  the  eighteenth  century  they  had  to  endure 
severe  reverses  of  fortune;  indeed,  they  lived  in  pov- 
erty and  need,  and  at  the  time  of  the  partition  of 
Poland  the  Polish  province  of  the  order  numbered  20 
convents  with  more  than  500  male  or  female  inmates. 
At  present  there  remain  only  two  Cistercian  convents 


POLAND 


194 


POLAND 


in  Galicia,  while  under  Prussian  and  Russian  rule  they 
have  all  been  suppressed. 

The  Dominicans  were  introduced  into  Poland  by 
the  Bishop  of  Cracow,  Two  Odrowasch  (1223).  They 
had  no  great  successes  to  record  until  the  fourteenth 
century,  in  the  reign  of  Casimir  the  Great,  when  they 
gained  a  firm  footing  in  Little  Russia  and  to  some  extent 
also  in  Lithuania.  As  an  order  intended  to  combat 
heresy,  however,  they  were  of  no  great  importance  in 
Poland,  for  the  reason  that  most  of  them  were  Ger- 
mans who  did  not  understand  the  Polish  character. 
As  a  result  their  missionary  work  was  not  very  suc- 
cessful. The  sixteenth  century,  the  period  of  the 
Reformation,  was  unfavourable  to  the  further  de- 
velopment of  the  Dominican  houses,  and  later,  when 
the  counter-Reformation  began,  not  Dominican  but 
Jesuit  houses  were  founded  expressly  to  combat  the 
Reformation.  Not  until  the  seventeenth  century  were 
any  new  Dominican  convents  founded.  The  Polish 
province  of  the  order,  in  the  year  1730,  had  43  con- 
vents for  men  and  10  for  women;  the  Russian  prov- 
ince, 69  and  3,  the  province  of  Lithuania  numbered 
38  convents  and  4  so-called  residences.  But  one 
Dominican  convent  now  remains,  at  Cracow. 

The  Felician  nuns  are  an  offshoot  of  the  women's 
Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  which  is  so  highly 
esteemed  to-day  for  its  charitable  work.  In  Warsaw 
there  was  formed  in  1855  a  purely  Polish  congregation, 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Felix  and  the  rule  of  St. 
Francis.     (See  Felician  Sisters,  O.  S.  F.) 

The  Franciscans  have  left  comparatively  few  traces 
of  their  activity  in  the  Polish  countries.  The  time  of 
their  introduction  into  Poland  is  uncertain;  the  year 
is  probably  1231.  Certain  it  is  that  the  Franciscans 
were  in  Cracow  in  1237.  Kindly  received,  they  soon 
obtained  recognition  from  the  Polish  people,  for  most 
of  them  were  Poles  by  birth.  Conformably  with  the 
rule  of  their  order,  they  developed  great  activity  in 
the  missionary  field  among  the  Lithuanians  and 
Ruthenians.  Thanks  to  their  labours  the  subsequent 
organization  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Lithuania  and 
Little  Russia  was  made  possible.  In  1832  twenty- 
nine  Franciscan  convents  were  suppressed  in  Lithu- 
ania; in  1864,  all  those  in  Congress  Poland  with  the 
single  exception  of  the  convent  at  Kalisch. 

The  Jesuits  were  introduced  into  Poland  by  Car- 
dinal Hosius,  in  1564,  to  combat  heresy.  After  their 
arrival,  Poland,  where  32  Protestant  sects  had  been 
committing  all  sorts  of  excesses,  witnessed  a  return  to 
Catholicism.  To  root  out  heresy  pubho  debates  were 
arranged,  which  opened  the  eyes  of  many  of  the  here- 
tics. The  Jesuits  began  their  labours  in  Lithuania,  at 
Vilna,  which  was  most  seriously  threatened  by  the 
heretical  teachings.  In  a  short  time  Jesuit  com- 
munities arose  throughout  the  land.  Because  of  their 
extraordinary  successes  in  the  missionary  field,  schools 
were  foundcil  for  them  by  every  zealous  bishop.  The 
example  of  the  bishops  was  followed  by  the  kings  and 
the  magnates.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Society, 
its  possessions  were  devoted  to  the  support  of  public 
education.  Of  the  Jesuit  priests  some  retained  their 
positions  at  the  former  Jesuit  schools,  the  rest  ob- 
tained employment  in  families  of  the  higher  nobility 
in  the  capacity  of  chaplains,  secretaries  or  tutors. 
They  were  also  employed  in  cathedral  churches  and 
in  the  parishes.  In  Poland,  as  everywhere,  the 
Jesuits  fought  heresy  with  its  own  weapons — with 
sermons,  disputations,  education  of  the  youth.  They 
answered  the  polemical  pamphlets  of  the  dissidents  with 
polemical  pamphlets;  they  appeared  in  public  with 
systematic  courses  of  excellently  prepared  sermons 
of  a  iiolitico-dogmatic  character.  They  also  furnished 
distinguished  confessors.  They  attracted  many  by 
means  of  de\-otions  conducted  with  great  pomp  and 
by  the  organization  of  religious  brotherhoods.  For 
the  pupils  in  their  schools  they  introduced  the  Sodality 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin.     They  distinguished  themselves 


particularly  as  preachers  in  the  parochial  missions. 
But  they  were  also  not  unmindful  of  the  sick,  the 
prisoners  and  the  soldiers.  The  position  of  military 
chaplain  was  for  the  most  part  filled  by  a  Jesuit. 
There  was  no  field  of  church-activity  or  of  science  in 
which  the  Jesuits  did  not  labour  successfully  for  the 
benefit  of  mankind.  At  present  the  Jesuit  Order  does 
not  exist  in  any  of  the  Polish  lands  except  Galicia, 
where  it  forms  a  separate  province  of  the  order,  at- 
tached to  the  German  Assistance.  Part  also  of  the 
Jesuits,  expelled  from  White  Russia,  came  to  Galicia 
in  1820.  When,  as  a  result  of  the  Revolution  of  1848, 
they  were  banished  thence  also,  they  went  to  Silesia 
and  the  Grand  duchy  of  Posen,  whence  a  part  of  them, 
in  1852,  returned  to  their  former  homes,  when  the 
order  was  rehabilitated  throughout  the  Austrian  do- 
minions. When  again,  in  1862,  the  Jesuits  were  ban- 
ished from  Prussia,  some  went  to  Galicia,  others 
undertook  missions  to  Germany,  Denmark,  and 
America.  Since  1852  there  has  been  a  continuous 
development  of  the  province  of  the  Society  in  Galicia; 
at  the  beginning  of  1906  it  numbered  473  mem- 
bers, among  them  215  priests,  119  clerics,  and  139 
brothers. 

The  Priests  of  the  Mission  (Lazarists)  were  intro- 
duced into  Poland  by  the  wife  of  King  John  Casimir, 
Maria  Ludwika  Gonzaga,  who  had  personally  known 
and  highly  esteemed  their  founder,  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  in  France.  At  her  request  he  sent  members  of 
his  congregation  to  Poland  in  1651.  Their  introduc- 
tion was  at  first  resented  by  the  Jesuits,  whose  con- 
fessors at  the  royal  court  were  replaced  by  members 
of  the  new  order.  Queen  Maria  Ludwika  wished  the 
Priests  of  the  Mission  employed  not  only  for  the 
instruction  of  the  common  people  in  the  villages  and 
parishes,  but  particularly  for  the  organization  and 
supervision  of  the  diocesan  seminaries  and  for  the 
spiritual  improvement  of  the  priesthood  in  the  coun- 
try. Devout  Polish  magnates  were  anxious  to  have 
them  upon  their  estates.  There  is  scarcely  a  spot 
anywhere  in  Poland  where  the  Lazarists  have  not 
conducted  a  mission.  For  this  reason  their  services 
in  the  care  of  souls  are  truly  extraordinary.  During 
the  first  twenty-seven  years  the  Priests  of  the  Mission 
came  from  France  and  native  Poles  entering  the  con- 
gregation had  to  go  to  France  for  probation  and  train- 
ing, an  arrangement  which  continued  until  the  found- 
ing of  a  seminary  at  Warsaw.  After  the  partition  the 
convents  suffered  many  hardships:  under  Russian 
rule  the  congregation  was  disbanded  in  1842  and  1864, 
the  Lazarist  houses  in  GaUcia  were  suppressed  by 
Joseph  II,  and  the  same  fate  overtook  the  Priests  of 
the  Mission  in  Prussia  at  the  beginning  of  the  Kultur- 
kampf  in  1876. 

The  Paulites  came  to  Poland  from  Hungary  in  1382, 
sixteen  in  number.  Undoubtedly  these  Hungarian 
monks  were  not  unacquainted  with  the  Polish  nation- 
ality, for  they  were  chosen  from  the  Slovaks  and  Poles, 
who  were  at  that  time  well  represented  in  the  con- 
vents of  Hungary.  The  first  convent  was  that  of 
Czentochowa  on  the  Klarenberg  (Clarus  Mons,  Jasna 
G6ra),  and  the  picture  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  there,  said 
to  be  the  work  of  the  Evangelist  St.  Luke,  at  once 
became  famous  because  of  numerous  miracles,  so  that 
Czentochowa  surpassed  all  other  places  of  pilgrimage 
in  Poland.  As  a  result,  the  convent  became  very 
wealthy.  In  1430  it  was  attacked  by  the  Hussites. 
In  the  part  of  Poland  which  fell  to  Austria  after  the 
first  partition  the  Paulite  convents  were  suppressed 
in  1783  by  the  Emperor  Joseph.  Only  the  GaUcian 
convents,  which  at  the  last  partition  came  under  the 
dominion  of  Austria,  survived.  In  other  parts  of 
Poland  one  convent  after  another  went  out  of  exis- 
tence, and  since  1892  the  Pauhte  Order  has  had  only 
two  convents:  Czentochowa  and  Cracow.  The  Paul- 
ites in  Poland  devoted  themselves  for  the  most  part  to 
parochial  work.     Parishes  were  connected  with  all 


COPyfllGMT,    1911,    Br   nOBEHl    APPLETON   CO. 


POLAND 


195 


POLAND 


their  convents,  and  in  these  parishes  all  the  pastoral 
work  was  done  by  members  of  the  order 

The  Piarists.— In  1642  the  first  thirteen  Piarists 
came  from  Rome  to  Warsaw  at  the  request  of  King 
Ladislaus  IV.  The  Poles  readily  entered  this  order, 
and  it  soon  spread  through  the  whole  country.  The 
first  monks  were  Bohemians,  Moravians,  and  Ger- 
mans by  birth.  The  schools  founded  by  them  were 
organized  m  accordance  with  the  constitutions  of  St. 
Joseph  Calasanctius.  In  the  first  hundred  years  the 
schools  of  the  Piarists,  so  far  as  excellence  is  concerned, 
were  in  no  way  different  from  the  others.  Not  until 
the  reform  of  Konarski  was  there  an  improvement  in 
the  instruction  and  training.  This  monk,  during  a 
journey  through  Italy,  France,  and  Germany,  studied 
the  foreign  educational  systems  and  undertook  the  re- 
form of  the  Piarist  schools  on  a  basis  more  in  con- 
formity with  the  requirements  of  the  time.  He  carried 
out  the  reform  not  only  by  the  Uving  word  in  the 
schools,  but  by  writing  educational  treatises.  The 
method  of  instruction  as  systematized  by  him  stimu- 
lated every  faculty  of  the  mind,  it  made  demands  on 
the  reason  rather  than  on  the  memory,  it  led  the  pupil 
to  a  consideration  of  the  main  points  and  to  clearness 
of  expression.  A  further  aim  of  his  schools  was  the 
education  of  the  pupil's  heart,  in  order  that  as  men 
they  might  be  useful  members  of  society  and  be  qual- 
ified to  bring  up  others  to  a  religious  life.  This  reform 
of  the  Piarist  schools  had  its  successes  in  other  schools 
as  well,  for  the  Jesuits  adopted  the  new  method  of 
instruction,  and  other  schools  did  the  same.  The 
beneficial  eflScacy  of  this  school-reform  at  once  became 
apparent  in  the  general  advance  of  culture.  The  Pia- 
rist convents  were  suppressed  in  GaUcia  after  the  parti- 
tion of  Poland,  and  in  Russian  Poland  in  1864.  Only 
one  Polish  convent  of  this  congregation,  that  of 
Cracow,  is  still  in  existence. 

The  Order  of  the  Reformed  Franciscans  was  intro- 
duced into  Poland  at  the  time  of  the  beatification  of 
St.  Peter  of  Alcd,ntara  (1622  under  Gregory  XV).  The 
first  members  of  this  new  order  were  recruited  from 
the  Bernardines  and  Franciscans;  they  were  at  first 
persecuted  and  even  banished.  But  when  the  news  of 
their  piety  reached  the  Court,  King  Sigismund  III 
himself  made  an  appeal  to  the  pope  for  permission  to 
introduce  the  order  into  Poland.  The  Holy  Father 
did  not  refuse  him,  and  the  Bishop  of  Cracow  had 
hardly  issued  the  decree  of  their  admission  (29  May, 
1622),  when  foundations  of  Reformati  were  at  once 
begun,  the  number  rising  to  fifty-seven.  The  Re- 
formati in  Poland  hved  entirely  on  alms;  they  gave 
themselves  up  exclusively  to  religious  exercises.  Their 
convents  were  suppressed  at  various  times :  in  Austria, 
partly  between  1796  and  1809,  in  Congress  Poland  in 
1834  and  1864,  lastly  in  Russian  Poland  in  1875. 

The  Templars  are  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Poland  as  early  as  1155,  but  this  date  is  not  abso- 
lutely certain.  However,  the  account  of  a  Templar 
foundation  at  Gnesen  before  1229  is  reliable.  When 
the  order  was  suppressed  throughout  Europe,  in  1312, 
all  their  possessions  in  Poland  were  transferred  to  the 
Knights  of  St.  John. 

The  Theatines  were  in  Poland  from  1696  to  1785; 
their  place  of  residence  was  Warsaw.  They  had  as 
pupils  at  their  lectures  the  sons  of  the  wealthiest 
families,  but  their  instruction  was  inadequate,  and 
ignored  the  PoUsh  tongue.  There  was  no  fixed  curri- 
culum, no  advanced  method  of  instruction,  no  system 
of  classes,  arranged  according  to  the  degree  of  pro- 
gress of  the  pupils.  The  main  subjects  of  instruction 
were  the  Latin,  Italian,  and  French  languages,  with 
architecture,  painting,  and  music.  There  were  no 
class  rooms,  the  teacher  giving  instruction  m  his  own 
dwelling  to  one  or  more  pupils  in  his  own  specialty. 
The  subjects  taught  followed  one  another  m  accord- 
ance with  no  uniform  plan,  but  in  accordance  with 
the  wishes  and  choice  of  the  teacher  or  pupil.    When 


tired  of  teaching,  the  teachers  not  infrequently  went 
visiting  with  their  pupils  to  some  acquaintance  or 
relative.  Not  until  later  did  they  begin  to  pay  any 
regard  to  the  principles  of  pedagogy  relative  to  joint 
instruction  by  classes.  Failing  in  energy  and  in  the 
ability  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  demands  of  their 
time,  they  were  compelled  to  leave  Poland  in  the 
year  1785. 

The  Trappists,  driven  out  of  France  as  the  result  of 
the  French  Revolution,  stopped  for  a  while  in  White 
Russia  and  Volhynia.  The  Russian  Emperor  Paul 
welcomed  them  within  the  boundaries  sf  his  empire 
and  gave  them  refuge  and  support.  The  first  eighteen 
Trappists  came  in  1798  and  settled  in  White  Russia. 
However,  they  did  not  remain  there  long,  for  as  early 
as  the  beginning  of  the  year  1800  they  left  their  new 
homes  and  went  to  England  and  America. 

The  Trinitarians  (Ordo  Coelestis  SS.  Trinitatis  de 
Redemptione  Captivorum). — King  John  Sobieski, 
after  t*ie  deliverance  of  Vienna  (12  September,  1683), 
sent  Bishop  Denhof  to  Rome  to  Innocent  XI  with  the 
captured  Turkish  flag,  which  the  pope  caused  to  be 
placed  in  the  Lateran  on  7  October  of  the  same  year. 
While  in  Rome,  Denhof  frequently  visited  the  convent 
church  of  the  Trinitarians,  and  this  order  pleased  him 
so  much  that  he  decided  to  introduce  it  into  Poland. 
He  succeeded  in  doing  this  in  April,  1685.  The  Trini- 
tarians were  installed  at  Lemberg,  because  this  city, 
being  near  the  Turkish  frontier,  was  more  favourably 
situated  than  Warsaw  for  the  negotiations  necessary 
for  the  ransom  of  prisoners.  A  second  convent  of  the 
Trinitarians  was  at  Cracow;  the  third,  at  Stanislaw, 
was  suppressed  by  the  Austrian  government  in  1783; 
the  fourth,  in  Volhynia  (Beresczek),  in  1832.  The 
eighteen  convents  in  Poland  constituted  a  separate 
province.  In  Austria  they  were  suppressed  in  1783 
by  Joseph  II,  in  Russian  Poland,  in  1832  and  1863. 
The  discalced  Trinitarians  led  a  rigorous  life;  no  mem- 
ber of  the  order  was  permitted  to  have  any  property, 
and  as  a  result  great  poverty  prevailed  among  them. 
In  addition  to  the  daily  prayer  of  the  Breviary,  they 
had  meditations  and  prayers  lasting  two  hours  and  a 
half;  they  kept  silence  and  fasted  on  all  days  of  the 
week  except  Sunday;  furthermore,  there  were  fre- 
quent disciplines.  The  Trinitarians  in  Poland  re- 
garded it  as  their  chief  task  to  ransom  prisoners  from 
the  Turks  and  Tatars,  for  which  purpose  they  de- 
voted, according  to  the  rule  of  their  order,  one-third 
of  all  they  received.  They  also  collected  alms  for  the 
deliverance  of  prisoners;  ecclesiastical  as  well  as 
secular  lords  contributed  large  sums  of  money  for  this 
purpose.  Two  years  after  their  arrival  in  Poland 
(1688)  the  Trinitarians  ransomed  8  prisoners;  13  in 
1690;  43  in  1691;  45  in  1694;  25  in  1695;  43  in  1699; 
55  in  1712;  49  in  1723;  70  in  1729;  33  in  1743. 
Among  those  ransomed  were  not  only  Poles  but  also 
members  of  other  nationalities,  particularly  Hunga- 
rians. 

The  Ursulines  entered  Poland  only  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  but  they  have  rendered  great  service 
to  the  country  by  training  and  instructing  the  girls. 
Expelled  by  the  Prussian  Government,  they  found  a 
refuge  in  Austria. 

The  Vincentian  Sisters,  or  Sisters  of  Charity,  ob- 
serving the  rule  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  came  to  Poland 
during  his  lifetime  (1660).  Besides  nursing  the  sick, 
they  devoted  themselves  to  the  training  of  orphans 
and  poor  girls.  They  have  survived  in  all  the  prov- 
inces of  the  former  Kingdom  of  Poland,  except 
Lithuania,  where  they  were  suppressed  in  1842  and 
1864. 

V.  Peesent  Position  of  the  Church. — At  the 
present  time  the  Polish  people  are  closely  bound  to 
the  heads  of  their  Church  by  ties  of  love  and  con- 
fidence. In  Russian  Poland  it  is  not  probable  that 
any  enemy  could  alienate  the  Catholic  part  of  the 
population  from  the  bishops;  in  Austria  the  relations 


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between  the  Polish  episcopate  and  the  people  under 
them  in  no  way  justify  the  hopes  of  the  enemies  of  the 
Church  that  exceptional  laws  of  any  kind  directed 
against  the  orders  could  be  passed;  in  Prussian  Poland 
the  Polish  archbishop  has  not  yet  exhausted  all  his 
resources  in  his  struggle  for  the  rights  and  the  freedom 
of  the  Church. 

There  are  at  present  in  Poland  four  ecclesiastical 
provinces:  at  Gnesen,  Lemberg,  Mohileff,  and  War- 
saw. In  tin-  year  1000  Poland  had  five  bishoprics; 
this  number  increased  to  thirty-three  in  1818.  The 
head  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Poland  was  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Gnesen,  primate  of  the  kingdom  and  legatus 
natus.  In  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  the  following 
order  of  precedence  was  established:  after  the  primate 
came  the  Archbishop  of  Lemberg,  then  the  Bishops 
of  Cracow,  \\ladislaw  (Lesslau),  Posen,  Vilna,  Plock, 
Ermland,  Lutzk,  Przemysl,  Samland,  Kulm,  Chelm, 
Kieff,  Kamenets,  Livonia,  and  Smolensk.  The  Uni- 
ats  had  two  archbishops,  at  Kieff  and  Polotzk,  besides 
the  Bishoprics  of  Lutzk,  Chelm,  Lemberg-Kamenets 
and  Przemysl-Pinsk.  At  present  Austrian  Poland 
has  a  Latin  archbishop  at  Lemberg  and  the  Bishops 
of  Cracow,  Tarnow,  and  Przemysl,  with  about 
4,000,000  laity  and  about  2,000  priests,  besides  an 
archbishop  of  the  Greek  Rite  at  Lemberg  and  bishops 
at  Przemysl  and  Stanislawow.  In  Prussian  Poland 
the  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  has  under  him  the  suiTragan 
Dioceses  of  Posen  and  Kulm,  while  the  Bishops  of 
Breslau  and  Ermland  are  immediately  subject  to  the 
Apostolic  8cc.  Russian  Poland  has  the  following 
sees:  Warsaw  (archbishopric),  Plock,  Kielce,  Lublin, 
Sandomir,  Sejny  and  Augustowo,  and  Wladislaw 
(Lesslau);  in  the  districts  of  Lithuania  and  Little 
Russia,  Mohileff  (archbishopric),  Vilna,  Samland, 
Minsk,  and  Lutzk-Zhitomir.  These  thirteen  dioceses 
number  about  4,500  priests  and  over  12,000,000 
CathoUcs.  The  Polish  clergy  is  working  in  the  fore- 
front in  every  field,  setting  a  splendid  example;  it 
unites  Polish  patriotism  with  Catholicism.  An  infal- 
lible sign  of  its  powers  of  development  is  undoubtedly 
seen  in  the  growth  of  religious  literature  in  the  Polish 
language.  This  movement  clearly  shows  that  the 
Polish  clergy  is  receiving  a  thorough  education  and 
contributing  much  to  the  advancement  of  culture  and 
religion  in  Polish  society.  Every  Polish  province  has 
at  least  one  periodical  of  a  religious-social  character. 
(Sec  Periodic-al  Literature,  Catholic. — Poland.) 
The  clergy  everywhere  enjoy  an  extraordinary  esteem 
and  large  sections  of  the  people  are  very  reli- 
gious. 

One  instance,  however,  must  be  recorded  in  which  a 
defection  from  the  true  faith  has  taken  place  in  the 
bosom  of  the  Polish  Church.  In  Russian  Poland  the 
sect  of  JSIariavites,  during  the  years  1905-08  attracted 
much  attention.  About  1SS4  Casimir  Przyjemski,  a 
priest,  came  to  Plock,  seeking  to  establish  an  associa- 
tion of  priests  in  ccjnnexion  with  the  Third  Order  of 
St.  Francis,  for  mutual  edification  and  the  promotion 
of  asceticism.  After  he  had  become  acquainted  with 
Felicya  Kozlowska,  a  poor  seamstress,  and  a  tertiary, 
he  informed  her  of  his  plan.  ( )n  2  August,  1893, 
Kozlow.ska  claimed  to  have  had  a  revelation  from 
God,  according  to  which  she  was  to  found  an  asso- 
ciation of  priests  and  pious  women  under  the  name 
of  Mariavites,  and  thus  to  regenerate  the  world. 
The  association,  which  took  its  name  from  the  words 
"Hail  Alary",  gathered  a  large  number  of  followers. 
Kozlowska,  generally  called  "mutcczka"  (little 
mother),  placed  herself  at  the  head  of  both  the  male 
and  female  branches  of  the  association;  she  was  re- 
garded as  a  saint,  and  her  followers  even  ascribed 
miracles  to  her.  The  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 
Inquisition  ha\'ing  decided  that  the  alleged  visions  of 
Kozlowska  were  hallucinations,  ordered  the  society 
to  disband.  The  Mariavites  refused  to  submit  to 
this  decision,  and,  moreover,  continued  to  preach  a, 


body  of  blasphemous  doctrines  tending  to  exalt  the 
personality  of  Maria  Kozlowska.  They  were,  accord- 
ingly, placed  under  excommunication  by  Rome.  In 
1906  the  number  of  Mariavite  priests  amounted  to 
about  50  in  some  20  odd  parishes,  claiming  a  following 
of  500,000  souls.  By  the  spring  of  the  following  year 
their  numbers  had  already  fallen  to  60,000.  Public 
opinion  in  all  parts  of  Poland  almost  unanimously 
condemned  the  new  body,  which  had  been  recognized 
by  the  Russian  Government  as  a  religious  sect.  It 
now  (1910)  numbers  among  its  adherents  40  priests 
and  22  parishes,  with,  it  is  said,  20,000  adherents. 
The  Mariavites  have  recently  adopted  an  entirely 
Pohsh  liturgy.  The  sect  appeared  in  Poland  at  a 
time  when  the  country  began  to  revive  under  the  im- 
pulse of  freedom,  and  when  the  hostility  between 
Poles  and  Russians  appeared  to.  be  on  the  point  of 
dying  out:  a  reconciliation  of  the  two  nations  might 
possibly  prepare  the  way  for  a  religious  union. 

Emigration  from  Poland  to  the  New  World  did  not 
begin  to  assume  any  considerable  proportions  until 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  impulse 
which  resulted  in  this  movement  may  be  traced  to  the 
unfavourable  conditions,  not  only  economic,  but  also 
political  and  religious,  which  prevailed  in  Poland. 
The  United  States,  Brazil,  Canada,  Uruguay,  and 
Australia  have  received  an  accession  of  population 
amounting  to  more  than  3,000,000,  chiefly  from  the 
labouring  classes  of  the  population.  (See  Poles  in 
THE  United  States.) 

In  English:  Van  Norman,  Poland,  the  Knight  among  Nations 
(New  York,  1908) ;  Lodge,  The  Extinction  of  Poland,  1788-97.  in 
Cambr.  Mod.  Hlil..  VIII  (Cambridge,  1904),  521-52;  Askenazy, 
Poland  and  the  Polish  Revolution  in  Cambr.  Mod.  Hist.,  X  (Cam- 
bridge, 1907),  445-74;  Mo.vtalembert,  The  Insurrection  of 
Poland  (London,  1S63) ;  Brandes,  Poland,  A  Study  of  the  Land, 
People  and  Literature  (London,  1903);  Parsons,  The  Later  Reli- 
gious Martyrdom  of  Poland  in  Am.  Cath.  Q.  Rev.,  XIII  (Philadel- 
phia, 1898),  71-96;  McSwiNEy,  The  Cath.  Church  in  Poland  under 
the  Russian  Government  in  The  Month  (London,  July,  Aug., 
Sept.,  1S76),  296,  430;  M.icCaffrey,  His',  of  the  Cath.  Church 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (Dublin,  1910);  Bain,  Slavonic  Europe 
(Cambridge,  1908);  Svxton,  Fall  of  Poland  (New  York,  1851); 
Fletcher,  Hist,  of  Poland  (London,  1831). 

In  Polish:  Szyc,  Geographu  of  Former  Poland  (Posen,  1861); 
LiMANOwSKi,  Galicia  Portrayed  in  Words  and  Drawings  (Warsaw, 
189i) :  BULIN.SKI,  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Poland  (Cracow,  1873- 
74) ;  Wladislaw,  Organization  of  the  Church  in  Poland  (Lemberg, 
1.S93);  Zaleski,  The  Jesuits  in  Poland  (Lemberg,  1900-06); 
Ch  urch  Lexicon,  XXVI  (Warsaw,  1903) .  In  other  languages:  Hi^t. 
religieuse  des  peuples  slaves  (Paris,  1853) ;  Forster,  La  Pologne 
(Paris,  1840) ;  Pierling,  Bathom  and  Poissevin,  Documents 
inAdits  sur  h:s  rapports  du  Saint  Siege  avec  les  Slaves  (Paris,  1887); 
Chodzko,  La  Pologne  histor.  monumcntale  el  illustree  (Paris,  1844) , 
Idem,  Hist,  poputaire  de  la  Pologne;  Brandenburger,  Polnische 
Gesch.  (Leipzig,  1907) ;  Kromer,  Polonia,  sive  de  situ,  popidis, 
moribus,  et  republica  regni  Polonici  (Cracow,  1901) ;  Idem,  Lites 
ac  res  gestce  inter  Polonos  ordinemque  cruciferorum  (2  vols.,  Posen, 
1890). 

Edmund  Kolodzibjczyk. 

Polish  Literature. — The  subject  will  be  divided, 
for  convenience  of  treatment,  into  historical  periods. 

First  Period. — Oi  the  literature  of  Poland  before  the 
advent  of  Christianity  (965)  very  few  traces  indeed 
are  extant.  Even  when  converted,  the  country  long 
remained  uncivilized.  The  laity  were  engaged  in  per- 
petual wars;  and  a  few  schools  founded  by  the  clergy 
were  wrecked  when  (1138-1306)  the  country,  after 
suffering  from  a  divided  sovereignty,  was  again  and 
again  invaded  by  the  Tatars.  The  schools,  however, 
were  restored,  and  Casimir  the  Great  founded,  in 
1364,  the  academy  which  was  destined  to  become  the 
University  of  Cracow  in  1400.  Chroniclers,  writing 
in  medieval  Latin,  appeared:  Gallus,  Kadlubek,  and 
Martinus  Polonus,  in  the  thirteenth  century;  John  of 
Czarnkow,  in  the  fourteenth.  In  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury the  University  of  Cracow  was  farnous  and  at- 
tracted many  students;  Poles  began  to  study  abroad, 
and  came  back  Humanists  and  men  of  the  Renais- 
sance. But  though  both  Dlugosz  (Longinus),  the 
first  great  historian  of  Poland,  and  John  Ostrorog,  an 
excellent  political  writer,  flourished  at  this  time,  they 
wrote  in  Latin.     The  national  language,  though  it 


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was  being  gradually  formed  by  sermons  and  transla- 
tions, was  not  mature  for  such  work  until  the  second 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  circumstances  favour- 
able to  its  development  having  arisen  only  in  the 
begirming  of  that  century.  Books  printed  in  Polish 
— translations  or  paraphrases — date  from  1520;  from 
this  time,  too,  the  influence  of  Italian  culture,  fostered 
by  Queen  Bona,  increased  notably.  Latin  versifica- 
tion became  fashionable,  books  on  historical  and  polit- 
ical subjects  appeared,  as  well  as  the  early  attempts 
of  some  writers  (Rey,  Orzechowski,  and  Modrzewski) 
who  afterwards  became  famous. 

Second  Period  (154S-1600). — More  political  treat- 
ises, together  with  books  of  religious  controversy,  fol- 
lowed in  and  after  the  days  of  Sigismund  Augustus 
(1550-70).  Catholic  literature — represented  by  the 
Jesuit  Wujek,  who  translated  the  Bible  into  Polish, 
by  Hosius,  the  great  theologian  who  wrote  "Confessio 
fidei  Christianae"  and  presided  at  the  Council  of 
Trent,  by  Kromer,  and  others,  increased  in  volume 
and  importance.  Nor  was  there  less  activity  in  the 
opposite  camp,  where  Budny,  Krowioki,  and  the 
preacher  Gregory  of  Zarnowiec  were  distinguished. 
Poetry  in  the  vernacular  now  first  appeared :  Rey  and 
Bielski  produced  didactic  poems  and  satires;  John 
Kochanowski,  in  1557,  wrote  the  first  of  his  poems,  the 
beauty  of  which  has  not  been  surpassed  by  any  save 
those  of  Mickiewicz.  Towards  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury the  political  tractates  of  Cornicki  and  of  Wars- 
zewicki  were  written,  also  many  works  of  history, 
notably  Heidenstein's  "Rerum  polonicarum  libri 
XII".  At  this  period,  too,  the  Jesuit  Skarga,  the 
purest  embodiment  of  Polish  patriotism  in  literature, 
preached  and  wrote,  calling  upon  all  Poles  to  save 
their  country,  though  that  country  was  then  so  power- 
ful that  his  cry  of  alarm  was  like  the  voice  of  a  prophet. 
Rey  and  Kochanowski,  and  many  another,  had  the 
like  misgivings,  but  none  felt  them  so  deeply,  or  could 
express  them  with  such  eloquence. — This  was  the 
Golden  Age  of  Polish  literature.  Kochanowski,  in- 
deed, can  scarcely  be  called  versatile,  though  as  a 
lyric  poet  he  excels,  and  did  much  for  his  country's 
literature,  adding  beauty  to  its  poetry,  which,  until 
then,  had  been  only  mediocre.  Historical  and  polit- 
ical writing  flourished,  and  the  Polish  controversial 
writers  were  excellent  on  both  sides. 

Third  Period  {1600-48). ~\  decided  falling -off 
took  place  after  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Poets  merely  imitated  John  Kochanowski, 
badly -set  phrases  often  taking  the  place  of  in- 
spiration. Those  who  aspired  to  bring  about  a  new 
departure  (if  we  except  Peter  Kochanowski,  the  trans- 
lator of  Tasso  and  Ariosto)  were  not  sufficiently  tal- 
ented, while  most  writers  were  careless,  though  often 
brilliant,  amateurs  who  felt  no  such  need.  Szymon- 
owicz,  indeed,  was  a  humanist  of  the  old  school  and  a 
true  artist;  so  were  his  disciples,  the  brothers  Zimo- 
rowicz;  but  of  these  two,  the  one  died  young,  having 
produced  very  little,  while  the  other,  though  he  main- 
tained the  good  traditions  for  a  long  time,  was  unable 
to  raise  the  level  of  Polish  poetry.  Szymonowicz's 
idyls,  perfect  as  they  are,  show  the  poverty  of  a  period 
that  can  boast  of  nothing  else.  Sarbiewski,  a  con- 
temporary poet  of  great  talent,  unfortunately  wrote 
only  in  Latin.  The  prose  writers  of  this  period  are 
also  inferior  to  their  predecessors,  the  historians  being 
the  best,  and  the  best  among  the  historians,  Lubien- 
ski  and  Biasecki,  were  perhaps  worthy  successors  to 
those  of  former  times.  Memoirs  began  to  abound, 
curious  and  important  as  sources  of  history,  the  best 
of  them  being  those  of  Stanislaus  Olbracht  Radziwill 
and  Zolkiewski.  As  a  political  essayist  similar  to 
those  of  the  former  period,  but  less  eminent  because 
not  so  original,  Starowolski  deserves  mention;  nor 
must  we  forget  Birkowski's  sermons,  which,  though 
often  in  bad  taste  and  full  of  literary  shortcomings, 
are  strikingly  representative  of  the  ideal  of  religious 


chivalry  admired  in  Poland  when  patriotism  and  piety 
vied  with  each  other. 

Fourth  Period  {1648-96).— The  writers  of  this 
period  lack  originality  and  interest;  they  merely 
tread  in  the  beaten  track.  Morsztyn  and  Twardowski 
translated  some  medieval  romances  and  Kalian  tales, 
which  might  have  proved  mines  of  fresh  interest,  but 
were  not  adequately  worked.  One  form  of  literature 
then  becoming  effete  while  no  other  was  developed, 
decay  set  in.  French  and  Italian  authors  were  studied 
to  the  detriment  of  the  ancients,  badly  exploited,  and 
imitated  amiss;  conceits  were  sought  after,  bad  taste 
became  fashionable,  the  Baroque  style  obtained  vogue 
everywhere,  the  pest  of  "macaronics"  raged.  Never 
had  there  been  so  many  writers,  never  so  few  earnest 
literary  artists;  most  wrote  merely  to  divert  thern- 
selves  and  friends,  and  did  not  even  care  to  print  their 
own  slovenly  work.  Much  of  it  was  lost,  or  was  only 
recovered  generations  later,  in  manuscript — like 
Pasek's  "Memoirs",  found  in  1836,  and  Potocki's 
"War  of  Chocim",  in  1849,  and  many  other  works 
invaluable  to  the  historian.  Translations  from  French 
and  Italian  writers  appeared,  some  original  novels, 
some  good  poems — e.  g.  those  of  Kochowski,  instinct 
with  patriotic  feeling,  of  Wenceslaus  Potocki,  whose 
epics  have  the  true  heroic  ring,  the  pleasant  idyls  of 
Gawinski,  Opalinski's  satires,  which,  though  very  in- 
ferior in  style,  were  extremely  bitter  and  often  hit 
their  mark,  Andrew  Morsztyn's  "Psyche",  also  his 
"  Cid",  translated  from  Corneille.  In  prose,  eloquence, 
both  religious  and  secular,  was  blighted  by  the  sarae 
affectation  and  bad  taste.  History  remained  what  it 
had  been,  a  mere  chronicle  of  facts;  the  political 
essays  were  woefully  inferior  to  those  of  former  times. 
In  short,  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
Pohsh  literature  was  in  full  decay,  the  only  worthy- 
representative  of  the  national  spirit  being  Kochowski, 
in  a  few  of  his  lyrical  productions,  and  W.  Potocki. 

Fifth  Period  {1696-1763).— li  was  fated  to  fall  still 
lower — so  low,  indeed,  that  it  scarce  deserved  the 
name  of  literature.  Among  the  writers  of  this  time, 
Jablonowski,  Druzbacka  (the  first  Polish  authoress), 
Rzewuski,  Zaluski,  and  Minasowicz  were  the  least 
wretched ;  history  was  represented  only  by  the  "  JNIem- 
oirs"  of  Otwinowski.  Yet  even  at  this  lowest  ebb  we 
find  everywhere  a  spirit  of  sincere,  unaffected  piety, 
untouched  as  yet  by  French  flippancy  and  unbe- 
lief, together  with  a  feeling  of  discontent  with  ex- 
isting conditions  and  a  desire  for  reform.  Karwicki, 
Leszczynski  (King  Stanislaus),  and  Konarski  were 
thinkers  who  did  noble  work  in  the  sense  of  political 
regeneration.  The  tide  was  now  at  its  lowest,  and 
about  to  turn. 

Sixth  Period  {1763-95). — As  to  the  necessity  of  re- 
form, the  nation  was  divided  into  two  parties.  The 
reforming  party  was  considerably  strengthened  after 
the  first  partition  of  Poland,  and  the  Four  Years' 
Diet  followed  with  a  most  liberal  constitution,  to 
which  Russia  and  Prussia  replied  by  dividing  Poland 
a  second  time.  Kosciuszko  took  up  arms  for  his  coun- 
try, but  failed;  the  third  partition  took  place,  and 
Poland,  as  a  separate  polity,  existed  no  more.  Mean- 
while, though  the  nation  itself  was  tottering  to  its  fall, 
its  literature  had  already  begun  to  revive.  New  ten- 
dencies, new  forms,  new  talents  to  realize  them,  were 
appearing,  the  very  humiliation  of  belonging  to  u 
people  barren  of  literary  creations  stirred  up  patriots 
to  write.  The  influence  of  French  letters,  which  had 
originated  with  Marie  Louise  Gonzaga,  queen  of  John 
Casimir,  continued  and  increased,  not  indeed  without 
injury  to  faith  and  morals;  Voltaire's  Deism,  Rous- 
seau's false  sentimentality,  the  materialism  of  Diderot 
and  his  followers,  had  their  echoes  in  Poland.  Every 
form  of  Liberalism  too,  from  its  first  parliamentary 
shape  to  the  sanguinary  terrorism  of  later  times,  was 
in  turn  adopted  from  French  patterns.  But  during  all 
this  time  public  opinion  was  ripening.     Konarski's 


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labours  had  already  doomed  the  "liherum  veto"  (the 
right  of  any  one  member  of  the  Diet  to  prevent  a  bill 
from  becoming  law);  Stazic,  followed  by  KoUataj, 
attacked  the  system  of  elected  kings.  A  lively  dis- 
cussion followed,  and  many  pamphlets  were  published 
on  either  side;  but  at  last  the  reformers'  ideas 
triumphed  in  the  Four  Years'  Diet.  At  the  same  time 
poetry  was  making  great  strides  forward,  though  as 
yet  inadequate  to  the  utterance  of  Poland's  sorrow. 

The  contemporary  poets,  Krasicki  and  Tremlicki 
especially,  were  men  of  their  time,  sober,  sensible, 
humourous,  witty,  aiming  at  perfection  of  language 
and  clearness  of  style;  what  they  produced  was  not 
unworthy  of  an  enUghtened  nation,  but  in  no  wise 
truly  great  work.  Kniaznin,  however,  and  Karpinski 
have  left  us  productions  more  lyrical  in  tone,  in  which 
scenes  of  peasant  Hfe,  together  with  rehgious  senti- 
ments, are  often  to  be  found.  About  this  time,  too, 
a  multitude  of  songs  without  any  claim  to  style  began 
to  express  the  sorrows  of  the  nation;  these  were  the 
seeds  which  later  produced  fruit  in  the  poems  of 
Mickiewicz  and  his  contemporaries.  The  drama  had 
hitherto  been  barren  in  Poland;  it  now  showed  signs 
of  fruitfulness  in  the  comedies  of  Bohomoleo,  of  Czar- 
toryski,  and  especially  of  Zablocki,  a  comic  writer  of 
no  mean  powers.  Science,  too,  law,  philosophy,  art- 
criticism,  geography,  grammar,  and  philology  now 
found  exponents  in  Sniadecki,  Poczubut,  Czacki, 
Nagurczewski,  Dmochowski,  Wyrwicz,  and  Kopcz3rn- 
ski.  History  was  completely  transformed  by  Narus- 
zewicz,  less  great  indeed  than  Dlugosz,  but  the  only 
historian  at  all  comparable  to  him  until  after  the  fall  of 
Poland.  If  the  former  laid  the  foundations  of  her 
history,  the  latter  rebuilt  it  with  his  critical  studies 
and  strict  investigation  of  sources.  In  the  same  field, 
Albertrandi,  Loyko,  and  Czacki  were  also  able  work- 
ers; nor  should  we  omit  to  notice  many  memoirs,  not 
all  equally  valuable,  but  for  the  most  part  very  im- 
portant and  instructive.  During  this  period  then  there 
was  rapid  progress.  The  direction  of  studies  was  com- 
pletely changed.  The  literature  run  wild  of  the  former 
era  was  succeeded  by  good,  sensible,  carefully  written 
work;  the  unruly  nobility  of  former  Diets  was  re- 
placed by  men  like  Niemcewicz,  Wybicki,  Andrew 
Zamoyski,  Ignatius  Potocki,  and  Bishop  Krasinski. 
No  wonder  that  their  achievement,  the  Constitution 
of  the  Third  of  May,  was  proclaimed  by  Burke  and 
Si^y(5s  the  best  in  Europe.  In  a  word,  this  period  may 
be  judged  by  its  results — the  realization  of  Poland  as 
a  true  political  organization,  the  notion  of  equality 
before  the  law,  a  culture  higher  than  any  since  the 
sixteenth  century,  a  literature  both  serious  and 
worthy  of  respect,  great  examples  of  strenuous  work, 
and  an  intense  sentiment  of  patriotic  duty. 

Seventh  Period  (1796-1822).— Th.&  silent  stupefac- 
tion of  the  first  few  years  after  Poland's  downfall  was 
followed  by  an  awakening  prompted  by  the  instinct 
of  self-preservation,  which  in  the  first  place  made  for 
the  preservation  of  the  national  language  and  htera- 
ture.  This  sentiment  became  strong,  ardent,  univer- 
sal. The  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Learning  was  then 
founded  in  Warsaw.  Of  its  members,  many  have  al- 
ready been  named  as  men  of  note  in  the  sixth  period. 
It  did  admirable  work,  and  was  not  dissolved  until 
1831.  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski,  having  become  min- 
ister to  Alexander  I,  prevailed  upon  him  to  sanction 
a  vast  plan  for  public  education  in  Lithuania  and 
Ruthenia,  embracing  all  studies  from  the  most  ele- 
mentary to  those  of  the  University  of  Vilna,  whence 
Mickiewicz  was  one  day  to  come  forth  and  endow  the 
national  poetry  with  new  life.  And  as  Vilna  Univer- 
sity was  inadequate  to  the  needs  of  so  vast  a  country, 
the  Volhynian  Lyceum  was  founded  in  1805.  During 
this  period,  the  general  course  of  literature  was  very 
like  that  of  the  preceding  epoch,  but  more  strongly 
marked  with  patriotic  sadness  as  became  a  generation 
imbued  with  the  constitutional  ideas  of  the  Four 


Years'  Diet,  but  grown  up  under  the  shadow  of  a 
great  catastrophe.  To  keep  the  memories  of  the  past 
and  the  love  of  the  fatherland  was  now  the  aim  evi- 
dently pursued  by  Niemcewicz  in  his  "songs",  by 
Woronicz  in  his  "Sybil"  (an  anticipation  of  the  poetry 
that  was  soon  to  come),  by  Kozmian  in  his  "Odes", 
by  Wezyk  and  Fehnski  in  their  tragedies;  but  the 
form  was  still  French.  Poles  had  come  to  be  ignorant 
of  any  other  hterature,  and  the  pseudo-classic  taste 
of  the  time,  together  with  the  glamour  of  Napoleon's 
victories,  had  an  excessive  influence  upon  both  litera- 
ture and  politics,  upon  language  and  social  life. 

It  was  through  the  French  themselves  that  the 
Poles  came  to  know  the  existence  of  other  sources  of 
inspiration.  But  this  revelation  once  made,  though 
Kozmian  and  Osinski  still  held  exclusively  to  Latin 
models  and  the  ideas  of  Laharpe,  Wezyk  began  to 
study  German  aesthetic  writers,  Niemcewicz  imitated 
Scott  and  pre-Byronic  English  poets,  and  Morawski 
translated  Byron.  The  drama  especially,  though  still 
following  French  models,  was  making  great  and  much 
needed  progress.  Felinski's  "  Barbara"  deserves  men- 
tion as  a  successful  play,  and  the  actors  who  played  it 
were  better  than  had  ever  been  seen  in  Poland.  Ro- 
manticism was  yet  to  come,  but  it  had  a,  forerunner 
in  Brodzinski,  who,  though  somewhat  stereotyped  in 
his  diction,  was  nevertheless  familiar  with  German 
poetry  and  tended  to  simplicity  of  thought,  seeking 
his  inspiration  where  the  Romantics  were  wont  to 
seek  it.  In  the  fields  of  science  and  scholarship,  also, 
we  meet  with  great  names — Lelewel,  Sniadecki, 
Bandtkie,  Linde,  Ossolinski,  Betkowski,  Surowiecki, 
Szaniawski,  Goluchowski,  and  others  already  men- 
tioned. In  a  word,  this  period  presents  a  steady  and 
continual  upward  trend  in  every  direction. 

Eighth  Period  {1822-60).— T\as  period,  though 
brief,  is  the  most  brilliant  in  Polish  literature.  It  may 
be  divided  into  two  parts:  before  1831,  the  search 
after  new  and  independent  paths;  after  1831,  the 
splendid  efflorescence  of  poetical  creations  resulting 
from  this  search.  What  gave  its  tone  to  all  the  poetry 
of  the  time  was  the  downfall  of  Poland,  an  influence 
that  was  patriotic,  political,  and  at  the  same  time 
mystical.  But  this  factor  alone,  strong  as  it  was,  was 
not  enough;  other  elements  co-operated.  There  was 
the  great  Romantic  movement  of  revolt  (in  England 
and  Germany  especially)  against  the  French  Classical 
school.  In  Poland  the  first  efforts  to  cast  off  the  yoke 
were  feeble  and  timid,  but  little  by  little  the  new  forms 
of  beauty  kindled  interest,  while  the  idea  of  a  return 
to  the  poetry  of  the  people  proved  particularly 
attractive.  Both  external  influences  and  popular 
aspirations  now  tended  in  the  same  direction:  there 
was  needed  only  a  man  able  to  lead  the  movement. 
The  needed  pioneer  appeared  in  Adam  Mickiewicz, 
after  whom  the  Romantic  period  of  Polish  literature 
should  rightly  be  called.  From  the  outset  his  verse 
marked  the  opening  of  a  new  poetical  epoch.  It  was 
hailed  with  deUght  by  the  younger  generation.  New 
talents  sprang  up  around  him  at  once — the  "Ukraine" 
school,  whose  most  characteristic  exponents  were 
Zaleski,  his  friend  Goszczynski,  whose  best  poem  was 
"The  Castle  of  Kaniow",  and  Malczewski,  whose  one 
narrative  poem,  "Marya",  made  him  famous.  Hith- 
erto the  prevailing  tone  in  Mickiewicz's  poems  had 
been  purely  literary  and  artistic ;  but  he  was  exiled  to 
Russia,  and  wrote  there  his  celebrated  "Sonnets"  and 
his  "  Wallenrod".  The  latter  work  shows  him  for  the 
first  time  inspired  by  the  history  and  the  actual  polit- 
ical state  of  Poland.  Patriotism  apart,  the  character- 
istics of  his  school  were  the  substitution  of  simpler 
methods  of  expression  for  the  old  conventional  style 
and  vivid  delineation  of  individuals  instead  of  abstract 
general  types.  National  feeling,  present  from  the 
first,  predominated  only  after  the  calamitous  insurrec- 
tion of  1831.  Among  the  pioneers  of  the  movement 
were  many  men  of  talent,  but  only  one  of  genius,  and 


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two — Zaleski  and  Malczewski — whose  talents  were 
really  eminent.  For  the  drama  in  this  period  we  must 
notice  Fredro,  most  of  whose  excellent  comedies  were 
written  between  1820  and  1830,  and  Joseph  Korzen- 
niowski's  first  dramatic  attempts.  Prose  literature 
had  changed  but  little  as  yet,  though  in  one  beautiful 
historical  novel  by  Bernatowicz,  "Pojata",  Scott's  in- 
fluence is  distinctly  traceable.  History  continued  to 
be  represented  by  Lelewel. 

Among  the  most  important  consequences  of  the 
insurrection  of  1831  must  be  reckoned  an  emigration 
unparalleled  in  history  for  numbers,  which  continued 
until  1863  to  be  a  factor  of  the  highest  importance  in 
the  destinies  of  the  nation,  both  political  and  literary. 
Men  of  the  highest  talent  emigrated  to  countries 
where  literature  was  free  and  untrammeled,  and  where 
the  national  sorrows  and  aspirations  might  be  uttered 
with  impunity.  Poetry  was  the  only  fitting  outlet  for 
the  emotions  which  then  stirred  the  spirit  of  the 
nation;  poetry,  therefore,  played  a  part  in  the  life  of 
the  people  greater,  perhaps,  than  has  ever  been  the 
case  elsewhere.  There  were  few  poems  of  that 
time  but  called  to  mind  Poland's  past,  present,  or 
impending  woes.  This  patriotic  element  stamped  its 
character  upon  the  whole  period.  Poets  endeavoured 
to  answer  two  questions  in  particular:  Why  had  this 
doom  fallen  on  the  nation? — What  was  its  future  to 
be? — Now  essaying  to  treat  the  philosophy  of  history, 
now  endeavouring  to  raise  the  veil  of  the  future,  how- 
ever feebly  a  versifier  might  write,  he  was  sure  to 
attempt  some  answer  to  these  questions. 

And  here  writers  were  influenced  by  the  two  con- 
trary currents  of  Catholicism  and  Messianism.  The 
strong  revival  of  religion  in  France  could  not  but 
influence  the  men  of  the  Polish  emigration.  Until 
1831  Poland  had  been  outside  of  that  movement. 
Most  Poles  were  traditionally  Catholic,  but  not  all 
Polish  Catholics  possessed  deeply  grounded  convic- 
tions; some  lived  in  eighteenth-century  indifference; 
some  were  influenced  by  the  opinion,  as  common  as 
it  is  baseless,  that  Rationalism  is  the  first  condition 
of  progress.  Under  the  stress  of  conflicting  tendencies 
in  France,  some  Polish  refugees  entirely  abandoned 
religion.  Others  learned  that  religiosity  and  practical 
religion  are  not  the  same  thing;  that  Poland  had  in 
latter  days,  to  a  great  degree,  lost  touch  with  the  essen- 
tials of  the  Catholic  Faith,  through  sheer  ignorance, 
torpor,  and  thoughtlessness,  and  that  ere  its  political 
regeneration  could  be  thought  of,  the  nation  must  be 
born  again  by  a  return  to  truly  religious  life.  The 
men  who  thought  thus — Zalenski,  Witwicki,  Stanis- 
laus, John  Kozmian,  and  others — rallied  round 
Mickiewicz,  whose  idea  that  a  new  religious  congre- 
gation, consisting  of  refugees,  was  necessary  to  set 
them  all  on  the  right  path,  became  the  germ  of  the 
Congregation  of  Our  Lord's  Resurrection.  This  con- 
gregation was  founded  by  two  priests  who  had  been 
soldiers  in  the  rising  of  1831,  Kajsiewicz  and  Seme- 
nenko.  Their  example  did  much  for  pulpit  eloquence 
in  Poland.  Excepting  Skarga,  Father  Jerome  Kaj- 
siewicz was  the  greatest  of  Polish  pulpit  orators;  he 
was  also  a  great  writer.  His  inspired  utterances,  the 
truth  and  wisdom  of  his  judgments  in  matters  of  learn- 
ing, proceeded  from  his  love  for  God,  for  the  Church, 
and — though  he  well  knew  her  faults  and  blamed 
them  with  much  severity — for  his  country  too.  He 
was  one  of  the  greatest  figures  in  the  Church  and  in 
the  literature  of  Poland. 

In  France,  together  with  the  revival  of  Catholicism, 
there  were  also  movements  in  another  direction;  that 
of  Saint-Simon,  for  example,  and  that  of  Lamennais, 
and  these  had  affected  the  Poles  of  the  emigration 
when  the  Lithuanian,  Andrew  Towianski,  preached  to 
them  his  new  creed  of  Messianism.  Readily  explic- 
able as  a  result  of  false  conditions  of  existence,  and 
the  contrast  between  laws  of  conscience  and  facts  of 
life,  this  outbreak  was  none  the  less  deplorable  on 


account  of  those  whom  it  misled.  But  Messianism 
never  had  much,  if  any,  weight  with  the  emigrants; 
unfortunately,  Mickiewicz  was  entrapped  by  the  sect, 
and  the  beauty  of  his  utterances  gave  its  errors  some 
appearance  of  truth.  The  national  literature  had  now 
reached  its  zenith ;  Mickiewicz  now  produced  his  great 
national  epic,  "Pan  Tadeusz";  and  it  was  now  that 
Stowacki  and  Krasinski,  lesser  names  indeed,  yet  of 
the  first  rank,  wrote  all  their  works.  All  three  were 
intensely  patriotic,  and  in  some  degree  mystics. 
With  them  the  idea  of  Poland  as  God's  chosen 
nation,  the  martyr  among  nations  largely,  prevails 
and  is  strongly  emphasized  in  the  "Dziady"  of 
Mickiewicz,  though  earlier  poets  were  not  without 
some  traces  of  this  doctrine.  Of  course  Poles  at  the 
present  day  repudiate  it  as  an  exaggeration;  but  it  was 
the  first  beginning  of  the  error  into  which  Mickiewicz 
fell  later;  and  it  was  the  only  stain  upon  the  immacu- 
late splendour  and  high-souled  patriotism  of  Polish 
poetry. 

Mickiewicz,  after  "Pan  Tadeusz''  was  published, 
gave  up  poetry  as  a  vanity.  But  Stowacki  wrote  his 
magnificent  "Kordyan",  followed  by  many  other 
poems  of  a  still  higher  flight,  as  "Anhelli",  "Cjclec 
Zadzumionych",  "W.  Szwajcarij",  "Lilla  Weneda", 
"Beniowski";  and  his  tragedies,  though  not  perfect, 
are  still  the  best  in  Polish  literature.  Zaleski  produced 
his  religious  idyl,  "The  Holy  Family",  and  an  attempt 
towards  the  solution  of  many  a  problem  in  "The 
Spirit  of  the  Steppe".  Gosczzynski,  Garczynski, 
Witwicki,  and  Siemienski,  not  to  mention  a  great 
number  of  other  poets  of  less  renown,  surrounded 
Mickiewicz  in  his  exile.  Sigismund  Krasinski  pub- 
lished his  "Nieboska  Komedya"  (The  Not-Divine 
Comedy)  and  "Iridyon",  both  full  of  deep  philosoph- 
ical and  Christian  thought,  showing  the  contradic- 
tions of  European  civilization,  and  the  supremacy  of 
God's  law  over  nations  as  over  individuals.  His 
"Przedswit"  (The  Dawn)  told  Poland  that  her 
present  condition  was  a  trial  to  purify  her,  which 
lesson  was  repeated  in  his  "Psalms  of  the  Future", 
together  with  a  warning  against  acts  that  might  call 
down  a  yet  greater  calamity. 

In  Poland  itself,  the  literary  movement,  though 
cramped,  still  existed.  Vincent  Pol  wrote  his  pleasing 
"Songs  of  Janusz"  and  the  "Songs  of  Our  Land", 
marked  by  much  originality  of  feeling  and  a  faithful 
portraiture  of  the  national  character.  There  were  also 
some  poets  who  exaggerated  Romanticism  with  all  its 
defects;  Magnuszewski,  for  instance,  Zeglinski,  Nor- 
wid,  Zmorski,  and  Zielinski.  Of  another  type  were 
Lenartowicz,  whose  first  poems  now  appeared,  and 
Ujejski,  who  won  fame  by  his  "Lamentations  of  Jere- 
mias",  so  well  suited  to  the  actual  state  of  Poland. 
Prose,  particularly  prose  fiction,  now  began  to  flour- 
ish. As  early  as  1829  Kraszewski  had  begun  to  pour 
forth  the  multitudinous  and  varied  stream  of  works 
which  was  to  continue  for  more  than  fifty  years.  His 
first  novels  were  feeble,  his  best  are  open  to  much 
criticism;  but  there  is  a  great  deal  of  truth  and  of 
merit  in  his  work,  taken  as  a  whole,  with  all  its  wonder- 
ful variety.  Korzenniowski,  a  very  difi'erent  kind  of 
talent,  a  serious  artist  and  a  correct  writer,  less  satir- 
ical in  tone  and  of  a  merrier  turn  of  wit,  was  another 
good  novelist;  he  also  wrote  some  dramas,  chiefly 
with  a  comic  tendency,  which  were  successfully  pro- 
duced at  Warsaw  during  the  darkest  days  of  the  cen- 
sure. His  novels,  fewer  than  Kraszewski's,  were 
written  with  much  care.  In  the  historical  novel 
Rzewuski  was  supreme,  with  his  "Memoirs  of 
Soplica"  and  "Listopad"  (November).  Chodzko, 
however,  in  his  "Lithuanian  Pictures",  was  not  very 
far  behind  him. 

Science  and  learning  progressed,  in  spite  of  great 
difficulties.  Of  all  the  universities  on  Polish  soil 
Cracow  alone  remained  open  and  taught  in  Polish. 
Yet  here  the  struggle  for  culture  was  successful.    His- 


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tory  broke  with  the  last  of  the  eighteenth  century  and 
tools;  its  stand  upon  the  principle  of  severe  research. 
The  best  historian  then  living,  after  Lelewel,  was 
Bielowski.  Mickiewicz,  as  a  lecturer  in  the  "College 
de  France",  sketched  the  history  of  Polish  literature 
with  a  master  hand,  while  Wiszniewski  collected  and 
studied  vast  stores  of  material  of  which  he  was  able 
to  exploit  only  a  part.  In  science,  both  physical  and 
medical,  many  names  of  distinguished  men  might  be 
quoted.  Philosophy  was  now  more  studied  than  ever; 
Gotuchowski,  Libelt,  Cieszkowski,  Trentowski,  and 
Kremer  all  tended  towards  the  estabUshment  of 
a  Polish  school  of  metaphysics,  removed  equally 
from  German  Transcendentalism  and  French  Empir- 
icism, and  founded  on  the  harmony  of  all  our  faculties 
(not  on  reason  alone)  and  on  a  true  reconciliation  be- 
tween science  and  religion.  But  all  took  the  cue  from 
German  teachers,  some  from  Schelling,  others  from 
Hegel,  whom,  however,  they  often  contradicted;  and 
they  failed  to  produce  any  distinct  system  of  phi- 
losophy. 

Ninth  Period  (1850  to  the  present  time). — A  short 
interval  of  transition,  following  the  briUiant  outburst 
of  the  eighth  period,  lasted  until  1863.  Newspapers 
and  periodicals  began  to  be  very  widely  read;  they 
sowed  broadcast  the  seeds  of  culture,  but  with  the  in- 
evitable shortcomings  of  inadequate  criticism  and 
superficiality.  Vincent  Pol  continued  to  write;  "The 
Senatorial  Agreement"  and  "Mohort"  came  from  his 
pen  during  this  period.  Syrokomla,  an  author  re- 
sembling Pol  in  simpHcity  and  originality  of  tone,  was 
decidedly  his  inferior  in  other  respects.  Lenartowicz, 
too,  still  wrote  with  much  talent,  but,  like  Pol  and 
Zaleski,  with  a  certain  monotony  of  diction  and  ideas. 
Two  women  should  be  mentioned  here:  Narcyza 
Zmicowska  (Gabryela)  and  Hedwige  Luszczewska 
(Deotyma).  The  former  had  strong  imagination  and 
great  audacity;  the  latter,  while  yet  very  young, 
astonished  Warsaw  with  the  brilliancy  and  facility  of 
her  poetical  improvisations.  In  later  years  she  set 
about  writing  seriously,  and  produced  much  good  and 
scholarly  work.  The  old  classics,  Cajetan  Kozmian, 
Wezyk,  and  Morawski,  still  lived  and  wrote  on,  poss- 
ibly even  with  more  spirit  than  in  their  young  days. 
Odyniec,  another  relic  of  expiring  Romanticism,  made 
his  mark  about  this  time;  his  translations  of  Scott, 
Moore,  and  Byron  are  excellent.  Contemporary  with 
these  are  Siemienski's  translations  of  Homer  and 
Horace,  and  Stanislaus  Kozmian's  of  Shakespeare. 
Romanowski  gave  great  promise  as  a  poet,  but  he 
died  in  1863;  and  Joseph  Szujski,  destined  to  be  one 
of  the  great  historians  of  the  present  time,  had  already 
come  forward  as  a  narrative,  dramatic,  and  lyric  poet. 
In  prose  literature  Kraszewski  and  Korzenniowski 
still  held  their  places,  and  Kaczkowski  now  stood  by 
their  side.  In  history,  besides  the  men  already  named, 
we  find  Maciejowski,  Hube,  and  Heloel;  these  last, 
with  Dzialynski  and  Bielowski,  also  did  good  work  by 
editing  ancient  sources.  Szajnocha,  who  with  modern 
strictness  of  research  united  a  most  brilliant  style,  and 
Frederick  Skarbck  came  to  the  front.  Wojcicki's 
"History  of  Polish  Literature"  is  a  very  good  work; 
and  Lukasiewicz  Bartoszewioz,  Mecherzynski,  Przy- 
borowski,  Tyszynski,  Malecki,  Klaczko,  and  Kalinka 
wrote  excellent  tractates  and  essays  on  literary,  polit- 
ical and  aesthetic  subjects. 

A  great  change  in  political  conditions  supervened 
after  1863.  While  Austria  granted  autonomy  to  her 
Poli.sh  subjects,  Russia  attempted  by  a  long  and  fero- 
cious persecution  to  stamp  out  every  vestige  of  national 
life,  and  in  Prussian  Poland,  under  Bismarck's  rule, 
even  the  Catechism  was  taught  in  German.  Thus 
Austrian  Poland,  having  two  universities  (Cracow  and 
Lemberg)  besides  an  academy  of  sciences,  became  an 
important  factor  in  Polish  culture.  The  awful  conse- 
quences of  the  rising  of  1863  had  taught  the  nation 
that,  instead  of  fighting,  it  must  employ  peaceful 


means,  increasing  the  national  wealth,  raising  the 
level  of  culture,  manoeuvring  dexterously  to  get  what 
political  advantages  could  be  got,  and  strengthening 
religious  convictions  among  the  people.  The  former 
mystical  ideas  of  patriotism,  together  with  all  the 
hopes  of  a  prompt  restoration,  now  disappeared;  in 
their  place  came  truth — the  knowledge  of  former,  and 
of  present,  shortcomings  and  errors  which  had  con- 
tributed to  the  national  ruin — and  the  firm  hope  that 
Poland  might  live  on,  but  at  the  cost  of  incessant  and 
heroic  struggles.  No  wonder  that  with  such  disposi- 
tions, prose  had  the  upper  hand.  Poetry  had  had  its 
day,  though  its  stimulating  effects  still  remained;  its 
action  upon  the  national  imagination  had  been  great; 
now  was  the  turn  of  prose,  with  its  appeal  to  the  under- 
standing and  the  will.  History  flourished :  Szajnocha, 
Helcel,  Bielowski,  Szujski,  Kalinka,  Liske,  Pawinski, 
Jarochowski,  Wegner,  Bobrzynski,  Zakrzewski, 
Smolka,  Kubala,  Likowski,  Korytkowski,  Korzon, 
whose  works  are  too  numerous  to  be  even  noticed 
here,  were  all  historians  of  great  merit.  In  the  history 
of  Polish  law,  Piekosinski,  Balzer,  and  Ulanowski 
must  be  named,  besides  others  among  those  men- 
tioned above.  Estreicher  published  his  extremely  valu- 
able and  useful  "  Bibliografia  Polska",  in  eighteen 
vols.;  Malecki  and  Kallenbach  respectively  wrote  the 
lives  of  Stowacki  and  of  Krasinski;  Nehring,  Tretiak, 
and  Kallenbach  took  Mickiewicz  for  their  theme,  and 
Spasowicz,  Tarnowski,  Chmiolowski,  and  Bruckner 
all  published  histories  of  Polish  literature  in  several 
volumes,  whilst  Klaczko  wrote  in  French  his  "Caus- 
eries  Florentines",  a  very  beautiful  and  serious  study 
on  Dante. 

In  the  philological  field,  particularly  in  the  study  of 
Polish  and  the  other  Slavonic  languages,  Malinowski, 
Baudoin  de  Courtenay,  Karlowicz,  Krynski,  Kalina, 
and  Hanusz  did  most  distinguished  work.  Qepkow- 
ski,  Luszkiewicz,  Sokolowski,  Mycielski,  and  many 
others  laboured  successfully  for  the  advancement  of 
archaeology  and  the  history  of  art,  as  also  did  Kolberg, 
for  ethnography.  Klaczko,  already  mentioned,  wrote 
in  French  two  political  works,  "  Deux  etudes  de  diplo- 
matic contemporaine  " ,  and  "Les  deux  chanceliers " . 
Bishop  Janiszewski's  "The  Church  and  the  Christian 
State"  is  a  remarkable  work.  In  philosophy,  Swig- 
tochowski  and  Marburg  represented  the  modern 
Positivist  tendency,  while  the  contrary  attitude  of 
thought  was  taken  by  Struve,  and  Fathers  Pawlicki 
and  Morawski,  SIraszpwski,  Raciborski,  Twardowski, 
Wartenberg,  and  others.  Pawlicki  wrote  his  "His- 
tory of  Greek  Philosophy",  and  Straszewski  is  the 
author  of  a  work  on  Sniadecki  and  another  on  Indian 
philosophy.  Poetry,  as  has  been  said,  no  longer 
occupies  the  same  lofty  position  as  formerly.  A  few 
dainty  verses  distinguished  by  nobility  of  thought 
and  grace  of  diction  have  come  from  Falenski's  pen. 
The  late  Adam  Asnyk  published  many  poems  under 
the  nom  de  -plume  of  "El .  .y" .  They  were  singularly 
melodious  and  graceful,  melancholy  and  sad  in  tone. 
Marya  Konopnicka  is  a  poet  of  the  younger  genera- 
tion and  possesses  a  really  fine  talent.  Lucyan  Rydel 
has  shown  much  lyrical  and  also  dramatic  talent: 
"Na  Zawsze"  (For  ever)  and  "The  Polish  Bethle- 
hem" are  fine  plays.  Casimir  Tetmajer  has  great 
command  of  language,  a  stormy,  passionate  lyricism; 
he  is  at  war  with  the  world  and  with  himself. 

Patriotism  is,  as  a  rule,  differently  manifested  in  the 
poets  of  our  days:  there  being  no  hope  of  victory  by 
insurrection,  the  life  of  the  people,  its  fortunes  and  its 
sufferings  have  now  the  first  place.  Poets,  too,  write 
more  willingly  for  the  drama.  Many  have  produced 
very  successful  plays — Anczyc,  for  instance,  "Peas- 
ants and  Aristocrats"  and  "Kosciuszko  at  Rac- 
lawice"  Balucki  has  made  good  hits  in  his  petite 
bourgeoisie  comedies;  Fredo  the  younger,  Blizinski  and 
Gawalewicz  are  also  good  comedy-writers.  In  fiction, 
a  great  and  unexpected  step  forward  has  been  taken. 


POLE 


202 


POLE 


Sheen,  where  he  spent  five  years.  He  went  to  Oxford 
at  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen,  and  took  his  degree 
soon  after  he  was  fifteen.  He  was,  it  seems,  intended 
for  the  Church,  a  choice  to  which  he  wilUngly  as- 
sented, and  though  he  had  received  no  orders  and 
was  still  hardly  more  than  a  lad,  benefices  were 
showered  upon  him,  amongst  others  a  prebend  bear- 
ing with  it  the  title  of  dean  in  the  collegiate  church  of 
Wimborne  (15  Feb.,  1518). 

Throughout  all  his  career  Pole's  attraction  for  a 
studious  life  was  most  pronounced.  At  his  own  wish 
and  with  the  approval  and  pecuniary  help  of  Henry 
VIII  he  set  out  in  Feb.,  1521,  for  Padua,  at  that  time 
a  great  centre  of  learning,  and  in  the  coterie  of  scholars 
which  he  found  there  the  young  kinsman  of  the  King 
of  England  became  a  great  favourite.  Men  Hke  Long- 
olius  (de  Longueil),  who,  dying  shortly  afterwards, 
left  Pole  his  library,  Leonicus,  who  taught  him  Greek, 
Bembo  the  humanist,  and  later  Cardinal  Contarini, 
also  one  day  destined  to  adorn  the  Sacred  College, 
and  the  English  scholar  Lupset,  all  sought  his  inti- 
macy, while  at  a  later  period  and  under  other  circum- 
stances he  acquired  the  friendship  and  won  the  high 
esteem  of  Erasmus  and  More.  All  these  were  not 
only  learned  but  large-minded  men,  and  the  mere 
fact  of  his  choosing  such  associates  would  suffice  to 
prove  that  Pole  was  not  the  bigot  he  has  been  some- 
times represented.  Pole  remained  in  Italy  until  1 527 . 
After  a  visit  to  Rome  in  1526,  and  on  his  return  he  still 
pursued  his  studies,  residing  within  the  enclosure  of 
the  Carthusians  at  Sheen.  Even  at  this  date  he  had 
not  yet  received  minor  orders,  but  he  was  nevertheless 
elected  Dean  of  Exeter  (12  Aug.,  1527). 

Shortly  after  this  the  great  matter  of  the  king's 
divorce  came  to  a  head,  and  Pole,  to  avoid 
having  to  take  sides  in  a  complication  in  which 
conscience,  friendship,  and  gratitude  to  his  royal 
kinsman  were  inextricably  entangled,  obtained  per- 
mission to  continue  his  studies  in  Paris.  But  he 
did  not  thus  escape  from  his  embarrassment,  for 
his  aid  was  asked  by  the  king  to  obtain  from  the 
university  an  opinion  favourable  to  the  divorce. 
When  the  young  student  pleaded  inexperience.  Fox 
was  sent  to  assist  him.  The  situation  was  a  delicate 
one  and  Pole  probably  did  little  to  forward  a  cause  so 
distasteful  to  his  own  feeling  (the  elTective  pressure, 
as  we  know,  was  really  applied  by  Francis  I),  but  he 
had  the  credit  of  managing  the  business  and  was 
thanked  for  his  exertions  (see  Calendar,  IV,  6252, 
6483,  6505).  None  the  less,  Henry  required  his  kins- 
man to  return  to  England,  and  when  shortly  after- 
wards Wolsey's  disgrace  was  followed  by  his  death, 
Pole  was  invited  to  succeed  him  as  Archbishop  of 
York,  or  to  accept  the  See  of  Winchester.  That  this 
was  merely  a  bribe  to  obtain  Pole's  support  was  not 
BO  obvious  then  as  it  must  seem  to  us  now  in  the  light 
of  subsequent  developments.  He  hesitated  and  asked 
for  a  month  to  make  up  his  mind.  Finally  he  ob- 
tained an  interview  with  the  king  and  seems  to  have 
expressed  his  feelings  on  the  divorce  question  so 
boldly  that  Henry  in  his  fury  laid  his  -hand  upon  his 
dagger.  To  explain  his  position  he  subsequently  sub- 
mitted a  memorial  on  the  subject  which,  even  accord- 
ing to  the  unfriendly  testimony  of  Cranmer,  was  a 
masterly  document  (Strype,  "Cranmer",  Ap.  1), 
moderately  and  tactfully  worded.  "The  king",  so 
Pole  pleaded — it  was  in  the  early  part  of  1531 — 
"  standeth  even  upon  the  brink  of  the  water  and  he 
may  yet  save  all  his  honour,  but  if  he  put  forth  his  foot 
but  one  step  forward,  all  his  honour  is  drowned. " 

The  course  of  subsequent  history  fully  justified 
Pole's  prescience,  and  indeed  for  a  moment  the  king 
seems  to  have  wavered,  but  evil  counsels  urged  him  for- 
ward on  the  road  to  destruction.  Still,  as  Pole  had  not 
made  his  opposition  public,  Henry  was  magnanimous 
enough  at  this  stage  to  give  him  permission  in  January, 
1532,  to  withdraw  to  the  continent,  while  continuing 


as  before  to  pay  his  allowances  out  of  the  royal  ex- 
chequer. Resuming,  eventually,  his  peaceful  life  in 
Padua,  Pole  renewed  or  estabhshed  an  intimacy 
with  the  leaders  in  the  world  of  letters,  men  hke 
Sadolet  (then  Bishop  of  Carpentras),  Contarini,  and 
Ludovico  Priuli.  The  two  or  three  years  which  fol- 
lowed were  probably  the  happiest  he  was  fated  ever 
to  know. 

Meanwhile  events  were  moving  rapidly  in  England. 
The  last  strands  which  bound  England  to  Rome  had 
been  severed  by  the  king  in  1534.  The  situation  was 
desperate,  but  many  seemed  to  think  that  it  was  in 
Pole's  power  to  render  aid.  On  the  side  of  Princess  Mary 
and  her  cousin  Charles  V  advances  were  made  to  him 
in  June,  1535,  and  after  some  demur  he  agreed  to  make 
an  attempt  at  mediation.  On  the  other  hand  Henry 
seemed  still  to  cling  to  the  idea  of  gaining  him  over  to 
support  the  divorce,  and  through  the  intermediary  of 
Pole's  chaplain,  Starkey,  who  happened  to  be  in 
England  at  the  close  of  1534,  Pole  had  been  pressed 
by  the  king  to  write  his  opinion  on  the  lawfulness  jure 
divino  of  marriage  with  a  deceased  brother's  widow, 
and  also  upon  the  Divine  institution  of  the  papal 
supremacy.  Pole  reluctantly  consented,  and  his  reply 
after  long  delay  eventually  took  the  form  of  a 
treatise,  "Pro  ecclesiastics  TJnitatis  defensione" 
It  was  most  uncompromising  in  language  and  argu- 
ment, and  we  cannot  doubt  that  events  in  England, 
especially  the  tragedy  of  the  execution  of  Fisher  and 
More  and  of  his  friends  the  Carthusians,  had  con- 
vinced Pole  that  it  was  his  duty  before  God  to  speak 
plainly,  whatever  the  cost  might  be  to  himself  and  his 
family.  The  book,  however,  was  not  made  public 
until  a  later  date.  It  was  at  first  sent  off  privately 
to  the  king  (27  May,  1536),  and  Henry  on  glancing 
through  it  at  once  dispatched  the  messenger,  who  had 
brought  it,  back  to  Pole,  demanding  his  attendance  in 
England  to  explain  certain  difficulties  in  what  he  had 
written.  Pole,  however,  while  using  courteous  and 
respectful  language  to  the  king,  and  craving  his 
mother's  pardon  in  another  letter  for  the  action  he  felt 
bound  to  take,  decided  to  disobey  the  summons. 
At  this  juncture  he  was  called  to  Rome  by  command 
of  Paul  III.  To  accept  the  papal  invitation  was 
clearly  and  before  the  eyes  of  all  men  to  side  with  the 
pope  against  the  king,  his  benefactor.  For  a  while 
Pole,  who  was  by  turns  coaxed  and  threatened  in  let- 
ters from  his  mother  and  relatives  in  England,  seems 
to  have  been  in  doubt  as  to  where  his  duty  lay.  But 
his  advisers,  men  like  Ghiberti,  Bishop  of  Verona, 
and  Caraffa,  the  founder  of  the  'Theatines,  afterwards 
Paul  IV,  urged  that  God  must  be  obeyed  rather  than 
man.  So  the  papal  invitation  was  accepted,  and  by 
the  middle  of  November,  1536,  Pole,  though  still 
without  orders  of  any  kind,  found  himself  lodged  in 
the  Vatican. 

The  summons  of  Paul  III  had  reference  to  the  com- 
mission which  he  had  convened  under  the  presidency 
of  Contarini  to  draw  up  a  scheme  for  the  internal  re- 
form of  the  Church.  The  pope  wished  Pole  to  take 
part  in  this  commission,  and  shortly  afterwards 
announced  his  intention  of  making  him  a  cardinal. 
To  this  proposal  Pole,  influenced  in  part  by  the 
thought  of  the  sinister  construction  likely  to  be  put 
upon  his  conduct  in  England,  made  an  energetic  and, 
undoubtedly,  sincere  resistance,  but  his  objections 
were  overborne  and,  after  receiving  the  tonsure,  he 
was  raised  to  the  purple  along  with  Sadolet,  Caraffa, 
and  nine  others  on  22  Dec,  1536.  The  commission 
must  have  finished  its  sittings  by  the  middle  of  Feb- 
ruary (Pastor,  "Geschichte  der  Papste",  V,  118),  and 
Pole  was  despatched  upon  a  mission  to  the  north 
on  18  Feb.,  with  the  title  of  legate,  as  it  was  hoped  that 
the  rising  known  as  the  "Pilgrimage  of  Grace"  might 
have  created  a  favourable  opportunity  for  interven- 
tion in  England.  But  the  rivalry  between  Charles 
V  and  Francis  I  robbed  Pole's  mission  of  any  little 


REGINALD  CARDINAL  POLE 

SEBASTIANO    DEL   PIOMBO,    THE    HERMITAGE,    ST.    PETERSBURG 


FOLDING 


201 


POLE 


Kraszewski  was  still  continuing  to  write  with  uncom- 
mon power  (though  at  his  age  progress  was  out  of  the 
question)  when  Henryk  Sienldewicz  came  to  the  front. 
After  a  few  short  tales  and  sketches  he  took  the  field 
with  his  immortal  trilogy:  "With  Fire  and  Sword", 
"The  Flood",  "Pan  Wolodyjowski".  To  these  he 
added  "Without  Principle",  and  "The  Polaniecki 
Family",  novels  of  contemporary  life.  He  then  pub- 
lished "Quo  Vadis"  and,  reverting  to  national  themes, 
brought  out  "The  Teutonic  Knights"  and  "On  the 
Fields  of  Glory ' ' .  Around  him  sprang  up  many  another 
author  of  very  considerable  talent.  There  were  Eliza 
Orzeszko  (On  the  Niemen),  Prus  ("The  Outpost", 
"The  Doll"),  Szymanski  (Sketches),  Rodziewicz  (De- 
wajtys),  Ladislaus  Lozinski  (The  Madonna  of  Buso- 
wisk).  Among  the  most  recent  are  Zeromski  ("The 
Homeless  Ones",  "Ashes",  "The  History  of  a  Sin"), 
Rejmont  (Peasants),  and  Przybyszewski  (Homo 
Sapiens) .  At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  there 
came  a  decided  change,  especially  in  the  drama,  under 
the  influence  of  Impressionists  and  Symbolists — of 
Maeterlinck,  Ibsen,  Hauptmann,  and  Sudermann: 
the  prose  drama,  often  coarsely  realistic,  endeavoured 
to  solve  problems  of  real  life ;  the  poetical  and  tragical 
drama  tried  to  create  new  forms  and  a  symbolic  at- 
mosphere. Stanislaus  \\'yspianski,  who  died  lately, 
is  the  principal  and  most  successful  exponent  of  this 
latter  school,  but  John  Kasprowicz  has  at  the  same 
time  produced  beautiful  plays  of  his  own  and  fine 
translations  of  Shakespeare  and  jEschylus. 

Such  is,  in  brief,  the  history  of  Polish  literature- 
remarkable  in  that,  during  the  last  century,  and  in 
spite  of  the  cruel  disasters  which  overtook  the  nation, 
it  not  only  maintained  itself,  but  showed  a  most  won- 
derful and  consoling  vitality  of  development ;  remark- 
able, too,  for  the  high  ideal  of  uprightness  and  nobility 
of  mind  which  the  nation,  notwithstanding  many 
shortcomings,  constantly  set  up  for  itself  from  the 
time  of  Dlugosz  down  to  our  own.  It  has  fully  under- 
stood, even  when  it  has  failed  to  fulfil,  the  idea  of 
Christian  civilisation. 

Chmielowski,  Historya  Literatury  Polskiej  (Warsaw,  1900); 
Bruckner,  Historya  Literatury  Polskiej  (Warsaw,  1896);  Tab- 
NOwsKi,  Wypisy  Polskie  (Cracow,  1910);  Idem,  Historya 
Literatury    Polskiej     (Cracow,      1905);       Idem,     Ksiadz'     Wale- 

ryan     Kalinka     (Cracow,     1887) ;     N ,     Stanislaw    Kozmian 

(Cracow,  1885);  Porebowicz,  St.  Kozmian  i  jego  przeklady 
szekspira  (Warsaw,  1885);  Anon.,  Jan  Kozmian  (Cracow,  1877); 
Kraszewski,  Zywot  i  dziela  ig.  Krasickiego  (Warsaw,  1879) ; 
Nehrixg,  Poezye  Krasickiego  (Posen,  1884) ;  Chmielowski, 
Charakterystyka  Jg.  Krasickiego  (Cracow,  1886) ;  Tretiak, 
Krasicki  jako  t^rezydent  trybu/ialu  (Cracow,  1855);  Idem,  0 
satyrach  Krasickiego  (Cracow,  1896) ;  Ktjrpiel,  Przekonania 
religijnt  Krasickiego  (Cracow,  1893);  Klaczko,  La  poesie 
polonaise  au  XIX^  sikcle  et  le  pokte  anonyme  in  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes  (Jan.,  1862);  Nehring,  Nieboska  Komedya  i  Irydion 
(Posen,  1884) ;  Chmielowski,  Kobiety  Mickiewicza,  Slowackiego 
I  Krasinskiego  (St.  Petersburg  and  Cracow,  1884);  Hosioh, 
Miloso  w  zycia  Krasinskiego  (Warsaw,  1899) ;  Tretiak,  Z.  Krasijin 
ski  w  pierwszej  dobie  mlodosci  (Lemberg,  1884);  Tarnowski, 
Z.  Krasinski  (Cracow,  1892) ;  Kallenbach,  Mlodoso  Z.  Krasin- 
skiego (Cracow,  1892);  Krzycki,  Weclewski,  Opoezyach  Andrezja 
Krzyckiego  (Cracow,  1874);  Droba,  Andrzej  Krzycki  (Cracow, 
1879) ;  Morawski,  Corpus  antiquissimorum  poetarum  Polonice 
Latinorum  (Cracow,  1888),  Preface;  Wladtslaw  Mickiewicz, 
Zywol  Adama  Mickiewicza  (Posen,  1890-95);  Chmielowski. 
Adam  Mickiewicz  (Warsaw,  1880) ;  Kallenbach,  Adam  Mickie- 
wicz (Cracow,  1897) ;  Tretiak,  Mickiewicz  w  Wilnie  i  Koumie 
((Cracow,  1884);  Gostomski,  Arcydzie  poezyi  polskiej  (Warsaw, 
1898),  and  many  others. 

St.  Tahnowski. 

Folding,  John  Bede,  Archbishop  of  Sydney,  b.  at 
Liverpool,  18  Oct.,  1794;  d.  at  Sydney,  16  March, 
1877.  In  1805  he  was  sent  to  school  at  the  Benedic- 
tine Monastery  of  St.  Gregory  at  Acton  Burnell  near 
Shrewsbury  (now  Downside  Abbey  near  Bath) .  In 
1810  he  received  the  Benedictine  habit  and  made  his 
vows  the  year  following.  He  was  ordained  in  1819  and 
filled  in  turn  the  offices  of  parish  priest,  prefect,  novice- 
master,  and  sub-prior  in  his  monastery.  In  1833  Prop- 
aganda selected  Folding  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Madras, 
Bishop  of  Hiero-Caesarea.  It  was  pointed  out,  however, 
that  his  health  could  not  stand  the  climate  of  Madras, 


and  the  Holy  See  accepted  this  excuse  as  sufficient. 
About  this  time  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  pope  to  send 
a  bishop  to  New  South  Wales.  Folding  was  appointed 
to  this  newly-created  vicariate  which,  besides  New 
South  Wales,  included  the  rest  of  New  Holland  and 
Van  Dieman's  Land  (now  Tasmania).  The  consecra- 
tion took  place  in  London,  29  June,  1834. 

Bishop  Folding  reached  Sydney  in  September,  1835, 
and  at  once  set  to  work  to  organize  his  vast  diocese. 
He  found  only  three  priests  in  New  South  Wales  and 
one  in  Tasmania;  these  with  the  three  or  four  Bene- 
dictine monks  whom  he  had  brought  with  him  consti- 
tuted the  entire  force  at  his  disposal.  Then,  and  for 
many  years  afterwards,  he  worked  like  one  of  his 
priests,  saying  Mass  daily  in  various  stations,  often  in 
the  convict  prisons,  teaching  the  Catechism,  hearing 
the  confessions  of  multitudes,  and  attending  the  sick 
and  dying.  He  obtained  permission  to  give  retreats  in 
the  prison  establishments,  and  between  1836  and  1841 
no  less  than  7000  convicts  made  at  least  ten  days'  retreat 
under  his  guidance.  The  authorities  soon  realized  the 
good  effect  his  influence  was  having,  and  arranged 
that,  on  the  arrival  of  every  ship-load  of  convicts,  all 
the  Catholics  should  be  placed  at  his  disposal  for 
some  days,  during  which  the  bishop  and  his  assistants 
saw  each  prisoner  personally  and  did  all  they  could 
for  them  before  they  were  drafted  off  to  their  various 
destinations.  In  1841  Bishop  Folding  revisited  Eng- 
land and  thence  went  on  to  Rome  to  report  on  his 
vicariate  and  petition  for  the  establishment  of  a 
hierarchy,  which  was  granted  in  1842,  the  vicar 
Apostolic  becoming  first  Archbishop  of  Sydney  and 
Primate  of  all  Australia.  During  this  visit  he  was 
sent  on  a  special  diplomatic  mission  to  Malta,  and 
in  recognition  of  his  success  therein  was  made  a 
Count  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  an  assistant 
at  the  pontifical  throne.  In  1S43  he  returned  to 
Sydney,  taking  with  him  a  band  of  Christian  Brothers, 
four  Fassionists,  and  some  Benedictines.  His  return 
as  archbishop  aroused  a  violent  storm  among  the 
Church  of  England  party  in  the  colony,  but  his  gentle- 
ness and  tact  disarmed  all  opponents. 

Two  provincial  synods  were  held,  at  Sydney  in 
1844  and  at  Melbourne  in  1859;  he  founded  the  Uni- 
versity College  of  St.  John  at  Sydney  and  the  College 
of  St.  Mary,  Lyndhurst.  He  visited  Europe  in  1846- 
48,  in  1854-56,  and  in  1865-68,  returning  on  each  oc- 
casion with  new  helpers  in  his  work.  In  1870  he 
started  for  Rome  to  take  part  in  the  Vatican  Council, 
but  his  health  failed  on  the  journey  and  he  returned  to 
Sydney.  In  1873  the  Holy  See  appointed  Dom  Roger 
Bede  Vaughan,  another  Downside  monk,  as  his  coad- 
jutor with  right  of  succession,  and  from  this  time  he 
gradually  withdrew  from  active  work. 

Snow,  Necrology  of  the  English  Benedictines  (London,  1883), 
171;  BiRT,  History  of  Downside  School  (London,  1902),  109,  198, 
212,  273,  326;  Idem,  Benedictine  Pioneers  in  Australia  (2  vols., 
London,  1911) ;  Orthodox  Journal,  III  (London,  1834),  14;  The  Tab- 
let, XLIX  (London,  1877),  406,  727;  Catholic  Times  (London,  29 
March,  1877);  Melbourne  Argus  (Melbourne,  17  March,  1877); 
Downside  Review,  I  (London,  1882),  91-102,  10.5-175,  241-249. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Pole,  Reginald,  cardinal,  b.  at  Stourton  Castle, 
Staffordshire,  England,  in  March,  1500;  d.  at  Lam- 
beth Palace,  17  Nov.,  1558;  third  son  of  Sir  Richard 
Pole,  Knight  of  the  Garter,  and  Margaret,  daughter  of 
George,  Duke  of  Clarence,  brother  of  Edward  IV. 
From  the  beginning  of  his  reign  Henry  VIII  recog- 
nized him  as  a  near  kinsman  and  showed  him  special 
favour,  while  in  1513  he  created  his  widowed  mother 
Countess  of  Salisbury,  an  act  of  tardy  reparation  for 
the  attainder  and  execution  under  Henry  VII  of  her 
only  brother  Edward,  Earl  of  Warwick.  She  was  also 
made  governess  to  the  Princess  Mary  in  1516  and 
we  may  assume  that  Pole's  intimacy  with  the  royal 
mistress  whom  he  was  afterwards  to  serve  so  de- 
votedly began  before  he  left  England.  The  boy 
received  his  early  education  in  the  Charterhouse  at 


POLE 


203 


POLE 


prospect  of  success.  He  met  in  fact  with  rebuffs  from 
both  French  and  Spaniards,  and  eventually  had  to 
take  refuge  with  the  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Liege.  After 
being  recalled  to  Rome,  he  was  present  in  the  spring 
of  1538  at  the  meeting  between  Charles  V  and  Francis 
I  at  Nice.  Meanwhile  Pole's  brothers  had  been 
arrested  in  England,  and  there  was  good  reason  to 
believe  that  his  own  life  was  in  danger  even  in  Vene- 
tian territory  from  Henry's  hired  assassins  (cf .  Pastor, 
op.  cit.,  V,  685) .  Pole  then  set  himself  with  the  pope's 
approval  to  organize  a  European  league  against 
Henry.  He  met  Charles  at  Toledo  in  Feb.,  1539,  but 
he  was  politely  excluded  from  French  territory,  and 
after  learning  the  sad  news  of  his  mother's  martyrdom, 
he  was  recalled  to  Rome,  where  he  was  appointed  leg- 
ate to  govern  from  Viterbo  the  district  known  as  the 
Patrimony  of  St.  Peter.  His  rule  was  conspicuously 
mild,  and  when  two  Englishmen  were  arrested,  who 
confessed  that  they  had  been  sent  to  assassinate  him, 
he  remitted  the  death  penalty  and  was  content  to  send 
them  for  a  very  short  term  to  the  galleys. 

In  154:2  Pole  was  one  of  the  three  legates  appointed 
to  preside  over  the  opening  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
Owing  to  unforeseen  delays  the  Fathers  did  not  actu- 
ally assemble  until  Dec,  1545,  and  the  English  cardi- 
nal spent  the  interval  in  writing  his  treatise  "De  Con- 
ciUo"  At  the  second  session  of  the  Council,  7  Jan., 
1546,  the  impressive  "Admonitio  Legatorum  ad  Pa- 
tres  Concilii"  (see  Ehses,  "Cone.  Trid.",  IV,  548-53) 
was  drafted  by  Pole.  For  reasons  of  health  he  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  Trent  on  2S  June,  but  there  seems  to  be 
good  evidence  that  his  malady  was  real  enough,  and 
not  feigned,  as  some  have  pretended,  on  account  of  the 
divergence  of  his  views  from  those  of  the  majority  upon 
the  question  of  justification  (Pastor,  op.  cit.,  V,  578, 
note  3).  None  the  less  before  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  he 
undoubtedly  had  shared  certain  opinions  of  his  friend 
Contarini  in  this  matter  which  were  afterwards  repro- 
bated by  the  Council  (ibid.,  V,  335-37).  But  at  that 
period  (1541)  the  Council  had  not  spoken,  and  Pole's 
submission  to  dogmatic  authority  was  throughout  his 
life  absolute  and  entire.  It  is  possible  that  an  exagger- 
ated idea  of  those  errors  produced  at  a  later  date  that 
bias  in  the  mind  of  Caraffa  (Paul  IV)  which  led  him  so 
violently  to  suspect  Pole  as  well  as  Morone  (q.  v.)  of 
heretical  opinions. 

On  the  death  of  Henry  VIII,  Pole  with  the  approval 
of  Paul  III  made  persistent  efforts  to  induce  the  Pro- 
tector Somerset  and  the  Privy  Council  to  treat  with 
the  Holy  See,  but,  while  these  overtures  were  received 
with  a  certain  amount  of  civility,  no  encouragement 
was  given  to  them.  Paul  III  died  10  Nov.,  1549,  and 
in  the  conclave  which  followed,  the  English  cardinal 
was  long  regarded  as  the  favourite  candidate.  Indeed 
it  seems  that  if  on  a  particular  occasion  Pole  had  been 
willing  to  present  himself  to  the  cardinals,  when  he  had 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  votes,  he  might  have  been 
made  pope  "by  adoration".  Later  the  majority  in  his 
favour  began  to  dechne,  and  he  willingly  agreed  to  a 
compromise  which  resulted  in  the  election  of  Cardinal 
Del  Monte  (Julius  III).  On  the  votes  given  for  Pole, 
see  "The  Tablet",  28  Aug.,  1909,  pp.  340-341. 

The  death  of  Edward  VI,  6  July,  1553,  once  more 
restored  Pole  to  a  very  active  life.  Though  the  car- 
dinal was  absent  from  Rome,  Julius  III  at  once  ap- 
pointed him  legate  in  England,  and  Pole  wrote  to  the 
queen  to  ask  her  advice  as  to  his  future  procedure. 
Both  Mary's  advisers  in  England  and  the  Emperor 
Charles  V,  who  was  from  the  first  anxious  to  marry  the 
new  queen  to  his  son  Philip,  considered  that  the  coun- 
try was  not  yet  ready  for  the  reception  of  a  papal 
legate.  Julius,  by  way  of  covering  the  credit  of  his  en- 
voy in  the  delays  that  might  possibly  ensue,  entrusted 
Pole  with  a  further  commission  to  establish  friendly 
relations  between  the  Emperor  Charles  and  Henry  II 
of  France.  All  this  brought  the  cardinal  a  good  many 
rebuffs,  though  he  was  courteously  received  in  Paris. 


Charles  V,  however,  deliberately  set  himself  to  detain 
Pole  on  the  continent  until  the  marriage  between 
Mary  and  Philip  had  been  concluded  (see  Maey  Tu- 
dor). Eventually  Pole  was  not  allowed  to  reach 
Dover  before  20  Nov.,  1554,  provision  having  previ- 
ously been  made  that  holders  of  church  property 
should  not  be  compelled  to  restore  the  lands  that  they 
had  alienated.  A  great  reception  was  given  to  the 
legate  upon  his  arrival  in  London,  and  on  30  Nov. 
Pole,  though  not  even  yet  a  priest,  formally  absolved 
the  two  Houses  of  Parliament  from  the  guilt  of  schism. 
Owing  to  Pole's  royal  descent  and  his  friendship  with 
the  queen,  he  exercised  a  considerable  indirect  influ- 
ence over  affairs  of  state  and  received  a  special  charge 
from  Philip  to  watch  over  the  kingdom  during  his  ab- 
sence. On  the  other  hand,  the  cardinal  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  at  all  anxious  to  add  to  his  responsibili- 
ties, and  when  Archbishop  Cranmer  was  deprived,  he 
showed  no  great  eagerness  to  succeed  him  in  his  func- 
tions as  archbishop.  Still  a  synod  of  both  convoca- 
tions was  held  by  him  as  legate  in  Nov.,  1555,  which 
passed  many  useful  decrees  of  ecclesiastical  reform, 
rendered  necessary  by  the  disturbed  condition  of  the 
Church  after  twenty  years  of  separation  from  Roman 
authority.  On  20  March,  1557,  Pole  was  ordained 
priest,  and  two  days  after  he  was  consecrated  arch- 
bishop, while  he  solemnly  received  the  pallium  on  the 
feast  of  the  Annunciation  in  the  Church  of  St.  Mary- 
le-Bow,  delivering  an  address  which  is  still  preserved. 

With  the  persecutions  which  have  cast  so  regretta- 
ble a  shadow  over  Mary's  reign  Pole  seems  to  have  had 
little  to  do  (Dixon,  "Hist,  of  the  Ch.  of  Eng.",  IV, 
572).  "  Three  condemned  heretics  from  Bonner's  dio- 
cese were  pardoned  on  an  appeal  to  him;  he  merely  en- 
joined a  penance  and  gave  them  absolution"  (ibid., 
582).  The  cardinal  was  now  somewhat  infirm,  and 
his  last  days,  like  those  of  his  royal  mistress,  were 
much  saddened  by  fresh  misunderstandings  with 
Rome,  due  mainly  to  the  impetuous  temper  and  bitter 
anti-Spanish  feehng  of  Paul  IV.  As  a  Neapolitan, 
Paul  was  bent  upon  driving  the  Spaniards  out  of 
Naples,  and  war  broke  out  in  Italy  between  the  pope 
and  King  Philip.  The  pope  made  an  alliance  with 
France,  and  Philip  set  deliberately  to  work  to  impli- 
cate England  in  the  quarrel,  whereupon  Paul  with- 
drew his  legates  from  the  Spanish  dominions  and  can- 
celled the  legation  of  Pole.  Although  the  tension  of 
this  state  of  affairs  was  in  some  measure  remedied  by 
concessions  on  the  part  of  the  pope,  which  were  wrung 
from  him  by  the  success  of  Philip's  arms,  the  cloud  had 
by  no  means  completely  hfted,  aggravated  as  it  was  by 
the  pope's  perverse  conviction  of  Pole's  doctrinal  un- 
soundness, when  the  cardinal  in  Nov.,  1558,  con- 
tracted a  mortal  sickness  and  died  a  few  hours  after 
Queen  Mary  herself. 

Throughout  his  life  Pole's  moral  conduct  was  above 
reproach,  his  sincere  piety  and  asoetical  habits  were 
the  admiration  of  all.  "Seldom",  writes  Dr.  James 
Gairdner,  than  whom  no  one  is  more  competent  to 
pronounce  judgment,  "has  any  life  been  animated  by 
a  more  single-minded  purpose".  As  compared  with 
the  majority  of  his  contemporaries,  Pole  was  conspicu- 
ously gentle,  both  in  his  opinions  and  in  his  language. 
He  had  the  gift  of  inspiring  warm  friendships  and  he 
was  most  generous  and  charitable  in  the  administra- 
tion of  his  revenues. 

An  early  life  of  Pole  was  written  by  Ilia  secretary  Beccatelli. 
It  may  be  found  printed  in  Quirini's  great  collection,  Epistolce 
Reginaldi  Poll  et  aliorum  ad  8e  (5  vols.,  Brescia,  1744-57);  upon 
these  materials  was  founded  the  History  of  the  Life  of  Reginald 
Pole  by  Philipps  (Oxford,  1764),  which  still  retains  its  value.  A 
more  modern  biography  is  that  of  "  Martin  Haile"  (Miss  Mary 
HalI6),  The  Life  of  Reginald  Pole  (London,  1910);  compare  also 
ZiMMERMANN,  Cardinal  Pole  (Freiburg,  1893);  Antony,  The 
Angelical  Cardirtal  (London,  1909) ;  Lee,  Reginald  Pole  (London, 
1888) ;  an  admirable  account  of  Pole  by  Gairdner  is  given  in 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.;  on  the  other  hand  the  Life  of  Pole  in  Hook's 
Archbishops  of  Canterbury  (London,  1860-84)  is  disfigured  by 
conspicuous  anti-Catholic  animus.  Much  useful  supplementary 
information  is  furnished  by  the  Monumenta  Concilii  Tridentini, 


POLEMICAL 


204 


POLES 


vols.  I  and  IV  (Freiburg,  1901-04),  and  in  Pastor,  Geschichle  der 
Papsle  (Freiburg,  1908-10),  IV,  V.  See  also  "The  Tablet  ",  28 
Aug.,  1909,  p.  340.  The  edition  of  the  letters  published  by 
QtjiRlNi  is  far  from  complete,  and  many  still  remain  in  MS. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Polemical  Theology.    See  Theology. 

Polemonium,  titular  see  in  Pontus  Polemoniacus, 
suffragan  of  Neocffisarea.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Sido- 
nus,  on  the  coast  of  Pontus  in  the  region  called  Sidene, 
was  a  town  called  Side,  which,  it  is  believed,  took  the 
name  of  Polemonium  in  honour  of  Polemion,  made 
King  of  Pontus  by  Marcus  Antonius  about  36  b.  c. 
Doubtless  its  harbour  gave  it  a  certain  importance, 
since  it  gave  its  name  to  the  Pontus  Polemoniacus.  It 
is  now  the  village  of  Pouleman  in  the  vilayet  of  Treb- 
izond,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pouleman  Tchai;  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  town,  octagonal  church,  and  ram- 
parts, are  on  the  left  bank.  Six  of  its  bishops  are 
known;  Aretius,  present  at  the  Council  of  NeociEsarea 
in  320  (he  was  perhaps  Bishop  of  Lagania) ;  John, 
at  Chalcedon  (451),  signer  of  the  letter  from  the 
bishops  of  the  province  to  Emperor  Leo  (458) ;  Anas- 
tasius,  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (680) ;  Domi- 
tius,  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (692) ;  Constan- 
tine,  at  NicEea  (7S7) ;  John,  at  Constantinople  (869  and 
879).  The  "Notitise  episcopatuum"  mentions  the  see 
until  the  thirteenth  century. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Grog.,  s.  v.,  gives  bibliography 
of  ancient  authors;  Ramsav,  Asia  Minor,  325;  Le  Quien,  Oriens 
Christ,  I,  515.  See  also  ^Iubller's  notes  to  Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot, 
I,  867. 

S.  Petrid^s. 

Poleni,  Giovanni,  marquess,  physicist,  and  anti- 
quarian; b.  at  Venice,  2.3  Aug.,  1683;  d.  at  Padua,  14 
Nov.,  1761;  son  of  Marquess  Jacopo  Poleni.  He 
studied  the  classics,  philosophy,  theology,  mathemat- 
ics, and  physics.  He  was  appointed,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-five,  professorof  astronomy  at  Padua.  In  1715 
he  was  assigned  to  the  chair  of  physics,  and  in  1719  he 
succeeded  Nicholas  Bernoulli  as  professor  of  mathe- 
matics. As  an  expert  in  hydraulic  engineering  he  was 
charged  by  the  Venetian  Senate  with  the  care  of  the 
waters  of  lower  Lombardy  and  with  the  constructions 
necessary  to  prevent  floods.  He  was  also  repeatedly 
called  in  to  decide  cases  between  sovereigns  whose 
states  were  bordered  by  water-ways. 

His  knowledge  of  architecture  caused  Benedict  XIV 
to  call  him  to  Rome  in  174S  to  examine  the  cupola  of 
St.  Peter's,  which  was  rapidly  disintegrating.  He 
promptly  indicated  the  repairs  necessary.  He  also 
wrote  a  number  of  antiquarian  dissertations.  In  1739 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris  made  him  a  member, 
and  later  the  societies  of  London,  Berlin,  and  St. 
Petersburg  did  the  same.  The  city  of  Padua  elected 
him  as  magistrate,  and  after  his  death  erected  his 
statue  by  Canova.  Venice  also  honoured  him  by  strik- 
ing a  medal. 

The  following  are  his  principal  works:  "Miscel- 
lanea" (dissertations  on  physics),  Venice,  1709;  "De 
vorticibus  coclestibus",  Padua,  1712;  "De  motu  ac- 
qua;  mixto",  Padua,  1717;  "De  cast(aiis  per  qua;  de- 
rn-antur  flu\i(3rum  latera  convergentia",  Padua, 
1720;  "Exercitationes  Vitruvianaj",  Venice,  1739;  "II 
tiempo  di  Diana  di  Efeso",  Venice,  1742. 

Anon,  MemurCe  per  la  vita  del  Signer  G.  P.  (Padua  ITG'"")- 
FoncHT,  Eloge,  M(m.  de  Vac.  des  Sc.  hist.  (Paris,  1763). 

William  Fox. 

Poles  in  the  United  States.— Causes  0/  Imviigra- 
tion. — There  is  good  foundation  for  the  tradition  that  a 
Pole,  John  of  Kolno  (atownof  Masovia),  in  the  services 
of  King  Christian  of  Denmark,  commanded  a  fleet 
which  reached  the  coast  of  Labrador  in  1476  ("Ameri- 
can Pioneer",  I,  Cincinnati,  1S44,  390).  The  well- 
known  Zabriskiefamilyof  New  Vorkisd<'sccnded  from 
Albert  Zborowski,  who  not  later  than  1662  settled  on 
the  Hackensack  Pu\'er,  New  Jersev.  His  signature 
is  found  affixed  as  interpreter  to  an  Indian  contract 


of  purchase  in  1679  (New  York  General  Records 
XXIII,  26,  33,  139-47).  One  descendant,  Abraham 
O.  Zabriskie,  was  the  eminent  Chancellor  of  New 
Jersey.  Other  descendants  intermarried  with  the 
most  prominent  colonial  families,  and  were  soon 
merged  in  the  general  population.  In  1659  the  Dutch 
on  Manhattan  Island  hired  a  Polish  school-master 
(Conway,  "Cath.  Educ.  in  U.  S.").  In  1770  Jacob 
Sodowski  settled  in  New  York,  and  his  sons  were 
among  the  first  white  men  to  penetrate  as  far  as 
Kentucky.  It  is  said  that  Sandusky,  Ohio,  was 
named  after  him  (American  Pioneer,  I,  119;  II,  325). 
Roo.sevelt,  "Winning  of  the  A\'e.st",  Vol.  I,  p.  164. 
Previous  to  this  there  were  Polish  settlers  in  V  irginia 
(Kruszka,  op.  cit.  infra,  I,  54)  and  tlie  southern 
states  (Johns  Hopkins  Studies,  XIII,  p.  40).  But 
among  the  European  champions  of  American  In- 
dependence few  if  any  were  more  prominent  than 
the  noble  Polish  patriots,  Thaddeus  Kosciusko  and 
Casimir  Count  Pulaski,  the  brilliant  cavalry  officer. 
Several  of  the  aides  of  Pulaski's  famous  Legion  were 
Polish  noblemen. 

The  Pohsh  Revolution  of  1830  brought  to  the 
United  States  a  considerable  and  abiding  contingent 
of  Poles,  mostly  soldiers  and  members  of  the  lower 
nobility.  Part  of  Napoleon's  Polish  Legion  had 
been  dispatched  to  San  Domingo,  whence  such  as 
did  not  perish  miserably  or  return  to  Europe  came 
to  the  United  States.  A  considerable  number  of 
Poles  were  in  the  American  armies,  fighting  the 
Seminole  Indians  in  the  south.  Among  Americans 
of  that  time  enthusiasm  in  Poland's  cause  ran  high, 
and  the  tourist  who  visits  the  Polish  National 
Museum  in  the  ancient  Hapsburg  castle  in  Rappers- 
schwj'l,  Switzerland,  can  see  many  tokens  of  sym- 
pathy sent  to  the  struggling  Poles  by  their  American 
admirers.  In  1835  there  existed  a  "Polish  National 
Committee  in  the  United  States",  whose  members 
were  prominent  Americans,  and  whose  president,  aa 
we  learn  from  a  pamphlet  printed  in  Philadelphia, 
30  Sept.,  1835,  was  M.  Carey.  The  number  of  Poles 
in  the  United  States  must  have  run  up  to  thou- 
sands, if  we  may  judge  from  the  frequent  allusions  to 
the  various  groups  in  the  American  Press  of  the  time. 
American  sympathy  took  concrete  form  when  Con- 
gress made  the  Poles  a  grant  of  thirty-six  sections 
of  land,  and  surveyed  two  townships  for  them  near 
Rock  River,  Illinois. 

A  number  of  veterans  of  the  Revolution  of  1830  or- 
ganized the  Stowarzyszenie  Polak6w  w  Ameryce 
(Association  of  Poles  in  America),  in  New  York. 
An  appeal  dated  New  York,  20  March,  1842,  calls 
upon  all  Poles  in  America  to  affiliate  with  an  or- 
ganization recently  effected  at  the  home  of  the 
Rev.  Louis  Jezykowicz,  235  Division  Street,  New 
York.  "To  die  for  Poland"  was  the  watchword 
of  the  organization,  which,  according  to  a  brochure 
printed  in  Paris,  elaborately  commemorated  the 
Revolution  of  1830,  at  the  Stuyvesant  Institute,  New 
York.  Poles  from  Boston,  Baltimore,  Utica,  Phila- 
delphia, and  Niagara  were  present  at  the  celebration, 
and  many  distinguished  Americans  and  foreigners, 
as  well  as  various  Scandinavian,  French,  and  Ger- 
man societies  participated.  In  1852  probably  the 
second  Polish  organization  in  the  United  States  was 
founded,  Towarzystwo  Demokratyczne  Wygnanc6w 
Polskich  w  Ameryce  (Democratic  Society  of  Poles 
in  America),  an  ardent  anti-slavery  organization. 
In  1854  it  numbered  over  two  hundred  members, 
but  there  are  no  records  of  its  activities  later  than 
1858.  The  Poles  coming  throughout  this  period 
of  political  immigration  were  persons  of  culture,  and 
were  freely  admitted  into  American  society,  which 
looked  upon  them  as  martyrs  for  liberty.  Their 
Americanization  was  most  frequently  concomitant 
with  the  loss  of  their  Faith.  "With  a  few  noteworthy 
exceptions,    they   exercised   no   influence   upon   the 


POLES 


205 


POLES 


Polish  immigrants  of  a  succeeding  generation.  At  the 
solicitation  of  Bishop  Carroll  a  number  of  Polish 
priests,  all  former  members  of  the  disbanded  Society 
of  Jesus,  came  to  America;  one  of  the  most  prominent 
of  these  was  Father  Francis  Dzierozynski.  In 
the  thirties  several  Polish  Franciscan  Fathers  were 
labouring  in  the  United  States,  among  whom  the  most 
prominent  was  Father  Anthony  Rossadowski,  chap- 
lain in  the  Polish  army  in  the  Revolution  of  1830. 
Father  Gaspar  Matoga,  who  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1848,  and  completed  his  studies  at  Fordham, 
was  the  first  Polish  priest  to  be  ordained  in  the 
United  States. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  causes  of  Polish  immigra- 
tion have  been  political,  religious,  and  economic. 
While  economic  conditions  have  been  the  direct 
cause,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  indirect 
causes,  political  and  religious,  are  quite  as  potent  as 
the  economic.  Prussianizing,  which  lately  hag  as- 
sumed a  religious  as  well  as  a  political  aspect,  renders 
the  progress  of  Prussian  Poland  distasteful  to  the 
Poles,  because  whatever  progress  is  made  must  be 
along  Prussian  lines.  The  KuUurkampf  gave  the 
American  Poles  many  of  their  noblest  priests,  through 
whose  influence  thousands  of  Poles  came  to  America. 
While  Prussianizing  by  means  of  class  legislation, 
expropriation,  and  colonization  has  not  been  very 
rapid,  its  methods  have  been  attended  with  a  certain 
measure  of  success.  The  economic  prosperity  of 
Western  Germany  has  checked  the  emigration  of 
Prussian  Poles  from  the  empire,  and  the  Poles  al- 
ready form  an  important  and  growing  part  of  the 
population  of  Westphalia  and  the  Rhenish  prov- 
inces. 

Russian  Poland  experiences  the  full  force  of 
militarism,  but  still  more  important  as  a  cause  of 
emigration  is  the  state  of  terrorism  in  the  great  manu- 
facturing districts  of  Russian  Poland,  aggravated 
by  the  Russo-Japanese  War.  The  mentally  more 
alert  are  emigrating  from  Russian  Poland,  mostly 
young  men  who,  under  the  constant  strain  of  Govern- 
ment repression,  are  the  first  to  be  drawn  into  the 
revolutionary  propaganda  and  have  developed  ex- 
aggerated notions  concerning  social  wrongs.  It  is 
mostly  from  this  class  that  Socialism  in  America 
draws  its  Polish  recruits.  A  condition  responsible 
for  much  of  the  emigration  from  Poland  is  the  per- 
secution of  the  Jews  in  Russia  proper,  and  the  Govern- 
ment's policy  of  concentrating  its  Jewish  problem 
within  "the  Kingdom",  which  has  been  constituted 
a  vast  pale  whither  the  Jews  are  being  forced  until 
they  are  overflowing  into  Galicia.  By  granting 
autonomy  to  communities  in  which  the  Jews  are 
numerically  strong,  the  Government  is  effectually 
expatriating  the  Poles  by  what  amounts  to  dis- 
franchisement, and  thus  Polish  progress  is  blocked. 
The  Poles  were  never  a  commercial  people,  and  under 
present  conditions  they  abandon  all  trade  and  com- 
merce to  the  Jews.  About  35  per  cent  of  the 
population  of  Warsaw  and  about  31  per  cent  of 
that  of  Cracow  are  Jews.  They  have  control  of 
Poland's  industry,  commerce,  and  agriculture. 
Industry  receives  poor  reward,  taxation  of  the  poor 
is  oppressive,  and  education  in  Russian  Poland  is 
positively  discouraged.  Since  the  beginnings  of 
Galician  emigration  land  values  in  Galicia  have  ad- 
vanced fourfold.  The  abandonment  of  the  feudal 
system,  whereby  one  child  received  the  family  hold- 
ing intact,  the  decreasing  death-rate,  and  the  high 
birth-rate,  have  cut  the  peasant's  acre  into  tiny 
patches,  which  under  most  careful  cultivation  are 
insufficient  for  a  population  of  241  to  the  square 
mile,  especially  in  Western  Galicia.  Polish  emigra- 
tion is  constantly  stimulated  by  the  steamship 
agencies,  which  form  a  network  of  newspapers, 
petty  officials,  and  innkeepers;  cheapness  of  trans- 
portation and  the  accounts  from  America  of  better 


conditions  add  greatly  to  its  tide.  The  annual  emi- 
gration to  the  industrial  regions  of  Germany  tends  to 
mitigate  the  extreme  poverty  of  the  peasants,  which 
heretofore  rendered  emigration  impossible.  Poverty 
and  not  patriotism  is  at  the  bottom  of  all  present- 
day  Polish  emigration.  Memories  of  European 
conditions  are  an  important  factor  in  causing  the 
Poles  in  the  United  States  to  forget  any  inten- 
tion they  may  have  had  of  returning  to  the  mother 
country. 

Distribution  and  Statistics. — The  immigration  of 
the  Polish  masses  began  in  1854.  In  1851  Father 
Leopold  Moczygemba,  a  Franciscan,  came  to  America 
and  soon  after  induced  nearly  one  hundred  families 
from  Upper  Silesia  to  come  to  Texas.  They  first  came 
by  sailing  vessels  to  Galveston  and  brought  with  them 
all  their  possessions,  their  tools  and  ploughs;  indeed, 
even  the  bell  and  great  cross  in  the  village  church 
were  brought  to  the  New  World,  and  still  remain  in 
the  church  in  Panna  Maria,  Texas,  lasting  memorials 
of  the  faith  of  the  early  pioneers.  In  1855  the  church 
in  Panna  Maria  was  built,  the  first  Polish  church  in 
America.  Within  a  few  years  ten  little  colonies  had 
been  established  in  Texas,  and  during  the  same 
period  colonies  were  founded  in  Parisville,  Michigan, 
and  Polonia,  Wisconsin,  and  in  1862  a  parish  was 
being  organized  at  Milwaukee.  In  1870  there  were 
twenty  Polish  settlements  in  ten  parishes  in  the 
States  of  Texas,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  In- 
diana, Missouri,  and  Pennsylvania.  It  was  to  the 
virgin  lands  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  southern 
Illinois,  and  to  the  coal-fields  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Illinois  that  they  went  in  greatest  numbers.  The 
number  of  Polish  priests  grew  from  25  in  1870  to  79 
in  1877.  The  total  Polish  population  in  the  United 
States  did  not  exceed  40,000  in  1870,  of  whom  fully 
a  fourth  were  in  Chicago  alone.  While  the  immigra- 
tion of  the  Polish  masses  had  its  distinct  beginning 
in  1854,  and  the  number  of  immigrants  was  increased 
by  the  disastrous  Revolution  of  1863,  it  was  not  until 
after  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  and  until  after  the 
United  States  began  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  the 
Civil  War,  that  it  became  a  mighty  stream;  and  al- 
though Prussian  Poland  has  long  ceased  to  send  more 
than  a  modicum,  the  stream  is  gaining  volume  with 
each  passing  month. 

The  financial  panic  of  1873  checked  for  a  brief 
period  the  growing  immigration.  In  1875  the  Poles 
in  the  United  States  numbered  nearly  150,000,  of 
which  number  nearly  20,000  were  in  Chicago,  which 
as  early  as  1866  had  become  and  still  remains  the 
metropolis  of  this  the  fourth  division  of  Poland,  as  the 
Polish  community  in  America  is  called  by  the  Poles. 
In  1889  they  had  132  churches,  126  priests,  and  122 
schools,  nearly  all  conducted  by  the  Felician  Sisters 
and  the  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame.  Buffalo, 
Detroit,  Cleveland,  Pittsburg,  and  Milwaukee,  in 
addition  to  Chicago,  had  become  important  Polish 
centres  as  early  as  1880.  The  vast  majority,  probably 
80  per  cent  of  all  Polish  immigration  from  1854  to 
1890,  was  from  Prussian  Poland.  Among  them  were 
many  Cassubians  from  West  Prussia  who,  living 
in  what  was  for  centuries  a  borderland  between 
Poland  and  the  domains  of  the  Teutonic  Knights, 
were  much  affected  by  Prussian  influence.  While 
there  is  no  small  number  of  these  Cassubians  in 
parishes  noted  as  German  in  the  official  directory, 
they  have  of  late  years,  both  in  Poland  and  America, 
regained  their  national  consciousness  and  have  fully 
entered  into  the  life  of  the  Polish- American  community. 
From  the  so-called  Mazurenland  (Masuria)  in  north- 
ern Prussia  we  have  a  few  thousand  Polish  Lutherans 
who  but  for  their  jargon  of  Prussianized  Polish  are 
lost  to  Poland.  Between  them  and  the  Poles  no 
community  of  interests  exists  either  in  America  or 
Poland.  There  are  several  isolated  colonies  of  these 
Masurians  in  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota. 


POLES 


206 


POLES 


Within  the  past  two  decades  a  great  change  has 
come  over  the  character  of  Pohsh  immigration.  The 
pioneers  who  came  from  Silesia,  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Posen,  and  West  Prussia  came  with  their  families, 
were  mostly  men  of  early  middle  age,  and  came  with 
no  thought  of  ever  returning.  The  Prussian  Poles 
took  readily  to  farming.  They  were  resourceful,  dis- 
inclined to  hazard  health  and  life,  and  not  intent  upon 
making  money  in  a  very  short  time.  The  Prussian 
Poles  and  their  children  constitute  much  the  greater 
part  of  the  rural  Polish  population  in  the  Middle 
West  and  North-west.  Polish  immigration  from  Rus- 
sian Poland  and  Galicia  has  been  so  great  that  many 
of  the  older  parishes  founded  by  Prussian  Poles  in  the 
industrial  regions  are  made  up  almost  wholly  of  their 
numbers.  The  Russian  Poles  constituted  about 
53  per  cent,  those  from  Galicia  about  43  per  cent, 
and  the  Prussian  Poles  about  4  per  cent  of  the  total 
Polish  immigration  from  1895  to  1911.  The  recent 
Polish  immigrants  are  mostly  young  men.  The 
vast  majority  are  unskilled  labourers  from  the  vil- 
lages; the  few  skilled  labourers  and  mechanics  are 
for  the  most  part  from  Russian  Poland,  and  these 
latter  are  employed  in  the  textile  industries  and  sugar 
refineries,  with  which  work  they  are  familiar.  Those 
from  Galicia  come  in  many  instances  to  earn  enough 
money  to  clear  their  small  plot  of  land  of  debt.  They 
come  to  mill  and  mine,  and  seem  utterly  indifferent 
to  hardship  and  danger.  The  percentage  of  illit- 
erates among  the  immigrants  from  Prussian  Poland, 
never  very  high,  is  now  insignificant,  while  their 
knowledge  of  German  is  a  valuable  asset.  The  per- 
centage of  illiterates  from  Poland  for  the  fiscal  year, 
1910,  was30'l  per  cent.  The  small  number  of  Poles 
becoming  public  charges  would  be  much  smaller 
but  for  the  laws  making  little  or  no  provision  for  the 
workmen  and  compelling  them  to  undertake  expensive 
litigation  in  case  of  accident.  The  records  of  our  penal 
and  eleemosynary  institutions  fail  to  show  that  the  Poles 
constitute  a  lawless  element.  The  very  low  death- 
rate  among  the  Poles,  in  spite  of  abnormal  conditions 
of  living  (high  infant  mortality,  and  the  heavy  death- 
rate  in  the  mines  and  mills),  is  striking  proof  of  their 
morality.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  Polish  churches 
in  the  United  States  filled  with  congregations  in 
which  the  men  far  outnumber  the  women.  This 
is  largely  explained  by  the  character  of  recent  immi- 
gration, but  it  may  nevertheless  be  asserted  that  no 
other  class  of  American  Catholics  can  boast  of  a 
greater  percentage  of  church-going  men. 

Historically  the  Poles  have  been  so  circumstanced 
that  their  racial  and  rehgious  sympathies  completely 
coincide.  So  fused  and  intensified  are  these  senti- 
ments that  it  has  been  well  said  that  the  soul  of  Po- 
land is  naturaliter  Christiana.  Conditions  leading 
to  ruptures  with  ecclesiastical  authorities  have  been 
many  and  it  would  be  exceedingly  unjust  to  place 
all  blame  upon  the  masses  of  the  Polish  people.  The 
Poles  are  easily  led  by  a  fiery  eloquence,  and  "in- 
dependence" among  them  was  the  result  of  deliberate 
deception  on  the  part  of  rebellious  priests  who  to 
carry  on  their  deception  more  successfully  had  some 
of  their  number  consecrated  bishops  by  the  Old 
Catholic  bishops  in  Europe.  The  "Independents" 
are  possessed  of  no  unity,  and  represent  no  heretical 
or  schismatic  movement  in  the  real  sense.  The  move- 
ment was  strongest  from  1895  to  1900,  and  spread 
with  astonishing  rapidity,  becoming  most  destructive 
in  Chicago,  Detroit,  Cleveland,  and  throughout 
Pennsylvania,  in  which  state  it  still  continues  a 
demoralizing  factor.  It  is  impossible  to  estimate 
with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the  numerical  strength 
of  the  movement  at  its  height,  but  to-day  the  total 
number  cannot  exceed  30,000.  Protestants,  notably 
Baptists,  Presbyterians,  and  EpiscopaUans,  have 
fraternized  with  the  "Independents"  and  given  them 
a  respectability.     In  recent  years  many  of  the  immi- 


grants have  been  drawn  into  the  movement  in  good 
faith.  The  fact  that  the  Poles  from  an  aggregation 
of  units,  frequently  lacking  efficient  spiritual  leader- 
ship, torn  by  dissensions,  led  astray  by  a  Liberal 
press,  have  slowly  and  painfully  arisen  to  a  position 
commanding  respect  is  the  most  splendid  tribute 
that  can  be  paid  them.  The  failure  of  certain  classes 
of  immigrants  to  come  to  the  material  support  of 
the  Church  is  most  frequently  explained  by  adducing 
the  fact  of  a  state-supported  Church  in  the  mother 
country.  Since  in  most  parts  of  Poland  the  Church 
is  supported  by  indirect  taxation,  the  generosity  of 
the  American  Poles  is  brought  out  into  stronger 
relief,  and  their  willingness  to  build  and  maintain 
their  magnificent  churches  and  institutes  is  deserving 
of  the  unbounded  praise  accorded  them.  Coupled 
with  their  deep  faith,  their  intense  nationahsm  acts 
as  an  incentive  to  their  generosity. 

Unfortunately  the  immigrant  tide  pours  into  our 
great  cities  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  our  Polish  immi- 
grants are  almost  solidly  from  the  agricultural 
villages.  What  has  been  said  concerning  the  neces- 
sity of  intelligent  colonization  in  the  article  on  Italians 
in  the  United  States  holds  with  equal  force  when 
speaking  of  the  Polish  immigration.  The  settle- 
ment of  the  Poles  in  lower  New  England  is  evidence 
of  the  need  of  intelligent  colonization.  The  move- 
ment to  the  farms,  at  first  confined  to  the  Prussian 
Poles,  is  now  spreading  and  extending  to  the  other 
classes,  who  are  even  entering  Canada.  The  settle- 
ment of  the  Poles  in  the  Connecticut  \'alley,  whither 
more  than  5000  went  in  1910,  dates  from  about 
1895.  The  Poles  saved  their  money  and  succeeded. 
In  time  they  bought  the  land  of  their  employers. 
Hundreds  of  abandoned  farms  in  New  England  have 
passed  into  their  hands,  and  they  are  now  invading 
Long  Island.  Their  industry  and  thrift  are  shown 
by  their  success  on  these  abandoned  farms,  on 
which  women  and  children  share  the  toil  of  the 
father. 

Customs. — The  Poles  in  America  cling  tenaciously 
to  their  quaint  customs,  which  are  in  nearly  every 
instance  quite  as  much  religious  as  national  in  charac- 
ter. Poland  was  but  little  affected  by  the  religious 
rebellion  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  hence  the 
Catholic  medieval  spirit  is  still  that  of  the  Poles. 
The  Christmas  and  Easter  carols  heard  in  the  Polish 
churches  are  exact  counterparts  of  those  sung  by  the 
peasants  of  pre-Reformation  England,  and  are  the 
expression  of  the  childlike  faith  of  the  people.  The 
most  beautiful  custom  and  the  one  that  bids  to  out- 
live all  others  among  the  American  Poles  is  that  of 
the  oplatki  (wafers).  Shortly  before  Christmas  the 
parish  organist  distributes  wafers  resembling  those 
used  for  Holy  Mass,  and  at  this  distribution  each 
parishioner  makes  a  slight  offering  to  the  organist  or 
altar-boys  who  bring  the  wafers.  These  are  gent  to 
friends  and  relatives  in  Europe,  and  the  latter  do 
not  forget  those  in  America.  On  Christmas  Eve  the 
family  gathers  to  partake  first  of  all  of  the  wafer  in 
token  of  continued  love,  mended  friendship,  and  good- 
will to  all  men.  During  the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany 
the  priests  bless  the  homes  of  the  people,  and  the 
doors  are  marked  with  the  initials  of  the  names  of  the 
Wise  Men,  with  chalk  blessed  on  the  feast  of  the 
Epiphany.  On  Holy  Saturday  the  priest  blesses  the 
baskets  of  food  prepared  for  the  morrow.  Very 
early  on  Easter  morning  Holy  Mass  is  celebrated 
and  after  the  Mass  the  priest  and  the  laity  go  in 
solemn  procession  thrice  around  the  church,  inside 
or  outside,  according  to  circumstances.  This  is 
called  the  Resurekcya. 

During  the  Easter  season  the  priests  issue  con- 
fession cards,  on  which  are  printed  the  words: 
Signum  Communionis  Paschalis.  Each  card  is 
numbered,  and  a  record  is  kept  of  the  numbers  and 
names  of  those  to  whom  cards  are  issued.     These 


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cards  are  returned  by  penitents  in  the  confessional 
and  the  names  are  cancelled.  Thus  a  record  is  kept 
ot  all  those  who  have  satisfied  their  Paschal  obliga- 
tion. While  the  custom  is  liable  to  misinterpreta- 
tion and  even  abuse,  the  Polish  clergy  are  loath  to 
abolish  it  because  of  many  excellent  features.  In  no 
other  way  in  the  large  city  parishes  where  the  popula- 
tion is  constantly  shifting  can  the  clergy  meet  many 
of  their  people.  On  the  feast  of  the  Assumption 
the  faithful  bring  flowers  and  greenery  to  the  church 
to  be  blessed,  and  the  day  is  called  the  feast  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Greenery.  Polish  women  are  careful 
in  their  observance  of  the  custom  of  being  churched 
after  childbirth.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  the 
brides  to  come  to  church  very  soon  after  marriage 
to  receive  the  blessing  novoe  nuptce.  Seldom  does  a 
Polish  marriage  take  place  except  with  a  nuptial 
Mass. 

Name-days,  not  birthdays,  are  celebrated,  and 
sponsors  are  regarded  as  relatives  by  the  interested 
families.  On  the  death  of  a  parishioner  the  church 
bell  is  tolled  each  day  immediately  after  the  Angelus 
until  after  the  funeral,  at  which  very  frequently  the 
Office  of  the  Dead  is  chanted.  The  Poles  love 
their  own  vernacular  songs,  and  in  most  of  their 
churches  one  may  hear  them  chant  the  "Little 
Hours"  before  High  Mass  on  Sunday  mornings.  Nor 
is  Latin  popular  with  Poles,  who  frequently  sing 
all  parts  of  the  High  Mass  except  the  responses  in 
Polish. 

Hospitality  ceases  to  be  a  virtue  with  the  Poles. 
Generous  to  a  fault,  they  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  no  peti- 
tion for  assistance,  especially  if  the  object  appeals  to 
national  or  religious  sympathies.  Poles  are  lovers 
of  processions,  flags,  banners,  uniforms,  and  marshals' 
batons.  A  Polish  church  on  festal  days  resembles  some 
national  fane  whither  the  battle-flags  of  nations 
have  been  brought  from  fields  of  glory.  The  Pole 
is  not  utilitarian,  and  all  this  to  him  is  more  than 
useful,  serving  as  it  does  to  bind  him  more  closely 
to  the  Church,  whose  feasts  are  given  added  solem- 
nity. The  observance  of  national  festivals  is  reli- 
giously kept.  May  recalls  the  adoption  of  Poland's 
famous  Constitution;  November,  the  Revolution  of 
1830;  and  January,  Poland's  last  war  for  freedom, 
the  Revolution  of  1863.  The  various  organizations 
vie  with  one  another  in  preparing  these  celebrations, 
which  serve  the  useful  purpose  of  affording  instruction 
in  Poland's  history  to  the  younger  generation  and  to 
the  invited  Americans. 

Polish  Charitable  Institutions. — Besides  contribu- 
ting to  the  support  of  the  various  diocesan  charities 
the  Poles  maintain  a  growing  number  of  such  in- 
stitutions for  those  of  their  own  nationality.  Only 
the  more  important  are  noted:  Felician  Sisters, 
orphanages,  5,  orphans,  585;  Sisters  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  orphanages,  1,  orphans,  105; 
Bernardine  Sisters,  orphanages,  1,  orphans,  120; 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  of  Nazareth,  orphanages, 
1,  orphans,  160. 

A  very  large  orphan  asylum  is  now  building  in 
Chicago,  which  will  be  supported  by  all  the  Polish 
parishes  of  the  archdiocese  and  will  be  placed  in 
charge  of  the  Felician  Sisters.  There  are  three 
Polish  homes  for  the  aged  in  which  200  are  provided 
for.  In  1909  St.  Felix's  Home  for  Polish  working 
girls,  Detroit,  conducted  by  the  Felician  Sisters, 
assisted  202  girls;  another  such  institution  in  East 
Buffalo,  New  York,  conducted  by  the  same  com- 
munity, assisted  267  girls;  in  the  Polish  day  nurser- 
ies of  Chicago  and  Milwaukee  nearly  20,000  children 
were  cared  for;  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  Chicago,  con- 
ducted by  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  of  Nazareth, 
cared  for  2,150  patients.  The  Immigrant  Home, 
East  Buffalo,  New  York,  aided  8978  immigrants. 
St.  Joseph's  Home  for  Polish  and  Lithuanian  Immi- 
grants, New  York,  has  since  its  foundation  in  1896 


given  aid  to  86,912  immigrants.  Both  homes  are 
now  in  charge  of  the  Felician  Sisters. 

One  of  the  most  notable  of  the  early  Polish  emi- 
grants was  the  patriot -poet,  Julian  Niemcewicz, 
who  came  to  America  in  1796.  He  had  been  Secre- 
tary to  the  Polish  Senate,  adjutant-general  of  Kos- 
ciuszko  in  the  latter's  struggles  for  Polish  inde- 
pendence and  his  companion  in  captivity  in  St. 
Petersburg.  He  became  an  American  citizen  and 
remained  in  the  United  States  until  the  formation 
by  Bonaparte  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  when 
he  returned  to  Poland  and  was  actively  engaged  in 
Poland's  cause  until  his  death  in  1841.  The  leading 
spirit  of  all  movements  among  the  Poles  in  America 
throughout  the  period  of  political  immigration  was 
Henry  Corvinus  Kalusowski,  the  son  of  one  of  the 
chamberlains  of  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  the  last 
King  of  Poland.  He  came  to  America  in  1834.  Re- 
turning to  Poland  he  represented  a  Polish  con- 
stituency in  the  Prussian  Parliament,  and  upon  his 
expulsion  by  the  Prussian  Government  again  came  to 
the  United  States.  During  the  Civil  War  he  or- 
ganized the  Thirty-first  New  York  Regiment.  Later 
held  positions  in  the  State  Department  in  Washing- 
ton, and  translated  all  official  Russian  documents 
relating  to  the  purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  United 
States.     He  died  in  1894. 

Other  political  immigrants  were:  Tyssowski,  the 
"Dictator  of  Cracow";  the  learned  Adam  Gurowski, 
who  in  his  "Diary  of  1861-1865"  betrayed  a  keen 
insight  into  the  conditions  of  the  Civil  War  period; 
Lieutenant  Bielawski,  Paul  Sobolewski,  translator 
of  the  Pohsh  poets  into  English;  Leopold  Julian 
Boeck,  soldier,  statesman,  scholar,  who  had  been 
Professor  of  Higher  Mathematics  in  the  Sorbonne 
before  coming  to  New  York,  where  he  founded  the 
Polytechnic  Institute,  said  to  be  the  first  of  its  kind 
in  America.  He  later  occupied  chairs  in  the  Uni- 
versities of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania.  He  was 
appointed  American  Educational  Commissioner  at 
the  Universal  Exposition  in  Vienna  by  President 
Grant,  and  served  in  a  similar  capacity  at  the  Cen- 
tennial Exposition  in  Philadelphia.  The  quality 
of  the  Polish  immigrants  previous  to  1870  was  such 
as  to  give  them  a  prominence  out  of  proportion  to 
their  numbers,  and  the  record  of  the  Poles  in  the 
Civil  War  was  a  really  brilliant  one,  although  there 
were  not  more  than  a  few  hundred  Poles  in  the  various 
divisions  of  the  Union  Army.  The  most  prominent 
of  these  was  General  Krzyzanowski,  who  gained  his 
military  title  in  this  war  serving  under  Carl  Schurz, 
who  in  his  memoirs  speaks  very  favourably  of  his 
services.  Others  who  served  with  distinction  were 
Louis  Zychlinski,  Henry  Kalusowski,  Peter  Kiol- 
bassa,  Joseph  Smolinski,  the  youngest  cavalry  officer 
in  the  Union  Army,  and  Edmund  Louis  Zalinski, 
who  served  on  General  Miles's  staff,  and  after  the 
war  occupied  the  chairs  of  military  science  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  and  other 
institutions  of  a  similar  nature,  and  became  an  au- 
thority on  military  science  and  an  inventor  of  military 
appliances.  The  most  commanding  figure  among 
the  American  Poles  was  Father  Vincent  Barzynski, 
C.R.  As  a  leader  of  men,  whose  vision  extended  far 
into  the  future,  he  stands  unique.  He  was  the  central 
figure  of  the  most  dramatic  chapters  in  the  history 
of  the  Poles  in  America.  He  gave  the  Poles  St. 
Stanislaus  College,  their  first  orphanage,  their  first 
Catholic  paper  (the  "Gazeta  Katolicka"),  their  first 
daily  paper  ("Dziennik  Chicagoski"),  he  formed  the 
first  teaching  corps  of  Polish  nuns,  and  brought  into 
being  the  Polish  Roman  Cathohc  Union.  The  most 
typical  of  the  Polish  American  laymen  to  achieve 
distinction  was  Peter  Kiolbassa,  through  whose  ef- 
forts the  Resurrectionist  Fathers  came  to  Chicago. 
He  served  as  captain  in  the  Union  Army  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  later  served  the  State  of  Illinois  and 


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208 


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the  city  of  Chicago  in  various  and  very  important 
positions. 

Tiic  name  of  Father  Joseph  Dabrowski  will  long 
be  held  in  grateful  remembrance.     Besides   found- 
ing the  Pohsh  Siiiiinary  at  Detroit  he  brought  the 
first  group  of  Fclician  ,Si.stei-.s  to  the  United  States, 
and  later  established  them  in  Detroit,  where  in  1882 
they  established  their  first  American  mother-house. 
Of  Polish  American  women  one  of  the  most  promment 
was  Dr.   Mary  Zakrzewska,  who  came  to  America 
in  1S.')3  and  founded  the  New  York  Infirmary  for 
Indigent  A\'omen  and  Children,  and  the  New  Eng- 
land  Hospital  for   women   and   children.     Poland's 
contribution  to  the  development  of  musical,  dramatic, 
and  plastic  art  has  been  a  notable  one.     In  187(3  a 
little  band  of  Polish  intellectuals,  among  whom  was 
Henry   Sienkiewicz,   attempted  to  found  a  sort  of 
Brook -Farm  community    in    California.      The    at- 
tempt failed  but  gave  to  America  Helena  Modjeska 
(MoiJrzejewska),  who  from  the  night  of  her  American 
d(5but  in  San  Francisco  in  1877  until  her  retirement 
thirty  years  later  was  among  the  foremost  artists  on 
the  American  stage.     Others  who  became  more  or 
loss  identified  with  American  national  fife  were  the 
sculptors  Henry  Dmochowski,  whose  busts  of  Kos- 
ciuszko    and    Pulaski    adorn    the    national   capitol, 
and  Casimir  Chodzinski,  creator  of  the  Kosciuszko 
monument  in  Chicago  and  the  Pulaski  monument  in 
\\'ashingt(jn.     Prominent  in  the  Polish  community 
of  to-day  are:   Ralph  Modjeski,  one  of  the  foremost 
engineers  in  the  United  States;    John  Smulski,  ex- 
state  treasurer  of  Illinois;    Dr.  F.  Fronczak,  health 
commissioner  of  Buffalo;    Bishop  Paul  Peter  Rhode, 
the  first  Pole  to  be  raised  to  the  episcopate  in  the 
United    States;     Felix    Borowski,     composer     and 
critic. 

E\ery  Polish  parish  has  its  mutual  aid  societies, 
affiliated  in  nearly  every  instance  with  one  of  the 
major  national  organizations,  all  of  which  are  con- 
ducted on  a  basis  of  fraternal  insurance.  These 
societies  do  a  great  amount  of  good  among  the  poor, 
caring  for  such  of  their  members  as  are  visited  by 
misfortune,  giving  the  Poles  desirable  solidarity,  and 
making  for  the  social,  religious,  and  economic  advance 
of  the  Polish  community.  I\Iost  frequently  they  are 
parish  organizations,  and  partake  of  the  character 
of  confrat(!rnitics,  whose  pubUc  appearance  at  Divine 
services  on  national  and  religious  festi\';irs  lends 
solemnity  to  the  occasions  and  constitutes  an  open 
profession  of  the  Faith  of  the  Polish  masses.  In  the 
larger  Polish  communities  there  are  associations  of 
physicians,  dentists,  druggists,  journalists,  merchants, 
and  military,  dramatic,  and  singing  societies,  nearly 
all  of  which  are  affiliated  with  the  major  organiza- 
tions. The  many  building,  loan,  and  savings  as- 
sociations among  the  Poles  have  received  high  praise 
from  state  officials. 

From  18(iG  to  1S7(I  various  local  organizations  were 
forming  in  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Chicago,  New 
York,  Milwaukee,  and  in  San  Francisco,  where  there 
had  existed  a  Polish  colony  since  the  Civil  \\'ar.  The 
most  important  Polish  Catholic  organization,  Zjed- 
noczenie  Polsko-Rzymsko  Katolickie  pod  Opiek^ 
Boskiego  Serca  Jezusa  (The  Polish  Roman  Catholic 
Union  under  the  Protection  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus),  was  organized  in  1S73,  but  it  was  not  until 
1880  that  it  assumed  its  present  character,  although 
the  spirit  of  the  Union  has  always  been  staunchly 
Catholic.  Its  first  organ  was  the  "Gazeta  Kato- 
licka";  the  present  official  organ  is  the  "Nar6d 
Polski "  (The  Polish  Nation).  The  Union  has  a  mem- 
bership of  .52,000,  in  550  councils,  all  of  which  are 
parish  organizations;  its  assets  are  5666,708.  In 
1910  the  increase  in  membership  was  13,000,  and  the 
increase  in  its  assets  $17.5,81.5.  In  the  same  year 
it  assisted  fifty-six  students,  children  of  its  members, 
by  distributing  among  them  $4268.     It  has  assisted 


crippled  members  by  voluntary  gifts  amounting 
to  $1455  in  the  same  period.  Its  educational  fund, 
the  interest  of  which  supports  indigent  students,  is 
.$31,051. 

The  Zwi^zek  Narodowy  Polski  (Polish  National 
Alliance)  was  founded  in  Philadelphia  in  1880,  and  in 
the  same  year  the  head-quarters  of  the  organization 
were  established  in  Chicago,  where  they  have  since 
remained.  In  its  first  constitution  the  Alliance  pro- 
fessed "obedience  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  since 
that  is  the  faith  of  the  vast  majority  of  the  Pohsh 
nation",  but  further  committed  itself  to  a  programme 
of  "toleration  of  all  creeds  in  the  spirit  of  Poland's 
ancient  constitution".  Socialists  were  barred.  All 
official  religious  services  were  to  be  conducted  accord- 
ing to  Catholic  rites.  Succeeding  conventions  grad- 
ually eliminated  all  reference  to  religion,  and  the 
bar  to  admission  of  Socialists  was  removed.  "Anar- 
chists and  criminals"  are  still  excluded.  Recently 
the  Alliance  is  waging  open  war  with  the  Socialistic 
element,  with  whose  doctrine  of  internationahsm 
the  exaggerated  nationalism  of  the  Alliance  is  at 
variance.  At  first  many  of  the  clergy  belonged  to 
the  Alliance,  but  with  the  development  of  the  anti- 
clerical programme  of  the  organization  the  number 
has  become  insignificant.  The  Alliance  has  a  mem- 
bership of  71,000  men  and  women,  in  1118  councils. 
The  Zwi^zek  Spiewak(5w  (Alliance  of  Singers),  the 
Zwi^zek  Wojsk  Polskich  (Alliance  of  Polish  Military 
Societies),  and  the  Zwi^zek  Sokol6w  (Athletic  Al- 
liance), while  maintaining  autonomy,  are  federated 
with  the  Alliance,  and  their  membership  is  included 
in  the  number  given  for  the  National  Alliance,  with 
slight  exceptions.  There  is  likewise  an  independent 
Turners'  Alliance  with  a  membership  of  3000.  The 
assets  of  the  National  Alliance  are  placed  at  $1,150,- 
000,  but  including  as  it  does  the  Alliance  Home,  etc., 
are  probably  in  excess  of  the  actual  assets.  The 
organ  of  the  Alliance  is  the  "Zgoda"  (Harmony). 
Except  in  its  attitude  towards  the  Church  the  Alliance 
closely  resembles  the  Polish  Roman  Catholic  Union. 
The  Catholic  Order  of  Foresters  has  62  Polish  courts, 
with  a  membership  of  8166,  and  the  number  of  Polish 
members  in  other  courts  exceeds  1000.  The  order 
furnishes  the  Polish  courts  with  constitutions  and 
rituals  printed  in  Polish,  and  all  business  of  these 
courts  is  transacted  in  Polish.  Zwi^zek  Polek  (Al- 
liance for  Polish  \\'omen)  has  a  membership  of  8000. 
It  closely  resembles  the  Polish  National  AlHance, 
but  since  a  society  of  Polish  women  cannot  thrive 
except  as  a  parish  organization,  much  of  the  offi- 
cial indifferentism  of  the  national  body  is  counter- 
acted by  the  priests  who  act  as  chaplains  of  the  local 
branches. 

Of  Catholic  organizations  besides  the  Polish  Roman 
Catholic  Union  the  following  are  important:  Stowar- 
zyszenie  Polak6w  w  Ameryce  (Association  of  Poles  in 
America),  Milwaukee,  membership,  7332;  Macierz 
Polska,  Chicago,  membership,  4500;  more  than  any 
other  Catholic  organization  it  is  concerned  with  the 
social  welfare  of  the  young.  It  is  confined  almost 
entirely  to  the  parishes  in  charge  of  the  Resurrec- 
tionist Fathers;  Unia  Polska  (The  Polish  Union), 
Wilkes -Barre,  Pennsylvania,  membership,  9000.  A 
schism  occurred  in  the  organization  in  1908,  and 
one  faction,  with  head-quarters  in  Buffalo,  has  a 
membership  slightly  smaller  than  the  first.  A  Catho- 
lic T'nion  in  Winona,  Minnesota,  has  a  membership 
of  1400. 

Excepting  the  numerically  insignificant  Socialistic 
group  none  of  the  nationalistic  organizations  have 
dared  to  attack  the  Church  as  such,  however  much 
their  organs  may  attack  individual  members  of  the 
clergy  and  certain  religious  congregations.  The 
younger  element  does  not  take  kindly  to  these  at- 
tacks, and  the  indications  are  that  the  crisis  has 
passed.     The  spread  of  the  spirit  of  independence 


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occasioned  the  first  Polish  Congress,  held  in  Buffalo 
in  1896.  A  second  was  held  in  the  same  city  in  1901, 
and  a  third  in  Pittsburg  in  1904..  These  congresses 
sought  to  find  remedies  for  the  sad  conditions  then 
prevailing,  and  the  efforts  of  the  promoters  were 
largely  confined  to  inducing  the  Holy  See  to  give  the 
American  Poles  bishops  of  their  own  nationality. 
A  fourth  congress,  differing  radically  from  the  three 
preceding,  inasmuch  as  its  spirit  was  purely  secular, 
was  convened  under  the  auspices  of  the  Polish  Na- 
tional Alliance  on  the  occasion  of  the  unveiling  of  the 
Pulaski  and  Kosciuszko  monuments  in  ^^'ashington, 
12  May,  1910.  The  congress,  which  was  ignored 
by  the  clergy  and  the  Catholic  organizations,  declared 
itself  in  favour  of  educational  institutions  for  the 
Polish  youth  which  would  be  utterly  removed  from 
"clerical"  influence.  Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  federate  the  various  Polish  organizations, 
but  they  have  invariably  failed.  Bishop  Rhode  has 
fathered  the  last  attempt  at  federation,  which  seems 
likely  to  succeeil  because  unity  is  being  sought  along 
purely  Catholic  lines. 

The  growth  in  numbers  and  efficiency  of  the  Pohsh 
parochial  schools  is  a  story  of  faith,  patriotism,  un- 
paralleled generosity,  and  supreme  endeavour  on  the 
part  of  Polish  clergy,  religious  communities,  and 
laity,  who  came  with  no  asset  but  their  willing  hands 
and  the  faith  of  their  fathers.  The  Poles  take  care  of 
themselves.  Where  they  have  contributed  to  the 
building  of  non-Polish  churches  and  schools,  they  are 
quick  to  establish  schools  for  their  own  children  as 
soon  as  their  numbers  warrant  the  attempt,  which 
with  them  is  much  earlier  than  with  those  of  any  other 
nationality.  The  Poles  realized  very  early  that  their 
children  who  attended  schools  other  than  Polish, 
however  much  they  succeeded,  ceased  to  be  an  asset 
to  the  Polish  community  in  its  endeavours  to  lift 
itself  above  its  present  condition.  The  Polish  schools 
in  America  are  a  distinctly  new  world  product.  Con- 
sidering the  shortness  of  their  American  history  the 
Poles  have  a  larger  proportion  of  native  clergy  and 
teaching  nuns  than  any  other  class  of  American 
Catholics.  Fully  9.5  per  cent  of  the  teachers  in  the 
Polish  parochial  schools  are  American  by  birth  or 
training.  The  Poles  cannot  be  satisfied  with  teachers 
other  than  Polish.  Hence  their  Americanization  is 
a  development  and  not  a  veneer.  This  factor  of  a 
native  clergy  and  teaching  corps  thoroughly  American 
in  thought  and  speech,  and  thoroughly  Polish  in  their 
sympathies  with  the  incoming  thousands,  makes  for 
a  healthy  conservatism,  and  precludes  violent  rup- 
tures with  traditions  of  the  past.  The  Polish 
parochial  schools  are  performing  a  task  which  could 
not,  because  of  a  multitude  of  circumstances,  be 
satisfactorily  performed  by  any  other,  however 
superior  from  a  purely  scholastic  standpoint.  The 
most  formidable  obstacle  to  more  rapid  progress  is 
the  ever-increasing  tide  of  immigrants.  Clergy  and 
teachers  must  contend  with  parents  whose  poverty 
and  old-world  viewpoint  are  factors  in  keeping  the 
children  at  home  upon  every  pretext,  and  with- 
drawing them  for  ever  on  the  day  of  their  First  Com- 
munion. The  constant  increase  in  the  number  of 
children  necessitates  the  erection  of  new  schools,  in 
spite  of  the  parents'  inability  to  contribute  to  their 
support,  increases  the  shortage  of  teachers,  makes  for 
overcrowding  and  inefficiency,  because  the  religious 
communities,  to  satisfy  the  demands  made  upon 
them,  must  send  into  the  class-room  the  young  nun 
to  whom  it  has  been  impossible  to  give  a  thorough 
training.  These  hardships  fall  with  double  force 
upon  the  newly-organized  parishes.  The  older 
religious  communities,  several  of  which  have  reached 
a  high  degree  of  efficiency,  cannot  supply  the  in- 
creasing demand  in  the  schools  already  under  their 
charge,  and  hence  the  new  parishes  must  content 
themselves  with  teachers  such  as  the  more  recently- 
XII.— 14 


established  communities  can  afford.  The  presence 
of  lay  teachers  in  the  Pohsh  schools  is  evidence  of  the 
inadequacy  in  the  number  of  the  Polish  nuns.  The 
necessity  of  teaching  in  two  languages  doubles  the 
work  of  the  teachers,  and  yet  it  is  this  very  system 
which  will  most  intelligently  adjust  the  Poles  to  their 
American  surroundings.  The  establishment  of  Polish 
schools,  especially  in  the  Middle  West,  nearly  always 
coincides  with  the  organization  of  the  parishes.  The 
first  building  erected  is  usually  made  to  serve  as 
school  and  church  for  some  years  until  a  church  can 
be  built,  when  the  first  building  is  used  entirely  for 
school  purposes. 

The  first  Polish  school  in  the  United  States  is  that 
in  Panna  Maria,  Texas,  established  by  Father 
Bakanowski,  C.R.,  in  1866.  The  first  teacher  was 
Peter  Kiolbassa.  The  second  school  was  that  of 
St.  Stanislaus's  Parish,  Milwaukee,  which  dates  from 
1867.  St.  Stanislaus's  School  in  Chicago  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  in 
1873.  The  accompanying  list  of  statistics  affords 
striking  evidence  of  the  growth  in  numbers  of  the 
Polish  schools  since  that  time. 

Besides  the  parochial  schools  the  Poles  maintain 
the  following  institutions  of  higher  education:  SS. 
Cyril  and  Methodius's  Seminary,  Orchard  Grove, 
Michigan,  founded  by  Fathers  Leopold  Moczygemba 
and  Joseph  D^browski.  The  seminary  was  established 
in  Detroit  in  1887,  and  was  transferred  to  Orchard 
Grove  in  1909.  Professors,  17;  students,  350. 
St.  Stanislaus's  College,  Chicago,  founded  by  the 
Resurrectionist  Fathers  in  1891,  a  day  and  boarding 
school,  professors,  15;  students,  210.  St.  Bonaveu- 
ture's  College,  Pulaski,  Wisconsin,  founded  by  the 
Franciscan  Fathers  in  1889,  professors,  7;  students, 
45.  St.  John  Cantius's  College,  Brookland,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  founded  in  1909,  embraces  scholasticate 
for  the  Missionaries  of  the  Divine  Love  of  Jesus,  and 
is  affiliated  with  the  Catholic  University  of  America. 
St.  John  Cantius's  College,  Erie,  Pennsylvania; 
founded  in  1909,  maintained  by  the  Society  of  St. 
John  Cantius,  which  is  composed  of  Polish  priests  and 
laymen.  Pennsylvania  Polish  College  of  St.  John, 
Philadelphia,  founded  in  1908  by  Rev.  John  Godrycz, 
D.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.U.D.  The  Academy  of  the  Holy 
Family  of  Nazareth,  Chicago,  founded  in  1887  by 
the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  of  Nazareth.  Twenty 
nuns  form  the  teaching  staff;  students,  150.  The 
number  of  Polish  students  at  various  other  insti- 
tutions is  very  considerable,  especially  in  day-schools 
in  our  large  cities.  Nearly  one-third  of  the  student 
body  at  St.  Francis's  Seminary,  St.  Francis,  Wiscon- 
sin, are  Poles.  Several  of  our  non-Polish  Catholic 
institutions,  notably  the  University  of  Notre  Dame 
and  St.  Francis's  Seminary,  have  introduced  the 
study  of  the  Polish  language,  literature,  and  history 
into  their  curricula.  The  teaching  of  Polish  has 
likewise  been  introduced  in  the  public  schools  of 
several  of  our  large  cities  in  which  there  is  a  large 
Polish  population. 

One  hundred  of  the  Polish  clergy  are  members  of 
rehgious  communities.  Of  this  number  65  are  mem- 
bers of  Polish  communities  or  provinces. — (a)  Fran- 
ciscan Fathers  (O.F.M.),  Commissariate  of  the 
Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Pulaski, 
Wisconsin:  fathers,  8;  professed  clerics,  7;  novice 
clerics,  4;  professed  brothers,  18;  novice  lay  brothers, 
1;  brothers  of  the  Third  Order,  3.  (b)  Franciscan 
Fathers  (O.M.C.),  Province  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua, 
Buffalo,  New  York:  fathers,  20;  clerics  and  students, 
44;  lay  brothers,  16.  (c)  Fathers  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion: priests,  33,  of  whom  27  are  Poles;  brothers,  21. 
(d)  Missionaries  of  the  Divine  Love  of  Jesus,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  1.  (e)  Vincentian  Fathers  (CM.), 
Polish  Province  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission, 
Chicago:  fathers,  8. 

Polish  priests,  members  of  other  congregations  and 


POLES 


210 


POLES 


orders: — Holy  Ghost  Fathers,  10;  Benedictines,  2; 
Augustinian,  1;  Jesuits,  5;  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross, 
10;  Redemptorists,  2;  Carmelite,  1;  Servites,  2;  Pas- 
sionist,  1;  Capuchin,  1;  Society  of  the  Divine  Sa- 
viour, 1. 

Communities  of  Women. — (a)  Bernardine  Sisters 
of  St.  Francis,  Reading,  Pennsylvania:  sisters,  70. 
(b)  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  under 
the  Patronage  of  St.  Cunegunde,  Chicago:  professed 
sisters,  !).S;  novices,  6;  candidates,  26.  (c)  Polish 
Franciscan  Scliool  Sisters,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
professed  sisters,  29;  novices,  18;  postulants,  4; 
aspirants,  2.  (d)  FeUcian  Sisters,  O.S.F.  The  Com- 
munity is  divided  into  three  provinces,  with  mother- 
houses  at  Detroit,  Buffalo,  and  Milwaukee.  (1) 
Western  Province  of  Presentation  of  the  B.  V.  M., 
mother-house  at  Detroit,  established  1882:  professed 
sisters,  273;  novices,  30;  postulants,  55;  in  preparatory 
course,  65.  (2)  North-western  Province  of  the  Pres- 
entation of  the  B.  V.  M.,  Milwaukee:  professed  sis- 
ters, 170;  novices,  17;  postulants,  27.  (3)  Eastern 
Province,  Buffalo:  professed  choir  sisters,  278;  nov- 
ices, 32;  postulants,  93;  lay  sisters,  professed,  66; 
novices,  6;  postulants,  21;  candidates  in  pre- 
paratory course,  73.  These  were  the  statistics  of 
the  province  .just  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the 
new  province,  with  mother-house  in  Milwaukee,  to 
which  203  professed  sisters  and  novices  were  trans- 
ferred (August,  1910).  Eastern  Province,  Buffalo, 
New  York:  professed  sisters,  240;  novices,  50;  postu- 
lants, 87;  professed  lay  sisters,  61;  novices,  3;  postu- 
lants, 14;  candidates,  52.  (e)  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Family  of  Nazareth,  Desplaines,  Illinois:  professed 
.sisters,  3.50;  novices,  90;  postulants,  45.  (f)  PoHsh 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Stevens  Point,  Wisconsin: 
professed  sisters,  191;  novices,  60;  candidates,  40. 
(g)  Sisters  of  the  Resurrection,  Chicago:  professed 
sisters,  50;  novices,  13;  candidates,  19.  Total  num- 
ber in  communities  distinctively  Polish,  2180.  There 
are  upwards  of  eight  hundred  Polish  sisters  in 
the  various  non-Polish  communities.  Of  this  number 
412  are  members  of  the  Community  of  the  School 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  (Milwaukee);  30  belong  to  the 
Holy  Cross  community  (Notre  Dame,  Indiana); 
73  to  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  (La  F^ayette,  Indiana), 
20  to  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  (St.  Francis,  Wiscon- 
sin). 

SiTico  1900  the  efficiency  of  the  various  census  and 
immigration  bureaux  has  been  greatly  improved,  and 
statistics  of  Polish  immigration  are  thoroughly  re- 
liable. Government  Census  Reports  have  hitherto 
been  inadec|uate,  partly  because  of  the  indifference  of 
the  Poles  themselves,  who  frequently  were  satisfied 
to  be  enumerated  as  Germans,  Russians,  and  Aus- 
trians;  the  classification  "natives  of  Poland"  em- 
bracing a  large  non-Polish  element,  and  the  migratory 
character  of  a  large  part  of  the  Polish  population 
all  added  to  the  confusion.  The  following  tables 
from  the  "Report  of  the  Twelfth  Census",  1900,  are 
not  without  interest: 


"!i"ear 

Polish  Born 

FoREIG.-sJ 

Population 

Percentage  of 

Total  Foreign 

Population 

1860 

1870 

1N80 

1890 :   . 

1900 

7,298 

14,4.3(1 

48, .-m7 

147,440 

383, .-)10 

0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.6 
3.7 

Persons  in  the  United  States  having  both  parents 
born  in  Poland,  668,536.  Native  white  persons 
having  one  parent  born  in  Poland,  290,912.  Total 
white  persons  having  fathers  born  in  Poland,  704,405; 
having    mothers    born    in    Poland,     6.83,572.     The 


"natives  of  Poland"  Census,  1900,  are  classified  as 
follows : 

From  German  Poland 150,237 

From  Russian  Poland 154,424 

From  Austrian  Poland 58^503 

Poland,  unknown 20*436 


Years  Ending 
30  June 


1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1910  (July-Dec.) 


Immigrants 


28,446 
46,938 
43,617 
69,620 
82,343 
67,757 

102,437 
95,835 

138,033 
68,105 
77,565 

128,348 
45,448 


Emigrants 


46,727 
19,290 
16,884 


Net  Gain 


21,378 

58,275 
111,464 


Since  July,  1907,  the  Bureau  of  Immigration  has 
recorded  the  number  of  departing  aliens.  The  period 
embraces  the  financial  depression  of  1907-08,  which 
sent  so  many  of  other  nationalities  to  Europe  as  to 
cause  a  marked  decrease  in  their  American  numbers. 
Basing  an  estimate  upon  the  record  of  the  year  end- 
ing 30  June,  1910,  during  which  year  the  United 
States  had  resumed  an  almost  normal  condition, 
we  may  safely  assume  that  the  net  increase  in  the 
number  of  Poles  in  the  United  States  was,  for  the 
period  1899  to  1  Jan.,  1911,  not  less  than  750,000. 
In  the  period  1900-07  the  outward  movement  was 
very  slight.  The  birth-rate  in  many  of  our  parishes 
in  which  the  Galician  element  predominates  is  almost 
50  per  cent  of  the  number  of  families.  Statistics 
given  in  the  accompanying  table  are  based  upon  the 
following  sources,  viz: — the  "Official  Catholic  Direc- 
tory" (1911);  manuscript  information  received  from 
Polish  clergy  and  non-Polish  priests  labouring  among 
the  Poles;  information  received  from  officials  of 
various  Polish  organizations;  reports  (several  based 
upon  special  census  taken  for  this  article)  sent  by 
46  archbishops  and  bishops,  in  whose  diocese  are 
more  than  90  per  cent  of  the  Polish  clergy;  recent 
reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Immigration,  which  give  the 
intended  destination  of  the  immigrants.  Where  dis- 
crepancies occur  in  the  various  reports,  averages  have 
not  been  struck,  but  an  effort  was  made  to  learn  the 
method  used  in  making  an  estimate  in  typical  dis- 
tricts. Allowance  should  be  made  for  the  recent 
natural  increase  and  enormous  immigration,  the  vast 
floating  population,  the  800  small  settlements  neither 
constituting  Polish  parishes  nor  having  Polish  pas- 
tors, the  "Independents",  those  indifferent  to  the 
Faith,  the  single  men.  A  number  of  the  reports  were 
based  upon  a  census  taken  in  1907.  Taking  all  these 
factors  into  consideration  it  may  be  safely  assumed 
that  there  are  no  fewer  than  2,800,000  Poles  in  the 
United  States. 


Archdiocese 

a 

o 

a 
< 

3 

o 
o 

H 
o 
m 

o 

z:h 

CO 
W 

a 
o 

^  w 

§3 
5B 

7, 
0 
H 

2  p 

J  Oh 

0  0 

Baltimore 

Boston 

9 
8 

81 
2 

44 

11 
1 

28 
7 
0 

5 
8 

36 
2 

18 
9 
1 

19 
6 
q 

3 
3 

28 
2 

17 
4 

25 

7 

302 

'i48 

'  '2 

■2 
7 
5 

1,616 

414 

23,283 

95 

9,232 

553 

16,700 

13,747 

223,304 

981 

Milwaukee 

New  York 

59,182 

30,000 

1,600 

Philadelphia 

St.  Louis 

11 
6 
5 

51 

6 

3,470 

849 

1,275 

66,000 
12,700 

St.  Paul 

23 

2 

11,500 

POLES 


211 


POLES 


Diocese 

-1 
O 

2 

3 
§ 

M 
u 
CQ 

5 
4 
4 
6 
21 
1 

IS 

g 
i-lH 

15 
5 
1 

2 

I 
2 

§S 

gs 

§ 

It 
0  0 

9 

,s 

6 

14 

41 

2 

1 

24 

4 

2 

i 

1 

33 
7 
8 
4 
5 

18 
8 

19 

33 
6 

16 
1 

13 
1 
1 
1 
2 
3 

1 

1 

15 
1 

15 
6 

40 
6 
3 
1 

17 
1 
1 
,S 

33 
3 
1 
2 
9 
8 
4 

13 
4 
1 
1 
8 

7 
7 
5 

11 

21 
2 
1 

18 
4 
2 
1 
1 

18 
7 
7 
4 
5 

13 
8 

17 

28 
4 

11 
1 

12 
1 
1 
1 

15 

"io 

25 
141 

1,.M1 

504 

375 

1,285 

8,398 

64 

13,200 
17,515 

6,491 
40,000 
88,759 

2,200 
838 

Belleville 

Buffalo 

Cheyenne 

12 
4 

55 
5 

10 
2 

4,927 
325 

51,990 

3,216 

1,100 

700 

Dallas 

2,400 
49,000 

6,476 
13,200 

6,200 

7  200 

16 
2 
5 
2 

12 
4 

14 

19 
4 

10 
1 
8 
1 

138 
3 
18 
6 

1 

8,028 
390 

1,010 
372 

Duluth       

Erie 

Fall  River 

Fargo 

55 

5 

81 

47 

21 

14 

1 

18 

3 

1 
5 
4 
2 

19 

"3 

3,031 

329 

4,418 

2,344 

1,800 

1,740 

40 

797 

86 

29,000 

7,205 

40,200 

23  231 

Galveston . 

Grand  Rapids 

9,544 

39,000 

900 

11,032 
1,100 
1,400 

Lincoln 

Little  Rock 

1,650 

Louisville 

400 

2 

8 
1 

1 
11 

1 
12 

6 
33 

5 

3 

1 
2 

5 
4 

184 
283 

1,900 

9,600 

400 

Mobile 

Monterey  and 

1,200 

7 

39 

2,570 

50,550 
1,100 

Ogdensburg 

7 

5 

19 

47 
26 

74 

'    "2 
18 

1,613 
1,429 
4,913 

16,000 

Peoria 

Pittsburg 

12,140 
77  309 

Providence 

5,600 

Rochester 

3 

11 

496 

4,700 

Rockford 

600 

St.  Cloud 

14 
1 

6 
1 

18 
4 

4 

639 
190 

12,076 

St.  Joseph 

1,700 

Salt  Lake 

600 

10 

32 

3 

1 

1 
8 
8 
4 
8 
4 
1 

10 
12 

32 
23 

■  '4' 

1,071 
1,842 

6,042 

Scranton 

52,200 

Seattle 

2,800 

1 
1 
4 
3 
2 
7 
1 

3 

'  '   45 

13 

6 

25 

"2 
2 
1 

57 

90 

1,437 

493 

455 

1,687 

78 

1,100 

Sioux  Falls 

1,250 

28,680 

7,200 

Syracuse 

4,. 500 

Trenton 

23,000 

6,000 

Wichita 

1,100 

Wilmington 

1 

1 

8 
18 

500 
925 

4,200 

7      3 

6,420 

702 

517330 

1,678134 

104,143 

1,244,428 

Abchdiocese,  Diocese,  ob  Polish 
Vicariate  Apostolic                                                 Population 

Dubuque 800 

New  Orlean.s 700 

San  Francisco 3,000 

Santa  Fe .550 

Alexandria 400 

Alton 410 

Baker  City 500 

Bismarck 600 

Boise 700 

Concordia 300 

Covington 450 

Davenport 550 

Helena 800 

Indianapolis 900 

Lead 300 

Nashville 600 

Natchez 350 

Oklahoma 700 

Portland 1,600 

Richmond 900 

Sacramento 800 


ARCHniocESB,  Diocese,  or  Polish 

Vicariate  Apostolic  Population 

St.  Augustine 250 

Savannah 1,200 

Tucson.. 300 

Brownsville 350 

North  Carolina 420 

Alaska,  Hawaii,  etc 400 

Total 18,830 

The  Polish  Press  in  the  United  States. — Since  the 
appearance  of  the  first  issue  of  the  "Echo  z  Polski" 
(Echo  from  Poland),  1  June,  1863,  in  New  York  the 
Polish  Press  has  been  a  faithful  mirror  of  the  condi- 
tions obtaining  among  the  Poles  in  the  United  States. 
No  fewer  than  one  hundred  and  forty  papers  have 
been  established  since  1863,  but  of  this  number  not 
more  than  seventy  have  survived,  and  the  number 
is  constantly  fluctuating,  although  there  is  a  steady 
average  increase  from  year  to  year.  The  first  paper 
was  devoted  entirely  to  agitation  in  favour  of  the 
mother  country.  Its  publication  was  discontinued  in 
1865.  Not  until  1870  was  another  attempt  made, 
when  the  "Orzel  Bialy"  (The  White  Eagle),  made  its 
appearance  at  Washington,  Missouri,  a  promising 
Polish  colony.  The  paper  was  issued  at  irregular 
intervals  until  1875,  and  differed  from  the  "Echo", 
inasmuch  as  it  was  devoted  entirely  to  the  affairs  of 
the  Poles  in  America.  A  third  paper  was  established 
at  Union,  Missouri,  by  John  Barzynski,  for  many 
years  after  a  prominent  figure  among  the  American 
Poles.  This  third  paper  was  the  "Pielgrzym" 
(Pilgrim),  which  later  became  "Gazeta  Polska 
Katolicka",  pubhshed  at  Detroit  until  1875,  since 
when  it  has  been  published  at  Chicago  and  has  borne 
the  name  "Gazeta  Katolicka".  For  many  years  it 
was  the  organ  of  Father  Vincent  Barzynski  and  the 
Resurrectionist  Fathers,  and  its  strong  militant  spirit 
passed  into  the  "Dziennik  Chicagoski",  estabhshed 
bythemin  1890.  Until  1880  the  "Gazeta"  was  edited 
by  John  Barzynski,  who  was  succeeded  by  Ladis- 
laus  Smulski.  Both  were  men  of  no  mean  ability  and 
sterling  Catholicity.  The  ' '  Gazeta  Katolicka ' '  passed 
into  the  control  of  Ladislaus  Smulski,  and  is  still 
published  by  the  Smulski  estate.  It  has  always  pre- 
served its  splendidly  Catholic  tone,  and  still  ranks 
as  the  foremost  among  the  Polish  Catholic  weeklies. 
The  "Gazeta  Polska"  was  founded  by  Ladislaus 
Dyniewicz  at  Chicago  in  1873,  and  for  many  years 
the  "Gazeta  Katolicka"  and  the  "Gazeta  Polska" 
were  avowed  champions  of  two  factions,  the  Catholic 
Conservatives  and  the  Nationalists.  The  circulation 
of  the  two  papers  is  about  20,000. 

Of  the  seventy  Polish  papers  now  published,  nine- 
teen are  published  at  Chicago.  Not  more  than 
twenty  are  really  as  well  as  professedly  Catholic. 
About  twenty-five  are  "neutral",  while  the  rest  range 
from  the  merely  neutral  to  the  "yellow"  anti-clerical 
daily  papers  published  at  Chicago  and  Milwaukee, 
and  the  two  Socialistic  papers.  The  latter  are  less 
harmful  to  the  Polish  masses  than  the  sensational 
papers  claiming  to  be  Catholic  but  countenancing 
open  opposition  to  ecclesiastical  authority.  It  is 
remarkable  testimony  to  the  faith  of  the  Polish  masses 
that  this  campaign  of  vilification  has  not  been 
fraught  with  greater  harm,  and  that  it  must  be  car- 
ried on  under  the  pretence  of  the  reformation  of  the 
Polish  clergy.  With  the  exception  of  the  avowedly 
Socialistic  Press,  which  lays  no  claim  to  being  Polish 
in  spirit,  none  of  the  papers  are  professedly  atheistic 
or  irreligious.  Of  the  nine  Polish  daily  papers  four 
are  published  at  Chicago,  two  at  Buffalo,  two  at  Mil- 
waukee, and  one  at  Detroit.  Their  combined  cir- 
culation is  nearly  80,000;  that  of  the  "Dziennik 
Chicagoski"  is  over  16,000.  Three  of  the  daily 
papers,  "Dziennik  Chicagoski",  "Nowiny  Polskie" 
("The  Polish  News",  Milwaukee),  and  the  "Polak 


POLICASTRO 


212 


POLITI 


w  Ameryce"  ("The  Pole  in  America",  Buffalo),  are 
thoroughly  Catholic;  one  pubUshed  at  Chicago  is 
Socialistic;  one,  the  "Zgoda"  (Harmony),  published 
at  Chicago,  is  "neutral"  and  openly  anti-clerical. 
The  sensational  Press,  daily  and  weekly,  constitutes 
the  most  demoralizing  factor  among  the  Ame,ica,n 
Poles,  brazenly  defying  every  law  of  journalistic 
ethics,  publishing  e\-ery  scandal  under  heavy  display 
lines,  bitterly  attacking  clergy,  religious  communities, 
and  parochial  schools,  comparable  only  to  the  lowest 
type  of  journalism  of  the  Latin  countries. 

Of  the  Polish  daily  papers,  the  oldest  is  the  "  Dzien- 
nik  Chicagoski",  a  valiant  defender  of  the  Faith 
throughout  the  twenty  years  of  its  publication.  With 
but  short  interruption,  its  guiding  spirit  from  the  be- 
ginning has  been  Stani.slaus  Szwajkart,  one  of  the 
ablest  Catholic  journalists  in  the  United  States. 
Another  daily,  a  tower  of  strength  in  the  Catholic 
cause,  is  " Polak  w  Ameryce " ,  for  many  years  edited 
by  Stanislaus  Slisz,  whose  brilliant  mind  was  equalled 
only  by  his  uncompromising  Catholicism.  The  cir- 
culation is  14,000. 

FOBD,  Century  Maunzine  (Feb.,  1902) ;  Official  Catholic  Directory 
(Milwaukee,  1911);  Modjeska,  Memories  and  Imjyressions,  an 
Autobiography  (New  York,  1910);  American  Catholic  Historical 
Researches  (January  and  April,  1910) ;  Van  Norman,  Poland,  the 
Knight  among  Nations  (New  York,  1907);  Balch,  Our  Slavic 
Fellow-Cilizens  (New  York,  1910);  Steinek,  On  the  Trail  of  the 
Immigrnnl  (New  York,  1906);  Idem,  The  Immigrant  Tide,  its 
Ebb  ft'id  Flow  (New  York,  1909);  Mayo-Smith,  Emigration  and 
Immigration  (New  York,  1908);  Reports  of  the  Commissioner 
General  of  Immigration  (Washington,  1908,  1909,  1910);  Twelfth 
Census  of  the  United  Slates  (Washington,  1901-04);  Hall,  Im- 
migration and  its  Effect'^  upon  the  United  States  (New  York,  1908) ; 
Statesman's  Year  Book  (London,  1910) ;  Dorset,  letters  in  the 
Chicago  Tribune  (Oct.  and  Nov.,  1910) ;  Weyl,  The  Outlook  (April, 
1910);  Warne,  The  Slav  Invasion  (Philadelphia,  1904);  Kru- 
SZKA,  Historya  Polaka  w  Ameryce  (Milwaukee,  1905-08);  Osada, 
Historya  Zwiazku  N.  P.  (Chicago,  1005);  Zahajkiewicz,  Zlota 
Ksiega  (Chicago,  1897);  Dunikowski,  Wsrod  Polonii  w  Ameryce 
(Lemberg,  1893);  BujAK,  Onlicya  (Lemberg,  1910);  Szcze- 
panowbki,  Nedza,  Galicyi  w  Cyfrach  (Lemberg,  1888) ;  Karbqw- 
lAK,  Dzicje  Edukacgjne  Polakow  na  Obczyznie  (Lemberg,  1911); 
Osada,  0  Stronnictwie  Demokratyczno-Narodowym  i  Lidze 
Narodowej — Liga  Narodowa  a  Polacy  w  Ameryce — Sokolstwo 
Pohkie  (Chicago,  1905) ;  Bienkiewicz,  Listy  z  Podrozy  (Warsaw, 
1894):  Pinniatka  Srebrnego  Jubileuszu  Parafii  Sw,  Stanislawa 
Kostki  w  Piitshurgu  (Pittsburg,  1901);  Dzieje  Parafii  Sw.  Tro- 
jcy  (Chicago,  1S98) ;  Pamiatka  Srebrnego  Jubileuszu  Parafii 
Sw.  Jozefa  w  Manistee  (Manistee,  1909);  Historya  Parafii  Sw. 
Jacka  (La  Salle,  Illinois,  1900);  Bernard,  Die  Polenfrage 
(Leipzig,  1910);  Idem,  Di<  Stadtpolitik  in  Gebiet  des  deutschpol- 
nischen  nationalitatenkampfes  (Leipzig,  1909) ;  Seroczynski,  Con~ 
fessions  of  a  Polish  Prieat  in  Catholic  Standard  and  Times. 

Felix  Thoiias  Seroczynski. 

Policastro,  Diocese  of  (Policastbensis),  in  the 
province  of  Salerno,  Southern  Italy.  The  city  is 
situated  on  a  hill  that  overlooks  that  gulf  of  the 
Tyrrhenian  Sea,  to  which  Policastro  gives  its  name. 
It  is  the  ancient  Pituntia,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
continuation  of  the  Diocese  of  Buxentum,  the  first 
known  bishop  of  which  was  Rusticus  (501),  while 
another,  Sabbadius,  is  mentioned  in  649.  San  Pietro 
Poppa  Carbone  (1079),  a  Benedictine  of  Cava,  re- 
signed after  governing  the  diocese  for  a  short  while, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Arnaldo.  In  1211  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II,  di.sregarding  the  candidate  of  the  chap- 
ter, wished  to  give  this  see  to  his  physician,  Jacopo, 
but  Innocent  III  appointed  the  regularly  elected 
bishop.  Other  bishops  of  Policastro  were:  Gabriele 
Atilio  (1471),  a  Latin  poet;  Urbano  Felicio  (1630), 
who  held  a  synod,  and  was  the  author  of  several  excel- 
lent works;  Filippo  Jacobio  (1652)  remodelled  the 
episcopal  palace  of  Orsui'a,  where  the  bishops  usually 
reside;  Vincenzo  de  Sylva,  O.P.  (1672),  remodelled  the 
episcopal  palace  of  Policastro ;  he  was  besieged  in  his 
palace  of  Orsaca  by  Count  Fabrizio  Carafa,  on  ac- 
count of  his  firmness  in  maintaining  the  rights  of  his 
Church;  Tommaso  della  Rosa  (1679)  restored  the 
cathedral;  Antonio  della  Rosa  (1705)  restored  the 
seminary.  In  the  Diocese  of  S.  Giovanni  a  Piro  there 
was  a  Basilian  monastery.  Policastro  is  a  suffragan  of 
Salerno;  it  has  38  parishes,  with  04,000  inhabitants; 
2  religious  houses  of  men,  and  3  of  women;  207  sec- 


ular, 9  regular  priests;  234  churches  or  chapels.    Mgr 
Vescia  is  the  present  bishop. 

Cappelletti,  he  Chiese  d' Italia,  XXI. 

U.  Benigni. 

Polignac,  Melchior  de,  cardinal,  diplomatist, 
and  writer,  b.  of  an  ancient  family  of  Auvergne,  at 
Le  Puy,  France,  11  October,  1661 ;  d.  in  Paris,  3  April, 
1742.  He  studied  with  great  distinction  at  the  College 
de  Clermont  and  the  Sorbonne.  While  still  a  young 
man,  he  was  present  at  the  conclave  which  elected 
Pope  Alexander  VIII  in  1689;  and  he  took  part  in  the 
negotiations  at  Rome  concerning  the  Declaration  of 
1682.  In  1691  he  assisted  at  the  election  of  Innocent 
XII,  and  in  1693  was  appointed  ambassador  extraor- 
dinary to  Poland.  Here  he  won  the  favour  of  John 
Sobieski,  and  succeeded  in  having  the  Prince  de  Conti 
chosen  as  Sobieski's  successor.  Through  Conti's 
dilatoriness,  the  election  proved  ineffectual,  and  Louis 
XIV,  blaming  Polignac,  ordered  him  to  return  to  his 
Abbey  of  Bon-Port.  In  1702,  however,  he  was  granted 
two  new  abbeys  and  in  1706  sent  to  Rome,  with 
Cardinal  de  la  Tr(5moille,  charged  to  settle  the  affairs 
of  France  with  Clement  XL  Between  1710  and  1713 
he  energetically  supported  French  interests  at  the 
Conferences  of  Gertruydenberg  and  the  Congress  of 
Utrecht,  and  in  1713  was  made  cardinal.  Com- 
promised m  Cellamare's  conspiracy,  he  was  ban- 
ished, in  1718,  to  his  abbey  of  Auchin,  in  Flanders. 
In  1724  he  was  again  placed  in  charge  of  French  in- 
terests at  Rome  and  assisted  at  the  conclave  which 
elected  Benedict  XIII.  For  eight  years  he  repre- 
sented his  country  at  the  Court  of  Rome,  occupied 
with  the  difficulties  arising  out  of  the  Bull  "Unigeni- 
tus",  and  returned  to  France  in  1730,  having  been 
Archbishop  of  Auch  since  1724. 

Devoted  to  art  and  literature,  and  the  collection  of 
medals  and  antiques,  Polignac  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy  in  1704,  succeeding  Bossuet.  His 
addresses,  sometimes  delivered  in  Latin  as  correct  and 
fluent  as  his  French,  were  much  admired.  His  great 
work,  "Anti-Lucretius",  a  poem  in  nine  books  (Paris, 
1745),  offers  a  refutation  of  Lucretius  and  of  Bayle,  as 
well  as  an  attempt  to  determine  the  nature  of  the 
Supreme  Good,  of  the  soul,  of  motion,  and  of  space. 
His  philosophical  views — generally  similar  to  those 
of  Descartes — are  questionable,  but  the  poem  is,  in 
form,  the  best  imitation  of  Lucretius  and  Virgil 
extant. 

Charlevoix  in  Memoires  de  Trevoux  (June,  1742) ;  Faucher, 
Vie  du  card,  de  Polignac  (Paris,  1777) ;  de  Boze,  Histoire  de  V Aca- 
demie  des  inscriptions, 

J.  Lataste. 

Politi,  Lancelot,  in  religion  Ambkosius  Catha- 
EiNUS,  b.  at  Siena,  1483;  d.  at  Naples,  1553.  At 
sixteen  he  became  Doctor  of  Civil  and  Canon  Law 
(J.U.D.)  in  the  academy  of  Siena.  After  visiting 
many  academies  in  Italy  and  France  he  was  ap- 
pointed (1508)  a  professor  at  Siena,  and  had  among 
his  pupils  Giovanni  del  Monte,  afterwards  Pope 
Julius  III,  and  the  celebrated  Sixtus  of  Siena,  a  con- 
verted Jew  who  esteemed  his  master,  yet  severely 
criticized  some  of  his  writings.  About  1513  he  entered 
the  Order  of  St.  Dominic  in  the  convent  of  St.  Mark, 
at  Florence.  He  studied  Scripture  and  theology  with- 
out a  master.  This  may  account  for  his  independence, 
and  his  defence  of  opinions  which  were  singular,  espe- 
cially in  regard  to  predestination,  the  certitude  of 
possessing  grace,  the  residence  of  bishops  in  their  dio- 
ceses, and  the  intention  required  in  the  minister  of  a 
sacrament.  He  was  a  strenuous  defender  of  the  Faith 
against  Luther  and  his  followers;  and  was  prominent 
in  the  discussions  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  to  which  he 
was  called  by  his  former  pupil.  Cardinal  del  Monte, 
legate  of  Paul  III.  In  the  third  public  session  (4  Feb- 
ruary, 1546),  Catharinus  pronounced  a  notable  dis- 
course, later   published    ["Oratio   ad   Patres   Cone. 


POLITIAN 


213 


POLITICAL 


Trid."  (Louvain,  1567;  Paris,  1672)].  Notwithstand- 
ing attacks  upon  his  teaching  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Minori  in  1546,  and,  in  1552,  Archbishop  of 
Conza,  Province  of  Naples.  Pope  JuUus  III,  suc- 
cessor of  Paul  III,  called  Politi  to  Rome,  intending, 
says  Echard,  to  elevate  him  to  the  cardinalate,  but  he 
died  before  reaching  Rome.  Historians  and  theologians 
generally  have  regarded  Catharinus  as  a  brilliant,  ec- 
centric genius,  who  did  much  good,  was  frequently 
accused  of  teaching  false  doctrines,  yet  always  kept 
within  the  bounds  of  orthodoxy.  Pallavicini  andother 
authorities  declare  positively  that  the  Council  of  Trent 
did  not  condemn  his  singular  opinions.  His  zeal  and 
activity  are  universally  praised;  he  defended  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  sub- 
mitted all  his  writings  to  the  judgment  of  the  Church, 
regretting  towards  the  end  of  his  life  the  vehemence  with 
which  he  had  combatted  Cardinal  Cajetan  and  Father 
Dominic  Soto  (Echard).  His  principal  works  (for 
complete  list  see  Echard)  are :  "  Apologia  pro  veritate 
catholicae  et  apostolicte  fidei  ac  doctrinse,  adversus 
impia  ae  pestifera  Martini  Lutheri  dogmata"  (Flor- 
ence, 1520);  "  Speculum  ha?reticorum "  (Lyons,  1541), 
with  two  opuscula  on  original  sin  and  justification; 
"  Annotationes  in  commentaria  Cajetani  super  sacram 
Scripturam"  (Lyons,  1542);  "Tractatus  quaestionis 
quo  jure  episcoporum  residentia  debeatur"  (Venice, 
1547);  "Defcnsio  catholicorum  pro  possibili  certi- 
tudine  gratia;"  (ibid.,  1.547);  "Summa  doctrinae  de 
praedestinatione"  (Rome,  1550);  "Commentaria  in 
omnes  D.  Pauli  epistolas  et  alias  septem  canonicas" 
(Venice,  1551);  "Disputatio  pro  veritate  immacu- 
latae  conceptionis  B.  Virginis"  (Rome,  1551).  He 
also  published  numerous  opuscula,  e.  g.,  on  Providence 
and  predestination,  on  the  state  of  children  dying 
without  baptism;  on  giving  communion  to  young 
children;  on  celibacy;  on  the  Scriptures  and  their 
translation  into  the  vernacular. 

Qu^TiF-EoHAHD,  Script.  Ord.  Prad.,  II  (Paris,  1721),  144; 
TouHOx,  Hist,  des  hommes  illustres  de  VOrdrc  de  S.  Dom.,  IV 
(Paris,  1747).  12.S:  Pallaviciki,  Hist.  Cone.  Trid.:  De  int.  mi- 
nistri,  De  Resid.  epis.  (Antwerp,  1670;  Cologne,  1717.  1727); 
SixTus  Senensis,  BiUiotheca  Sancta,  Bka.  IV,  V,  VI  (Venice, 
1566). 

D.  J.  Kennedy. 

Folitian  (Angiolo  de  'Ambrosini  da  Monte 
PuLciANo),  Italian  Humanist,  b.  at  Monte  Pulciano 
in  1454;  d.  at  Florence  in  1494.  At  the  age  of  ten  he 
went  to  Florence,  where  he  followed  the  courses  of  Lan- 
dino,  Argyropoulos,  Andronicus  Callistus,  and  Mar- 
silio  Ficino.  In  1477  he  was  tutor  to  the  children  of 
Lorenzo  the  Alagnificent,  and  became  one  of  the  Acca- 
demia  which  Lorenzo  had  grouped  about  him,  in 
which,  with  Marsilio  Ficino,  were  associated  Landino, 
Pico  della  Mirandola,  and  Hermolaus  Barbarus.  Poli- 
tian  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature  at 
Florence  from  1480;  among  his  pupils  were  the  Eng- 
lishmen, Grocyn  and  Linacre,  and  the  German 
Reuchlin.  He  was  rather  a  master  and  interpreter  of 
the  ancient  spirit  than  a  philologist.  His  lessons  on 
each  author  were  preceded  by  an  introduction,  often 
in  verse,  with  a  poetic  title:  "Nutritia"  for  the 
general  eulogy  of  poetry,  "Rusticus"  for  Hesiod  and 
the  Georgics  of  Virgil,  "Manto"  for  Virgil,  "Ambra" 
for  Homer.  His  discourses  or  preliminary  poems  form 
a  collection  called  "  Pra;lectiones  "  -  Politian  was  one 
of  the  first  Italian  Humanists  who  succeeded  in  rival- 
ling the  Greek  scholarship  of  the  native-born  Hel- 
lenes. At  eighteen  he  translated  Books  I  to  V  of  the 
"lUad"  and  won  the  surname  of  Homericus  jiiienis. 
Subsequently  he  translated  Callimacus,  the  historian 
Herodien,  Epictetus,  the  "Charmides"  of  Plato,  the 
"Eroticus"  of  Plutarch,  treatises  of  Hippocrates  and 
Galian,  and  .selections  from  Moschus  and  the  "An- 
thology". He  read  many  other  authors,  whicli  for 
a  long  time  existed  only  in  manuscript,  e.  g.,  the 
"Months"  of  John  Lydus  which  Schow  made  known 


Angiolo  Politian 


only  in  1794.  His  most  important  philological  work 
is  his  collection  of  "Miscellanea"  (14S9),  wherein  he 
treats  various  scholarly  subjects;  the  employment  of 
breathings  in  Greek  and  Latin,  the  chronology  of 
Cicero's  familiar  letters,  the  orthography  of  the  name 
of  Virgil,  which  he  fixed  under  the  form  Vergilius, 
the  discovery  of  purple,  the  difference  between  the 
aorist  and  the  imperfect  in  the  signature  of  Greek 
sculptors.  He  was  a  modern  philologist  in  his  efforts  to 
recover  the  best  manuscripts  and  to  procure  collations. 
He  thus  contributed  towards  improving  the  text  or 
preserved  intact 
the  Latin  elegiacs, 
the  "Silvaj"  of 
Statins,  Terence, 
Lucretius,  Ovid, 
Celsus,Quintilian, 
Festus,  Ausonius, 
the  agricultural 
treatises.  The 
critical  editions 
of  these  authors 
place  his  name  in 
the  history  of 
manuscripts,  but 
he  made  a  special 
study  of  the  "Pan- 
dects" on  the  sixth 
century  MSS. 
brought  from  Pisa  to  Florence  in  141 1 .  As  a  Humanist, 
Politian  is  a  Latin  writer  of  poetry  and  prose,  a  poet 
of  Latin  sentiment  in  Italian.  He  does  not  share  the 
Ciceronian  purity  of  Valla,  but  endeavours  to  create 
a  personal  style.  He  had  to  defend  these  ideas 
against  the  Latin  secretary  of  Florence,  Bartolomeo 
Scala  and  against  Paolo  Cortesi.  He  was  one  of  the 
earliest  to  attract  attention  to  the  Latin  writers  of 
the  Silver  Age.  His  Latin,  like  his  Italian,  verses  are 
full  of  grace  and  sentiment.  He  wrote  in  Latin  a 
history  of  the  conspiracy  of  the  Pazzi  in  which  he 
took  Sallust  as  a  model.  His  letters  together  with 
those  of  Bembo  were  long  considered  as  realizing  the 
ideal  of  style. 

Sandys,  A  Hist,  of  Cht^^icnl  Scholarship,  II  (Cambridge,  1908), 
83;  Mahly,  Anfj.  Polilianus,  Ein  Culturhild  aus  d.  Renaissance 
(Leipzig,  1S64) ;  Bernays,  Gesammelte  Ahhandlungen,  II  (Berlin, 
1885),  330;  Symonds,  The  Renaissance  in  Italy,  II  (London,  1875- 
86),  345;  Sadbadini,  Ciceronianismo  (Turin,  1886),  34;  Idem, 
Le  scoperte  dei  codici  (Florence,  1905),  151. 

Editions:  Opera  (Venice,  149S;  Florence,  1499;  Basle,  1553); 
Epistolce  (Basle,  1522;  Anvers,  1567);  Opera,  Epistolee,  Miscel- 
lanea (Lyons,  1526) ;  Poesie  latine  e  greche  in  Prose  Volgari,  ed. 
DEL  LuNGO  (Florence,  1867). 

Paul  Lejay. 

Political  Economy,  Science  of. — I.  Defini- 
tions.— Political  economy  (Greek,  diKovoixla — the 
management  of  a  household  or  family,  itoXitiki; — per- 
taining to  the  state)  or  economics  (tA,  oiKovo/xtKd — the 
art  of  household  management)  is  the  social  science 
which  treats  of  man's  activities  in  providing  the 
material  means  to  satisfy  his  wants.  Economj^  orig- 
inally means  the  management  and  regulation  of  the 
resources  of  the  household;  that  is,  of  the  immediate 
family  with  its  slaves  and  dependents.  Political  econ- 
omy originally  meant  the  management  of  the  house- 
hold of  the  State.  It  was  so  used  as  late  as  Adam 
Smith  (Wealth  of  Nations,  1776),  who  defined  it  thus: 
"Political  economy  considered  as  a  branch  of  the 
science  of  a,  statesman  or  legislator  proposes  two 
distinct  objects,  first,  to  supply  a  plentiful  revenue  or 
subsistence  for  the  people,  or  more  properly  to  enable 
them  to  provide  such  a  revenue  or  subsistence  for 
themselves;  and  secondly,  to  supply  the  state  or 
commonwealth  with  a  revenue  suflScient  for  the  public 
service.  It  proposes  to  enrich  both  the  people  and  the 
sovereign."  The  sum  of  the  efforts  and  activities  of 
the  members  of  the  household  in  acquiring  the  means 
to  satisfy  their  wants  may  be  designated  as  the  econ- 


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214 


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omy  of  the  household.  \Mipre  a  household  is  not 
economically  self-sufficing,  that  is,  where  households 
are  economically  interdependent,  we  have  a  broader 
economy,  ^\■here  this  interdependence  is  state-  or 
nation-wide,  there  exists  a  national  economy  or 
political  economy.  The  term  political  economy  is 
used  in  yet  a  third  sense.  It  is  the  name  of  the  science 
which  treats  of  this  nation-wide  complexus  of  eco- 
nomic activities. 

II.  Method  and  Scope. — Enghsh  economists  in 
the  carlj-  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  beginning 
with  Malthus  and  Ricardo,  hoped  to  establish  a 
science  of  poUtical  economy  independent  of  the  art  of 
the  statesman,  which  would  vie  with  the  natural 
scienc(-s  in  the  exactness  of  it.s  conclusions.  They 
narrowed  the  field  as  conceived  by  Adam  Smith  by 
variously  defining  political  economy  as  the  science  of 
wealth,  the  science  of  value,  or  the  science  of  ex- 
changes. But  along  with  this  narrowing  of  the  field 
and  the  attainment  of  scientific  precision  in  the  use  of 
terms  went  a  divorce  of  their  science  from  the  eco- 
nomic realities  of  life.  Their  method  was  strictly  deduc- 
tive. Beginning  with  three  or  four  principles  for 
which  they  claimed  universal  vahdity,  they  proceeded 
to  deduce  a  complete  system  without  further  appeal  to 
the  facts  of  life.  These  English  writers,  known  as  the 
Classical  or  Orthodox  School,  held  that  political  econ- 
omy must  not  concern  itself  with  ethical  or  practical 
considerations.  To  do  so,  in  their  opinion,  would 
degrade  it  to  an  art,  for  the  science  of  political  econ- 
omy was  concerned  merely  with  the  explanation  of 
the  causal  relations  existing  among  economic  phe- 
nomena. It  was  their  business  as  economists  simply 
to  explain  the  existing  economic  system,  not  to  defend 
or  condemn  it,  nor  to  show  how  it  might  be  replaced 
by  a  better  one.  To  them  good  and  bad  were  con- 
cepts which  concerned  moralists  and  not  economists. 
In  opposition  to  this  narrow  and  non-ethical  view  of 
the  Classical  School,  there  arose  in  Germany  in  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  Historical 
School,  holding  that  political  economy  is  an  inductive 
and  an  ethical  science.  They  derided  the  abstractions 
of  the  Orthodox  Scliool,  some  extremists  even  going  so 
far  as  to  contend  that  the  time  was  not  yet  ripe  for 
a  science  of  political  economy.  The  business  of  their 
generation,  they  held,  was  to  gather  from  observation 
and  history  and  to  classify  the  economic  facts  upon 
which  future  economists  might  construct  a,  science. 
After  a  bitter  struggle  of  half  a  century  the  opposition 
between  the  schools  has  almost  disappeared,  and  it  is 
now  generally  recognized  that  the  economist  must  use 
both  the  deductive  and  the  inductive  methods,  using 
now  one  predominantly  and  now  the  other,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  problem  upon  which  he  happens 
to  be  engaged.  The  best  usage  of  the  present  time 
is  to  make  pohtical  economy  an  ethical  science,  that  is, 
to  make  it  include  a  discussion  of  what  ought  to  be  in 
the  economic  world  as  well  as  what  is.  This  has  all 
along  been  the  practice  of  Catholic  writers.  Some  of 
them  even  go  so  far  as  to  make  poUtical  economy  a 
branch  of  ethics  and  not  an  independent  science.  (See 
Devas,  "Principles  of  Political  Economy".)  For  a 
further  discussion  of  the  relationship  between  the  two 
sciences,  see  Ethics. 

For  purposes  of  exposition  the  field  of  political  econ- 
omy is  often  divided  into  four  parts :  production,  con- 
sumption, distribution,  and  exchange.  Some  authors 
omit  one  or  another  of  these  divisions,  treating  its 
problems  under  the  remaining  heads.  The  depart- 
ment of  production  is  concerned  with  the  creation  of 
wealth  through  the  united  efforts  of  land,  labor,  and 
capital.  The  creation  of  wealth  involves  the  bringing 
into  existence  of  utilities,  that  is,  of  capacities  to 
satisfy  wants.  Utilities  are  created  by  changes  in  form 
of  goods,  or  in  their  location,  or  by  keeping  them  from 
a  time  of  less  demand  to  a  time  of  greater  demand. 
Consumption  is  concerned  with  the  destruction  of 


utilities  in  goods.  It  is  the  utilization  of  wealth,  the 
carrying  out  of  the  purpose  for  which  wealth  is  pro- 
duced. The  department  of  distribution  considers  the 
manner  in  which  the  wealth  which  has  been  produced 
is  divided  among  the  agents  which  have  produced  it. 
The  shares  in  distribution  are:  rent,  which  is  paid  to 
the  landlord  for  the  use  of  the  land;  wages,  which  is 
the  return  to  the  labourer;  interest,  which  goes  to  the 
capitalist  for  the  use  of  his  capital;  and  profit,  which 
is  the  reward  of  the  entrepreneur  or  undertaker  of  the 
business.  Finally,  exchange  has  to  do  with  the  trans- 
fer of  ownership  of  wealth.  Under  this  head  are  dis- 
cussed money  and  credit  and  international  exchanges. 
Outside  of  these  four  divisions  separate  chapters  are 
usually  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  taxation, 
monopolies,  transportation,  economic  progress,  and 
other  problems.  Adam  Smith  and  his  immediate 
followers  were  more  closely  concerned  with  the  prob- 
lems of  production.  Owing  to  the  world's  remarkable 
progress  in  that  direction  in  the  last  century,  the  in- 
equalities of  distribution  have  come  more  and  more 
into  prominence,  and  this  is  now  the  favourite  field  of 
the  economist. 

III.  History. — Ancient. — In  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome  there  was  little  likelihood  of  the  emergence  of 
a  science  of  political  economy.  Their  industrial  sys- 
tem was  founded  on  slavery,  the  great  estates  were  for 
the  most  part  self-sufficient  economic  units,  leaving 
comparatively  little  room  for  commerce,  and  labour 
was  held  in  contempt  by  the  thinking  element.  How- 
ever, fragmentary  discussions  on  economic  subjects, 
mingled  with  ethical  and  political  considerations,  are 
to  be  found.  Xenophon  has  a  rather  extensive  treat- 
ment of  household  economy.  Plato,  in  the  "Repub- 
lic", advocates  an  ideal  communistic  State.  Aristotle 
presents  a  defense  of  private  property,  and  writes 
against  the  taking  of  interest  on  the  ground  that 
money  is  barren.  He  defends  warmly  the  institution 
of  slavery.  Among  the  Romans  there  was  not  much 
originality.  We  find  frequent  discussions  of  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  large  and  small  farms.  Cicero,  Pliny 
the  Elder,  and  other  writers  deplored  the  introduction 
of  gold  as  a  medium  of  exchange  and  preferred  the  age 
of  barter.  Seneca  wrote  upon  the  ethics  of  political 
economy  and  pleaded  for  the  simple  life. 

Patristic  Writers. — Under  Christian  influence  labour, 
which  had  been  held  in  contempt  by  the  Pagans,  came 
to  be  respected  and  honoured.  The  rigors  of  slavery 
were  mitigated  and  the  milder  form  of  serfdom  grew 
up,  which  later  gave  way  to  free  labour.  The  Roman 
law  had  insisted  on  the  rights  of  property;  the  early 
Fathers,  on  the  other  hand,  insisted  on  the  rights  of 
man.  Some  even  went  to  the  extent  of  advocating 
a  system  of  communism  as  the  ideal  state,  mcely 
tolerating  private  property.  "The  soil,"  says  St. 
Ambrose,  "was  given  to  rich  and  poor  in  common." 
St.  Gregory  the  Great,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Basil  the 
Great,  St.  John  Chrj'sostom,  and  St.  Jerome  write  in 
similar  vein.  The  taking  of  usury  was  universally 
condemned. 

Middle  Ages. — By  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  there 
was  developed  a  complete  and  systematic  economic 
doctrine.  This  doctrine  differed  from  modern  political 
economy  in  two  important  aspects.  In  the  first  place 
it  was  made  to  fit  the  economic  institutions  of  that 
day,  and  would  be  inadequate  if  applied  to  ours;  and 
secondly,  the  emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  ethically 
desirable  rather  than  upon  the  actually  existent. 
However,  this  latter  distinction  is  now  very  much  less 
marked  than  it  was  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Such  questions  as  property,  wealth,  con- 
sumption, value,  price,  money,  loans,  monopoly,  and 
taxation  were  treated  in  detail.  To  the  medieval 
theologian,  the  "just  price"  of  an  article  included 
enough  to  pay  fair  wages  to  tht,  ivorker,  that  is,  enough 
to  enable  him  to  maintain  the  standard  of  living  of  his 
class.    In  a  like  manner,  a  reasonable  profit  was  de- 


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215 


POLITICAL 


fended  as  the  wages  of  the  merchant.  With  certain 
hmitations,  the  taking  of  interest  for  money  loans 
was  forbidden.  On  the  other  hand,  there  were  certain 
classes  of  productive  investments,  such  as  the  buying 
of  rent-charges,  where  interest  was  allowed.  Among 
the  writers  of  the  period  on  economic  subjects,  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  takes  first  place.  Other  writers  of 
importance  were  Henry  of  Ghent,  ^Egidius  Colonna, 
Petrarch,  Nicholas  Oresme,  Bishop  of  Lisieux,  who 
wrote  a  work  on  money  for  his  pupil  Charles  V,  and 
finally  St.  Antoninus,  Archbishop  of  Florence,  and 
St.  Bernardine  of  Siena. 

Mercantile  System. — In  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries  a  revolution  in  industrial  activities 
was  taking  place  which  had  a  profound  influence  upon 
the  economic  literature.  The  great  geographical  dis- 
coveries, the  invention  of  gunpowder  and  printing, 
the  decay  of  feudalism  and  the  rise  of  modern  states, 
the  increase  in  the  supply  of  the  precious  metals,  and 
the  growing  use  of  credit, — all  these  united  to  furnish 
problems  for  endless  discussion.  Statesmen,  feeling 
the  need  of  money  to  support  war,  adopted  various 
restrictive  measures  to  obtain  it.  The  economic  writ- 
eis  who  defended  those  restrictions  are  usually  classed 
together  as  the  Mercantile  School.  Sometimes  the 
attempt  was  made  to  keep  money  in  the  country  by 
prohibiting  its  exportation  or  by  debasing  the  coinage. 
Another  way  was  to  encourage  the  exportation  of 
finished  commodities  and  the  importation  of  raw 
material  in  order  to  secure  a  balance  of  trade.  Mer- 
cantilism reached  its  highest  perfection  under  Colbert, 
the  Minister  of  Finance  under  Louis  XIV,  and  is 
sometimes  referred  to  as  Colbertism.  Later  imitators 
of  Colbert  were  less  successful,  and  Mercantilism  often 
degenerated  into  a  system  of  special  privileges  and 
exemptions,  without  any  adequate  advantage  to  the 
nation.  Prominent  among  the  Mercantilist  writers 
were  Jean  Bodin  (d.  1596),  Giovanni  Botero  (d.  1617), 
Juan  Mariana  (d.  1623),  Antonio  Serra  (published  in 
1613),  Antoine  de  Montchr^tien  (Traits  d'iSconomie 
politique,  1615),  who  was  the  originator  of  the  term 
political  economy,  and  Thomas  Mun  (d.  1641), 
author  of  "England's  Treasure  by  Foreign  Trade". 

System  of  Natural  Liberty. — During  the  Mercantile 
period  statesmen  had  interested  themselves  in  industry 
principally  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  war;  in  the 
following  period  wars  were  carried  on  in  the  interest  of 
industry  and  commerce.  Under  Mercantile  influence, 
the  attitude  of  governments  had  been  decidedly  pater- 
nahstic.  In  the  eighteenth  century  those  who  speak 
for  commerce  and  industry  demand  that  these  be 
allowed  to  develop  freely,  unhampered  by  the  guiding 
strings  of  government.  In  France  there  grew  up  a 
school  of  economic  writers  later  known  as  the  Phys- 
iocrats, who  protested  against  the  balance  of  trade 
doctrine  of  the  Mercantile  School  and  summed  up 
the  duties  of  the  government  towards  industry  and 
commerce  in  the  famous  phrase  "laissez  faire  et 
laissez  -passer" .  They  believed  in  a  beneficent  "order 
of  nature"  which  should  be  allowed  free  play.  To 
them,  agriculture  alone  was  productive.  The  Phys- 
iocrats had  been  strongly  influenced  by  such  English 
writers  as  Locke,  Petty,  and  Hume,  and  they  in  turn 
were  destined  to  further  influence  English  political 
economy.  Adam  Smith  (1723-90),  "the  father  of 
political  economy",  was  a  result  of  the  combination 
of  both  the  English  and  the  French  currents.  His 
work,  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the 
Wealth  of  Nations"  (1776),  gained  immediate  popu- 
larity and  exercised  profound  political  influence  in 
the  next  generation.  Smith  held  that  while  the  indi- 
vidual selfishly  seeks  his  private  gain,  he  is  led  by  an 
invisible  hand  to  promote  the  public  good,  and  that 
since  the  individual  and  social  interests  are  identical, 
the  sphere  of  state  action  should  be  narrowed.  He 
thus  followed  up  the  attack  on  the  Mercantile  system 
begun  by  the   Physiocrats,     He  differed  from  the 


Physiocrats  in  making  labour  as  well  as  land  pro- 
ductive. Among  the  followers  of  Smith  are  to  be 
noted  Malthus  ("Essay  on  Population",  1798),  author 
of  the  startling  statement  that  population  tends  to 
increase  in  a  geometrical  ratio  while  subsistence  tends 
to  increase  in  an  arithmetical  ratio,  and  Ricardo 
("Principles  of  Pohtical  Economy  and  Taxation", 
1817),  whose  name  is  associated  with  the  differential 
rent  theory,  the  subsistence  theory  of  wages,  and  the 
labour  theory  of  value.  Other  writers  of  the  English 
Classical  School,  who  followed  closely  in  the  footsteps 
of  Malthus  and  Ricardo,  were  James  Mill,  Mac- 
Culloch  Senior,  and  John  Stuart  Mill.  The  last 
named  in  his  later  life  renounced  the  individualism  of 
the  Orthodox  School  in  favour  of  socialistic  views. 

Historical  School. — About  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  there  began  in  Germany  under  the 
leadership  of  Wilhelm  Roscher,  Ivarl  Knies,  and  Bruno 
Hildebrand,  a  reaction  against  the  Orthodox-English 
School.  These  writers  insisted  on  the  relativity  of 
economic  theory,  that  is,  they  did  not  believe  that 
economic  principles,  good  for  all  times  and  places,  and 
all  degrees  of  economic  development,  could  be  estab- 
lished. Moreover,  they  insisted  strongly  on  the  need 
of  the  study  of  economic  history  and  upon  the  ethical 
and  practical  character  of  political  economy.  They 
were  soon  in  complete  control  of  the  economic  teach- 
ing of  Germany.  They  differ  radically  from  the 
Physiocrats  and  Adam  Smith  in  their  repudiation  of 
the  doctrine  of  natural  liberty.  In  fact  many  of  them 
have  gone  so  far  in  the  opposite  direction  as  to  be 
designated  Kathedersozialisten  (Professorial  Social- 
ists), because  of  their  reliance  on  state  help  in  accom- 
plishing social  reforms. 

Austrian  School. — Since  1871  there  has  grown  up  in 
Austria  a  group  of  writers  who  make  of  political  econ- 
omy a  deductive  and  psychological  science  of  value. 
They  oppose  to  the  cost-of -production  explanation  of 
value  of  the  Classical  School,  a  theory  of  value  based 
upon  marginal  utility.  It  is  a  well  known  psycholog- 
ical fact  that  the  utilities  of  additional  units  of  a  com- 
modity to  a  consumer  diminish  as  the  supply  in- 
creases. Now  it  is  the  utility  of  the  last  or  marginal 
unit  consumed,  says  the  Austrian  School,  which  deter- 
mines value.  Menger,  Wieser,  Boehm-Bawerk,  in 
Austria,  the  late  W.  Stanley  Jevons,  in  England,  and 
J.  B.  Clark,  in  America,  are  the  leading  representa- 
tives of  this  school. 

Socialism. — Socialism  (q.  v.)  represents  the  extreme 
of  reaction  against  laissez  faire  or  the  system  of  natural 
liberty  of  the  Physiocrats  and  Adam  Smith.  Laissez 
faire  professes  to  believe  in  the  identity  of  the  interests 
of  the  different  industrial  classes  and  hence  decries 
the  need  of  restrictive  legislation,  while  socialism  em- 
phatically denies  that  this  solidarity  exists  under  our 
present  system  and  seeks  to  develop  a  "class  con- 
sciousness" among  the  workers  that  will  overthrow 
the  influence  of  the  dominant  class.  Economic  social- 
ism borrowed  the  labour  theory  of  value  from  Ricardo 
and  gave  it  an  ethical  interpretation,  holding  that 
since  labour  is  the  sole  producer  of  wealth,  the  labourer 
should  receive  the  entire  product.  Accordingly,  the 
socialists  deny  the  right  of  the  capitalist  to  interest 
and  of  the  landlord  to  rent,  and  would  make  capital 
and  land  common  property.  According  to  Karl  Marx 
("Das  Is  ipital",  1867),  the  founder  of  so-called  scien- 
tific socialism,  the  labourer  under  the  present  system 
does  not  receive  more  than  a  bare  subsistence.  The 
' '  surplus  \  elue ' '  which  he  produces  above  this  amount 
is  apri'opriated  by  landlords  and  capitalists.  Another 
cont  ibution  of  Marx  to  socialism  is  the  materialistic 
cor  ception  of  history,  according  to  which  such  factors 
in  tiistory  as  religion,  ethics,  and  the  family,  undergo 
changes  corresponding  to  the  changes  in  the  under- 
lying economic  organization  of  which  they  are  a 
product. 

Christian  Democracy. — The  movement  which  has 


POLLAJUOLO 


216 


POLLAJUOLO 


been  gaining  ground  for  the  last  halt  century  among  Follajuolo,  Antonio  and  Piebo  Bbnci,  derived 

Christian  churches,  both  Catholic  and  non-Catholic,  their  surname,  according  to  Florentine  custom,  from 

to  emphasize  the  importance  of  religious  and  moral  the  trade  of  their  father,  who  was  a  dealer  in  poultry, 

elements  in  a  healthy  economic  life,  and  which  pro-  Both  were  born  at  Florence,  Antonio  about  1432, 

tests  more  or  less  strongly  against  laissez  faire,  is  Piero  in  1443;    both  died  in  Rome,  the  younger  in 

usually  designated  as  Christian  Socialism.    This  name  1496,  the  elder  in  1498,  and  both  were  buried  in  the 


is,  however,  not  well  chosen,  since 
none  of  the  so-called  Christian  so- 
cialists hold  to  the  fundamental 
principle  of  socialism,  namely  the 
abolishment  of  private  ownership 
in  the  means  of  production.  The 
Protestant  writers  in  this  field  have 
naturally  lacked  an  authority  which 
would  hold  them  together.  In 
England  their  adoption  of  co-oper- 
ative associations  as  a  substitute 
for  competition  has  given  them  a 
unity  which  they  have  not  attained 
elsewhere.  The  Catholic  School 
agrees  with  the  socialists  in  much 
of  their  criticism  of  the  competitive 
system,  but  parts  company  with 
them  by  insisting  on  the  place  of 
religion,  the  family,  property,  and 
the  employer  system  in  the  social 
scheme.  In  the  matter  of  state 
intervention,  there  are  among 
Catholic  writers  two  general  ten- 
dencies. The  more  "liberal"  wing,  led  by  such  econ- 
omists as  Le  Play,  P^rin,  and  Victor  Brants,  would 
reduce  state  action  to  a  minimum,  while  others,  look- 
ing to  Bishop  Ketteler,  Cardinal  Manning,  and  Count 
de  Mun,  would  invoke  a  considerable  measure  of  so- 
called  State  socialism.  A  strong  impulse  towards  unity 
of  effort  among  Catholics  was  given  by  the  publication 
of  the  encyclicals  of  Pope  Leo  XIII,  "Rerum  Nova- 
rum",  of  15  May,  1891,  and  "Graves  de  Communi", 
of  18  January,  1901. 

In  addition  to  the  writers  named  above,  consult:  Ingram,  Hist, 
of  Pol,  Eron.  (London, 


Antonio  Pollajuolo 


1907);  Cossv,  An  In- 
trod.  to  t}i^  Study  of  Pol. 
Econ.,  tr.  from  the  Ital- 
ian by  Dyer  (London, 
and  New  York,  1893) 
(contains  an  excellent 
bibliography) ;  Keynes, 
The  Scope  and  Method 
of  Pol.  Econ.  (London 
and  New  York,  1904) ; 
Ashley,  An  Introd.  to 
Eng.  Econ.  Hist,  and 
Theory  (New  York  and 
London,  1894);  Mae- 
shall,  Prin.  of  Eco- 
nomic-^ (London,  1S9S) ; 

LiBERATOHE,  PHn.  of 
Pol.  Eron..  tr.  DerinG 
(London  and  NewY^ork, 
1891) ;  Seager,  Introd. 
(o£^conomics(New  York, 
1908);  ^LY,  Outlines  of 
Economics  (New  York, 
1908);  Hadley,  Bra- 
nomics  (New  York, 
1896):  Nicholson,  Frin. 
of  Pol.  Econ.  (New  York 
and  London,  1893- 
1901);  Seligman,  Prin. 
of  E conomics  (New 
York, London, indBom- 


TOMB  OF  SiXTUS  IV 
Antonio  Pollajuolo,   St.  Peter's,  Rome 


bay,  190.5) ;  Walker,  Poi.  Bcon.  (New  York,  1888) ;  Ryan.  .4  Living 
Wngp  (New  Y'ork,  1906);  Pesch,  Lehrbuch  der  Nnlionalokonomie 
(Freiburg  and  St.  Louis,  1905-1909);  Wagner,  Grundlegung  der 
■poUlischen  Orknnnmie  (1892-1894);  Schmoller.  Grundriss  der 
allgemeinen  Volkswirtschaftslehre  (Leipzig,  1900-1904);  Cohn, 
Grundlegung  der  Nationaloekonomie  {Stuttgart,  188.5-1898);  Phi- 
lippovich,  Grundriss  der  poUtischen  Oelconomie  (Tubingen,  1904) ; 
Leroy-Beaulieu,  Traits  d' economic  politique  (Paris,  1910) ;  GiDE, 
Cours  d'iconomie  politique  (Paris,  191)9);  Say,  TraM  d'iconomie 
politique  (Paris,  1803) ;  .Iannet,  Le  Sorinh'ine  d'etat  et  la  Reforme 
Snnnle  (Paris,  1890);  Hitze,  Die  Arheilerfrage  (Berlin,  1900); 
Antoike,  Cours  d'economie  sorinle  (P,-iri3,  1899) ;  Ratzinger,  Die 
VolkswirtschofI  in  ihrin  sitthcben  GruorlUgoi  (Freiburg,  1881); 
Palgrave,  Dictionary  of  Pol.  Ecoo.  (London  and  New  York, 
1894-1899);  Conrad,  Handworlerbuch  der  Staatswissenschaften 
(Jena,  1890-1894) ;  Bruder  in  Staatslexikon  (Freiburg  and  St 
Louis,  1889-1897).  FrANK    O'HaRA. 


same  tomb  in  San  Pietro  in  Vincoli. 
Antonio  studied  painting  under 
Uccello,  and  was  influenced  by  Bal- 
dovinetti.  Among  his  individual 
paintings  are:  "David"  (Beriin 
Museum);  "Fight  of  Hercules 
with  Antaeus",  "Fight  of  Hercules 
with  the  Hydra'',  two  small  panels 
(Uffizi);  "Hercules  and  Nessus" 
(Jarves  collection.  New  Haven, 
Conn.);  "Communion  of  Mary 
Magdalen"  (Pieve  de  Staggia,  near 
Poggibonsi).  The  collaboration 
of  the  brothers  began  in  1465. 
Piero,  brought  up  in  his  brother's 
studio,  received  lessons  from  Cas- 
tagno,  Uccello,  and  Baldovinetti. 
He  painted  the  altar  piece  represent- 
ing "Sts.  James,  \'incent,  and  Eu- 
stachius  "  (Uffizi) ;  "  Tobias  and  the 
Angel"  (Museum  of  Turin);  and 
the  "Annunciation"  (Museum 
of  Berlin).  Both  brothers  drew 
designs  depicting  the  life  of  St.  John  Baptist,  from 
which  were  made  the  embroideries  for  the  San 
Giovanni  baptistery  (Museum  of  the  Duomo,  Flor- 
ence). In  1475  they  finished  the  altar  piece  rep- 
resenting the  "Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian"  (Na- 
tional Gallery,  London). 

The  Pollajuoli  were  likewise  portrait  painters  of  re- 
nown, but  these  works  have  nearly  all  perished.  The 
portrait  of  the  wife  of  Giovanni  Bardi  (Museum  Poldi- 
Pezzoli,  Milan)  has  been  ascribed  to  Antonio.  To 
Piero  are  credited:    the  "Galeazzo  Sforza"  (Uffizi), 

six  of  the  cardinal 
and  theological 
"Virtues"  (Mer- 
canzia  of  Florence, 
1469),  sitting  in 
marble  niches,  with 
mosaic  ornamenta- 
tion, and  charac- 
terized by  nobihty 
and  gravity,  and 
the  "Coronation of 
theVirgin"  (Church 
of  San  Gimignano, 
1483),  a  mediocre 
altar  piece. 

Antonio  was 
chiefly  a  goldsmith 
and  sculptor.  As 
a  goldsmith  he 
worked  in  the  stu- 
dio of  Ghiberti. 
His  two  master- 
pieces in  the  Bap- 
tistery are  the  bas- 


^.f.'-'i^L.  ■'-.—- 


relief  of  the  "Nativity"  (Museum  of  the  Duomo),  and 
the  large  silver  cross  which  he  executed  in  collabora- 
tion with  Betto  di  Francesco  Betti.  As  a  sculptor  he 
was  the  pupil  of  Donatello  and  excelled  in  the  treat- 
ment of  bronze.  He  executed  the  small  group  of  "Her- 
cules and  Cacus",  several  busts,  and  (1493)  the  tomb 
of  Sixtus  IV,  ordered  by  Innocent  VIII.  This  magnifi- 
cent bronze  tomb  is  in  St.  Peter's,  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament.  The  head  is  a,  remarkable  por- 
trait, made  from  a  cast  and  crowned  with  the  tiara, 
on  which  Antonio  expended  all  the  delicacy  of  his 
talent  as  a  goldsmith.  At  the  sides  the  liberal  and 
prospective  arts  are  represented  as  half-nude  women, 


TOBIAS   AND  THE   ANGEL 

PIBRO  BENCI  POLLAJUOLO,  MUSEUM,  TURIN 


POLO 


217 


POLO 


refined  and  elegant,  but  pagan.  The  monument  to 
Innocent  VIII  at  St.  Peter's  was  also  executed  by 
Pollajuolo.  In  the  lower  part  the  pope  is  represented 
as  dead,  while  above  he  is  depicted  as  in  life,  seated 
on  his  throne  and  giving  his  blessing.  The  ornamental 
female  figures  of  Virtues  are  charming  but  profane. 
Antonio  Pollajuolo  also  carried  his  passion  for  anatomy 
and  the  nude  into  painting,  even  in  religious  pictures 
such  as  the  "Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian",  where  it 
is  quite  offensive.  He  was  "the  first  of  those  great 
pagan  artists  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  for  whom  the 
human  form,  living  or  dead,  and  the  study  of  anatomy 
and  the  nude  became  the  sole  aim  and  irresistible 
passion"  (A.  Perate). 

Vasari,  he  rile  '/(''  piii  ecccUenti  piUori  .     .,  ed.  MiLANESi 

III  (Florence,  1.S7S),  2S9-301  (tr.  London,  ISS."));  Crowe  and 
Cav^lcaselle,  a  mw  history  of  paintiua  in  Itali/,  II  (London, 
ISIJ'J),  3^2;  Blant,  Ecole  florentine  in  Histoire  des  pcintrex  de 
toules  Ics  Ecolcs  (Paris,  1869-77);  Ludke,  Gench.  dcr  italicidsrhrn 
Malcni,  I  I.Stuttgart,  187S),  313;  MiiNTZ,  HiUoirede  I'nrt  penilant 
la  Re?inissancr,  II  (Paris,  1891),  471-3,  507-11,  .571-5,  601-9; 
Cruttwell,  Antonio  Pollajuolo  (London,  1907);  Peuate,  Pcin- 
tures  dcs  PolUijitoli:  Falke,  Antonio  Pollajuolo,  orfHre,  in  Michel, 
L'Histoire  <lc  rArl,  III  (Paris,  1908),  pt.  ii,  672-6,  884-5;  Michel, 
Antonio  P<iUn)iiola  sculpteur  in  L'Histoire  de  I'Art,  IV  (Paris, 
1900),  pt.  i,  139-47. 

Gaston  Sortais. 

Polo,  MARro,  traveller;  b.  at  Venice  in  1251; 
d.  there  in  1324.  His  father  Nicolo  and  his  uncle 
Matteo,  sons  of  the  Venetian  patrician,  Andrea  Polo, 
had  established  a  house  of  business  at  Constantinople 
and  another  at  Sudak  on  the  shore  of  the  Black  Sea, 
in  the  southeast  of  the  Crimea.  About  12.55  they 
left  Constantinople  with  a  consignment  of  jewels  and 
after  reaching  Sudak  went  to  the  residence  on  the 
banks  of  the  Volga  of  Barka  (Bereke),  Mongol  Khan 
of  Kiptchak,  who  welcomed  them  and  paid  them 
well  for  their  wares.  But  war  having  broken  out 
between  Bereke  and  Hulagu,  the  Mongol  conqueror 
of  Persia,  and  Bereke  having  been  defeated,  the 
Venetians  were  at  a  loss  how  to  return  to  their  own 
country.  Leaving  Kiptchak  they  continued  their 
journey  towards  the  east,  thus  reaching  Bokhara, 
where  they  stayed  three  years.  Envoys  from  Hulagu 
to  the  Great  Khan  of  Tatary  passing  through  this 
town  and  finding  these  "Latins"  who  spoke  the  Tatar 
language  induced  them  to  accompany  them  to  the 
residence  of  the  great  khan,  which  they  reached  only 
after  a  year's  journey.  Kublai,  the  great  khan,  was 
the  most  powerful  of  the  descendants  of  Jenghiz 
Khan.  While  his  brother  Hulagu  had  received  Iran, 
Armenia,  and  Egypt  Kublai  was  master  of  Mon- 
golia, Northern  China,  and  Tibet,  and  was  to  con- 
quer Southern  China.  This  intelligent  prince  en- 
deavoured to  maintain  intercourse  with  the  West  and 
favoured  the  Christians,  whether  Nestorians  or 
Catholics.  Hence  Nicolo  and  Matteo  Polo  were  well 
received  by  him,  he  questioned  them  with  regard  to 
the  Christian  states,  the  emperor,  the  pope,  princes, 
knights,  and  their  manner  of  fighting  and  confided 
to  them  letters  to  the  pope  in  which  he  asked  for 
Christian  missionaries. 

Accompanied  by  a  Mongol,  "baron",  the  two 
brothers  set  out  in  1266  and  after  three  years  of 
travel  reached  St -Jean  d'Acre  in  1269.  There  the 
papal  legate,  Teobaldo  Visconti,  informed  them  that 
Clement  IV  was  dead  and  they  returned  to  Venice 
to  await  the  election  of  a  new  pope.  The  cardinals 
not  having  reached  a  decision  at  the  end  of  tw9  years 
the  brothers  Polo  determined  to  return,  but  this  time 
they  brought  with  them  the  youthful  Marco,  son  of 
Nicolo,  then  aged  eighteen.  All  three  went  to  Acre 
to  see 'the  legate  and  request  of  him  letters  for  the 
great  khan,  but  they  had  scarcely  left  Acre  when  they 
learned  that  this  same  legate  had  been  elected  pope 
under  the  name  of  Gregory  X  (1  Sept.,  1271).  Over- 
ioyed  they  returned  to  Acre  and  the  new  pope  gave 
them  'letters  and  appointed  two  Friars  Preachers  to 
accompany  them.     But  while  going  through  Armenia, 


they  fell  amid  troops  of  the  Mameluke  Sultan  Bibars 
the  Arbelester,  the  monks  refused  to  go  further,  and 
the  Venetians  continued  their  journey  alone.  It  was 
only  after  three  years  and  a  half  that,  after  having 
escaped  all  kinds  of  dangers,  they  reached  the  dwelling 
of  Kublai,  who  received  them  probably  at  Yen  King 
near  the  present  Peking  (1275).  The  great  khan 
was  delighted  to  see  them  once  more;  they  presented 
him  with  the  letters  from  the  pope  and  some  oil  from 
the  lamp  at  the  Holy  S('i)ulchre. 

Kublai  conceived  a  great  affection  for  the  youthful 
Marco  Polo,  who  readily  adopted  the  Tatar  custom 
and  soon  learned  the  four  languages  as  well  as  the 
four  writings  of  which  they  made  use  (probably 
IMongolian,  Chinese,  Persian,  and  Uighur).  The 
great  Idian  sent  him  on  a  mission  six  months'  journey 
from  his  residence  (probably  to  Annam)  and  the  in- 
formation he  brought  back  with  regard  to  the  coun- 
tries he  traversed  confirmed  him  in  the  good  will  of 
the  sovereign.  For  three  years  he  was  governor  of 
the  city  of  Yang-chow  (Janguy),  on  which  twenty- 
seven  cities  were  dependent.  The  question  of  his 
share  in  the  siege  of  Siiiiig-yang  and  the  engines  of  war 
constructed  under  his  supervision  are  much  more 
doubtful.  According  to  Chinese  historians  the  re- 
duction of  this  city  took  place  in  1273,  prior  to  Marco 
Polo's  arrival  in  China;  on  the  other  hand  the  details 
which  he  gives  concerning  Kublai's  expedition  against 
the  Kingdom  of  Mien  (Burma,  1282)  leave  it  to  be 
supposed  that  he  participated  therein.  He  was  also 
charged  with  several  missions  to  the  Indian  seas, 
Ceylon,  and  Cochin  China.  At  last  after  having 
journeyed  through  almost  the  whole  of  Western 
Asia  the  three  Venetians  obtained,  but  not  without  dif- 
ficulty, the  great  khan's  permission  to  return  to 
their  own  country.  They  set  sail  with  a  fleet  of 
fourteen  four-masted  ships  and  were  charged  with 
the  escort  of  an  imperial  princess  betrothed  to 
Arghun,  Khan  of  Persia.  After  a  perilous  voyage 
through  the  Sonda  Strait  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  they 
landed  at  Ormuz  and  after  having  delivered  the  prin- 
cess to  the  son  of  the  lately  deceased  Arghun  they 
continued  their  journey  by  land  as  far  as  'Trebizond, 
where  they  took  ship  for  Constantinople,  finally 
reaching  Venice  in  1295  after  an  absence  of  twenty- 
four  years. 

In  costume  and  appearance  they  resembled  Tatars ; 
they  had  almost  forgotten  their  native  tongue  and 
had  much  difficulty  in  making  themselves  recognized 
by  their  friends.  Their  wealth  speedily  aroused 
admiration,  but  their  marvellous  accounts  were  sus- 
pected of  exaggeration.  Marco,  who  was  constantly 
talking  of  the  great  khan's  millions,  was  nicknamed 
"Messer  Millioni"  and  in  the  sixteenth  century 
their  dwelling  was  still  called  the  "Corte  dei  mil- 
lioni" War  having  broken  out  between  Genoa  and 
Venice,  Marco  Polo  was  placed  in  command  of  a 
galley  (1296),  but  the  Venetian  fleet  having  been 
destroyed  in  the  Gulf  of  Lajazzo  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner to  Genoa.  There  he  became  associated  with 
Rusticiano  of  Pisa,  an  adaptor  of  French  romances, 
who  wrote  down  at  his  dictation  the  account  of  his 
travels.  On  his  release  from  prison  Marco  Polo 
became  a  member  of  the  Great  Council  of  Venice 
and  lived  there  till  his  death. 

The  "Book  of  Marco  Polo''  dictated  to  Rusticiano 
was  compiled  in  French.  A  more  correct  version, 
revised  by  Marco  Polo,  was  sent  by  him  in  1307  to 
Thibaud  of  Cepoy,  the  agent  of  Charles  of  Valois 
at  Venice,  to  be  presented  to  that  prince,  who  was  a 
candidate  for  the  Crown  of  Constantinople  and  the 
promoter  of  a  crusading  movement.  The  Latin, 
Venetian,  and  Tuscan  versions  are  merely  transla- 
tions which  are  often  faulty,  or  abridgments  of  the 
first  two  texts.  The  compilation  of  his  book  may 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  events  in 
the   history   of   geographical    discoveries.     Hitherto 


POLO 


218 


POLO 


Occidentals  knew  almost  nothing  of  Asia;  in  his 
"Tresor"  Brunetto  Latini  (1230-94)  merely  repro- 
duces in  this  respect  the  compilations  of  C.  Julius 
Solinus,  the  abbreviator  of  Pliny.  The  Book  of 
Marco  Polo",  on  the  other  hand,  contains  an  exact 
description  by  an  intelligent  and  well-informed 
witness  of  all  the  countries  of  the  Far  East,  it  is 
characterized  by  the  exactness  and  veracity  of 
Venetian  statesmen,  whose  education  accustomed 
them  to  secure  information  with  regard  to  various 
nations  and  to  estimate  their  resources.  This 
Venetian  character  extends  even  to  the  tone,  which 
modern  taste  finds  almost  too  impersonal.  The 
author  rarely  appears  on  the  scene  and  it  is  regret- 
table that  he  did  not  give  more  ample  details  con- 
cerning the  missions 
with  which  he  was 
charged  by  the  great 
khan.  Otherwise  noth- 
ing could  be  more  life- 
like than  the  pictures 
and  descriptions  which 
adorn  the  account,  and 
the  naivete  of  the  old 
French  enhances  their 
literary  charm. 

In  a  prologue  the  au- 
thor briefly  relates  the 
first  journey  of  his 
father  and  uncle,  their 
return  to  Venice,  their 
second  journey,  their 
sojourn  with  the  great 
khan,  and  their  final 
return.  The  remainder 
of  the  work,  which  in 
the  editions  is  divided 
into  three  books,  com- 
prises the  description 
of  all  the  countries 
through  which  Marco 
Polo  travelled  or  con- 
cerning which  he  was 
able  to  secure  informa- 
tion. The  first  book 
treats  hither  Asia,  Ar- 
menia, Turcomania, 
Georgia,  the  Kingdom 
of  Mossul,  the  Caliph- 
ate of  Bagdad,  Per- 
sia, Beluchistan,  etc. 
Curious  details  are 
given  concerning  the 
City  of  Bagdad  and 
the  fate  of  the  last 
caliph,  who  died  of  hunger  amid  his  treasures,  and 
concerning  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain  and  his 
Assassins.  He  mentions  the  recollections  in  Bactria 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  whom  the  kings  of  the  country 
regarded  as  their  ancestor.  Subsequently  he  describes 
Kashmir  and  the  deserts  of  the  plateau  of  Hindu  Kush 
and  Chinese  Turkestan,  "Great  Turkey"  and  its  capi- 
tal, Kashgar.  He  mentions  the  Nestorian  communi- 
ties of  Samarkand  and  after  crossing  the  desert  of  Gobi 
reaches  Karakoram,  the  old  Mongol  capital,  which 
affords  him  the  opportunity  for  an  important  digres- 
sion regarding  the  origin  and  customs  of  the  Tatars. 
Book  II  introduces  us  to  the  Court  of  Kublai  Khan  and 
we  are  given  most  curious  information  with  regard 
to  his  capital,  Kambalik  (Peking),  his  magnificence, 
and  the  organization  of  his  Government.  We  are 
shown  with  what  facility  the  Mongols  adopted  Chinese 
etiquette  and  civilization.  Then  follows  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  provinces  of  China,  first  of  China  north 
of  Hwang-ho  or  Cathay,  where  there  were  stones 
which  burned  like  wood  (coal),  then  Si-ngan-fu, 
the  ancient  capital  of  Thang  (Shen-si),  Tibet,  into 


which  he  penetrated  a  distance  of  five  days'  walk, 
Sunnan,  the  Kingdom  of  Mien  (Burma),  Bengal, 
Annam,  and  Southeast  China. 

At  the  beginning  of  Book  III  he  relates  the  great 
maritime  expedition  which  Kublai  Khan  attempted 
against  Zipangu  (Japan)  and  which  ended  in  defeat. 
Then  he  enters  the  Indian  seas  and  describes  the 
great  island  of  Java  and  that  of  the  lesser  Java 
(Sumatra),  Ceylon,  in  connexion  with  which  he  speaks 
of  the  Buddhists  and  their  reformer  "Sagamoni 
Borcam"  (Khakamouni).  From  here  he  goes  to  the 
coast  of  "Maabar"  (Coromandel)  and  gives  a  full 
description  of  India.  He  mentions  the  existence 
of  the  island  of  Socotra  and  the  large  island  of 
Madagascar,  in  connexion  with  which  he  speaks  of 

the  regular 


'"'iT^T^tn^?^''" 


'M 


a 


"^ 


First  Page  of  Marco  Polo's  Manuscript  Account  of  his  Voyages 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris  (XIV  C'cntuiy) 


currents  of 
the  Strait 
of  Mozam- 
bique and 
relates  the 
lege  nd  of 
the  roc,  the 
fabulous 
bird  of  the 
'  voyages  of 
Sinbad  the  Sailor.  He 
concludes  with  infor- 
mation concerning 
Zanzibar,  the  people  of 
the  coast  of  Zanguebar, 
Abyssinia,  the  Prov- 
ince of  Aden,  and  the 
northern  regions  where 
the  sun  disappears  for 
a  period  of  the  year. 
The  "Book  of  Marco 
Polo"  was  soon  trans- 
lated into  all  European 
languages  and  exer- 
cised an  important  in- 
fluence on  the  geo- 
graphical discoveries  of 
the  fifteenth  century. 
Christopher  Columbus 
had  read  it  attentively 
and  it  was  to  reach  the 
western  route  to  the 
lands  described  by 
Marco  Polo  that  he  un- 
dertook the  expedition 
which  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  America. 
Eighty-five  MSS.  of 
the  book  showing  rather 


important  differences  are  known.  They  may  be  ranged 
into  four  types:  (1)  Paris,  Bib.  Nat.,  MS.  Tr.  1116, 
edited  by  the  Society  de  Geographic  in  1824;  it 
is  regarded  as  the  original  MS.  of  Rusticiano  of  Pisa, 
at  least  as  its  exact  copy.  (2)  Bib.  Nat.,  MS.  Tr. 
2S10.  Under  the  name  of  "Livre  des  merveilles 
du  monde"  it  is  a  collection  of  accounts  of  the  Orient 
compiled  in  1351  by  the  Benedictine  Jean  Lelong 
of  Ypres  and  copied  at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century  for  Philip  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  It 
contains  the  text  of  Marco  Polo  according  to  the 
copy  sent  to  Thibaud  of  Cepoy  and  is  enriched  with 
numerous  miniatures.  To  the  same  family  belong 
M.-^S.  Tr.  of  the  Bib,  Nat.  5631,  5649  and  the  Berne 
MS.  (Bib,  canton.  125).  (3)  Latin  version  executed 
in  the  fourteenth  century  by  Francesco  Pipino,  a 
Dominican  of  Bologna,  according  to  an  Italian  copy. 
The  Latin  version  published  by  Grynseus  at  Basle 
in  1532  in  the  "Novus  orbis"  is  indirectly  derived 
from  this  version.  (4)  Italian  version  prepared  for 
printing  by  Giovanni  Ramusio  and  published  in  the 
second   volume  of  his    "Navigazioni  e   viaggi"    (3 


POLONUS 


219 


POLYCARP 


vols,  fol.,  Venice,  1559).  Chief  editions. — There 
are  more  than  fifty-six  of  these  in  various  languages. 
French  text,  ed.  Pauthier  (Paris,  18G5);  Italian  ver- 
sion, ed.  Baldelli  (Florence,  1827);  English  tr.  with 
commentary  by  Sir  Henry  Yule,  revised  by  Henri 
Cordier   (London,   1903). 

CviiuN,  Iiitrod.  d.  I'histoire  de  I'Asie  (Paris,  1896);  Cxjrtin, 
The  Mongols  (Boston,  1908). 

Louis  BRfiniEB. 

Polonus,  Maetinus.    See  Martin  of  Troppau. 

Polyandry.    See  Marriage,  History  of. 

Polybotus,  titular  see  in  Phrygia  Salutaris,  suffra- 
gan of  Synnada.  This  town  is  mentioned  only  in  the 
sixth  century  by  Hierocles,  "Synecdemus",  677,  10. 
It  is  now  Boulvadin,  capital  of  the  caza  of  the  vilayet  of 
Brousse,  with  8000  inhabitants,  all  Mussulmans;  there 
are  some  ruins  of  no  interest.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  chris- 
tianus,  I,  S41)  mentions  two  bishops:  Strategius,  pres- 
ent at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451);  St.  John, 
whose  feast  is  celebrated  5  Dec.  and  who  lived  under 
Leo  the  Isaurian;  at  the  Council  of  Nice  (787),  the  see 
was  represented  by  the  priest  Gregory.  The  earliest 
Greek  "Notitia  Episcopatuum "  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury places  the  see  among  the  suffragans  of  Synnada, 
and  it  is  still  attached  to  this  metropolis  as  a  titular 
see  by  the  Curia  Romana.  But  from  the  ninth  cen- 
tury until  its  disappearance  as  a  residential  see,  it  was 
a  suffragan  of  Amorium.  See  the  "Basilii  Notitia"  in 
Gelzer,  "Georgii  Cyprii  descriptio  orbis  romani " 
(Leipzig,  18901,  26. 

Leake,  Asia  Minor,  53;  Ramsat,  Asia  Minor,  232. 

S.  P:6TRiDi!s. 

Polycarp,  Saixt,  martyr  (a.  d.  69-155).  —  Our 
chief  sources  of  information  concerning  St.  Polycarp 
are:  (1)  the  Epistles  of  St.  Ignatius;  (2)  St.  Polycarp's 
own  Epistle  to  the  Philippians;  (3)  sundry  passages  in 
St.  Irenaeus;  (4)  the  Letter  of  the  Smyrnseans  recount- 
ing the  martyrdom  of  St.  Polycarp. 

(1)  Four  out  of  the  seven  genuine  epistles  of  St. 
Ignatius  were  written  from  Smyrna.  'In  two  of  these 
— Magnesians  and  Ephesians — he  speaks  of  Polycarp. 
The  seventh  Epistle  was  addressed  to  Polycarp. 
It  contains  little  or  nothing  of  historical  interest 
in  connexion  with  St.  Polycarp.  In  the  opening 
words  St.  Ignatius  gives  glory  to  God  "that  it  hath 
been  vouchsafed  to  me  to  see  thy  face"  It  seems 
hardly  safe  to  infer,  with  Pearson  and  Lightfoot,  from 
these  words  that  the  two  had  never  met  before. 

(2)  The  Epistle  of  St.  Polycarp  was  a  reply  to  one 
from  the  Philippians,  in  which  they  had  asked  St. 
Polycarp  to  address  them  some  words  of  exhortation; 
to  forward  by  his  own  messenger  a  letter  addressed  by 
them  to  the  Church  of  Antioch;  and  to  send  them  any 
epistles  of  St.  Ignatius  which  he  might  have.  The  sec- 
ond request  should  be  noted.  St.  Ignatius  had  asked 
the  Churches  of  Smyrna  and  Philadelphia  to  send  a 
messenger  to  congratulate  the  Church  of  Antioch  on 
the  restoration  of  peace;  presumably,  therefore,  when 
at  Philippi,  he  gave  similar  instructions  to  the  Philip- 
pians. This  is  one  of  the  many  respects  in  which  there 
is  such  complete  harmony  between  the  situations  re- 
vealed in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Ignatius  and  the  Epistle 
of  St.  Polycarp,  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  impugn 
the  genuineness  of  the  former  without  in  some  way 
trying  to  destroy  the  credit  of  the  latter,  which  hap- 
pens to  be  one  of  the  best  attested  documents  of  an- 
tiquity. In  consequence  some  extremists,  anti-epis- 
copalians in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  members  of 
the  Tubingen  School  in  the  nineteenth,  boldly  rejected 
the  Epistle  of  Polycarp.  Others  tried  to  make  out 
that  the  passages  which  told  most  in  favour  of  the 
Ignatian  epistles  were  interpolations. 

These  theories  possess  no  interest  now  that  the 
genuineness  of  the  Ignatian  epistles  has  practically 
ceased  to  be  questioned.     The  only  point  raised  which 


had  any  show  of  plausibility  (it  was  sometimes  used 
against  the  genuineness,  and  sometimes  against  the 
early  date  of  St.  Polycarp's  Epistle)  was  based  on  a 
passage  in  which  it  might  at  first  sight  seem  that 
Marcion  was  denounced:  "For  every  one  who  doth 
not  confess  that  Jesus  Christ  has  come  in  the  flesh  is 
antichrist;  and  whosoever  does  not  confess  the  testi- 
mony of  the  cross,  is  a  devil,  and  whosoever  pervert- 
eth  the  oracles  of  the  Lord  (to  serve)  his  own  lusts,  and 
saith  there  is  neither  resurrection  nor  judgment,  this 
man  is  a  first-born  of  Satan."  St.  Polycarp  wrote  his 
epistle  before  he  had  heard  of  St.  Ignatius's  martyr- 
dom. Now,  supposing  the  passage  just  quoted  to 
have  been  aimed  at  Marcion  (whom,  on  one  occasion, 
as  we  shall  presently  .see,  St.  Polycarp  called  to  his 
face  "the  first  born  of  Satan"),  the  choice  lies  between 
rejecting  the  epistle  as  spurious  on  account  of  the 
anachronism,  or  bringing  down  its  date,  and  the  date 
of  St.  Ignatius's  martyrdom  to  A.  d.  130-140  when 
Marcion  became  prominent.  Harnack  seems  at  one 
time  to  have  adopted  the  latter  alternative;  but  he 
now  admits  that  there  need  be  no  reference  to  Marcion 
at  all  in  the  passage  in  question  (Chronologic,  I,  387- 
8).  Lightfoot  thought  a  negative  could  be  proved. 
Marcion,  according  to  him,  cannot  be  referred  to  be- 
cause nothing  is  said  about  his  characteristic  errors, 
e.  g.,  the  distinction  between  the  God  of  the  Old  and 
the  God  of  the  New  Testament;  and  because  the  an- 
tinomianism  ascribed  to  "the  first-born  of  Satan"  is 
inapplicable  to  the  austere  Marcion  (Lightfoot,  St.  Ig- 
natius and  St.  Polycarp,  I,  585;  all  references  to  Light- 
foot (L),  unless  otherwise  stated,  will  be  to  this  work). 

When  Lightfoot  wrote  it  was  necessary  to  vindicate 
the  authenticity  of  the  Ignatian  epistles  and  that  of 
St.  Polycarp.  If  the  former  were  forgeries,  the  latter, 
which  supports — it  might  almost  be  said  presupposes 
— them,  must  be  a  forgery  from  the  same  hand.  But 
a  comparison  between  Ignatius  and  Polycarp  shows 
that  this  is  an  impossible  hypothesis.  The  former  lays 
every  stress  upon  episcopacy,  the  latter  does  not  even 
mention  it.  The  former  is  full  of  emphatic  declara- 
tions of  the  doctrine  of  the  Incarnation,  the  two 
natures  in  Christ,  etc.  In  the  latter  these  matters  are 
hardly  touched  upon.  "The  divergence  between  the 
two  writers  as  regards  Scriptural  quotations  is  equally 
remarkable.  Though  the  seven  Ignatian  letters  are 
many  times  longer  than  Polycarp's  Epistle,  the  quota- 
tions in  the  latter  are  incomparably  more  numerous, 
as  well  as  more  precise,  than  in  the  former.  The  obli- 
gations to  the  New  Testament  are  wholly  different  in 
character  in  the  two  cases.  The  Ignatian  letters  do, 
indeed,  show  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the  writings 
included  in  our  Canon  of  the  New  Testament;  but  this 
knowledge  betrays  itself  in  casual  words  and  phrases, 
stray  metaphors,  epigrammatic  adaptations,  and  iso- 
lated coincidences  of  thought.  .  .  .  On  the  other 
hand  in  Polycarp's  Epistle  sentence  after  sentence 
is  frequently  made  up  of  passages  from  the  Evangeli- 
cal and  Apostolic  writings.  .  .  But  this  divergence 
forms  only  part  of  a  broader  and  still  more  decisive 
contrast,  affecting  the  whole  style  and  character  of  the 
two  writings.  The  profuseness  of  quotations  in  Poly- 
carp's Epistle  arises  from  a  want  of  originality. 
On  the  other  hand  the  letters  of  Ignatius  have  a 
marked  individuality.  Of  all  early  Christian  writings 
they  are  pre-eminent  in  this  respect "  (op.  cit.,  595-97). 

(3)  In  St.  Irenaeus,  Polycarp  comes  before  us  pre- 
eminently as  a  link  with  the  past.  Irenaeus  mentions 
him  four  times:  (a)  in  connection  with  Papias;  (b)  in 
his  letter  to  Florinus;  (c)  in  his  letter  to  Pope  Victor; 
(d)  at  the  end  of  the  celebrated  appeal  to  the  potior 
prindpalitas  of  the  Roman  Church. 

(a)  From  "Adv.  Haer. ",  V,  xxxiii,  we  learn  that 
Papias  was  "a  hearer  of  John,  and  a  companion  of 
Polycarp". 

(b)  Florinus  was  a  Roman  presbyter  who  lapsed 
into  heresy.     St    Irenaeus  wrote  him  a  letter  of  re- 


POLYCARP 


220 


POLYCARP 


monstrance  (a  long  extract  from  which  is  preserved  by 
Eusebius,  H.  E.,  V,  xx),  in  which  he  recalled  their 
common  recollections  of  Polycarp:  "These  opinions 
.  Florinus  are  not  of  sound  judgment  .  I  saw 
thee  when  I  was  still  a  boy  in  Lower  Asia  in  company 
with  Polj'carp,  while  thou  wast  faring  prosperously  in 
the  royal  court,  and  endeavouring  to  stand  well  with 
him.  For  I  distinctly  remember  the  incidents  of  that 
time  better  than  c\ont.s  of  recent  occurrence.  ...  I 
can  describe  the  very  place  in  which  the  Blessed  Pi)l\- 
carp  used  to  sit  when  he  discoursed  .  his  per- 
sonal appearance  and  how  he  would  describe  his 
intercourse  with  John  and  with  the  rest  who  had  seen 
the  Lord,  and  how  he  would  relate  their  words  .  .  I 
can  testify  in  the  sight  of  God,  that  if  the  blessed  and 
apostolic  elder  had  heard  anything  of  this  kind,  he 
would  ha\-e  cried  out,  and  stopped  his  ears,  and  said 
after  his  wont,  '  0  good  God,  for  what  times  hast  thou 
kept  me  that  I  should  endure  such  things? "...  This 
can  be  shown  from  the  letters  which  he  wrote  to  the 
neighbouring  Churches  for  their  confirmation  etc.". 
Lightfoot  (op.  cit.,  448)  will  not  fix  the  date  of  the  time 
when  St.  Irena-us  and  Florinus  were  fellow-pupils  of 
St.  Polycarp  more  definitely  than  somewhere  between 
135  and  1.50.     There  are  in  fact  no  data  to  go  upon. 

(c)  The  visit  of  St.  Polycarp  to  Rome  is  described  by 
St.  Irena'us  in  a  letter  to  Pope  Victor  written  under 
the  following  circumstances.  The  Asiatic  Christians 
differed  from  the  rest  of  the  Church  in  their  manner 
of  observing  Easter,  ^^'hile  the  other  Churches  kept 
the  feast  on  a  Sunday,  the  Asiatics  celebrated  it  on 
the  14th  of  Nisan,  whatever  day  of  the  week  this  might 
fall  on.  Pope  Victor  tried  to  establish  uniformity, 
and  when  the  Asiatic  Churches  refused  to  comply, 
excommunicated  them.  St.  Irena;us  remonstraled 
with  him  in  a  letter,  part  of  which  is  prescr^-ed  by 
Eusebius  (H.  E.,  V,  xxiv),  in  which  he  particularly  con- 
trasted the  moderation  displayed  in  regard  to  Poly- 
carp by  Pope  Anicetus  with  the  conduct  of  Victor. 
"Among  these  (^'ictor's  predecessors)  were  the  pres- 
byters before  Soter.  They  neither  (lb^<orved  it  (141  h 
Nisan)  themselves,  nor  did  they  permit  those  after 
them  to  do  so.  And  yet,  though  not  observing  it,  they 
were  none  the  less  at  peace  with  those  who  came  to 
them  from  the  parishes  in  which  it  was  observed.  .  .  . 
And  when  the  blessed  Polycarp  was  at  Rome  in  the 
time  of  Anicetus,  and  they  disagreed  a  little  about 
certain  other  things,  they  immediately  made  joeace 
with  one  another,  not  caring  to  quarrel  over  this  mat- 
ter.    For  neither  could  Anicetus  persuade  Polycarp 

nor  Polycarp  Anicetus.  .  .  But  though  mat- 
ters were  in  this  shape,  they  communed  together, 
and  Anicetus  conceded  the  administration  of  the 
Eucharist  in  the  Church  to  Polycarp,  manifestly  as  a 
mark  of  respect.  And  they  parted  from  each  other 
in  peace",  etc. 

There  is  a  chronological  difficulty  connected  with 
this  visit  of  Polycarp  to  Rome.  According  to  the 
Chronicle  of  Eusebius  in  St.  Jerome's  version  (the 
Armenian  version  is  quite  untrustworthy)  the  date  of 
Anicetus's  accession  was  a.  d.  1.56-.57.  Now  the  prob- 
able date  of  St.  Polycarp's  martyrdom  is  February, 
155.  The  fact  of  the  visit  to  Rome  is  too  well  attest e(i 
to  be  called  into  question.  We  must,  therefore,  either 
give  up  the  date  of  the  martyrdom,  or  suppose  that 
Eusebius  post-dated  by  a  year  or  two  the  accession  of 
Anicetus.  There  is  nothing  unreasonable  in  this 
latter  hypothesis,  in  view  of  the  uncertainty  which  so 
generally  prevails  in  chronological  matters  (for  the 
date  of  the  accession  of  Anicetus  see  Lightfoot,  "St 
Clement  I",  343). 

(d)  We  now  come  to  the  passage  in  St.  Irenaeus 
(Adv.  IlaT.,  Ill,  3)  which  brings  out  in  fullest  relief  St. 
Polvcarp's  position  as  a  hnk  with  the  past.  Just 
as  St.  John's  long  life  lengthened  out  the  Apostolic 
Age,  so  did  the  four  score  and  six  j'ears  of  Polycarp 
extend  the  sub-Apostolic  Age,  during  which  it  was  pos- 


sible to  learn  by  word  of  mouth  what  the  Apostles 
taught  from  those  who  had  been  their  hearers.  In 
Rome  the  Apostolic  Age  ended  about  a.  d.  67  with  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  the  sub- 
Apostolic  Age  about  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  when 
St.  Clement,  "who  had  seen  the  bles.sed  Apostles", 
died.  In  Asia  the  Apostolic  Age  lingered  on  till  St. 
John  died  about  a.  d.  100;  and  the  sub-Apostolic  Age 
till  155,  when  St.  Polycarp  was  martyred.  In  the  third 
book  of  his  treatise  "Against  Heresies"  St.  Irenaus 
makes  his  celebrated  appeal  to  the  "successions"  of 
the  bishops  in  all  the  churches.  He  is  arguing  against 
heretics  who  professed  to  have  a  kind  of  esoteric  tra- 
dition derived  from  the  Apostles.  To  whom,  de- 
mands St.  Irena;us,  would  the  Apostles  be  more  likely 
to  commit  hidden  mysteries  than  to  the  bishops  to 
whom  they  entrusted  the  churches?  In  order  then  to 
know  what  the  Apostles  taught,  we  must  have  recourse 
to  the  "successions"  of  bishops  throughout  the  world. 
But  as  time  and  space  would  fail  if  we  tried  to  enu- 
merate them  all  one  by  one,  let  the  Roman  Church 
speak  for  the  rest.  Their  agreement  with  her  is  a 
manifest  fact  by  reason  of  the  position  which  she 
holds  among  them  ("for  with  this  Church  on  account 
of  its  potior  principalitas  the  whole  Church,  that  is, 
the  faithful  from  every  quarter,  must  needs  agree", 
etc.). 

Then  follows  the  list  of  the  Roman  bishops  down  to 
Eleutherius,  the  twelfth  from  the  Apostles,  the  ninth 
from  Clement,  "who  had  both  seen  and  conversed 
with  the  blessed  Apostles  " .  From  the  Roman  Church, 
representing  all  the  churches,  the  writer  then  passes 
on  to  two  Churches,  that  of  Smyrna,  in  which,  in  the 
person  of  Polycarp,  the  sub-Apostolic  Age  had  been 
carried  down  to  a  time  still  within  living  memory,  and 
the  Church  of  Ephesus,  where,  in  the  person  of  St. 
John,  the  Apostolic  Age  had  been  prolonged  till  "the 
times  of  Trajan".  Of  Polycarp  he  says,  "he  was  not 
only  taught  by  the  Apostles,  and  lived  in  familiar 
intercourse  with  many  that  had  seen  Christ,  but  also 
received  his  appointment  in  Asia  from  the  Apostles  as 
Bishop  in  the  church  of  Smyrna" -  He  then  goes  on  to 
speak  of  his  own  personal  acquaintance  with  Poly- 
carp, his  martyrdom,  and  his  visit  to  Rome,  where  he 
converted  many  heretics.  He  then  continues,  "there 
are  those  who  heard  him  tell  how  John,  the  disciple 
of  the  Lord,  when  he  went  to  take  a  bath  in  Ephesus, 
and  saw  Cerinthus  within,  rushed  away  from  the  room 
without  bathing,  with  the  words  '  Let  us  flee  lest  the 
room  should  fall  in,  for  Cerinthus,  the  enemy  of  the 
truth,  is  within'.  Yea,  and  Polycarp  himself,  also, 
when  on  one  occasion  Marcion  confronted  him  and 
said  'Recognise  us',  replied,  'Ay,  ay,  I  recognise  the 
first-born  of  Satan'  " 

(4)  Pohcarp's  martyrdom  is  described  in  a  letter 
from  the  Church  of  Smyrna  to  the  Church  of  Philo- 
melium  "and  to  all  the  brotherhoods  of  the  holy  and 
universal  Church  ",  etc.  The  letter  begins  with  an  ac- 
count of  the  persecution  and  the  heroism  of  the  mar- 
tyrs. Conspicuous  among  them  was  one  Germanicus, 
who  encouraged  the  rest,  and  when  exposed  to  the 
wild  beasts,  incited  them  to  slay  him.  His  death 
stirred  the  fury  of  the  multitude,  and  the  cry  was 
raised  "Away  with  the  atheists;  let  search  be  made  for 
Polycarp".  But  there  was  one  Quintus,  who  of  his 
own  accord  had  given  himself  up  to  the  persecutors. 
When  he  saw  the  wild  beasts  he  lost  heart  and  apos- 
tatized. "Wherefore",  comment  the  writers  of  the 
epistle,  "we  praise  not  those  who  deliver  themselves 
up,  since  the  Gospel  does  not  so  teach  us".  Polycarp 
was  persuaded  by  his  friends  to  leave  the  city  and  con- 
ceal himself  in  a  farm-house.  Here  he  spent  his  time  in 
prayer,  "and  while  praying  he  falleth  into  a  trance 
three  days  before  his  apprehension ;  and  he  saw  his  pil- 
low burning  with  fire.  And  he  turned  and  said  unto 
those  that  were  with  him,  'it  must  needs  be  that  I 
shall  be  burned  alive'."    When  his  pursuers  were  on 


POLYCARPUS 


221 


POLYCARPUS 


Ms  track  he  went  to  another  farm-house.  Finding  him 
gone  they  put  two  slave  boys  to  the  torture,  and  one  of 
them  betrayed  his  place  of  concealment.  Herod,  head 
of  the  police,  sent  a  body  of  men  to  arrest  him  on  Fri- 
day evening.  Escape  was  still  possible,  but  the  old 
man  refused  to  fly,  saying,  "the  will  of  God  be  done" 
He  came  down  to  meet  his  pursuers,  conversed  affably 
with  them,  and  ordered  food  to  be  set  before  them. 
While  they  were  eating  he  prayed,  "remembering  all, 
high  and  low,  who  at  any  time  had  come  in  his  way, 
and  the  Catholic  Church  throughout  the  world" 
Then  he  was  led  away. 

Herod  and  Herod's  father,  Nicetas,  met  him  and 
took  him  into  their  carriage,  where  they  tried  to  pre- 
vail upon  him  to  sa\'e  his  life.  Finding  they  could  not 
persuade  him,  they  pushed  him  out  of  the  carriage 
with  such  haste  that  he  bruised  his  shin.  He  followed 
on  foot  till  they  came  to  the  Stadium,  where  a  great 
crowd  had  assembled,  having  heard  the  news  of  his 
apprehension.  "As  Polycarp  entered  into  the  Sta- 
dium a  voice  came  to  him  from  heaven:  'Be  strong, 
Polycarp,  and  play  the  man'  And  no  one  saw  the 
speaker,  but  those  of  our  people  who  were  present 
heard  the  voice. "  It  was  to  the  proconsul,  when  he 
urged  him  to  curse  Christ,  that  Polycarp  made  his  cele- 
brated reply:  "Fourscore  and  six  years  have  I  served 
Him,  and  He  has  done  me  no  harm.  How  then  can  I 
curse  my  King  that  saved  me."  When  the  proconsul 
had  done  with  the  prisoner  it  was  too  late  to  throw 
him  to  the  beasts,  for  the  sports  were  closed.  It  was 
decided,  therefore,  to  burn  him  alive.  The  crowd 
took  it  upon  itself  to  collect  fuel,  "the  Jews  more  es- 
pecially assisting  in  this  with  zeal,  as  is  their  wont" 
(cf.  the  Martyrdom  of  Pionius).  The  fire,  "like  the 
sail  of  a  vessel  filled  by  the  wind,  made  a  wall  round 
the  body"  of  the  martyr,  leaving  it  unscathed.  The 
executioner  was  ordered  to  stab  him,  thereupon, 
"there  came  forth  a  quantity  of  blood  so  that  it  ex- 
tinguished the  fire".  (The  story  of  the  dove  issuing 
from  the  body  probably  arose  out  of  a  textual  corrup- 
tion. See  Lightfoot,  Funk,  Zahn.  It  may  also  have 
been  an  interpolation  by  the  pseudo-Pionius.) 

The  officials,  urged  thereto  by  the  Jews,  burned  the 
body  lest  the  Christians  "should  abandon  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Crucified  One,  and  begin  to  worship  this 
man".  The  bones  of  the  martyr  were  collected  by 
the  Christians,  and  interred  in  a  suitable  place.  "  Now 
the  blessed  Polycarp  was  martyred  on  the  second  day 
of  the  first  part  of  the  month  of  Xanthicus,  on  the 
seventh  day  before  the  Kalends  of  March,  on  a  great 
Sabbath  at  the  eighth  hour.  He  was  apprehended  by 
Herodes  .  in  the  proconsulship  of  Statins  Quad- 
ratus  etc."  This  subscription  gives  the  following 
facts:  the  martyrdom  took  place  on  a  Saturday  which 
fell  on  23  February.  Now  there  are  two  possible  years 
for  this,  155  and  166.  The  choice  depends  upon  which 
of  the  two  Quadratus  was  proconsul  of  Asia.  By  means 
of  the  chronological  data  supplied  by  the  rhetorician 
iElius  Aristides  in  certain  autobiographical  details 
which  he  furnishes,  Waddington,  who  is  followed  by 
Lightfoot  ("St.  Ignatius  and  St.  Polycarp",  I,  646 
sq.),  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  Quadratus  was  pro- 
consul in  154-55  (the  proconsul's  year  of  office  began 
in  May ) .  Schmid,  a  full  account  of  whose  system  will 
be  found  in  Harnack's  "  Chronologic ",  arguing  from 
the  same  data,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  Quadra- 
tus's  proconsulship  fell  in  165-66. 

For  some  time  it  seemed  as  if  Schmid's  system  was 
likely  to  prevail,  but  it  has  failed  on  two  points:  (1) 
Aristides  tells  us  that  he  was  born  when  Jupiter  was  in 
Leo.  This  happened  both  in  117  and  129.  Schmid's 
system  requires  the  later  of  these  two  dates,  but  the 
date  has  been  found  to  be  impossible.  Aristides  was 
fifty-three  years  and  six  months  old  when  a  certain 
Macrinus  was  governor  of  Asia.  "Now  Egger  (in  the 
Austrian  '  Jahreshefte',  Nov.,  1906)  has  published  an 
inscription  recording  the  career  of  Macrinus,  which 


was  erected  to  him  while  he  was  governing  Asia,  and 
he  pointed  out  that  as  the  birth  of  Aristides  was  either 
in  117  or  129,  the  government  of  Macrinus  must  have 
been  either  in  170-71,  or  182-83,  and  he  has  shown  that 
the  later  date  is  impossible".  (Ramsay  in  "The  Ex- 
pository Times",  Jan.,  1907.) 

(2)  Aristides  mentions  a  Julianus  who  was  procon- 
sul of  Asia  nine  years  before  Quadratus.  Now  there 
was  a  Claudius  Julianus,  who  is  proved  by  epigraphic 
and  numismatic  evidence  to  have  been  Proconsul  of 
Asia  in  145.  Schmid  produced  a  Salvius  Julianus  who 
was  consul  in  14S  and  might,  therefore,  have  been 
the  Proconsul  of  Asia  named  by  Aristides.  But  an  in- 
scription discovered  in  Africa  giving  the  whole  career 
of  Salvius  Julianus  disposes  of  Schmid's  hypothesis. 
The  result  of  the  new  evidence  is  that  Salvius  Juli- 
anus never  governed  Asia,  for  he  was  Proconsul  of 
Africa,  and  it  was  not  permitted  that  the  wame  person 
should  hold  both  of  these  high  offices.  The  rule  is  well 
known;  and  the  objection  is  final  and  insurmountable 
(Ramsay,  "Expos.  Tunes",  Feb..  1904.  Ramsay  re- 
fers to  an  article  by  Mommsen,  Savigny  Zeitschrift 
fiir  Rechtsgeschichtc",  x.xiii,  54).  Schmid's  system, 
therefore,  disappears,  and  Waddington's,  in  spite  of 
some  very  real  difficulties  (Quadratus's  proconsulship 
shows  a  tendency  to  slip  a  year  out  of  place),  is  in  pos- 
session. The  possibility  of  course  remains  that  the 
subscription  was  tampered  with  by  a  later  hand. 
But  155  must  be  approximately  correct  if  St.  Polycarp 
was  appointed  bishop  by  St.  John. 

There  is  a  life  of  St.  Polycarp  by  a  pseudo-Pionius, 
compiled  probably  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. It  is  "altogether  valueless  as  a  contribution  to 
our  knowledge  of  Polycarp.  It  does  not,  so  far  as  we 
know,  rest  on  any  tradition,  early  or  late,  and  may 
probably  be  regarded  as  a  fiction  of  the  author's  own 
brain"  (Lightfoot,  op.  cit.,  iii,  431).  The  postscript  to 
the  letter  to  the  Smyrnajans:  "This  account  Gains 
copied  from  the  papers  of  Irenaeus  .  .  and  I,  So- 
crates, wrote  it  down  in  Corinth  .  .  and  I,  Pionius 
again  wrote  it  down",  etc.,  probably  came  from  the 
pseudo-Pionius.  The  very  copious  extracts  from  the 
Letter  of  the  Smyrnsans  given  by  Eusebius  are  a 
guarantee  of  the  fidelity  of  the  text  in  the  MSS.  that 
have  come  down. 

The  Letter  to  the  Philippians  was  first  published  in  the  Latin 
version  by  Faber  Stapulensis  in  his  edition  of  the  Ignatian 
Epistles  (Paris,  1498).  The  Greelt  text  first  appeared  in  Hal- 
LOix,  Illust.  Eccles.  Orient,  Script,  (Douai,  1633) ;  Bollandtjs  in 
the  Acta  SS,,  26  Jan.,  published  in  1643  a  Latin  translation  of  the 
Greelc  text  of  the  Letter  of  the  Smyrnseans,  together  with  the  old 
Latin  version  of  the  same  epistle.  Both  Greek  and  Latin  were 
published  by  TJssher  in  1641.  The  substance  of  the  pseudo- 
Pionius  Life  was  given  by  Halloix  in  the  work  referred  to  above, 
and  a  Latin  translation  of  it  was  published  by  Bollandus,  Acta 
SS.,  Jan.  26.  The  Greek  text  was  first  published  by  DtJCHESNE, 
Vita  S,  Polycarpi  ,   ,   ,   auctore  Pionio  (Paris,  1881). 

The  best  modern  editions  and  eommentaries  are  Lightfoot's 
Apostolic  Fathers,  part  II,  Ignatius  and  Polycarp  (3  vols.,  2nd  ed., 
London,  1889);  Gebhardt,  Harnack,  and  Zahn,  Patrum  Apos- 
tolicorum  opera,  fasc.  Ill  (Leipzig,  1876) ;  Funk,  Patres  A  postolici. 
A  good  account  of  St.  Polycarp  will  tie  found  in  Lightfoot, 
Supernatural  Religion  (London,  1889).  For  the  date  of  the  mar- 
tyrdom the  discussions  found  in  Lightfoot  and  Harnack, 
Chronologrr,  I,  324  sq.  should  be  supplemented  by  CoRSSEN,  Das 
Todesjahr  Pohjkarps  in  Zeitschrift  f,  d.  N,  T.  Wissenschaft,  III,  62, 
and  the  articles  of  Ramsay  referred  to  above. 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 

Polycarpus,  title  of  a  canonical  collection  in  eight 
books  composed  in  Italy  by  Cardinal  Gregorius.  It  is 
borrowed  chiefly  from  the  collections  of  Anselm  and 
from  the  ' '  Anselmo  Dedicata ' ' .  Writers  generally  date 
it  about  1 124,  because  it  includes  a  decretal  of  Callistus 
II  (d.  1124),  but  some  place  it  prior  to  1120  or  1118, 
date  of  the  death  of  Bishop  Didacus,  to  whom  the 
collection  is  dedicated,  and  regard  the  Callistus  de- 
cretal as  an  addition.  The  dedicatory  episile  and  the 
titles  were  published  by  the  Ballerini  ("De  antiquis 
collectionibus  et  coUectoribus  canonum",  part  IV,  c. 
xvii  in  "P.  L.",  LVI,  346,  Paris,  1865),  and  the  rubrics 
by  Theiner  ("  Disquisitiones  criticae  in  praecipuas  can- 


POLYGAMY 


222 


POLYGLOT 


onum  et  decretalium  coUectiones",  Rome,  1836,  356 
sqq.)-  Extracts  from  Book  IV  were  published  by 
Mai,  "Nova  bibliotheca  patrum",  VII,  iii,  1-76 
(Rome,  1S52-88). 

Phillips,  A'i;,c/ifnr(T/i(,  IV  (Ratisbon,  1851),  135-8;  Scherer, 
Kirchenrecht,  IV  (Gratz,  ISSd),  240;  Wernz.  Jus  Decretalium,  I 
(2iKi  ed.,  Rome,  1905),  331,  333. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Polygamy.    Sec  Marriage,  History  of. 

Polyglot  Bibles. — The  first  Bible  which  may  be 
considered  a  Polyglot  is  that  edited  at  Alcalii  (in  Latin 
Complulum,  hence  the  name  Complutensian  Bible), 
Spain,  in  1502-17,  under  the  supervision  and  at  the 
expense  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  by  scholars  of  the  univer- 
sity founded  in  that  city  by  the  same  great  Cardinal. 
It  was  published  in  1520,  with  the  sanction  of  Leo  X. 
Ximenes  wished,  he  writes,  "to  revive  the  languishing 
study  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures";  and  to  achieve  this 


printed  edition  of  the  Greek  Old  Testament,  the  one 
which  was  commonly  used  and  reproduced  before  the 
appearance  of  the  edition  of  Sixtus  V,  in  1587.  It  is 
followed,  on  the  whole,  in  the  Septuagint  columns  of 
the  four  great  Polyglots  edited  by  Montanus  (Ant- 
werp, 1569-72);  Bertram  (Heidelberg,  1586-1616); 
Welder  (Hamburg,  1596);  and  Le  Jay  (Paris,  1645). 
Ximenes'  Greek  New  Testament,  printed  in  1614,  was 
not  published  until  six  years  after  the  hastily  edited 
Greek  New  Testament  of  Erasmus,  which  was  pub- 
lished before  it  in  1516;  but  in  the  fourth  edition  of 
Erasmus'  work  (1527),  which  forms  the  basis  of  the 
"Textus  Receptus",  a  strong  influence  of  Ximenes' 
text  is  generally  recognized. 

The  "Antwerp  Bible",  just  mentioned,  sometimes 
called  the  "Biblia  Regia",  because  it  was  issued  under 
the  auspices  of  Philip  II,  depends  largely  on  the 
"Complutensian"  for  the  texts  which  the  latter  had 


♦.]  joaT.6j  >Qj>f^  A»riri  ^ikO*.*  i^-Al  <;■•?  t-^  *    i. 


.it' 


v£D?0?ai 


I^JDli.?  lii^flDo  \jcnb  -^ri  J  v^oiio  aitjo  *     ^ 


CAP.     II. 


I  /~\  Vum  autem  natut  ejjet'fefihua  w  Beth- 
^^'  kchequx  efiJihoudiCic  in  diebus  Herou- 
dis  regis  ,aduenerut  Magt  ab  Oriente  adOit- 

i  rt/chie.  *  €t  mcjuiunt.  ZJbi  nutu-i  fj?  ilk  rex 
Jthoudaorum  ?  vidimus  emmflelltim  ems  in 
Oriente,  •Denimujque  "Vt  adoremus eum. 

J  *  ^x  qaum  audijjet  rex  Heroudes  per- 
territus  efl,totdque  Ourifchlem  cum  eo. 

4  *  Et  congregatis  omnibus  prtnciptbus  fa- 
cer datum  ,  cr-  fcrtbis  fopuli ,  percent  attu  efl 
ab  ets  rvbiMejchicho  nafceretur. 


t  NT[D5;3"iN  v.vaya  NO'uioS  Noiy  "7551  sni'^j  joi 


Polyglot  Bible  of  Montanus   (Biblia  Regia) 

Reduced  facsimile  of  the  opening 

The  columna,  from  left  to  right,  present:  the  Peshito  (Syriac)  Text;  a  literal  Latin  translation  of  the 


object  he  undertook  to  furnish  students  with  accurate 
printed  texts  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Hebrew, 
Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  and  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  Greek  and  Latin.  His  Bible  contains  also 
the  Chaldaic  Targum  of  the  Pentateuch  and  an  inter- 
linear Latin  translation  of  the  Greek  Old  Testament. 
The  work  is  in  six  large  volumes,  the  last  of  which  is 
made  up  of  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic  dictionary,  a 
Hebrew  grammar,  and  Greek  dictionary.  It  is  said 
that  only  six  hundred  copies  were  issued;  but  they 
found  their  way  into  the  principal  libraries  of  Europe 
and  had  considerable  influence  on  subsequent  editions 
of  the  Bible.  Vigouroux  made  use  of  it  in  the  very 
latest  of  the  Polyglots.  Cardinal  Ximenes  was,  he 
assures  us,  eager  to  secure  the  best  manuscripts  accessi- 
ble to  serve  as  a  basis  of  his  texts;  he  thanks  Leo  X 
for  lending  him  Vatican  MSS.  Traces  of  such  MSS. 
are,  indeed,  discernible,  particularly  in  the  Greek  text; 
and  there  is  still  a  copy  at  Madrid  of  a  Venetian  MS. 
which  he  is  thought  to  have  used.  He  did  not,  how- 
ever, use  any  of  what  are  now  considered  the  best; 
appreciation  of  the  worth  of  the  MSS.,  and  of  their 
variant  readings,  had  still  much  progress  to  make; 
but  the  active  work  of  many  years  produced  texts 
sufficiently  pure  for  most  purposes. 
The   "Complutensian  Bible"   published  the  first 


published.  It  adds  to  them  an  interlinear  translation 
of  the  Hebrew,  the  Chaldaic  Targums  (with  Latin 
translation)  of  the  books  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  which 
follow  the  Pentateuch,  excepting  Daniel,  Esdras,  Ne- 
hemias,  and  Paralipomenon,  and  the  Peshito  text  of 
the  Syriac  New  Testament  with  its  Latin  translation. 
This  work  was  not  based  on  MSS.  of  very  great  value; 
but  it  was  carefully  printed  by  Christophe  Plantin,  in 
eight  magnificent  volumes.  The  last  two  contain  an 
apparatus  crilicus,  lexicons  and  grammatical  notes. 

The  "  Paris  Polyglot "  in  ten  volumes,  more  magnifi- 
cent than  its  Antwerp  predecessor,  was  edited  with 
less  accuracy,  and  it  lacks  a  critical  apparatus.  Its 
notable  additions  to  the  texts  of  the  "Antwerp  Bible", 
which  it  reproduces  without  much  change,  are  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  and  its  Samaritan  version 
edited  with  Latin  translation  by  the  Oratorian,  Jean 
Morin,  the  Syriac  Old  Testament  and  New  Testament 
Antilegomena,  and  the  Arabic  version  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

The  "London  Polyglot"  in  six  volumes,  edited  by 
Brian  Walton  (1654-7),  improved  considerably  on  the 
texts  of  its  predecessors.  Besides  them,  it  has  the 
Ethiopic  Psalter,  Canticle  of  Canticles,  and  New 
Testament,  the  Arabic  New  Testament,  and  the  Gos- 
pels in  Persian.    All  the  texts  not  Latin  are  accom- 


POLYSTYLUM 


223 


POLYTHEISM 


panied  by  Latin  translations,  and  all,  sometimes  nine 
in  number,  are  arranged  side  by  side  or  one  over 
another  on  the  two  pages  open  before  the  reader. 
Two  companion  volumes,  the  "Lexicon  Heptaglot- 
ton"  ol  Edmund  Cassel,  appeared  in  1669.  The  Bible 
was  also  published  in  several  languages  by  Elias 
Hutter  (Nuremberg,  1599-1602),  and  by  Christianus 
Reineccius  (Leipsic,  1713-51). 

Modern  Polyglots  are  much  less  imposing  in  appear- 
ance than  those  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies; and  there  is  none  which  gives  the  latest  results 
of  scientific  textual  criticism  as  fully  as  did  Brian 
Walton's  in  its  day.  We  may  cite,  however,  as  good 
and  quite  accessible: — Bagster,  "Polyglot  Bible  in 
eight  languages"  (2  vols.,  London,  2nd  ed.  1874).  The 
languages  are  Hebrew,  Greek,  English,  Latin,  German, 
Italian,  French,  and  Spanish.    It  gives  in  appendix  the 


Masch-Lelong,  BiUiotheca  Sacra,  I  (Halle,  1778),  331-424. 
In  each  Polyglot  is  found  some  historical  information  about  itself 
and  its  predecessors.  Vigodhoux,  Manuel  biblique  (Paris,  1905), 
260  sqq.  Individual  texts  of  the  Polyglots  are  dealt  with  in  Bibli- 
cal introductions.  Swete,  Introd.  to  the  0.  T.  in  Greek  is  particu- 
larly useful.  Pick,  History  of  printed  editions  and  Poly- 
glot  Bibles  in  Hebraica,  IX  (1892-3),  47-116. 

W.  S.  Reillt. 

Polystylum,  titular  see  of  Macedonia  Secunda, 
suffragan  of  Philippi.  When  Philippi  was  made  a 
metropolitan  see  Polystylum  was  one  of  its  suffragans 
(Le  Quien,  "  Oriens  christ.",  II,  65).  It  figures  as  such 
in  the  "Notitias  episcopatuum "  of  Leo  the  Wise 
about  901-7  (Gelzer,  "  Ungedruckte  und  ungeniigend 
veroffentlichte  Texte  der  Notit.  episcopat.",  Munich, 
1900,  558);  the  "Nova  Tactica"  about  940  (Gelzer, 
"Georgii  Cyprii  descr.  orbis  romani ",  Leipzig,  1890, 
80) ; ' '  Notices  "  3  and  10  of  Parthey ,  which  belong  to  the 


CAP.    II. 

.  /"'Vmergonatus  cflet  lefus  in  Becli- 
lehem  ludf  in  diebus  Herodis  regis, 
eccc  Magi  ab  Oriente  venerunt  lerofo- 
lymam, 

*dicentes :  Vbicfl:  qui  natus  eft  tcx  * 
lud^orum?  vidimus  cnim  ftellam  eius  in 
Orientej&  venimus  adorarc  cum. 

*  Audiens  autcm  Herodesrex,turba- 
tus  eftjS:  omnis  Hicrofolyma  cum  illo. 

*  Etcongregans  omnes  piincipcs  fa- 
cerdotum  &  kribas  populi,  fcifcitaba- 
tur  ab  eis  vbi  Chriftus  nafcerctur. 


i.      *  \iyoPTi?,  iteShvoTS:^5eig  /3a(7iA<^;  7z<fv  Mcuav. 
'^parcu. 


\ni?JiN'i?nl7Nni»jBan'°NriViraKfn''      iK.'aJTaNnojonpsDNitnflN^onj-inm'iN^aiilNnn  "  jbj"* 

:5nai^no\dn'i|7!N'33i3n^aVnmStTNOi;^na3nNVi  ^    '  '  .•nnnjs'jnnaVt: 

poNi  '  1  ahjS'nth  smio''  \a  Nitiuo  ins '  ksSo  DiTin  'ain  Nnmn.  »1  onV  n'ia  ^&  nVns  {n  ig  *  fiif  njik  " 

)Kni¥)Qnyno°K3'8iiin^s3n'7N^oi8DgTNn3Diwn^                          inDjoSio'iis  .,t„' 

Published  at  Antwerp,   1  Feb.,   1571 

verses  of  .Matt.,  ii,  in  vol.  V 

Peshito;  the  Vulgate;  the  Greek  Text.     The  Hebrew  Version  occupies  the  lower  part  of  both  pages 


Syriac  New  Testament,  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
and  many  variants  of  the  Greek  text.  This  Bible  is 
printed  in  very  small  type.  It  is  a  new  edition,  on  a 
reduced  scale,  of  Bagster's  "Biblia  Sacra  Polyglotta" 
(6  vols.,  London,  1831).  " Polyglotten-Bibel  zum 
praktischen  Handgebrauch",  by  Stier  and  Theile,  in 
four  quarto  volumes  (5th  ed.,  Bielefeld,  1890).  This 
Polyglot  contains  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Ger- 
man texts.  "  Biblia  Triglotta",  2  vols.,  being,  with  the 
omission  of  modern  languages,  a  reissue  of  the  ' '  Biblia 
Hexaglotta",  edited  by  de  Levante  (London,  1874-6). 
It  contains  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin  texts  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Syriac 
texts  of  the  New  Testament.  Published  by  Dicken- 
son, London,  1890.  "La  Sainte  Bible  Polyglotte" 
(Paris,  1890-98),  by  F.  Vigouroux,  S.S.,  first  secretary 
of  the  Biblical  Commission,  is  the  only  modern  Poly- 
glot which  contains  the  deuterocanonical  books,  and 
the  only  one  issued  under  Catholic  auspices.  Vigou- 
roux has  secured  the  correct  printing,  in  convenient 
quarto  volumes,  of  the  ordinary  Massoretio  text,  the 
Sixtine  Septuagint,  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  a  French 
translation  of  the  Vulgate  by  Glaire.  Each  book  of 
the  Bible  is  preceded  by  a  brief  introduction;  impor- 
tant variant  readings,  textual  and  exegetical  notes, 
and  illustrations  are  given  at  the  foot  of  the  pages. 


thirteenth  century.  In  1212  Innocent  III  mentions 
it  among  the  suffragans  of  the  Latin  Archdiocese  of 
Philippi  (P.  L.,  CCXVI,  585).  In  1363  the  Greek 
bishop  Peter  became  Metropolitan  of  Christopolis  and 
the  see  was  united  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Maronia  (Mi- 
klosich  and  Mtiller,  "Acta  patriarchatus  Constantino- 
polit",  I,  474,  475,  559;  Petit,  "Actes  du  Panto- 
crator", Petersburg,  1903,p.xand  vii).  About thesame 
time  the  city  was  restored  and  fortified  by  the  Em- 
peror Cantacuzenus  (Cantacuz,  III,  37,  46;  Niceph. 
Gregoras,  XII,  161).  Cantacuzenus  says  that  Poly- 
stylum was  the  ancient  Abdera;  this  statement  also 
occurs  in  a  Byzantine  list  of  names  of  cities  published 
by  Parthey  (Hierocles,  "Synecdemus",  Berlin,  1866, 
314).  This  is  not  absolutely  correct.  Polystylum  is 
the  modern  village  of  Bouloustra  in  the  villayet  of 
Salonica,  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  country  north 
of  Kara  Aghatch  where  the  ruins  of  Abdera  are  found, 
but  it  is  doubtless  because  of  this  approximate  iden- 
tification that  the  see  of  Abdera  is  placed  among  the 
titular  sees,  although  such  a  residential  see  never 
existed. 

Pauly-Missowa,  Realencyh.,  a.  v.  Abdera. 

S.  Petrid^s. 
Polytheism,  the  belief  in,  and  consequent  worship 
of,  many  gods.     See  the  various  articles  on  national 


POMARIA 


224 


POMBAL 


religions  such  as  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  Hindu, 
and  the  ancient  religions  of  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome; 
see  also  Animism,  Fetishism,  Totemism,  God, 
Monotheism,  Pantheism,  Theism  etc. 

Pomaria,  titular  see  in  Mauretania  Cassarea.  It  is 
north  of  Tlemcen  (capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the 
department  of  Oran,  Algeria)  and  in  view  of  the  ruins 
of  Agadir,  which  was  built  itself  on  the  ruins  of 
Pomaria.  Named  after  its  orchards,  Pomaria  was 
formed  under  the  shadow  of  the  Roman  camp.  At 
Agadir  and  in  the  outskirts  may  be  found  numerous 
Latin  inscriptions  principally  from  the  Christian 
epoch,  the  most  recent  from  the  seventh  century,  and 
many  with  the  abbre^-lation  D^IS,  which  had  e^'i- 
dently  lost  all  pagan  meaning,  ^^'e  know  of  but  one 
bishop,  Longinus,  mentioned  in  the  list  of  bishops  of 
Mauretania  Csesarea,  who  was  summoned  by  King  Hu- 
nerlc,  returned  to  Carthage  in  484  and  was  condemned 
to  exile.  He  was  praised  by  Mctor  of  Vita,  Gregory 
of  Tours,  and  Fredegarius;  the  martyrology  of  Usuard 
inserts  his  name  on  1  Feb.  At  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century  Idris  I  founded  Agadir  on  the  site  of  Pomaria; 
on  the  fall  of  the  Idrisite  dynasty,  Agadir  was  the 
capital  of  the  Beni-Khazer  and  Beni-Yala,  emirs  of  a 
Berber  tribe,  vassals  of  the  Ommiads  of  Spain. 
Tlemcen,  founded  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century 
by  Yussef  ben  Tashfin,  was  reunited  to  Agadir  and 
finally  supplanted  it. 

TouLOTTE,  Geographic  de  VAfrique  chreiienne.  Mauretanies, 
117.  S.    PETBIDi;S. 

Pombal,  Sbbastiao  Jose  de  Cahvalho  e  Mello, 
Marquis  de,  the  son  of  a  country  gentleman  of  mod- 
est means,  b.  in  Lisbon,  13  May,  1699;  d.  8  August, 

1782.  He  was  said 
to  have  been  edu- 
cated at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Coim- 
bra  and  served  for 
a  time  in  the 
army.  After  a 
turbulent  life  in 
the  capital,  he 
carried  off  and 
married  the  niece 
of  the  Conde  dos 
Arcos,  and  his 
aversion  for  the 
nobility  origi- 
nated perhaps 
with  the  opposi- 
tion offered  by  her 
family  to  what 
they  deemed  a 
mesalliance.  Pom- 
bal then  retired 
to  a  country 
estate  near  Soure, 
and  in  his  thirty- 
ninth  year  re- 
ceived his  first  public  appointment,  being  sent  as 
minister  Jo  London  In  1738.  In  174.5  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Menna,  where  his  work  was  to  effect  a  recon- 
ciliation between  the  pope  and  the  empress;  there  in 
the  same  year  he  married  as  his  second  wife  the 
daughter  of  Field  Marshal  Daun,  a  union  brought 
about  by  the  influence  of  John  V's  Austrian  wife,  who 
befriended  him  more  than  once,  though  the  king  dis- 
liked him  and  recalled  him  in  1749.  John  died  31 
July,  1750,  and  on  3  August,  17.'')0,  the  new  monarch, 
Joseph,  named  Pombal  Minister  of  Foreign  AfTairs. 
The  distinguished  diplomat,  D.  Lulz  da  Cunha,  had  re- 
commended Pombal  to  Joseph  when  the  latter  was  only 
prince,  but  it  was  the  favour  of  the  queen-mother  and 
perhaps  also  of  a  Jesuit,  Father  Mnrcira,  that  secured 
him  the  covetcil  post.  His  superior  intelligence  and 
masterful  will  enabled  him  in  a  short  time  to  dominate 


his  colleagues,  who  were  dismissed  or  made  insignifi- 
cant, and  with  the  acquiescence  of  his  royal  master  he 
became  the  first  power  in  the  State.  Some  years  later 
the  English  ambassador  said  of  him,  "with  all  his 
faults,  he  is  the  sole  man  in  this  kingdom  capable  of 
being  at  the  head  of  affairs".  His  energy  after  the 
earthquake,  1  Nov.,  1755,  confirmed  his  ascendancy 
over  the  king,  and  he  became  successively  first  Minis- 
ter, Count  of  Oceras  in  1759,  and  Marquis  of  Pombal 
in  1770.  The  mysterious  attempt,  3  Sept.,  1758,  on 
the  king's  life  gave  him  a  pretext  to  crush  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  nobility.  He  magnified  an  act  of 
private  vengeance  on  the  part  of  the  Duke  of  Aveiro 
into  a  widespread  conspiracy,  and  after  a  trial  which 
was  a  mockery,  the  duke,  members  of  the  Tavora 
family  and  their  servants  were  publicly  put  to  death 
with  horrible  cruelties  at  Belem,  13  Jan.,  1759.  No 
penalty  was  considered  too  severe  for  lese  majeste  and 
there  is  some  evidence  that  Joseph  himself  ordered  the 
prosecution,  indicated  the  Tavoras  for  punishment, 
and  charged  Pombal  to  show  no  mercy.  If  true,  this 
explains  in  part  the  leniency  shown  him  after  his  fall 
by  Joseph's  daughter  and  successor.  Queen  Maria. 
The  so-called  Pombaline  terror  dates  from  these  exe- 
cutions. The  people  were  effccthely  cowed  when  they 
saw  that  perpetual  imprisonment,  exile,  and  death  re- 
warded the  enemies  or  even  the  critics  of  the  dictator. 
He  was  bound  to  come  into  conflict  with  the 
Jesuits,  who  exercised  no  small  influence  at  Court  and 
in  the  country.  They  appear  to  have  blocked  his 
projects  to  marry  the  heiress  presumptive  to  the 
Protestant  Duke  of  Cumberland  and  to  grant  privi- 
leges to  the  Jews  in  return  for  aid  in  rebuilding 
Lisbon,  but  the  first  open  dispute  arose  over  the 
execution  of  the  Treaty  of  Limits  (13  Jan.,  1750), 
regulating  Spanish  and  Portuguese  jurisdiction  in  the 
River  Plate.  When  the  Indians  declined  to  leave 
their  houses  in  compliance  with  its  provisions  and 
had  to  be  coerced,  Pombal  attributed  their  refusal 
to  Jesuit  machinations,  ^'arious  other  difiicultles  of 
the  Government  were  laid  to  their  charge  and  by  the 
cumulative  effect  of  these  accusations,  the  minister 
prepared  king  and  puljllc  for  a  campaign  against  the 
Society  in  which  he  was  inspired  by  the  Jansenist  and 
Regalist  ideas  then  current  in  Europe.  He  had  begun 
his  open  attack  by  having  the  Jesuit  confessors  dis- 
missed from  Court,  20  Sept.,  1757,  but  it  was  the 
Tavora  plot  in  which  he  implicated  the  Jesuits  on  the 
ground  of  their  friendship  with  some  of  the  supposed 
conspirators  that  enabled  him  to  take  decisive  action. 
On  19  Jan.,  1759,  he  issued  a  decree  sequestering  the 
property  of  the  Society  in  the  Portuguese  dominions 
and  the  following  September  deported  the  Portuguese 
fathers,  about  one  thousand  in  number,  to  the  Pon- 
tifical States,  keeping  the  foreigners  in  prison.  The 
previous  year  he  had  obtained  from  Benedict  XIV 
the  appointment  of  a  creature  of  his,  Cardinal  Sal- 
danha,  as  visitor,  with  power  to  reform  the  Society, 
but  events  proved  that  his  real  intention  was  to  end  it. 
Still  not  content  with  his  victory,  he  determined  to 
humiliate  it  in  the  person  of  a  conspicuous  member, 
and  himself  denounced  Father  Gabriel  Malagrida  to 
the  Inquisition  for  crimes  against  the  Faith.  He 
caused  the  old  missionary,  who  had  lost  his  wWs 
through  suffering,  to  be  strangled  and  then  burnt. 
He  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  Courts  of  Spain, 
France,  and  Naples  to  w'm  from  the  pope  by  joint 
action  the  suppression  of  the  Society,  and  having  no 
success  with  Clement  XIII,  he  expelled  the  Nuncio 
17  June,  1760,  and  broke  off  relations  with  Rome. 
The  bishops  were  compelled  to  exercise  functions  re- 
served to  the  Holy  See  and  the  Portuguese  Church 
came  to  have  Pomlsal  as  its  effective  head.  The  reU- 
glous  autonomy  of  the  nation  being  thus  complete,  he 
sought  to  justify  his  action  by  issuing  the  "Deducgao 
Chronologica",  in  which  the  Jesuits  were  made  respon- 
sible for  aU  the  calamities  of  Portugal.     In   1773 


CAPUT 
XXV. 


it.  in  il- 

lu. 


»7-    f«'- 
tmr'ineu 

(.,. ,- 


jntind. 

fiteiet 


rum  fm. 
rmm, 
tf.  femftr 

JO   poma 


mi  (.t. 

br/tchiA) 

egrtdicn 

tet,fi.  e- 

THnt, 

it.fitun- 

da. 

dslati 
(fi.  ernt. 
fit  inf.  ) 
in  rml. 


Sa^  II.?5Uf ^^^Off.  I       EXODUS.        |     esoa O 2    I ^^^ 


29.  ^^^  foft  tic  pan^cn 
Dcn  focrntjcle  madden  /  on? 
(le  mif  goISc  wbcrjihcn/tao  fccr 
tj  fc^  Oamit  gcfMgcn  wcrtic. 


29.  Su  fo((  «iid^  f«iii« 
fi^uffcln/bc^cr/fatincn/  ft^a^ 
lcn/iiii6  f  CI  ncm  golf  c  macOciv 
I>amitmanau6»n£>  cinfd)(n« 

Cff. 

50.  QSnti  ro((  auff  ten  tifd^ 
allcjcit  fcf;a;u6rot  Icgcn  fur 
itiir- 

31.  •©ufottaiid^cincnfciic^^ 
tcr  »on  fcincm  tic^tcn  golDc 
ma%n/»aranifol  Dcrf^afft 
mit  rpfircii/  |"dja(cn  /  fncuf en 
trnDMimicnfciii. 

?2.  ©ed^ardfirciifpriciiaue 
Ccmfcuc^tcrjun  fcitcnauegc* 
ficn/  aus  jglic^cr  fcircn  Drcp 
rdjrcn. 


(Sc  operi 
&  ferc 
mcnfa. 


eligni'i 


i_vtacs  28.  Ipfos  quoqiie  veftcs 
Vjuro'  I  f^c'cs  de  lignis  Setim ,  & 
"  iii.j  circumdabisauroadfub- 
vchcndam  mcnfam. 


ly.Faciesctjamrcu- 
ceJJas  cjus,&  coch- 
li:ariac]us,&of  er- 
culj  ejus,  &crjte- 
rej  ejus,  irquibui 
tegetur  :  ex  auro 
mundo  faciei  ca. 


JO.  Et  pones  fiiper 
menfjni  illam  pa- 
ncm  facicruni  co- 
ram meiu^itcr. 


33.  ®njgfic5frd6rffo(t«r> 
of <n  fd^alcn/  fnciiflFc  Bn6  blu; 
mcn^akn/  ^Daefoamfcin 


}i.  Faciesitcm  can- 
dclabriini  16  ex  au- 
ru  puro.-duAileHec 
candelabrum  iUud;  ' 
19  lial>i]ce;us,<3cca-  j 
lamujcgus,  fcyphi 
ejus,  JO  fplierul.ee- 
juSt  &  (lores  ejus  ex 
ip(b  crunt. 
ji.  Et  fcxji  calami 
egredienlur^  late- 
nbus  ejus. tres  cala- 
mi candelabri  ex  la- 
terceiuiuno.dccrei 
calami  mIii  cande' 
labri  ex  latere  ejus 
jaaltero. 


29.  Parabis  &  acetabu- 
la,  acphialas,ihuribula,& 
cyathos,  in  qiiibus  offc- 
rcnda  funt  libamina,  ex 
auro  purifsimo. 

30.  Et  pones  fupcr  men- 
ram  panes  propofitionis 
incofpcftu  mco  fcmper. 

31.  Facics  &  cancfela- 
brumduftilcdcauro  mu- 
difsimOjhaftilecjus.&ca- 
Iamos,fcyphos  &  fphs- 
rulas.aclihacx  ipfopro- 
ccdcntia. 

3z.  Sex  calami  egredien- 
tur  dc  lateribus,  tres  ex  u- 
nolatcrc.&  trcs  exalte- 
ro. 


bi< 


jj.TrcscaJycesJjin 
fpcricmnucisamy- 
gdjline  deforniaci 
erunt  JocaUmou- 
no,rphfruIa,acfloi: 
tc  trcs  caljcci  in 
fpccieranuciiamy- 
gilalinx  deformati 


33.  Tres  fcyphi  quafi  in 
nucis  modum  per  cala- 
mosfingulos ,  fpha:ruli- 
quefimul,&liha:&trcs 
fimilitcr  fcyphi  inftar 
nucis  in  calamo  altero, 

~  fphe- 


ox  ^uAav  d<7>iiilu]i  .  li  xa&- 
_>^i/iraVf  avon-  Jf  t/m's;  xaja- 
fffl  .  Xj   '^J^Qirti  iv  iwrdii  <»' 

•^.Xj-nis %t'mi6;  ,  Xj  tx  axrit- 
■^^ ,  <OT  cn^  KvaSau; ,  ill c'li 
mreisis  c«  aimTi  ,  ^umu  xa.- 

30.  Kcad7n%(^g3^  -duJT^d- 

jr.        KflU  OTjJJCT^f    ^VXVtOAl ,    CK. 

Jl^umu  xa.%^i,S  -n^dj-Aj}  mn- 
iWs  "riuJ  Auxtiiu  .  i  xtwXos  cuj- 
•r ,  »£j  oi  xttXct/^ttncot  ,K.  01  xpa- 
■ntfis ,  Xj  hi  ir<f  euf orff  ej  ,  ii 

JI.  ¥.^  3  xaAnfiimci  mm- 
^djif^m  ox  ■aka.yim  ,  f^Si 
KaAufAitncat  r^  Avxvtotf  ox  f 
x^mvs  tw^  is  fVtf  •  ii  T^Hj 
xttf^dfiimui  ■f   Auxn'ctf  OK  ? 

33.    Kai  7f  Bf  xgJtT^f  t(  OXTCTU 

TrafSijoi  KOfuinxs  ..oxtzS  cut 
xaXctfXiOTcu  ,  a-poupoT^p  Hffi 
x-f*^v ,  Xj  TTf  Hf  x^v;fes  oxTi' 
TUTTufxivoi  xo/fvunLUg-  a/  TaT  f- 
VI  xetXcLfAitnu   tr(pxi^07i]o  x. 


REDUCED  FACSIMILE  PAGE  FROM  THE  HAMBURG  BIBLE  OF 
WOLDER,  1596.     EXODUS,  xxv,  28-33 

BEADING  FROM  LEFT  TO  RIGHT:    WOLDER'S  LATIN  NOTES;    LUTHEB'S  GERMAN  VERSION;    PAGNINO'S  LITERAL 
LATIN  TRANSLATION  OF  THE  HEBREW;  VULGATE;  SEPTUAGINT.     SIZE  OF  ORIGINAL:  7X  X  12M  IN 


POMERANIA 


225 


POMERANIA 


Clement  XIV,  to  prevent  a  schism,  yielded  to  the 

Eressure  brought  to  bear  on  him  and  suppressed  the 
ociety.  As  soon  as  he  was  sure  of  success,  Pombal 
made  peace  with  Rome  and  in  June,  1770,  admitted  a 
nuncio,  but  the  ecclesiastical  system  of  Portugal  re- 
mained henceforth  a  sort  of  disguised  Anghcanism, 
and  many  of  the  evils  from  which  the  Church  now 
suffers  are  a  legacy  from  him. 

In  the  political  sphere  Pombal's  administration  was 
marked  by  boldness  of  conception  and  tenacity  of 
purpose.  It  differed  from  the  preceding  in  these  par- 
ticulars: (1)  he  levelled  all  classes  before  the  royal 
authority;  (2)  he  imposed  absolute  obedience  to 
the  law,  which  was  largely  decided  by  himself,  be- 
cause the  Cortes  had  long  ceased  to  meet;  (3)  he 
transformed  the  Inquisition  into  a  mere  department 
of  the  State.  In  the  economic  sphere,  impressed  by 
British  commercial  supremacy,  he  sought  and  with  suc- 
cess to  improve  the  material  condition  of  Portugal. 
Nearly  all  the  privileged  companies  and  monopolies 
he  founded  ended  in  financial  failure  and  helped 
the  few  rather  than  the  many,  yet  when  the 
populace  of  Oporto  rose  in  protest  against  the  Alto 
Douro  Wine  Company,  they  were  punished  with  ruth- 
less severity,  as  was  the  fishing  village  of  Trafaria, 
which  was  burnt  by  the  minister's  orders  when  it 
sheltered  some  unwilling  recruits.  His  methods  were 
the  same  with  all  classes.  Justice  went  by  the  board 
in  face  of  the  reason  of  state;  nevertheless  he  cor- 
rected many  abuses  in  the  administration.  His 
activity  penetrated  every  department.  His  most  not- 
able legislative  work  included  the  abolition  of  Indian 
slavery  and  of  the  odious  distinction  between  old  and 
new  Christians,  a  radical  reorganization  of  the  finances, 
the  reform  of  the  University  of  Coimbra,  the  army  and 
navy,  and  the  foundation  of  the  College  of  Nobles,  the 
School  of  Commerce,  and  the  Royal  Press.  He  started 
various  manufactures  to  render  Portugal  less  depend- 
ent on  Great  Britain  and  his  Chartered  Companies 
had  the  same  object,  but  he  maintained  the  old  po- 
litical alliance  between  the  two  nations,  though  he 
took  a  bolder  attitude  than  previous  ministers  had 
dared  to  do,  both  as  regards  England  and  other  coun- 
tries, and  left  a  full  treasury  when  the  death  of  King 
Joseph,  on  24  Feb.,  1777,  caused  his  downfall.  He 
died  in  retirement,  having  for  years  suffered  from 
leprosy  and  the  fear  of  the  punishment  he  had  meted 
out  to  others.  The  Bishop  of  Coimbra  presided  at 
his  funeral,  while  a  well-known  Benedictine  delivered 
the  panegyric.  Even  to  the  end  Pombal  had  many 
admirers  among  the  clergy,  and  he  is  regarded  by  the 
Portuguese  as  one  of  their  greatest  statesmen  and  called 
the  great  Marquis. 

Carnota,  Marquis  de  Pombal  (London,  1871) :  da  Luz  So- 
Rl\NQ,  HiUoriadoreinadodeei  Tei D.  Joselhishon,  1867);  Gomes, 
Le  Marquis  de  Pombal  (Lisbon,  1869) ;  d'Azevedo,  0  Marquez  de 
Pombal  e  a  sua  epoca  (Lisbon,  1909) ;  DuHR,  Pombal,  Sein  Cha- 
rakteru.  seine  Politik  (Freiburg,  1891);  Colleccdo  dos  Negocios  de 
Roma  no  reinado  de  el  Rey  Do-m  Jose  I,  3  pts.  and  supplement 
(Lisbon,  1874-7.5) ;  The  Bismarck  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  in  Am. 
Cath.  Quart.  Ren.,  II  (Philadelphia,  1877),  61;  Pombal  in  Catholic 
World,  XXX  (New  York),  312;  Pombal  and  the  Society  of  Jesus 
(London,  Sept.,  1877),  86. 

Edgar  Prestagb. 

Pomerania,  a  Prussian  province  on  the  Baltic  Sea 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  River  Oder,  divided 
into  Hither  Pomerania  (Vorpommern),  the  western 
part  of  the  province,  and  Farther  Pomerania  (Hinler- 
pommern),  the  eastern  part.  Its  area  is  11,628  square 
miles,  and  it  contains  1,684,345  inhabitants.  In  the 
south-east  Pomerania  is  traversed  by  a  range  of  low 
hills  (highest  point  fourteen  miles),  otherwise  it  is  a  low 
plain.  Farming  and  market-gardening  take  55-2  per 
cent  of  the  soil,  grass-land  10-2  per  cent,  pasturage  6-5 
per  cent,  and  woodland  20-2  per  cent.  The  chief 
occupations  are  farming,  cattle-raising,  the  shipping 
trade,  and  fishing.  There  is  no  manufacturing  of  any 
importance  except  in  and  near  Stettin.  The  earUest 
XII.— 15 


inhabitants  were  German  tribes,  among  them  Goths, 
Scirri,  Rugians,  Lemovier,  Burgundians,  Semnonians 
(Tacitus,  "Germania").  About  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  these  tribes  began  to  migrate  towards 
the  south-east;  they  were  replaced  by  others  who  also 
soon  left,  and  Slavs  (Wends),  entering  from  the  east, 
gradually  gained  possession  of  the  province.  Conse- 
quently the  name  Pommern  is  Slavonic,  Po  more,  Po 
moran  signifying  "along  the  sea".  Charlemagne 
compelled  the  acknowledgment  of  his  suzerainty  as 
far  as  the  Oder,  but  his  successors  limited  themselves 
to  the  defensive.  In  the  reigns  of  Henry  I  and  Otto 
the  Great,  the  Wends  were  again  obliged  to  pay  tribute. 
However,  German  supremacy  remained  uncertain  and 
the  Danish  influence  was  greater,  until  the  Poles  con- 
quered Polnerania  about  995.  As  suffragan  of  their 
new  Archdiocese  of  Gnesen,  estabhshed  in  1000,  the 
Poles  founded  the  Diocese  of  Kolberg,  which,  how- 
ever, existed  apparently  only  in  the  parchment  deed. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  bishop  Reinbern  ever 
stayed  at  Kolberg;  he  died  about  1015  while  on  an 
embassy  to  Kiev. 

In  the  following  era  there  were  wars  with  varying 
results  between  the  Poles,  Danes,  and  Germans  for 
the  possession  of  Pomerania.  Finally  after  a  long  and 
bloody  struggle  the  Poles  were  victorious  (1122),  and 
Duke  Boleslaw  earnestly  endeavoured  to  convert  the 
inhabitants  to  Christianity.  The  task  was  given  to 
Bishop  Otto  of  Bamberg  who  accomplished  it  during 
two  missionary  journeys.  At  this  period  appears  the 
name  of  the  first  well  known  Duke  of  Pomerania, 
Wratislaw.  Otto  had  the  supervision  of  the  Pome- 
ranian Church  until  his  death,  but  could  not  found  a 
diocese  to  which  to  appoint  the  chaplain  Adalbert. 
After  Otto's  death.  Innocent  II  by  a  Bull  of  14  Oct., 
1140,  made  the  church  of  St.  Adalbert  at  Julin  on  the 
Island  of  WoUin  the  see  of  the  diocese,  and  Adalbert 
was  consecra,ted  bishop  at  Rome.  The  difficulty  as  to 
which  archdiocese  was  to  be  the  metropolitan  of  the 
new  bishopric  was  evaded  by  placing  it  directly  under 
the  papal  see.  Duke  Ratibor  of  Pomerania  founded 
the  first  monasteries:  in  1153  a  Benedictine  abbey  at 
Stolp,  and  later  a  Premonstratensian  abbey  at  Grobe 
on  the  island  of  Usedom.  Before  1176  the  see  was 
transferred  to  Kammin,  where  a  cathedral  chapter  was 
founded  for  the  Cathedral  of  St.  John.  The  western 
part  of  the  country  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of 
Schwerin.  The  founding  of  the  Cistercian  monasteries 
at  Dargun  (1172)  and  at  Kolbatz  east  of  the  Oder 
(1173)  were  events  of  much  importance.  The  Cister- 
cians greatly  promoted  the  development  of  religion 
and  civilization  by  engaging  in  agricultural  under- 
takings of  all  kinds.  About  1179  the  Premonstra- 
tensians  obtained  a  new  monastery  at  Gramzow  near 
Prenzlau,  and  in  1180  at  Belbuk  in  Farther  Pome- 
rania. In  1181  Duke  Bogislaw  received  his  lands  in 
fief  from  Emperor  Frederick  I,  and  thus  became  a 
prince  of  the  German  Empire.  This  was  followed  by 
a  large  immigration  of  Germans. 

The  ecclesiastical  organization  also  progressed.  Cis- 
tercian monasteries  were  estabhshed  at:  Eldena  (c. 
1207);  Neuenkamp  (c.  1231);  of  the  latter  a  branch 
on  the  Island  of  Hiddensee  (1296) ;  Bukow  (c.  1253) ; 
Bergen  on  the  island  of  Riigen  (1193);  near  Stettin 
(1243);  at  Marienfliess  (1248);  near  Kolberg  (1277); 
near  Koslin  (1277);  at  WoUin  (1288).  A  Premon- 
stratensian convent  was  founded  near  Treptow  on  the 
Rega  (1224).  The  Augustinians  had  monasteries  at: 
Uckermunde  (1260),  later  transferred  to  Jasenitz; 
Pyritz  (c.  1255);  Anklam  (1304);  Stargard  (1306); 
Gartz  (1308).  The  Franciscans  had  foundations  at: 
Stettin  (1240);  Greifswald  (1242);  Prenzlau  (before 
1253);  Stralsund  (1254);  Pyritz  (before  1286); 
Greifenberg  (before  1290);  Dramburg  (after  1350); 
the  Dominicans  at:  Kammin  (about  1228);  Stral- 
sund (1251);  Greifswald  (1254);  Stolp  (1278);  Pase- 
walk  (1272);   Prenzlau  (1275);   Soldin  (about  1289); 


POMPEIOPOLIS 


226 


POMPEIOPOLIS 


Norenberg  (fourteenth  century) .  Finally  the  Duchess 
Adelheid  founded  the  Carthusian  convent  of  Marien- 
kron  near  Koshn  in  1394;  it  was  first  transferred  to 
Schlawe,  then  in  1407  to  Rtigenwalde;  in  1421  the 
Brigitine  convent  of  Marienkron  was  established  at 
Stralsund.  All  these  establishments  contributed 
greatly  to  the  extension  of  Christian  and  German 
civilization,  as  did  also  the  orders  of  knights,  e.  g.,  the 
Knights  of  St.  John.  Foundations  for  canons  were 
made  about  1200  at  Kolberg,  and  in  1261  at  Stettin. 

In  1295  Dukes  Otto  and  Bogislaw  divided  the  coun- 
try into  the  two  Duchies  of  Stettin  and  Wolgast;  at 
later  dates  there  were  further  divisions.  The  victory 
of  German  civilization  in  Pomerania  was  assured  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  the  diocese  became  dependent 
upon  the  dukes.  The  bishop  was  merely  the  first  in 
the  social  order  of  prelates;  and  there  were  constant 
quarrels  over  the  possession  of  the  diocese  and  of  the 
episcopal  castles.  In  the  fifteenth  century  conditions 
were  in  great  disorder.  During  the  years  1437-43  the 
University  of  Rostock,  founded  in  1419,  withdrew 
from  Rostock  on  account  of  quarrels  between  the 
council  and  the  citizens,  and  settled  at  Greifswald. 
The  mayor,  Heinrich  Rubenow,  urged  DukeWratisIaw 
IX  to  establish  a  university  at  Greifswald,  to  which 
the  duke  agreed,  gave  some  of  his  revenues  for  its 
support,  and,  aided  by  the  abbots  of  the  monasteries 
in  Hither  Pomerania,  obtained  from  Callistus  III  a 
Bull  of  foundation,  29  May,  1456.  In  the  first  se- 
mester 173  students  matriculated.  At  the  same  time 
a  foundation  for  twenty  canons,  intended  to  furnish 
maintenance  for  new  teachers,  was  united  with  the 
church  of  St.  Nicholas.  The  university  continued  with 
increasing  prosperity. 

About  1400,  heresy,  caused  by  the  \^'aldensians, 
developed  in  the  province;  Peter  the  Celestine  came 
to  Stettin  to  investigate  the  matter,  and  scattered  the 
heretics  in  1393.  The  sect  of  the  "PutzkeUer",  con- 
cerning which  there  are  only  confused  reports,  appears 
also  to  be  traceable  to  the  Waldensians.  Diocesan 
synods  were  held  in  1433,  1448  (at  Stettin),  1454  (at 
Giilzow  and  Kammin),  1492,  and  1500.  The  statutes 
show  a  disorderly  condition  of  morals,  but  earnest 
attempts  to  improve  conditions.  The  first  traces  of 
Lutheranism  appeared  at  Stralsund,  and  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Belbuk,  where  Johannes  Bugenhagen  (Po- 
meranus),  rector  of  the  town-school  and  teacher  of  the 
monks,  became  acquainted  with  Luther's  writing  "De 
captivitate  Babylonica";  he  won  over  many  priests 
to  the  new  doctrine  and  in  1521  went  to  Wittenberg. 
Preachers  from  other  regions,  and  monks  who  had  left 
their  monasteries,  found  ready  attention  throughout 
the  country,  on  account  of  the  great  social  and  eco- 
nomic discontent,  and  especially  the  freedom  from  taxes 
of  the  clergy  and  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  In 
1525  Stralsund  adopted  Lutheranism,  while  Greifs- 
wald and  Stargard  remained  true  to  the  Faith,  and 
other  towns  were  divided  between  passionately  con- 
tending parties.  When  Duke  Bamim  XI  of  Stettin, 
who  had  been  a  student  at  Wittenberg,  and  his 
nephew,  Philip  of  Wolgast,  joined  the  Lutheran  party, 
its  victory  was  assured. 

A  basis  for  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Pomerania  was 
prepared  by  the  Diet  at  Treptow  on  the  Rega  in  1534 
with  the  aid  of  the  rules  drawn  up  by  Bugenhagen. 
The  prelates  and  some  of  the  nobility  protested  and 
left  the  diet;  the  towns  gradually  abandoned  their 
opposition  and  accepted  Bugenhagen's  proposi- 
tions, and  Bishop  Erasmus  Manteuffel,  who  main- 
tained his  protest,  died  in  1544.  The  monasteries 
were  suppressed  (1535-6)  and  in  1539  the  nobil- 
ity gave  up;  the  dukes  joined  the  Smalkaldic  League 
but  maintained  an  ambiguous  position.  The  later 
church  ordinance  of  1563  established  the  strictest 
form  of  Lutheranism,  and  the  first  bishop  was  Bar- 
tholomaus  Suawe  (1546).  In  1548  Emperor  Charles  V 
claimed  the  diocese,  as  it  belonged  to  the  estates  of 


the  empire.  The  dukes  were  obliged  to  accept  the 
Interim,  and  after  Suawe  resigned,  Martin  Weiher 
became  bishop  in  1549,  was  recognized  by  Julius  III, 
5  Oct.,  1551,  and  took  his  place  as  a  prince  of  the 
empire.  In  1555  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  gave  the  final 
victory  to  the  evangelical  party  in  Pomerania.  After 
Weiher's  death  in  1556  the  diocese  came  under  the  oon- 
trpl  of  the  ruUng  princes,  who  filled  the  see  with  members 
of  their  family.  The  Evangelical  cathedral  chapter 
with  thirteen  positions  for  worthy  officials  of  the 
province  and  the  Church  continued  to  exist  until  1810. 
The  last  duke,  Bogislaw  XIV,  who  from  1625  had 
ruled  over  the  united  Duchies  of  Stettin  and  Wolgast, 
died  childless  10  March,  1637;  the  country  then 
passed  to  Brandenburg,  which  by  old  treaties  had  the 
right  of  succession,  but  by  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia 
(1648)  had  to  be  content  with  Farther  Pomerania; 
Hither  Pomerania  and  Rugen  were  given  to  Sweden. 
The  Lutheran  bishop,  Duke  Ernest  Bogislaw  of  Croy, 
gave  the  Diocese  of  Kammin  to  Brandenburg  in  1650. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Stockholm  of  1720,  Hither  Pomerania 
as  far  as  the  Peene  was  given  to  Brandenburg- 
Prussia;  the  rest  of  the  province  and  the  island  of 
Riigen  were  obtained  by  Prussia  in  the  treaty  of 
4  June,  1815. 

In  1824  the  seven  hundredth  anniversary  of 
Pomerania's  conversion  to  Christianity  was  cele- 
brated, and  a  monument  was  erected  to  Bishop  Otto 
of  Bamberg  at  Pyritz.  Catholic  parishes  have  devel- 
oped since  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  from  the 
military  chaplaincies  in  the  larger  garrison  towns.  At 
the  beginning  these  parishes  were  under  the  care  of 
the  Vicariate  of  the  North  German  Missions.  In  1821 
they  were  placed  under-the  Prince  Bishop  of  Breslau, 
who  gave  their  administration  to  the  provost  of  St. 
Hedwig's  at  Berlin  as  episcopal  delegate.  At  present 
(1911)  there  are  two  arch-presbyteries,  Koslin  and 
Stettin-Stralsund.  Koslin  has  nine  parishes:  Arns- 
walde,  Griinhof,  Koslin,  Kolberg,  Neustettin,  Poll- 
now,  Schivelbein,  Stargard,  Stolp.  Stettin-Stralsund 
has  eleven:  Anklam,  Bergen,  Demmin,  Greifswald, 
Hoppenwalde,  Louisental,  Pasewalk,  Stettin,  Stral- 
sund, Swinemiinde,  Viereck.  The  religious  orders  are 
represented  only  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Charles  Borro- 
meo  at  Griinhof,  Misdroy,  Stettin,  and  Stralsund. 
The  Catholics  of  the  government  district  of  Lauen- 
burg-Biitow,  that  formerly  belonged  to  the  Kingdom 
of  Poland,  form  five  parishes  of  the  Diocese  of  Kulm; 
the  provostship  of  Tempelburg  in  the  government  dis- 
trict of  Koshn  belongs  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Posen. 
At  the  last  census  (1905)  the  Catholics  of  Pomerania 
numbered  50,206.  The  largest  Catholic  parishes  are 
Stettin  (8635  souls),  Lauenburg  (1475),  Stargard 
(1387),  Kolberg  (1054),  Greifswald  (951),  and  Stolp 
(951). 

Barthold,  Gesch.  von  Pommern  u.  Riigen,  I-V  (Hamburg, 
1839-45) ;  Wehrmann,  Gesch.  von  Pommern,  1,  II  (Gotha,  1904- 
06);  Pommersches  Urkundenhuch,  I-V  (Stettin,  1868-1903); 
Gemeindelexihon  fur  das  Konigreich  Preussen,  IV  (Berlin,  1908) ; 
Handbuch  des  Bisiums  Breslau  u,  seines  Delegaturbezirks  (Breslau, 
1910);  Janssen,  Hist,  of  the  German  People,  tr.  Christie  (Lon- 
don), passim. 

Klbmens  Loffler. 

Pompeiopolis,  titular  see  in  Paphlagonia.  The 
ancient  name  of  the  town  is  unknown;  it  may  have 
been  Eupatoria  which  Pliny  (VI,  ii,  3),  followed  by 
Le  Quien  and  Battandier,  wrongly  identifies  with  the 
Eupatoria  of  Mithridates.  The  latter  wag  called 
Magnopolis  by  Pompey.  Pompeiopolis  was,  with 
Andrapa-Neapolis,  in  64  b.  c.  included  by  Pompey  in 
the  Province  of  Pontus,  but  the  annexation  was  prema- 
ture, as  the  town  (which  ranked  as  a  metropolis)  was 
restored  to  vassal  princes  of  eastern  Paphlagonia  and 
definitively  annexed  to  the  Roman  Empire  in  6  B.  c. 
Strabo  (XIII,  iii,  48)  says  that  in  the  neighbourhood 
was  a  mine  of  realgar  or  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  which 
was  worked  by  criminals.  As  early  as  the  middle  of 
the   seventh   century   the    "Ecthesis"    of   Pseudo- 


POMPONAZZI 


227 


PONCE 


Epiphanius  (ed.  Gelzer,  535)  ranks  it  as  an  autocepha- 
lous  archdiocese,  which  title  it  probably  received  when 
Justinian  (Novellae,  xxix)  reorganized  the  province  of 
Paphlagonia.  In  the  eleventh  century  Pompeiopolis 
became  a  metropolitan  see  (Parthey , ' '  Hieroclis  Sy  nec- 
demus",  97)  and  it  was  still  such  in  the  fourteenth 
century  (Gelzer,  "  Ungedruckte-Texte  der  Notitiae 
episcopatuum",  608).  Shortly  afterwards  the  diocese 
was  suppressed.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christ.,  I,  557-60) 
mentions  fourteen  titulars  of  this  diocese,  the  last  of 
whom,  Gregory,  lived  about  1350.  Among  them  were 
Philadelphus,  at  the  Council  of  Nicaa  (325) ;  Sophro- 
nius,  at  that  of  Seleucia;  Arginus,  at  Ephesus  (431); 
iEtherius,  at  Chalcedon  (451);  Severus,  Constanti- 
nople (553);  Theodore,  Constantinople  (680-1); 
Maurianus,  Niceea  (787);  and  John,  Constantinople 
(869).  Pompeiopolis  is  now  called  Tach-Keupru 
(bridge  of  stone),  because  of  an  ancient  bridge  over  the 
Tatai-Tohai  or  Gueul-Irmak,  the  ancient  Ammias, 
and  is  in  the  sandjak  and  vilayet  of  Kastamouni 
twenty-five  miles  north-east  of  that  town.  It  has 
about  7000  inhabitants,  of  whom  700  are  Christians, 
the  majority  Armenian  schismatics. 

Ramsay,  Geographi/  of  Asia  Minor  (London,  1890),  192,  318; 
Andersom,  Stadia  Pontica  (Brussels,  1903),  93;  Cuinet,  La 
Turquie  d'Asie,  IV  (Paris,  1894),  484-7. 

S.  Vailh£. 

Pomponazzi  (Pomponatius),  Pibtko  (also  known 
as  Perbtto  on  account  of  his  small  stature),  philos- 
opher and  founder  of  the  Aristotelean-Averroistic 
School,  b.  at  Mantua,  1462;  d.  at  Bologna,  1525. 
He  taught  philosophy  at  Padua,  Ferrara,  and  Bologna. 
His  pupils  included  eminent  laymen  and  ecclesiastics, 
many  of  whom  afterwards  opposed  him.  At  Padua, 
since  1300,  the  chairs  of  philosophy  were  dominated  by 
Averroism,  introduced  there  especially  by  the  physician 
Pietro  d'Albanio  and  represented  then  by  Nicoletto 
Vernias  and  Alessandro  Achillini.  Pomponazzi  opposed 
that  system,  relying  on  the  commentaries  of  Alexander 
Aphrodisias  for  the  defence  of  the  Aristotelean  doc- 
trines on  the  soul  and  Providence.  His  chief  works 
are:  "Tractatus  de  immortalitate  animae"  (Bologna, 
1516),  in  defence  of  which  he  wrote  "Apologia"  (1517) 
and  "Defensorium"  (1519)  against  Contarini  and 
Agostino  Nifo;  "De  fato,  libero  arbitrio,  de  prae- 
destinatione  et  de  providentia  libri  quinque"  (1523), 
where  he  upholds  the  traditional  opinion  about  fate; 
"De  naturalium  effectuum  admirandorum  causis,  sive 
de  incantationibus"  (1520),  to  prove  that  in  Aris- 
totle's philosophy  miracles  are  impossible.  In  oppo- 
sition to  the  Averroists,  Pomponazzi  denied  that  the 
inlellectus  possihilis  is  one  and  the  same  in  all  men; 
but,  with  Alexander,  he  asserted  that  the  inlellectus 
agens  is  one  and  the  same,  being  God  Himself,  and 
consequently  immortal,  while  the  intellective  soul  is 
identical  with  the  sensitive  and  consequently  mortal, 
so  that,  when  separated  from  the  body  and  deprived 
of  the  imagination  which  supplies  its  object,  it  can  no 
longer  act  and  hence  must  perish  with  the  body;  fur- 
thermore, the  soul  without  its  vegetative  and  sensitive 
elements  would  be  imperfect;  apparitions  of  departed 
souls  are  fables  and  hallucinations.  If  religion  and 
human  law  presuppose  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  it 
is  because  this  deception  enables  men  more  easily  to 
refrain  from  evil.  Sometimes,  however,  Pomponazzi 
proposes  this  thesis  as  doubtful  or  problematic, 
or  only  contends  that  immortality  cannot  be  demon- 
strated philosophically,  faith  alone  affording  us  cer- 
tainty; and  even  on  this  point  he  expresses  his  willing- 
ness to  submit  to  the  Holy  See.  In  controversy  with 
Contarini  he  expressly  declares  that  reason  apodicti- 
cally  proves  the  mortality  of  the  soul,  and  that  faith 
alone  assures  us  of  the  contrary,  immortality  being, 
therefore,  undue  and  gratuitous,  or  supernatural. 
Pomponazzi's  book  was  publicly  consigned  to  the 
flames  at  Venice  by  order  of  the  doge ;  hence  in  book 
III  of  his  "Apologia"  he  defends  himself  against  the 


stigma  of  heresy.  The  refutation  by  Nifo,  already 
an  Averroist,  was  written  by  order  of  Leo  X.  In  the 
Fifth  Lateran  Council  (1513;  Sess.  VIII,  Const. 
"Apost.  Regiminis")  when  the  doctrine  was  con- 
demned, Pomponazzi's  name  was  not  mentioned,  his 
book  having  not  yet  been  published.  He  was  de- 
fended by  Cardinal  Bembo,  but  was  obhgcd  by  Leo  X 
in  1518  to  retract.  Nevertheless,  he  published  his 
"Defensorium"  against  Nifo,  which,  like  his  second 
and  third  apologies,  contains  the  most  bitter  invective 
against  his  opponents,  whereas  Nifo  and  Contarini 
refrained  from  personalities.  The  philosophy  of 
Pomponazzi  has  its  roots  in  ancient  and  medieval 
ideas.  Notable  among  his  disciples  and  defenders  are 
the  Neapolitan  Simone  Porta  and  Jul.  Caesar  Scaliger; 
the  latter  is  best  known  as  an  erudite  philosopher. 

FlORENTiNO,  Pietro  Pomponazzi  (Florence,  1868) ;  Podesta 
(Bologna,  1868) ;  Renan,  Averroe  et  I'Averroisme  (Paris,  1862) ; 
ScHAAP,  Conspectus  Historioe  philosophic  recentis  (Rome,  1910), 
103-50,  where  Pomponazzi's  doctrine  is  fully  expounded. 

U.  Benigni. 

Ponce,  John,  philosopher  and  theologian,  b. 
at  Cork,  1603,  d.  at  Paris,  1670.  At  an  early  age 
he  went  to  Belgium  and  entered  the  novitiate  of  the 
Irish  Franciscans  in  St.  Antony's  College,  Louvain. 
He  studied  philosophy  at  Cologne,  began  the  study  of 
theology  in  Lou- 
vain, under  Hugh 
Ward  and  John 
Colgan,  was 
called  by  Luke 
Wadding  to 
Rome,  and  ad- 
mitted 7  Sept., 
1625,  into  the 
College  of  St.  Isi- 
dore which  had 
just  been  founded 
for  the  education 
of  Irish  Francis- 
cans. After  re- 
ceiving his  de- 
grees he  was  ap- 
pointed to  teach 
philosophy  and, 
later,  theology  in 
St.  Isidore's.  He 
lectured  after- 
wards at  Lyons 
and  Paris,  where 
he  was  held  in 
great  repute  for 
his  learning.  In 
1643^  he  published  in  Rome  his  "Cursus  philoso- 
phise". Some  of  his  opinions  were  opposed  by 
Mastrius,  and  Ponce  replied  in  "Appendix  apolo- 
geticus"  (Rome,  1645),  in  which  he  says  that  although 
he  accepts  all  the  conclusions  of  Duns  Scotus,  he  does 
not  feel  called  upon  to  adopt  all  Sootus's  proofs. 
Mastrius  acknowledged  the  force  of  Ponce's  reasoning 
and  admitted  that  he  had  shed  hght  on  many  philo- 
sophical problems.  In  1652,  Ponce  published  "In- 
teger cursus  theologia;"  (Paris).  These  two  works 
explain  with  great  clearness  and  precision  the  teaching 
of  the  Scotistic  school.  In  1661,  he  pubUshed  at 
Paris  his  great  work,  "Commentarii  theologici  in 
quatuor  hbros  sententiarum " ,  called  by  Hurter  opus 
rarissimum.  Ponce  also  assisted  Luke  Wadding  in 
editing  the  works  of  Scotus.  Wadding  says  that  he 
was  endowed  with  a  powerful  and  subtle  intellect,  a 
great  facility  of  communicating  knowledge,  a  graceful 
style,  and  that  though  immersed  in  the  severer  studies 
of  philosophy  and  theology  he  was  an  ardent  student 
of  the  classics.  Ponce  succeeded  Father  Martin 
Walsh  in  the  government  of  the  Ludovisian  College 
at  Rome  for  the  education  of  Irish  secular  priests;  and 
for  some  time  he  filled  the  position  of  superior  of  St. 


Father  John  Ponce 
Fresco  in  the  College  of  St.  Isidore,  Rome 


PONCE 


228 


PONDICHERRY 


Isidore's.  He  had  a  passionate  love  of  his  country 
and  was  an  active  agent  in  Rome  of  the  Irish  Confed- 
erate CathoUcs.  When  dissensions  arose  among  the 
Confederates,  and  when  Richard  Sellings,  secretary 
to  the  Supreme  Council,  published  his  "Vindicis" 
(Paris,  1652),  attacking  the  Irish  Catholics  who  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  nuncio.  Father  Ponce  promptly 
answered  with  his  "Vindiciae  Eversae"  (Paris,  1652). 
He  had  already  warned  the  Confederates  not  to  trust 
the  RoyaHsts.  In  a  letter  (2nd  July,  1644)  to  the 
agent  of  the  Catholics,  Hugo  de  Burgo,  he  says:  "the 
English  report  that  the  king  will  not  give  satisfaction 
to  our  commissioners  (from  the  Confederates)  though 
he  keepe  them  in  expectation  and  to  delaie  them  for 
his  own  interest".  His  works  besides  those  men- 
tioned are  "Judicium  doctrinae  SS.  Augustini  et 
Thomas",  Paris,  1657;  "Scotus  Hiberniae  restitutus" 
[in  answer  to  Father  Angelus  a  S,  Francisco  (Mason), 
who  claimed  Scotus  as  an  Englishman];  " Deplorabilis 
populi  Hibernici  pro  religione,  rege  et  hbertate  status" 
(Paris,  1651). 

Waddingus-Sbaealea,  Scriptores  Ordinis  (Rome,  1806) ; 
Joannes  a  S.  Antonio,  BibHotheca  universa  Franciscana  (Madrid, 
1732);  Ware's  Works,  ed.  Hahhis  (Dublin,  1764);  Smith,  The 
Ancient  and  Present  State  of  the  County  and  City  of  Cork  (Cork, 
1815) ;  Brenan,  The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland  (Dublin, 
1864):  HuHTER,  Nomenclator;  Contemporary  History  of  Affairs  in 
Ireland,  etc.,  ed.  Gilbeht  (Dublin,  1880) ;  History  of  the  Irish  Con- 
federation and  War  in  Ireland,  ed.  Gilbert  (Dublin,  1891) ;  Hol- 
zapfel,  Geschichte  des  Franziskanerordens  (Freiburg,  1908);  Pa- 
TREM,  Tableau  synoptique  de  I'histoire  de  VOrdre  S^aphique  (Paris, 
1879) :  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Authors  (Philadelphia) ;  MSS. 
preserved  in  the  library  of  Franciscan  Convent,  Dublin,  and  in 
the  Irish  College  of  S.  Isidore,  Rome. 

Gregory  Cleabt. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  Juan,  explorer,  b.  at  San  Servas 
in  the  province  of  Campos,  1460;  d.  in  Cuba,  1521. 
He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  and  noble  family; 
the  surname  of  Le6n  was  acquired  through  the  mar- 
riage of  one  of  the  Ponces  to  Dona  Aldonza  de  Le6n, 
a  daughter  of  Alfonso  IX.  As  a  lad  Ponce  de  Le6n 
served  as  page  to  Pedro  Nunez  de  Guzmdn,  later  the 
tutor  of  the  brother  of  Charles  V,  the  Infante  Don 
Fernando.  In  1493,  Ponce  sailed  to  Hispaniola  (San 
Domingo)  with  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage,  an 
expedition  which  included  many  aristocratic  young 
men,  and  adventurous  noblemen  who  had  been  left 
without  occupation  after  the  fall  of  Granada.  When 
Nicolds  Ovando  came  to  Hispaniola  in  1502  as  gov- 
ernor, he  found  the  natives  in  a  state  of  revolt,  and 
in  the  war  which  followed,  Ponce  rendered  such  valu- 
able services  that  he  was  appointed  Ovando's  lieu- 
tenant with  headquarters  in  a  town  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  island.  A^^hile  here,  he  heard  from  the 
Indians  that  there  was  much  wealth  in  the  neigh- 
bouring Island  of  Boriquien  (Porto  Rico),  and  he 
asked  and  obtained  permission  to  visit  it  in  1508, 
where  he  discovered  many  rich  treasures;  for  his 
work  in  this  expedition  he  was  appointed  Adelantado 
or  Governor  of  Boriquien.  Having  reduced  the 
natives,  he  was  soon  afterward  removed  from  office, 
but  not  until  he  had  amassed  a  considerable  fortune. 
At  this  time  stories  of  Eastern  Asia  were  prevalent 
which  told  of  a  famous  spring  the  waters  of  which 
had  the  marvellous  virtue  of  restoring  to  youth  and 
vigour  those  who  drank  them.  Probably  the  Span- 
iards heard  from  the  Indians  tales  that  reminded 
them  of  this  Pons  Juvenlutis,  and  they  got  the  idea 
that  tins  fountain  was  situated  on  an  island  called 
Bimini  which  lay  to  the  north  of  Hispaniola. 

Ponce  obtained  from  Charles  V,  23  February,  1512, 
a  patent  authorizing  him  to  discover  and  people  the 
Island  of  Bimini,  giving  him  jurisdiction  over  the 
island  for  life,  and  bestowing  upon  him  the  title  of 
Adelantado.  On  3  March,  1513,  Ponce  set  out  from 
San  German  (Porto  Rico)  with  three  ships,  fitted 
out  at  his  own  expense.  Setting  his  course  in  a 
northwesterly  direction,  eleven  days  later  he  reached 
Guanahani,  where  Columbus  first  saw  land.    Continu- 


ing his  way,  on  Easter  Sunday  {Pascua  de  Flares), 
27  March,  he  came  within  sight  of  the  coast  which  he 
named  Florida  in  honour  of  the  day  and  on  account 
of  the  luxuriant  vegetation.  On  2  April  he  landed 
at  a  spot  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  present  site  of  St. 
Augustine  and  formally  took  possession  in  the  name 
of  the  Crown.  He  now  turned  back,  following  the 
coast  to  its  southern  extremity  and  up  the  west 
coast  to  latitude  27°  30',  and  then  returned  to  Porto 
Rico.  During  this  trip  he  had  several  encounters 
with  the  natives,  who  showed  great  courage  and  deter- 
mination in  their  attacks,  which  probably  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  Ponce  did  not  attempt  to  found  a 
settlement  or  penetrate  into  the  interior  in  search  of 
the  treasure  which  was  believed  to  be  hidden  there. 
Although  his  first  voyage  had  been  without  result 
as  far  as  the  acquisition  of  gold  and  slaves,  and  the 
discovery  of  the  fountain  of  youth  "  were  concerned. 
Ponce  determined  to  secure  possession  of  his  new 
discovery.  Through  his  friend,  Pedro  Nunez  de 
Guzman,  he  secured  a  second  grant  dated  27  Septem- 
ber, 1514,  which  gave  him  power  to  settle  the  Island 
of  Bimini  and  the  Island  of  Florida,  for  such  he 
thought  Florida  to  be.  In  1521  he  set  out  with  two 
ships  and  landing  upon  the  Florida  coast,  just  where, 
it  is  not  known,  he  was  furiously  attacked  by  the 
natives  while  he  was  building  houses  for  his  settlers. 
Finally  driven  to  re-embark,  he  set  sail  for  Cuba, 
where  he  died  of  the  wound  which  he  had  received. 

Herrara,  Decada  Primera  (Madrid,  1726) ;  OviEno,  Historia 
General  y  Natural  de  las  Indias  (Madrid,  1851) ;  Shea,  The 
Catholic  Church  in  Colonial  Days  (New  York,  1886);  Idem, 
Ancient  Florida  in  Narr.  and  Crit.  Hist.  Am.  (New  York,  1889) ; 
Harrisse,  Discovery  of  North  America  (London,  1892) ;  FiSK, 
Discovery  of  America  (New  York,  1892) ;  LowERT,  Spanish 
Settlements  in  the  U.  S.  (New  York,  1901). 

Ventura  Fuentes. 

Poncet,  Joseph  Anthony  de  la  Riviere,  mission- 
ary, b.  at  Paris,  7  May,  1610;  d.  at  Martinique,  18 
June,  1675.  He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  in  Paris 
at  nineteen,  was  a  brilliant  student  in  rhetoric  and 
philosophy,  pursued  his  studies  at  Clermont,  Rome, 
and  Rouen,  and  taught  at  Orleans  (1631-4).  In  1638 
he  met  Madame  de  la  Pettrie  and  accompanied  her  and 
Marie  de  I'lncarnation  to  Canada  in  the  following 
year.  He  was  sent  immediately  to  the  Huron  mission 
and  had  no  further  relations  with  Marie  de  I'lncarna- 
tion. In  1645  he  founded  an  Algonquin  mission  on 
the  Island  of  St.  Mary.  After  returning  to  Quebec  he 
was  seized  by  the  Iroquois;  he  was  being  tortured 
when  a  rescue  party  arrived  in  time  to  save  his  life. 
His  companion,  Mathurin  Franchelot,  was  burned  at 
the  stake.  In  1657,  as  he  became  involved  in  eccle- 
siastical disputes,  he  was  sent  back  to  France.  He 
held  the  position  of  French  penitentiary  at  Loreto 
and  later  was  sent  to  the  Island  of  Martinique,  where 
he  died. 

Jesuit  Relations,  ed.  Thwaites  (73  vols.,  Cleveland,  1896- 
1901);  Campbell,  Pioneer  Priests  of  North  America,  1  (New 
York,  1909),  61-74. 

J.  Zevely. 

Pondicherry,  Archdiocese  of  (Pondicheriana 
OR  Pudicheriana),  in  India,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  divided  on  the  north  from  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Madras  and  San  Thome  (Mylapore)  by  the 
River  Palar,  on  the  west  from  the  Diocese  of  Mysore 
by  the  River  Chunar  and  the  Mysore  civil  boundaries, 
and  from  the  Diocese  of  Coimbatore  by  the  River 
Cauvery ;  on  the  south  by  the  River  Vellar  from  the 
Diocese  of  Kumbakonam.  Besides  Pondicherry  itself, 
and  the  portion  of  British  India  contiguous  to  it,  the 
archdiocese  includes  all  the  smaller  outl3dng  French 
possessions,  namely  Karikal  and  Yanaon  on  the  east 
coast,  Mahe  on  the  west  coast,  and  Chandernagore  in 
Bengal.  The  total  Catholic  population  in  French 
territory  is  25,859,  the  rest,  out  of  a  total  of  143,125, 
belonging  to  the  North  and  South  Arcot,  Chingleput 
and  Salem  districts,  all  in  British  confines.    There  are 


PONTECORVO 


229 


PONTIAN 


78  churches  and  210  chapels,  served  by  102  priests  (78 
European  and  24  native).  The  diocese  is  under  the 
charge  of  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions,  Paris.  The 
archbishop's  residence,  cathedral  and  diocesan  semi- 
naries are  at  Pondicherry.  The  Fathers  are  assisted 
by  tour  congregations  of  women,  viz.,  of  the  Carmelite 
Order,  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary,  of  St.  Joseph,  and 
of  St.  Aloysius  Gonzaga. 

The  districts  covered  by  the  Pondicherry  Archdio- 
cese were  originally  comprised  within  the  padroado 
jurisdiction  of  San  ThomI,  but  mission-work  did  not 
extend  beyond  the  north-west  corner  near  San  Thom6, 
and  a  small  portion  in  the  south  which  lay  within  the 
limits  of  the  Madura  mission.  Pondicherry  itself  was 
only  a  village  till  some  shipwrecked  Frenchmen  under 
Francis  Martin  settled  there  in  1674  and  afterwards 
purchased  it  from  the  Raja  of  Vijayapur.  About  this 
time  some  French  Capuchins  arrived  to  take  care  of 
the  Europeans  in  the  new  settlement,  and  a  few  years 
later  (in  1690)  some  French  Jesuits  followed  and  began 
to  work  among  the  natives — both  under  Propaganda 
jurisdiction.  From  Pondicherry  the  Jesuits  gradually 
proceeded  inland  and  founded  what  was  called  the 
Carnatic  mission  about  1700.  On  the  suppression  of 
the  Jesuits  in  1773  the  whole  field  was  entrusted  to  the 
Paris  Seminary  for  Foreign  Missions,  including  the 
Madura  districts,  where  the  disbanded  Jesuits  con- 
tinued to  work  under  the  new  regime  till  they  grad- 
ually died  out.  In  1836  (Brief  of  Gregory  XVI,  8 
July)  the  mission  of  Pondicherry  was  made  into  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  che  Coromandel  coast.  At  the 
same  time  the  Jesuits  (who  had  been  restored  in  1814) 
were  placed  once  more  in  charge  of  the  Madura  mis- 
sion, excepting  the  portion  north  of  the  Cauvery  River, 
which  was  retained  by  Pondicherry.  In  1850  the 
Vicariate  of  the  Coromandel  coast  was  divided  and 
two  new  vicariates  erected — those  of  Mysore  and 
Coimbatore.  On  the  establishment  of  the  hierarchy 
in  1886,  Pondicherry  was  elevated  into  an  archbishop- 
ric with  Mysore  and  Coimbatore  as  suffragan  bishop- 
rics as  well  as  the  Diocese  of  Malacca  outside  India. 
Finally  in  1899  the  southern  portion  of  the  archdiocese 
was  separated  and  made  into  the  (suffragan)  Diocese 
of  Kumbakonam — the  whole  province  remaining  un- 
der the  same  missionary  Society. 

Among  its  prelates  were:  Pierre  Brigot,  1776-91 
(superior  with  episcopal  orders);  Nicholas  Cham- 
penois,  1791-1810;  Louis  Charles  Auguste  Herbert, 
1811-36;  Clement  Bonnand,  1836-61  (first  vicar 
Apostolic);  Joseph  Isidore  Godelle,  1861-67;  Francis 
Jean  Laouenan,  1868-92  (became  first  archbishop  in 
1886);  Joseph  Adolphus  Gandy,  1892-1909;  Elias 
Jean  Joseph  Morel,  present  archbishop  from  1909. 
Its  educational  institutions  consist  of  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Pondicherry  with  40  students  and  Petit 
Seminaire  with  1102  pupils;  St.  Joseph's  High  School, 
Cuddalore,  founded  1868,  with  819  students,  including 
250  boarders,  with  branch  school  at  Tirupapuliyur 
(founded  1883),  with  289  pupils;  at  Tindavanam,  St. 
Joseph's  Industrial  School,  under  the  Brothers  of  St. 
Gabriel,  with  50  pupils.  Eighty  other  schools,  mostly 
elementary,  in  various  parts.  Congregation  of  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph  (80  European  and  48  native  sisters)  have 
for  girls,  boarding-  and  day-schools,  orphanages,  and 
asylums  at  Pondicherry,  Karikal,  Mahe,  Chander- 
nagore,  Yercaud,  Tindivanum,  Ami,  Cheyur,  and 
AUadhy.  Native  Carmelite  nuns  have  convents  at 
Pondicherry  and  Karikal  with  45  sisters.  Native 
nuns  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary,  established  1844 
under  the  rules  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi,  with  23  professed  nuns,  have  schools  at  Pondi- 
cherry, Cuddalore,  Karikal,  Salem,  and  eleven  other 
places,  with  total  of  1626  pupils.  The  Native  Nuns  of 
St.  Louis  or  Aloysius  Gonzaga,  40  sisters,  have  a 
school  and  orphanage  at  Pondicherry  and  orphan- 
age at  Vellore.  Its  charitable  institutions  include  alto- 
gether 20  orphanages  for  boys  and  girls  with  534 


orphans,  besides  100  orphans  in  care  of  Christian 
families;  4  asylums  for  Eurasians,  etc.  2  hospitals 
(Pondicherry  and  Karikal),  besides  homes  for  the 
aged. 

Madras  Catholic  Directory  (1910) ;  Launay,  Histoirc  Genk-ale  de 
la  SociHl  des  Missions  Etrangires;   Idem,  Atlas  des  Missions. 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Pontecorvo.  See  Aquino,  Sora  and  Pontb- 
coEvo,  Diocese  of. 

Pontefract  Priory,  Yorkshire,  England,  a  Clu- 
niac  monastery  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
founded  about  1090  by  Robert  de  Lacy,  as  a  depend- 
ency of  the  Abbey  of  la  Charite-sur-Loire,  which  sup- 
phed  the  first  monks.  Two  charters  of  the  founder  are 
given  in  Dugdale.  In  a  charter  of  Henry  de  Lacy,  son 
of  Robert,  the  church  is  spoken  of  as  dedicated  to  St. 
Mary  and  St.  John.  These  donations  were  finally  con- 
firmed to  the  monastery  by  a  Bull  of  Pope  Celestine 
(whether  II  or  III  is  uncertain),  which  also  conferred 
certain  ecclesiastical  privileges  on  the  priory.  In  the 
Visitation  Records  it  had  sixteen  monks  in  1262,  and 
twenty-seven  in  1279.  At  the  latter  date  a  prior  of  ex- 
ceptional ability  was  in  charge  of  the  house,  and  he  is 
commended  for  his  zeal  during  the  twelve  years  of  his 
rule,  which  had  resulted  in  a  reduction  of  the  monas- 
tery's debts  from  3200  marks  to  350.  A  later,  un- 
dated, visitation  return  gives  the  average  number  of 
monks  at  twenty.  Duckett  prints  a  letter  from  Ste- 
phen, Prior  of  Pontefract  in  1323,  to  Pierre,  Abbot  of 
Cluny,  explaining  that  he  had  been  prevented  from 
making  a  visitation  of  the  English  Cluniac  houses, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  the  king  and  court  at  Ponte- 
fract, which  prevented  his  leaving  home.  In  the  pre- 
vious year  (1322)  Thomas,  Earl  of  Lancaster,  had 
been  beheaded  at  Pontefract,  and  his  body  buried  in 
the  priory  church  "on  the  right  hand  of  the  high  al- 
tar' .  Rumour  declared  that  miracles  had  been 
wrought  at  the  tomb.  This  attempt  to  regard  the  earl 
as  a  martyr  aroused  the  anger  of  Edward  II,  who  im- 
pounded the  offerings  (Rymer,  Foedera,  II,  ii,  726). 
However,  not  long  after,  a  chantry  dedicated  to  St. 
Thomas  was  built  on  the  site  of  the  execution  and,  in 
1343,  license  was  given  to  the  prior  and  Convent  of 
Pontefract  "to  allow  Masses  and  other  Divine  Ser- 
vices" to  be  celebrated  there. 

In  the  valor  ecclesiasticus  of  26  Henry  VIII,  the 
yearly  revenue  of  the  priory  is  entered  as  £472 
16s.  lOi^d.  gross,  and  £337  14s.  8Hd.  clear  value. 
The  last  prior,  James  Thwayts,  with  seven  brethren 
and  one  novice  surrendered  the  monastery  to  the  king, 
23  November,  1540,  the  prior  being  assigned  a  pen- 
sion of  fifty  pounds  per  annum.  The  Church  and 
buildings  have  been  completely  destroyed,  but  the 
site  is  still  indicated  by  the  name  of  Monk-hill. 

Dugdale,  Monasticon  Anglicanum,  V  (London,  1846),  118-31; 
Duckett,  Charters  and  Records  .  .  .  of  the  Abbey  of  Cluni  (pri- 
vately printed,  1888),  passim,  esp.  II,  150-.54;  Idem,  Record  Evi- 
dences .  .  of  the  A  bbey  of  Cluni  (privately  printed,  1886) ;  Idem, 
Visitations  of  English  Cluniac  Foundations  (London,  1890); 
BooTHBOYD,  History  of  Pontefract  (Pontefract,  1807) ;  Fox,  Hts- 
tory  of  Pontefract  (Pontefract,  1827) . 

G.  Roger  Hudlbston. 

Pontian,  Saint,  pope,  dates  of  birth  and  death  un- 
known. The  "Liber  Pontificalis "  (ed.  Duchesne,  I, 
145)  gives  Rome  as  his  native  city  and  calls  his  father 
Calpurnius.  With  him  begins  the  brief  chronicle  of 
the  Roman  bishops  of  the  third  century,  of  which  the 
author  of  the  Liberian  Catalogue  of  the  popes  made 
use  in  the  fourth  century  and  which  gives  more 
exact  data  for  the  lives  of  the  popes.  According  to 
this  account  Pontian  was  made  pope  21  July,  230, 
and  reigned  until  235.  The  schism  of  Hippolytus  con- 
tinued during  his  episcopate;  towards  the  end  of  his 
pontificate  there  was  a  reconciUation  between  the 
schismatic  party  and  its  leader  with  the  Roman 
bishop.  After  the  condemnation  of  Origen  at  Alexan- 
dria (231-2),  a  synod  was  held  at  Rome,  according 


PONTIANUS 


230 


PONTIFICAL 


to  Jerome  (Epist.  XXXII,  iv)  and  Rufinus  (Apol. 
contra  Hieron.,  II,  xx),  which  concurred  in  the  deci- 
sions of  the  Alexandrian  synod  against  Origen ;  with- 
out doubt  this  synod  was  held  by  Pontian  (Hefele, 
Konzihengesohichte,  2nd  ed.,  I,  106  sq.)-  In  235  in 
the  reign  of  Maximinus  the  Thraoian  began  a  perse- 
cution directed  chiefly  against  the  heads  of  the 
Church.  One  of  its  first  victims  was  Pontian,  who 
with  Hippolytus  was  banished  to  the  unhealthy  island 
of  Sardinia.  To  make  the  election  of  a  new  pope 
possible,  Pontian  resigned  28  Sept.,  235,  the  Liberian 
Catalogue  says  "discinctus  est".  Consequently 
Anteros  was  elected  in  his  stead.  Shortly  before  this 
or  soon  afterwards  Hippolytus,  who  had  been  ban- 
ished with  Pontian,  became  reconciled  to  the  Roman 
Church,  and  with  this  the  schism  he  had  caused  came 
to  an  end.  How  much  longer  Pontian  endured  the 
sufferings  of  exile  and  harsh  treatment  in  the  Sardin- 
ian mines  is  unknown.  According  to  old  and  no 
longer  existing  Acts  of  martyrs,  used  by  the  author 
of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  he  died  in  consequence  of 
the  privations  and  inhuman  treatment  he  had  to  bear. 
Pope  Fabian  (236-50)  had  the  remains  of  Pontian 
and  Hippolytus  brought  to  Rome  at  a  later  date  and 
Pontian  was  buried  on  13  August  in  the  papal  crypt 
of  the  Catacomb  of  Callistus.  In  1909  the  original 
epitaph  was  found  in  the  crypt  of  St.  Cecilia,  near  the 
papal  crypt.  The  epitaph,  agreeing  with  the  other 
known  epitaphs  of  the  papal  crypt,  reads :  IIONTIANOC. 
EniCK.  MAPTTP  (Pontianus,  Bishop,  Martyr).  The 
word  fidpTvp  was  added  later  and  is  written  in  ligature 
[cf.  A^'ilpert,  "Die  Papstgraber  unddie  CaciUengruft 
in  der  Katakombe  deshl.  Kalixtus"  (Freiburg,  1909), 
1  sq.,  17  sq.,  Plate  II  ].  He  is  placed  under  13  Aug.  in 
the  list  of  the  "  Depositiones  martyrum  "  in  the  chron- 
ographia  of  354.  The  Roman  Martyrology  gives  his 
feast  on  19  Nov. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Duchesne,  I,  Introd.,  xciv  sq.,  145* sq.; 
De  Rossi,  Roma  sotterranea,  II,  73  sqq. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Pontianus,  Catacomb  op.  See  Cemetery, 
sub-title.   Early    Roman    Christian  Cemeteries. 

Pontifical  Colleges. — In  earlier  times  there  existed 
in  Europe  outside  of  the  city  of  Rome  a  large  num- 
ber of  colleges,  seminaries,  and  houses  of  the  regu- 
lar orders  which,  in  one  form  or  other,  were  placed 
under  the  Holy  See  or  under  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation de  propaganda  fide.  Of  these  only  a  few 
remain.  A  list  of  these  institutions  is  given,  with 
emphasis  on  the  fact  that  their  object  was  to  maintain 
the  Faith  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland: 
The  English  College  of  St.  Albans  at  Valladolid 
(1589);  the  English  College,  Lisbon  (1622);  the 
Scotch  College,  Valladolid  (1627);  the  Irish  College, 
Paris  (1592);  the  Enghsh  colleges  at  Douai  (1568- 
1795),  Madrid-Seville  (1592-1767),  San  Lucar 
(1517),  Saint-Omer  (1594r-1795),  Esquerchin  (1750- 
93),  Paris  (1611);  the  Benedictine  institutions 
at  Douai  (1605-1791),  Saint-Malo  (1611-61), 
Paris  (1615-1793),  Lambsprug  (1643-1791);  the 
house  of  the  Discalced  Carmelites  at  Tongres  (1770- 
93);  the  convent  of  the  Carthusians  at  Nieuport 
(1559  at  Bruges,  1626-1783  at  Nieuport);  the 
Dominican  monasteries  at  Bornheim  (1658-1794) 
and  at  Louvain  (1680-1794);  the  monastery  of  the 
Franciscan  Recollets  at  Douai  (1614-1793);  the 
Jesuit  houses  at  Saint-Omer  (1583-1773),  Watten 
(1570,  or  perhaps  1600,  to  1773),  Liege  (1616-1773), 
Ghent  (1022-1773).  Two  of  the  Jesuit  institutions, 
Saint-Omer  and  Lidge,  existed  as  secular  colleges  up 
to  1793.  Most  of  the  other  monastic  foundations 
emigrated  later  to  England,  where  several  still 
exist. 

At  the  present  time  the  matter  is  essentially  dif- 
ferent. In  speaking  of  pontifical  colleges  the  dis- 
tinction must  be  made  between  those  which  have 


explicitly  received  the  honorary  title  Pontifical  and 
those  which  can  be  included  in  such  only  in  a  general 
sense,  because  they  are  directly  dependent  upon  a 
central  authority  at  Rome.  It  is  a  matter  of  in- 
difference whether  the  institutions  are  called  semina- 
ries or  colleges,  as  no  material  difference  exists.  There 
are  only  three  institutions  with  the  title  pontifical: 

(1)  The    Pontifical    Seminary    of    Kandy,    Ceylon; 

(2)  The  Pontifical  Seminary  of  Scutari  (Collegium 
Albaniense);  (3J  The  Pontifical  College  Josephinum 
at  Columbus,  Ohio,  U.  S.  A.  The  remaining  sixteen 
colleges  at  present  under  consideration  do  not  possess 
this  designation,  which  is  a  merely  honorary  title. 
The  clergy  are  trained  for  the  regular  cure  of  souls 
at:  the  American  colleges  at  Columbus  (Ohio)  and 
Louvain;  the  English,  Irish,  and  Scotch  institu- 
tions at  Lisbon,  Valladolid,  and  Paris;  the  seminary 
at  Athens;  and  the  college  at  Scutari;  the  re- 
maining eleven  institutions  are  employed  in  training 
missionaries.  There  are  in  Europe  the  Leonine 
Seminary  of  Athens ;  the  Albanian  College  of  Scutari ; 
the  English  colleges  at  Valladolid  and  Lisbon;  the 
Scotch  College,  Valladolid;  the  Irish  College,  Paris; 
the  Seminary  for  Foreign  Missions,  Paris;  the  semi- 
nary at  Lyons;  All  Hallows  College,  Dublin;  St. 
Joseph's  Seminary,  Mill  Hill,  London;  St.  Joseph's 
Rozendaal,  Holland;  the  American  College  at 
Louvain;  St.  Joseph's  at  Brixen,  in  the  Tyrol;  the 
missionary  institute  at  Verona;  the  Seminary  for 
Foreign  Missions  at  Milan;  and  the  Brignole-Sale 
College  at  Genoa.  In  America  there  is  the  Jose- 
phinum College  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  in  Asia  the 
seminary  at  Kandy,  Ceylon,  and  the  General  College 
at  Pulo-Pinang.  Formerly  all  these  institutions 
were  under  the  supreme  direction  of  the  Propaganda 
even  when,  by  an  agreement  or  by  the  terms  of 
foundation,  the  appointment  of  the  rectors  of  some 
institutions  belonged  to  some  other  authority. 
Since  the  publication  of  the  Constitution  "Sapienti 
consilio"  (  29  June,  1908),  which  considerably  limited 
the  powers  of  the  Propaganda,  it  still  has  under  its 
charge,  according  to  the  letter  of  the  under-secre- 
tary  of  the  Propaganda  of  11  January,  1911,  ipso 
jure  the  institutions  at  Kandy,  Athens,  Genoa,  and 
Pulo-Pinang;  later  decisions  of  the  Consistorial 
Congregation  have  added  to  these  the  seminary  for 
foreign  missions  at  Paris,  as  well  as  the  seminaries  at 
Milan  and  Lyons.  All  other  houses,  seminaries,  and 
colleges  are,  therefore,  placed  under  the  regular 
jurisdiction  either  of  the  bishops  of  the  country,  or  of 
a  committee  of  these  bishops,  or  of  the  diplomatic 
representative  of  the  Holy  See  in  the  respective 
country,  when  the  cardinal  secretary  of  state  has  not 
reserved  to  himself  the  immediate  supervision  of 
certain  institutions.  Some  of  the  institutions  men- 
tioned no  longer  belong,  strictly  speaking,  in  the 
present  category;  but  it  seems  advisable  not  to 
exclude  them,  because  the  transfer  is  of  recent  date 
and  they  are  generally  regarded  as  papal  institutions 
in  a  broader  sense.  Their  former  dependence  upon 
the  Propaganda  is  best  shown  by  the  detailed  men- 
tion of  them  in  the  last  handbook  of  this  congrega- 
tion, "Missiones  CatholicEe  cura  S.  Congregationis 
de  Propaganda  Fide  descripts  anno  1907"  (Rome, 
1907),  pp.  831-49.  This  is  also  explicitly  stated  in 
the  letter  referred  to  above.  Ten  of  these  institu- 
tions are  in  charge  of  secular  priests.  The  general 
seminary  at  Pulo-Pinang  is  under  the  care  of  a  con- 
gregation of  secular  priests  located  at  Paris,  the  Paris 
Society  for  Foreign  Missions.  The  Congregation 
of  the  Mission  (Lazarists)  conduct  the  Irish  College 
at  Paris,  All  Hallows  at  Dublin,  and  the  Brignole- 
Sale  College  at  Genoa;  the  Society  of  St.  Joseph  has 
charge  of  the  institutions  at  Mill  Hill,  Rozendaal, 
and  Brixen;  the  Pontifical  Seminary  of  Kandy  and 
the  Pontifical  College  of  Scutari  were  transferred 
to  the  Society  of  Jesus;    the  Veronese  Institute  is 


PONTIFICALE 


231 


PONTIFICALIA 


under  the  care  of  the  Sons  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus,  for  African  Missions. 

Pontifical  College  Josephinum  at  Columbus,  Ohio, 
founded  at  Pommery  (1875)  by  Joseph  Jessing  as  an 
orphan  asylum,  was  transferred  to  Columbus  in 
1877.  In  1888  a  high-school,  in  which  the  sons  of 
poor  parents  of  German  descent  could  be  prepared 
for  philosophical  and  theological  studies,  was  added. 
The  philosophical  faculty  was  established  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  later  the  theological  faculty.  In 
1892  Jessing  transferred  his  college  to  the  Holy 
See,  and  it  became  a  pontifical  institution  on  12 
December,  1892.  The  college  has  developed  rapidly 
and  its  financial  basis  is  substantial  and  steadily  in- 
creasing. The  priests  educated  there  are  under 
■obligation  to  engage  in  diocesan  parish  work  in  the 
United  States.  The  entire  training  of  the  students 
is  at  the  expense  of  the  institution  and  is  bilingual, 
German  and  English.  The  number  of  scholarships 
is  now  one  hundred  and  eighteen,  but  it  is  not  com- 
plete. By  a  decree  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Con- 
sistory (29  July,  1909),  the  institution  was  to  remain 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Propaganda  only  for 
matters  relating  to  property,  etc.  otherwise  being 
dependent  upon  the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory. 
By  a  decree  of  the  same  congregation,  18  June,  1910, 
all  priests  ordained  in  future  in  the  Josephinum  are 
to  be  assigned  to  the  various  dioceses  by  the  Apostolic 
Delegate  in  Washington,  D.  C.  For  the  American 
College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  see  American 
College,  The,  At  Louvain.  For  the  Irish  College 
at  Paris  see  Irish  Colleges  on  the  Continent.  The 
English  College  at  Valladolid  (St.  Albans)  was  founded 
through  the  co-operation  of  the  celebrated  Jesuit  Robert 
Personswith  Philip  II.  Its  purpose  was  to  aid  in  saving 
the  Catholic  Church  in  England.  Clement  VIII  con- 
firmed the  foundation  by  a  Bull  of  25  April,  1592. 
In  1767  the  English  colleges  at  Madrid  and  Seville 
were  united  with  this  institution.  The  English 
College  at  Lisbon  was  established  by  a  Portuguese 
nobleman  Pedro  do  Continho  before  1622  and  was  con- 
firmed on  22  September,  1622,  by  Gregory  XV,  and 
on  14  October,  1627,  by  Urban  VIII.  The  Scotch 
College  at  Valladolid  was  first  established  in  1627  at 
Madrid,  where  the  Scotch  founder,  William  Semple, 
and  his  Spanish  wife  Maria  de  Ledesma  lived.  In 
1767  the  property  of  the  college  fell  to  the  Irish  Col- 
lege at  Alcales  de  Henares,  but  in  1771  was  restored  to 
the  Scotch  College,  which  got  a  new  lease  of  fife  by 
its  transfer  to  Valladofid. 

For  the  College  of  All  Hallows  at  Dublin,  see  All 
Hallows  College.  St.  Joseph's  Seminary  at 
Mill  Hill,  London,  founded  by  Cardinal  Vaughan  in 
1886,  belongs  to  the  Society  of  St.  Joseph;  it  pre- 
pares missionaries  for  the  foreign  field.  Connected 
with  it  are  the  two  institutions  at  Rozendaal  in 
Holland  and  at  Brixen  in  the  T3T0I.  T?he  Papal 
Seminary  at  Kandy,  Ceylon,  a  general  seminary  for 
training  native  Indian  priests,  was  founded  and 
endowed  by  Leo  XIII  in  1893,  and  is  under  the  im- 
mediate supervision  of  the  delegate  Apostolic  for 
Eastern  India.  The  Papal  Albanian  College  at 
Scutari  was  founded  in  1858  with  money  given  by  the 
Austrian  Government,  which  had  inherited  from  the 
Venetian  Republic  the  duty  of  protecting  the  Chris- 
tians in  Albania.  Soon  after  its  erection  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Turks.  The  new  building  (ready  for 
use  in  1862)  serves  also  for  training  Servian  and 
Macedonian  candidates  for  the  priesthood.  The 
Austrian  Government  has  endowed  twenty-four 
scholarships  and  the  Propaganda  ten.  The  Leonine 
Seminary  of  Athens  was  founded  by  Leo  XIII  on 
20  November,  1901,  to  train  Greeks  for  the  Latin 
priesthood.  The  Seminary  at  Milan  for  Foreign 
Missions  was  founded  in  1850.  The  Seminary  at 
Lyons  for  African  Missions,  founded  in  1856,  is 
connected  with  four  Apostolic  schools ;  it  has  laboured 


with  great  success  in  Africa.  The  Brignole-Sale 
College,  founded  in  1855  by  the  Marquis  Antonio 
Brignole-Sale  and  his  wife  Arthemisia,  was  confirmed 
by  Pius  IX.  It  has  eight  free  scholarships  for 
students  from  the  dioceses  of  Liguria,  and  is  con- 
ducted by  the  Lazarist  Fathers  for  the  training  of 
missionaries.  The  Seminary  of  Paris,  founded  in 
1663,  for  training  men  for  the  foreign  mission  field, 
is  carried  on  by  an  organization  of  secular  priests. 
It  is  the  largest  institution  of  this  kind,  and  at  the 
present  time  (1911)  nearly  1500  of  its  graduates  are 
missionaries.  The  General  College  at  Pulo-Pinang  for 
training  a  native  clergy  for  Eastern  Asia  was  founded 
by  the  seminary  at  Paris.  The  Veronese  Institute 
at  Verona  founded  in  1867  for  missons  among  the 
negroes  is  at  present,  after  many  misfortunes  and 
disappointments,  in  a  fairly  flourishing  condition. 
For  the  sake  of  completeness  there  might  be  added  to 
this  list  the  seminary  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary  at  Scheut  near  Brussels,  the  Maison- 
CarriSe  of  the  White  Fathers,  in  Algiers,  and  the  in- 
stitutions of  the  Missionaries  of  Steyl  at  Steyl, 
Heiligkreuz,  St.  Wendel,  St.  Gabriel  (and  Rome). 
These,  however,  are  to  be  regarded  rather  as  monastic 
novitiates  than  as  seminaries.  The  seminaries  es- 
tablished in  earlier  times  at  Naples,  Marseilles,  and 
other  places  for  the  Asiatic  peoples  have  either  dis- 
appeared or  the  foundations  have  been  diverted  to 
other  purposes. 

Of  the  large  bibliography  for  the  English,  Irish,  and  Scotch 
institutions  we  may  cite  the  important  work  by  Petrb,  Notices 
of  the  English  Colleges  and  Convents,  Established  on  the  Continent, 
after  the  Dissolution  of  Religious  Houses  in  England,  ed.  Husen- 
BETH  (Norwich,  1849),  issued  for  private  circulation  only.  For 
most  of  the  other  institutions  there  are  only  scattered  notes, 
annual  reports,  the  Missiones  Catholicte  already  mentioned,  and 
articles  in  works  of  a  general  character.  Catalogus  omnium 
ccBnohioTwm  pertinentium  ad  subditos  Regis  Anglice  in  Belgio  in 
BojANTjs,  Innocent  XI,  Sa  correspondance  avec  ses  nonces  1676-9, 
I,  221-2,  gives  the  most  complete  details  concerning  names  and 
personnel  of  the  English  colleges.  Cappello,  De  Curia  Romana 
juxtaTieformation  em  a  Pio  X  sapientissimo  inductam,  I  (Rome, 
1911),  248-53,  where  all  the  new  rules  are  discussed  at  length. 

Paul  Maria  Baumgarten. 

Pontificale  (Pontificale  Bomanum),  a  liturgical 
book  which  contains  the  rites  for  the  performance  of 
episcopal  functions  (e.  g.  conferring  of  confirmation 
and  Holy  orders),  with  the  exception  of  Mass  and 
Divirfe  Office.  It  is  practically  an  episcopal  ritual, 
containing  formularies  and  rubrics  which  existed  in 
the  old  Sacramentaries  and  "Ordines  Romani",  and 
were  gradually  collected  together  to  form  one  volume 
for  the  greater  convenience  of  the  officiating  bishop. 
Such  collections  were  known  under  the  names  of 
"Liber  Sacramentorum",  "Liber  Officialis",  "Liber 
Pontificalis",  "Ordinarium  Episcopate",  "Benedic- 
tionale",  etc.  Among  these  medieval  manuscript  vol- 
umes perhaps  the  most  ancient  and  most  important 
for  hturgical  study  is  the  Pontificale  of  Egbert,  Arch- 
bishop of  York  (732-6),  which  in  many  respects  re- 
sembles the  present  Pontifical.  The  first  printed  edi- 
tion, prepared  by  John  Burchard  and  Augustine 
Patrizi  Piccolomini,  papal  masters  of  ceremonies,  was 
puWished  (1485)  in  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  VIII. 
Clement  VIII  pubhshed  a  corrected  and  official  edi- 
tion in  1596.  In  his  constitution  "Ex  quo  in  Ecclesia 
Dei"  he  declared  this  Pontifical  obligatory,  forbade 
the  use  of  any  other,  and  prohibited  any  modification 
or  addition  to  it  without  papal  permission.  Urban 
VIII  and  Benedict  XIV  had  it  revised  and  made  some 
additions  to  it,  and  finally  Leo  XIII  caused  a  new 
typical  edition  to  be  published  in  1888.  (See  Litur- 
gical Books.) 

Catalanus,  Pontificale  Bomanum  (Paris,  1850),  an  important 
commentary;    Zaccabia,  Bibliotheca  Ritualis  (Rome,  1781). 

J.    F.    GoGGIN. 

Pontificalia  (Pontificals),  the  collective  name 
given  for  convenience  sake  to  those  insignia  of  the 
episcopal  order  which  of  right  are  worn  by  bishops 


PONTIFICAL 


232 


PONTIFICAL 


alone.  In  its  broader  sense  the  term  may  be  taken  to 
include  all  the  items  of  attire  proper  to  bishops,  even 
those  belonging  to  their  civil  or  choir  dress,  for  exam- 
ple the  cappa  magna,  or  the  hat  with  its  green  cord  and 
lining.  But  more  strictly  and  accurately,  rubricians 
limit  the  pontificals  to  those  ornaments  which  a  prel- 
ate wears  in  celebrating  pontifically.  The  pontificals 
common  to  all  are  enumerated  by  Pius  VII  in  his  con- 
stitution "Decet  Romanes"  (4  July,  1823),  and  are 
eight  in  number:  buskins,  sandals,  gloves,  dalmatic, 
tunicle,  ring,  pectoral  cross,  and  mitre.  When  abbots, 
prothonotaries  apostolic,  and  in  some  cases  canons,  re- 
ceive by  indult  from  the  Holy  See  the  privilege  of 
celebrating  cum  ponlificalibus,  these  eight  ornaments 
are  meant.  The  use  of  them  is  ordinarily  restricted — 
for  abbots  to  their  own  monastery  or  places  within 
their  jurisdiction,  for  canons  to  their  own  church,  and 
for  prothonotaries  to  those  places  for  which  the  ordi- 
nary gives  his  consent.  Moreover,  while  bishops  and 
cardinals  may  wear  most  of  these  things  in  all  solemn 
ecclesiastical  functions,  those  who  enjoy  them  by 
papal  indult  may  only  exercise  this  privilege  in  the 
celebration  of  Mass.  Several  other  restrictions  dis- 
tinguish the  pontifical  Mass  of  such  inferior  prelates 
from  that  of  bishops  or  cardinals.  The  former  are  not 
allowed  to  bless  the  people  as  they  pass  through  the 
church ;  they  have  no  right  to  a  seventh  candle  on  the 
altar;  they  vest  in  the  sacristy  and  not  in  the  sanctu- 
ary; they  do  not  use  f aid-stool,  or  bugia,  or  gremiale, 
or  crosier,  or  Canon,  and  they  are  attended  by  no 
assistant  priest;  they  do  not  say  "Pax  vobis",  and 
they  only  wash  their  hands  once,  i.  e.  at  the  offertory. 
The  legislation  upon  this  subject  is  to  be  found  in  the 
above-mentioned  constitution  of  Pius  VII,  supple- 
mented by  the  "Apostolicae  Sedis  officium"  of  Pius 
IX  (26  Aug.,  1872)  and  the  Motu  Proprio  of  Pius  X, 
"Inter  multiphces"  (21  Feb.,  1905).  With  regard 
to  the  ornaments  just  mentioned  and  other  such  pon- 
tificals or  quasi-pontificals  as  the  manteletta,  moz- 
zetta,  rationale,  rochet,  etc.  nearly  all  will  be  found 
separately  treated  in  their  alphabetical  order.  The  bus- 
kins (caligcB)  are  large  silk  leg-coverings  put  on  over  the 
ordinary  stockings  and  gaiters  and  tied  with  a  ribbon. 
The  gremiale  is  simply  an  apron  of  silk  or  linen  which 
is  spread  over  a  bishop's  lap  when  he  is  seated  or  using 
the  holy  oils.  The  "Canon"  is  a  liturgical  book  con- 
taining nothing  but  the  Canon  of  the  Mass,  which  is 
used  instead  of  the  altar  cards  when  a  bishop  pon- 
tificates. The  pallium  and  the  archiepiscopal  cross 
may  also  be  mentioned,  but  they  form  ordinarily  the 
special  insignia  of  an  archbishop. 

The  practice  of  conceding  the  use  of  certain  of  the 
pontificals  to  prelates  of  inferior  rank  is  one  of  ancient 
date.  A  grant  of  dalmatic  and  sandals  to  the  Abbot 
of  Metz  is  recorded  in  the  year  970  (Jaffe,  "Regesta", 
374).  In  the  eleventh  century  Pope  Leo  IX  granted 
the  use  of  the  mitre  to  the  Canons  of  Besangon  and  of 
Bamberg  (Jaff^,  4249  and  4293) .  The  earliest  known 
concession  of  the  mitre  to  the  ruler  of  a  monastic 
house  is  that  made  to  Abbot  Egelsinus  of  St.  Augus- 
tine's, Canterbury,  in  1603.  At  a  somewhat  later 
date  the  grants  of  pontifical  insignia  to  monastic 
superiors  and  other  prelates  are  of  constant  occurrence 
in  the  papal  "Regesta"  To  obtain  such  distinctions 
became  a  point  of  rivalry  among  all  the  greater  abbeys, 
the  more  so  that  such  concessions  were  by  no  means 
always  made  in  the  same  form  or  with  the  same  am- 
pUtude,  while  subsequent  indults  often  extended  the 
terms  of  previous  grants.  Thus  while,  as  noticed 
above,  the  concession  of  the  mitre  to  St.  Augustine's, 
Canterbury,  is  one  of  the  earliest  instances  on  record, 
the  use  of  the  tunicle  and  dalmatic  at  High  Mass  was 
only  granted  to  the  same  abbey  by  Gregory  IX  in 
1238  (Bliss,  "Papal  Registers",  I,  170).  In  1251 
Innocent  IV  conceded  to  the  Prior  of  Coventry  and 
his  successor  the  use  of  the  ring  only.  It  might  be 
worn  at  all  times  and  in  all  places  except  in  celebrating 


Mass  (ibid.,  268).  To  the  Prior  of  Winchester,  on  the 
other  hand,  only  three  years  later,  the  same  pope, 
Innocent  IV,  granted  a  much  more  ample  concession 
in  virtue  of  which  he  might  use  mitre,  ring,  tunic, 
dalmatic,  gloves,  and  sandals,  might  bless  chalices, 
altar  cloths,  etc.,  might  confer  the  first  tonsure  as  well 
as  the  minor  orders  of  ostiarius  and  lector,  and  bestow 
the  episcopal  benediction  at  High  Mass  and  at  table 
(ibid.,  395).  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  crosier  is  not 
here  included.  But  it  was  included  in  a  grant  to  the 
Abbot  of  Selby  by  Alexander  IV  in  1256  (ibid.,  331). 
In  many  of  these  indults  a  restriction  was  imposed 
that  pontifical  ornaments  were  not  to  be  worn  in  the 
presence  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  but  even  here 
distinctions  were  made.  For  example  Urban  V,  in 
1365,  allowed  the  Prior  of  Worcester  to  wear  the  plain 
mitre  and  ring  in  presence  of  the  bishop,  and  in  his 
absence  to  wear  the  precious  mitre  and  ring  and  epis- 
copal vestments,  and  to  give  his  solemn  benediction. 
(Bliss,  IV,  48.)  Not  unfrequently  it  was  specified 
that  such  pontificals  might  be  worn  in  parliaments  and 
councils  "whenever  any  prelates  below  bishops  wear 
their  mitres".  One  most  extraordinary  series  of  con- 
cessions, to  which  attention  has  recently  been  called 
in  the  English  Historical  Review  (Jan.,  1911,  p.  124), 
where  the  documents  are  printed,  first  bestows  upon 
the  Abbot  of  St.  Osyth  the  right  to  use  the  mitre  and 
other  pontificals  (Bliss,  V,  334),  and  then  gives  power 
to  confer  not  only  the  minor  orders  and  subdiaconate 
but  the  diaconate  and  priesthood.  This  grant  made 
by  Boniface  IX,  in  1397,  during  the  great  Schism,  was 
cancelled  by  the  same  pope  six  years  afterwards  at  the 
request  of  the  Bishop  of  London. 

Braun,  Liturgische  Gewandung  (Freiburg,  1907) ;  Barbier  de 
MoNTAULT,  Le Costume  et  les  Usages Ecclesiastiques, 2vo\3.  (Paris, 
1897-1901);    Rohault  de  Fleury,  La  Messe  (Paris,  1884). 

Herbert  THtiRSTON. 

Pontifical  Mass. — Pontifical  Mass  is  the  solemn 
Mass  celebrated  by  a,  bishop  with  the  ceremonies 
prescribed  in  the  "  Caeremoniale  Episcoporum  " ,  I  and 
II.  The  full  ceremonial  is  carried  out  when  the  bishop 
celebrates  the  Mass  at  the  throne  in  his  own  cathedral 
church,  or  with  permission  at  the  throne  in  another 
diocese.  The  "Caeremoniale"  supposes  that  the 
canons  are  vested  in  the  vestments  of  their  order,  the 
dignitaries,  of  whom  the  first  acts  as  assistant  priest, 
in  copes,  those  of  the  sacerdotal  order  in  chasubles, 
those  of  the  diaconal  order,  of  whom  the  first  two  act 
as  assistant  deacons,  in  dalmatics,  and  the  subdeacons 
in  tunics  over  the  amice  and  the  surplice  or  the  rochet. 
In  addition  a  deacon  and  subdeacon  in  their  regular 
vestments  and  a  master  of  ceremonies  assist  the 
bishop.  Nine  acolytes  or  clerics  minister  the  book, 
bugia,  mitre,  crosier,  censer,  two  acolyte  candles, 
gremiale,  and  cruets,  and  four  minister  in  turn  at  the 
washing  of  the  bishop's  hands.  Mention  is  also  made 
of  a  train-bearer  and  of  at  least  four  and  at  most  eight 
torch-bearers  at  the  time  of  the  Elevation.  All  these 
clerics  should  wear  surplices  except  the  four  who 
attend  to  the  washing  of  the  bishop's  hands;  the  first 
four  may  also  wear  copes.  The  ornaments  worn  or 
used  by  the  bishop,  besides  those  ordinarily  required 
for  Mass,  are  the  buskins  and  sandals,  pectoral  cross, 
tunic,  dalmatic,  gloves,  pallium  (if  he  has  a  right  to 
use  it),  mitre,  ring,  crosier,  gremiale,  basin  and  ewer, 
canon,  and  bugia.  A  seventh  candle  is  also  placed  on 
the  altar  besides  the  usual  six. 

The  bishop  vested  in  the  cappa  magna  enters  the 
cathedral,  visits  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  then 
goes  to  the  chapel,  called  the  sccrclnrinm,  where  he 
assists  at  terce.  During  the  singing  of  the  psalms  he 
reads  the  prayers  of  preparation  for  Mass  and  puts 
on  the  vestments  for  Mass  as  far  as  the  stole,  then 
vested  in  the  cope  he  sings  the  prayer  of  terce,  after 
which  the  cope  is  removed,  and  he  puts  on  the  rest  of 
the  vestments.    The  procession  headed  by  the  censer- 


PONTIGNY 


233 


PONTIGNY 


bearer,  cross-bearer,  and  acolytes  then  goes  to  the 
main  altar.  The  bishop  recites  the  prayers  at  the  foot 
of  the  altar,  puts  on  the  maniple,  and  after  kissing  the 
altar  and  the  book  of  gospels  and  incensing  the  altar, 
goes  to  the  throne,  where  he  officiates  until  the  Offer- 
tory. His  gloves  are  then  removed;  having  washed 
his  hands,  he  goes  to  the  altar,  and  continues  the  Mass. 
The  ceremonies  are  practically  the  same  as  for  a 
solemn  Mass;  however,  the  bishop  sings  Pax  vobis 
instead  of  Dominus  vobisoum  after  the  Gloria;  he 
reads  the  Epistle,  Gradual,  and  Gospel  seated  on  the 
throne;  gives  the  kiss  of  peace  to  each  of  his  five  chief 
ministers;  washes  his  hands  after  the  ablutions;  sings 
a  special  formula  of  the  episcopal  blessing,  making 
three  signs  of  the  cross  in  giving  it,  and  begins  the  last 
Gospel  of  St.  John  at  the  altar  and  finishes  it  while 
returning  to  the  throne  or  to  the  vesting-place.  In 
pontifical  Requiem  Mass  the  buskins  and  sandals, 
gloves,  crosier,  and  seventh  candle  are  not  used.  The 
bishop  does  not  read  the  preparation  for  Mass  and 
vest  during  terce,  and  he  puts  on  the  maniple  before 
Mass  begins. 

A  titular  bishop  usually  officiates  at  the  faldstool. 
He  has  no  assistant  deacons,  their  duties  being  per- 
formed by  the  deacon,  subdeacon,  and  master  of  cere- 
monies; there  is  no  seventh  candle  on  the  altar,  and 
ordinarily  the  crosier  is  not  used;  he  vests  in  the 
sacristy  or  at  the  faldstool;  he  recites  the  entire 
Gospel  of  St.  John  at  the  altar.  The  same  parts  of  the 
Mass  are  said  at  the  faldstool  as  at  the  throne.  Some- 
times the  ordinary  celebrates  pontifical  Mass  at  the 
faldstool,  without  assistant  deacons.  Solemn  Mass 
celebrated  with  some  of  the  pontifical  ornaments  and 
ceremonies  by  abbots  and  prothonotaries  is  also 
called  pontifical.  That  of  abbots  is  similar  to  a 
bishop's  Mass  celebrated  at  the  throne.  Certain 
points  of  difference  are  explained  in  the  Decree  of  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  of  27  September,  1659. 
The  privileges  and  limitations  in  the  use  of  the  pon-  . 
tifical  insignia  by  the  different  classes  of  prothono- 
taries are  set  forth  in  the  Constitution  of  Pius  X, 
"Inter  multiplices  curas"  (21  February,  1905). 

The  solemn  pontifical  Mass  celebrated  by  the  pope 
in  St.  Peter's  has  some  peculiar  ceremonies.  In  the 
papal  Mass  a  cardinal-bishop  acts  as  assistant  priest, 
cardinal-deacons  are  assistant  deacons  and  deacon  of 
the  Mass,  an  auditor  of  the  Rota  is  subdeacon,  there 
is  a  Greek  deacon  and  a,  subdeacon,  and  the  other 
offices  are  filled  by  the  assistants  to  the  pontifical 
throne,  the  members  of  the  prelatical  colleges,  etc. 
The  procession  of  cardinals,  bishops,  prelates,  and 
those  who  compose  the  cappella  pontijicia  vested  ac- 
cording to  their  rank  and  in  the  prescribed  order  pre- 
cedes the  Holy  Father  into  St.  Peter's.  The  pope, 
wearing  the  falda,  amice,  alb,  cincture,  pectoral  cross, 
stole,  cope  (mantum),  and  tiara  is  carried  into  the 
basilica  on  the  sedia  gestaloria  under  the  canopy  and 
with  the  two^abeHabomeon  either  side.  Seven  acolytes 
accompany  the  cross-bearer.  The  pope  is  received  at 
the  door  by  the  cardinal-priest  and  the  chapter,  visits 
the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  goes  to  the  small  throne  for 
terce,  where  he  receives  the  obedience  of  the  cardinals, 
bishops,  and  abbots.  While  the  psalms  are  being 
chanted,  he  reads  the  prayers  of  the  preparation  for 
Mass,  during  which  his  buskins  and  sandals  are  put 
on,  and  then  he  sings  the  prayer  of  terce.  After  that 
the  vestments  are  removed  as  far  as  the  cincture,  and 
the  pope  washes  his  hands,  and  puts  on  the  succinct- 
orium,  pectoral  cross,  fanon,  stole,  tunic,  dalmatic, 
gloves,  chasuble,  pallium,  mitre,  and  ring.  He  does 
not  use  the  crosier  or  the  bugia.  He  then  gives  the 
kiss  of  peace  to  the  last  three  of  the  cardinal-priests. 
The  Epistle  is  sung  first  in  Latin  by  the  Apostolic 
subdeacon  and  then  in  Greek  by  the  Greek  sub- 
deacon, and  likewise  the  Gospel  first  in  Latin  by  the 
cardinal-deacon  and  then  in  Greek  by  the  Greek 
deacon.    While  elevating  the  Host  and  the  chalice 


the  pope  turns  in  a  half  circle  towards  the  Epistle  and 
Gospel  sides.  After  he  has  given  the  kiss  of  peace  to 
the  assistant  priest  and  assistant  deacons,  he  goes  to 
the  throne,  and  there  standing  receives  Communion. 
The  deacon  elevates  the  paten  containing  the  Host 
covered  with  the  asterisk,  and  places  it  in  the  hands 
of  the  subdeacon,  which  are  covered  with  the  linteum 
pectorale,  so  that  the  subdeacon  can  bring  it  to  the 
throne,  then  the  deacon  elevates  the  chalice  and  brings 
it  to  the  pope  at  the  throne.  The  pope  consumes  the 
smaller  part  of  the  Host,  and  communicates  from  the 
chalice  through  a  little  tube  called  the  fistula.  He 
then  divides  the  other  part  of  the  Host,  gives  Com- 
munion to  the  deacon  and  subdeacon,  and  gives  them 
the  kiss  of  peace,  after  which  he  receives  the  wine  of 
the  purification  from  another  chalice  and  purifies  his 
fingers  in  a  little  cup.  The  deacon  and  subdeacon, 
having  returned  to  the  altar,  partake  of  the  chalice 
through  the  fistula,  the  subdeacon  consumes  the 
particle  of  the  Host  in  the  chalice,  and  both  the  deacon 
and  the  subdeacon  consume  the  wine  and  the  water 
used  in  the  purification  of  the  chalice.  The  pope  re- 
turns to  the  altar  to  finish  the  Mass.  After  the  bless- 
ing the  assistant  priest  publishes  the  plenary  indul- 
gence. At  the  end  of  the  last  Gospel  the  pope  goes  to 
the  sedia  gestaloria,  puts  on  the  tiara,  and  returns  in 
procession  as  he  had  entered. 

Cmremoniale  episcoporum  (Ratisbon,  1902) ;  Catalantjs,  Ccere- 
moniale  episcopoTnirt  commentariis  illustratum  (Rome,  1744); 
Martinucci,  Manuale  sacrarum  cmremoniarum  (Rome,  1879) ; 
Lb  Vavasseuh,  Les  fonctions  pontificales  (Paris,  1904) ;  Favrin, 
Praxis  solemnium  funclionum  episcoporum  cum  appendicibus  pro 
abbatibus  mitratis  et  protonotariis  apostolicis  (Ratisbon,  1906) ;  Db 
Herdt,  Praxis  pontificalis  (Louvain,  1904) ;  Saraiva,  CfBremo- 
niale  pro  missa  et  vesperis  poniificalibus  ad  faldisiorium  (Rome, 
1898) ;  Menghini,  Riius  in  poniificalibus  celebrandis  a  proto- 
notariis apostolicis  servandus  (Rome,  1909) ;  Idem,  Le  solenni 
ceremonie  delta  messa  pontificate  celebrata  dal  sommo  pontefice 
(Rome,  1904) ;  Rinaldi-Bucci,  Cceremoniale  miasm  qum  a  summo 
pontifice  celebratur  (Ratisbon,  1889) ;  Georgi,  De  liturgia  romani 
pontifi^is  in  solemni  celebratione  missarum  (Rome,  1731). 

J.    F.    GOGGIN. 

Pontigny,  Abbey  of,  second  daughter  of  Citeaux, 
was  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Serain,  present  Dio- 
cese of  Sens,  Department  of  Yonne.  Hildebert  (or 
Ansius),  a  canon  of  Auxerre,  petitioned  St.  Stephen  of 
Ctteaux  to  found  a  monastery  in  a  place  he  had  se- 
lected for  this  purpose.  St.  Stephen  in  1114  sent 
twelve  monks  under  the  guidance  of  Hugh  of  Macon, 
a  friend  and  kinsman  of  St.  Bernard.  The  sanctity  of 
their  lives  soon  attracted  so  great  a  number  of  sub- 
jects that  during  the  lifetime  of  the  first  two  abbots, 
Hugh  and  Guichard,  twenty-two  monasteries  were 
founded.  So  great  an  array  of  episcopal  sees  in  France 
were  filled  by  men  taken  from  its  members,  and  to  such 
a  number  of  renowned  personages  did  it  offer  hospi- 
tality, that  it  was  called  the  "cradle  of  bishops  and 
the  asylum  for  great  men".  Amongst  the  former  must 
be  mentioned  particularly  Blessed  Hugh  of  Macon, 
Bishop  of  Auxerre  (d.  1151);  Gerard,  Cardinal  Bishop 
of  Prajneste  (d.  1202);  Robert,  Cardinal  Titular  of 
St.  Pudentiana  (d.  1294);  amongst  the  latter  are 
mentioned  especially  three  Archbishops  of  Canter- 
bury, St.  Thomas,  Stephen  Langton,  and  St.  Edmund, 
who  was  interred  there.  Discipline  gradually  became 
relaxed,  especially  from  1456,  when  the  abbey  was 
given  in  eommendam.  In  1569  the  monastery  was 
pillaged  and  burnt  by  the  Huguenots,  nothing  being 
saved,  except  the  reUcs  of  St.  Edmund.  Partly 
restored,  it  continued  in  existence  until  suppressed  at 
the  French  Revolution.  It  is  now  in  charge  of  the 
Fathers  of  St.  Edmund,  established  there  by  J.-B. 
Muard  in  1843. 

JoNGELiNns,  Notitia  Abbatiarum  0.  Cist.  (Cologne,  1640); 
Manrique,  Annales  Cisler.  (Lyons,  1642);  Le  Nain,  Bssai  de 
I  Hist,  de  I  Ordre  de  Citeaux  (Paris,  1696) ;  MartJine  and  Dn- 
KAiiD,  Voyage  litt.  (Paris,  1716);  Kobleb,  Kloster  d.  Mittelallers 
(Katisbon,  1867);  Henry,  Hist,  de  Pontigny  f Auxerre,  1839); 
Mabillon,  Annales  O.  S.  Benedicti,  V  (Lucques,  1740);  Gallia 
tliristtana,  XII;  Janapschek,  Originum  (Vienna,  1877). 

Edmond  M.  Obkecht. 


PONTIUS 


234 


PONTUS 


Pontius  Carbonell,  b.  at  Barcelona,  c.  1250;  d. 
c.  1320.  Pontius  and  Carbonell  are  names'frequently 
met  with  in  Spain,  especially  in  Catalonia.  Hence  it 
is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  different  persons 
bearing  this  name  in  the  same  century.  Pontius  en- 
tered the  Franciscan  Order  and  resided  principally  in 
the  convent  at  Barcelona,  where  he  was  teacher  and 
confessor  to  St.  Louis,  Bishop  of  Toulouse,  during  his 
seven  years'  captivity.  He  was  also  confessor,  to  the 
Infant  Juan  of  Aragon,  Archbishop  of  Saragossa,  to 
whom  he  dedicated  some  of  his  works.  Probably 
Pontius  was  superior  in  1314.  On  25  Sept.  of  that 
year  he  was  sent  by  King  James  11  to  his  brother, 
Frederic  II,  King  of  Sicily,  to  entreat  him  not  to  give 
protection  to  the  Fraticelli.  On  12  Jan.,  1316,  and 
again  on  25  Feb.,  Pontius  wrote  concerning  the  result 
of  his  mission.  Finke  has  published  several  of  these 
documents.  In  a  calendar  of  Franciscan  saints  drawn 
up  about  1335  at  Assisi,  Pontius  is  mentioned  as 
"master  and  confessor  of  our  holy  brother  Louis, 
Archbishop  of  Toulouse";  and  Fr.  Antony  Vincente, 
O.P.,  registers  him  among  the  saints  of  Catalonia. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, and  quotes  largely  from  the  Fathers  and  Doc- 
tors of  the  Church.  Several  writers  hold  that  he  com- 
posed the  "Catena  Aurea  Evang.",  usually  published 
among  the  writings  of  St.  Thomas.  In  defence  of  this 
opinion  Fr.  Martin  Perez  de  Guevara  wrote  in  1663 
a  book  entitled  "Juizio  de  Salomon  etc.",  but  which 
was  placed  on  the  Index  two  years  later.  Not  all  his 
works  have  been  published.  Nine  large  folio  volumes 
in  MS.  are  preserved  in  the  hbrary  of  S.  Juan  de  los 
Reyes  at  Toledo. 

Wadding,  Annates,  I,  V  (Rome,  1733);  Wadding-Sbaralea 
(Rome,  1806);  Joannes  a  S.  Antonio,  Bibliotheca  Universa 
Franci&cajta  (Madrid,  1732) ;  Pisanus,  Liher  Conformitatum  (ed. 
Quaracchi,  1907) ;  de  Alva  y  Astorga,  Indiculus  Bullarii  Seraph. 
(Rome,  1655) ;  Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  Med.  ^vi.  (Florence, 
1734);  Coi.h,  Chronicon  Cataloni{s;  Sixtus  Senensis,  Bi&Zioi^eca 
(Naples,  1742) ;  Antonio,  Bibliotheca,  Hisp.  Vet.  (1798) ;  Amat, 
Escrit  Catal.  (1836);  Annalecta  Bollandiana,  IX  (Brussels,  1890); 
Catalogue  Sanctorum  Fratrum,  ed.  Lemmens  (Rome,  1903) ; 
Finke,  Quellen  (Berlin,  1908). 

Geegoey  Cleaey. 
Pontius  Pilate.    See  Pilate. 

Pontremoli,  Diocese  of  (Apuan),  in  Tuscany, 
central  Italy.  The  city  rises  on  the  skirts  of  the 
Appennino  della  Cisa,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Macra 
and  the  Torrente  Verde.  It  has  a  beautiful  cathedral 
and  a  notable  tower,  Torre  del  Comune,  erected  in 
1322  by  Castruccio  Castracane.  The  earliest  histor- 
ical mention  of  Pontremoh  is  of  1077.  In  1110  it  was 
taken  by  Henry  V.  In  1167  it  opposed  the  progress 
of  Frederick  Barbarossa.  As  a  Ghibelline  commune, 
it  acclaimed  the  former  Lord  of  Lucca,  Castruccio 
degli  Antelminelli,  its  lord,  in  1316.  Thereafter, 
it  was  successively  under  the  rule  of  the  Rossi  of 
Parma,  of  Mastino  della  Scala  (1336),  of  the  Visconti 
(1339) ;  and  from  the  latter  date,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  intervals,  it  belonged  to  the  Duchy  of  Milan. 
In  1650  the  Spaniards  sold  it  to  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  and  in  1847  it  was  united  to  the  Duchy  of 
Parma.  Charles  VIII  burned  the  city.  In  1799 
there  was  a  battle  there  between  the  French  and  the 
Austro-Russian  armies,  and  in  1814  the  Austrians 
drove  the  French  from  the  town.  Pontremoli  was 
the  birthplace  of  the  soldier  Girolamo  Reghini,  who 
distinguished  himself  in  the  service  of  Spain  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries;  also  of  the  painter 
Pedroni  (eighteenth  century),  director  of  the  Acca- 
demia  di  Belle  Arti  of  Florence.  The  episcopal  see, 
suffragan  of  Pisa,  was  erected  in  1797,  its  first  prelate 
being  Girolamo  Pavesi.  Mgr  Fiorini  is  the  present 
bishop.  It  has  126  parishes,  with  60,000  inhabitants; 
20-1  secular,  9  regular  priests;  361  churches  or  chapels; 
3  religious  houses  of  men,  and  6  of  women;  2  educa- 
tional institutes  for  boys  and  3  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d'ltalia. 

U.  Benigni. 


Pontus,  in  ancient  times,  was  the  name  of  the 
north-eastern  province  of  Asia  Minor,  a  long  and 
narrow  strip  of  land  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  Black 
Sea  {Pontus  Euxinus),  from  which  the  designation  was 
later  transferred  to  the  country.  Before  this  the 
province  was  called  Cappadocia  on  the  Pontus.  The 
country  was  shut  in  by  high  and  wild  mountain 
ranges,  but  was  exceedingly  fertile  in  the  lower  parts 
on  the  coast,  in  the  interior,  and  on  the  plateaux.  It 
yielded  fruit  of  all  kinds,  especially  cherries,  which 
LucuUus  is  said  to  have  brought  into  Europe  from 
Pontus  72  B.  c;  also  wine,  grain,  wood,  honey, 
wax,  etc.,  besides  iron,  steel,  and  salt.  It  was  inhab- 
ited by  a  number  of  petty  tribes;  among  these  were 
the  Chalybes  or  Chaldseans,  held  in  high  repute  by  the 
Greeks  as  the  first  smiths.  All  belonged  to  the  Persian 
empire,  but  in  Xenophon's  day  (about  400  b.  c.)  were 
to  a  considerable  degree  independent  of  the  Persians. 
At  this  date,  however,  these  different  countries  had  no 
common  name.  Greeks  settled  early  on  the  coast, 
and  founded  flourishing  commercial  cities,  as  Tra- 
pezus  (Trebizond),  Cerasus,  Side,  later  called  Pole- 
monium,  Cotyora,  Amisus,  and  Apsarus.  The 
founder  of  the  Kingdom  of  Pontus  was  Mithradates  I, 
son  of  Prince  Mithradates  of  Cius  on  the  Propontis, 
who  was  murdered  302  b.  c.  Mithradates  I,  taking 
advantage  of  the  confusion  caused  by  the  Diadochian 
Wars,  came  to  Pontus  with  only  six  horsemen  and  was 
able  to  assume  the  title  of  king  296  B.  c;  he  died 
in  266  after  a  reign  of  thirty-six  years.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  Ariobarzanes  (d.  about258B.  c),  Mithradates 
II  (to  about  210  B.  c),  Mithradates  III  (to  about  190 
B.  c),  Pharnaces  (to  170  b.  c),  Mithradates  IV  (to 
about  150  B.  c),  Mithradates  V  (to  121  b.  c),  and 
then  Mithradates  VI  Eupator,  or  the  Great.  The 
kings,  Persian  by  descent,  formed  relations  early  with 
Greece  and  from  the  beginning  Hellenistic  culture 
found  an  entrance  into  Pontus.  The  religion  was  a 
mixture  of  Greek  worships  with  the  old  native  cults. 
From  the  time  of  Pharnaces  the  kings  were  allied  with 
the  Romans.  Mithradates  VI  became  involved  in 
three  wars  with  the  Romans  (88-84,  83-81,  74-64), 
and  finally  his  kingdom,  which  he  had  increased  by 
the  conquest  of  Colchis,  the  Crimea,  Paphlagonia,  and 
Cappadocia,  was  lost  to  the  Romans  (63).  The  terri- 
tory west  of  the  River  Halys,  the  coast  of  Paphla- 
gonia, and  the  valley  of  the  Amnias  became  a  part 
of  Roman  territory  and  with  Bithynia  were  united 
into  the  double  Province  of  Bithynia  and  Pontus.  The 
other  parts  were  made  into  principalities  and  free 
cities,  and  it  was  not  until  7  B.  c,  A  D.  18,  and  A.  D.  63 
that  they  were  gradually  absorbed  by  Rome.  Under 
Diocletian  (284^305)  Pontus  became  a  diocese  of  the 
empire.  The  Pontus  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 
of  the  Vulgate  in  Gen.,  xiv,  1,  9,  is  a  mistaken  transla- 
tion, according  to  Symmachus,  for  the  district  of 
Ellasar  (Larsa  in  southern  Babylonia). 

In  Apostolic  times  Christianity  found  an  entrance 
into  Pontus.  The  First  Epistle  of  Peter  is  addressed 
to  the  Christians  in  Pontus  among  others,  showing  that 
Christianity  had  spread  to  some  extent  in  this  prov- 
ince. The  author  in  his  exhortations  presupposes 
relations  between  the  faithful  and  the  non-Christian 
population.  For  the  years  111-13  we  have  the  im- 
portant testimony  of  Pliny,  then  Governor  of  Bith- 
ynia and  Pontus  (Ep.  xcvi).  Pliny  did  not  mention 
the  cities  or  villages,  and  it  is  uncertain  whether 
Amastris,  or  Amasia,  or  Comana,  was  the  place  where 
Christians  were  tried  by  him.  As  concerns  Amisus, 
Ramsay  has  proved  from  Christian  sources  that  it 
contained  Christians  about  the  year  100.  Later 
Amastris  was  the  chief  Christian  community.  Euse- 
bius  mentions  (IV,  xxiii)  a  letter  written  by  Bishop 
Dionysius  of  Corinth  (about  170)  to  Amastris,  "and 
the  other  churches  in  Pontus".  There  was,  there- 
fore, at  this  era  a  metropolitan  with  several  churches. 
About  240  Gregory  Thaumaturgus  was  consecrated 


POOLS 


235 


POONA 


Bishop  of  Neo-Csesarea  by  Phaedimus,  Bishop  of 
Amasia.  It  is  said  that  at  that  time  there  were  only 
seventeen  Christians  in  the  city  and  its  vicinity,  and 
that  at  his  death,  shortly  before  270,  only  the  same 
number  of  heathens  could  be  found  in  the  city.  The 
able  bishop  converted  the  people  by  opposing  Chris- 
tian to  heathen  miracles  and  by  changing  the  old 
feasts  into  Christian  festivals.  In  the  Deoian  persecu- 
tion he  made  concessions  to  human  weakness,  advised 
the  faithful  to  be  less  aggressive,  and  fled  himself. 
Comana  received  a  bishop  from  Gregory.  Christian- 
ity obtained  a  foothold  also  in  the  Greek  cities  of  the 
coast  of  eastern  Pontus  before  325.  In  or  about  the 
year  315  a  great  synod  was  held  at  Neo-Csesarea  by 
Bishop  Longinus.  At  the  Council  of  Nicaea  there  were 
present  among  others  the  Bishops  of  Amastris,  Pom- 
pejopolis,  Jonopolis,  Amasia,  Comana,  Zela,  Trebi- 
zond,  and  Pityus.  Towards  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  Neo-Caesarea  became  itself  a  Church- 
province,  having  as  suffragans  Trebizond,  Cerasus, 
Polemonium,  Comana,  Rhizaeum,  and  Pityus. 

Meyer,  Gesch.  d.  Konigreiches  Pontos  (Leipzig,  1879);  Kleff- 
NER,  D.  Briefwechsel  zwischcn  Plinius  u.  Trajan  (Paderborn, 
1907) :  Papamichalopulos,  Ileptij-yijcrts  ets  Tie  lIoi'Toi'  (Atliens, 
1903);  Le  Qdien,  Oriens  christianus,  I  (Paris,  1740),  499-520; 
Ramsay,  The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire  (London,  1893),  211, 
235;  Harnack,  Die  Miasionu.  Ausbreitung  d.  Christentums  in  den 
ersten  drei  Jahrhunderten,  II  (2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1906),  73,  157-8, 
172-7. 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Pools  in  Scripture.^In  the  English  Bibles,  the 
word  "pool"  stands  for  three  Hebrew  words :  (1)  'agam 
means  properly  a,  pond  of  stagnant  water;  in  Ex., 
vii,  19;  viii,  5,  it  designates  probably  sheets  of  water 
left  in  low  places  by  the  Nile  from  the  inundation ;  (2) 
miqveh  signifies  originally  "the  gathering  together"  of 
the  waters  (Gen.,  i,  10),  hence  a  place  where  waters 
flowing  from  different  directions  are  collected  to- 
gether, a  reservoir  being  usually  formed  by  damming 
up  the  valley;  (3)  berekah  (comp.  Arab,  birket)  is  an 
entirely  artificial  reservoir  generally  excavated  in  the 
rock  and  covered  inside  with  a,  lining  of  masonry  to 
prevent  leaking.  These  three  words  convey  a  fair 
idea  of  the  way  the  natives  of  Palestine  and  neigh- 
bouring regions  have  at  all  times  secured  a  sufficient 
supply  of  water,  a  precaution  by  no  means  unim- 
portant in  countries  where  dry  weather  prevails  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Natural  pools  of  the 
kind  described  in  Scripture  by  the  name  'agam  are 
practically  unknown  in  Palestine.  If  importance  be 
attached  to  the  vocabulary  of  the  sacred  writers,  we 
might  be  justified  in  supposing  that  most  pools  were 
wholly  artificial,  for  all  are  indiscriminately  styled 
berekah  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Yet  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  some  were  reservoirs  obtained  by  building 
a  dam  across  valleys;  such  was,  at  any  rate,  the  Lower, 
or  Old,  Pool  (Birket  el-Hamra,  south  of  Jerusalem), 
which,  before  the  Upper  Pool  (Ain  Silwan)  was  con- 
structed, was  filled  from  the  Gihon  (the  Virgin's 
Fountain)  by  a  surface  conduit,  along  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  spur  of  Ophel,  and  later  was  fed  from  the 
surplus  water  overflowing  from  the  Upper  Pool. 

The  other  pools  in  or  about  the  Holy  City  were  all 
entirely  artificial,  being  excavated  in  the  rock.  Those 
mentioned  in  Scripture  are:  (1)  the  Pool  of  Siloe  (A.  V. 
Siloah;  II  Esd.,  iii,  15;  John,  ix,  7),  or  Upper  Pool 
(IV  Kings,  xviii,  17;  Is.,  vii,  3;  xxxvi,  2),  or  the  King's 
Pool  (II  Esd.,  ii,  14),  built  by  Ezechias  "between  the 
two  walls"  (Is.,  xxii,  11),  to  bring  into  the  city  through 
an  underground  conduit,  the  Siloe  tunnel,  the  water 
of  Gihon;  (2)  the  Pool  of  Bethsaida  (A.  V.  Bethesda; 
John,  V,  2) ;  the  exact  location  of  this  pool  is  to  this 
day  an  object  of  dispute;  commonly  but  quite  ground- 
lessly  it  is  identified  with  the  Birket  Israil,  north  of  the 
Temple  and  south-west  of  St.  Stephen's  Gate  (BabSilli 
Mnryam) ;  others  (Conder,  Baton  etc.)  see  it  in  the  pool 
at  the  Fountain  of  Gihon  ('Ain  Sitii  Maryam),  south- 
east of  the  Haram — the  berekah  'asuyah  (i.  e.  "well 


made")  of  Neh.  (II  Esd.),  iii,  16;  others  finally  think  it 
should  be  sought  some  distance  north  of  the  Birket 
Israil  and  west  of  St.  Ann's  Church  and  recognized  there 
in  old  constructions  still  suggesting  the  form  of  porti- 
coes; (3)  the  Berekah  'asuyah  of  II  Esd.  has  just  been 
mentioned;  it  was  the  reservoir  of  the  intermittent 
spring  of  Gihon;  (4)  we  should  perhaps  cite  also  the 
Dragon  Fountain  of  II  Esd.,  ii,  13,  which  lay  between 
the  Valley  Gate  (practically  the  modern  Jaffa  Gate) 
and  the  Dung  Gate  (about  due  west  of  the  southern 
end  of  the  Birket  es-Sultan) ;  probably  connected  with 
the  Dragon  Fountain  was  the  Serpent's  Pool  men- 
tioned by  Josephus  (Bell.  Jud.,  V,  iii,  2),  but  the  site 
of  both  is  now  a  mere  matter  of  conjecture.  Despite 
the  historical  interest  attached  to  them,  it  is  needless 


The  Pools  of  Solomon 
Now  known  as  El  Bur^k 

to  recall  here  the  various  pools  of  the  Holy  Land  more 
or  less  incidentally  mentioned  in  Scripture :  the  Pool  of 
Gabaon,  which  witnessed  the  bloody  encounter  of  the 
servants  of  David  with  the  defenders  of  Saul's  dyn- 
asty; the  Pools  of  Hesebon,  and  finally  the  pools  al- 
luded to  in  EccL,  ii,  6  as  being  the  work  of  Solomon. 
These  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  famous  Pools 
of  Solomon  (about  eight  miles  south  of  Jerusalem)  from 
which  several  winding  aqueducts,  one  forty-seven 
miles  long,  brought  the  water  into  the  city. 

Baedeker-Benziger,  Palestine  and  Syria  (Leipzig,  1906); 
Bliss,  Excavations  at  Jerusalem  (London,  1898);  Masterman, 
The  Pool  of  Bethesda  in  Biblical  World  (Feb.,  1905) ;  Pal.  Explor. 
FvtiD,  Quart.  Statement  (Oct.,  1896;  Jan.,  1897);  Idem,  Jerusalem; 
Paton,  The  Meaning  of  theExpression"  Between  the  Two  Walls"  in 
Journ.  of  Biblic.  Literature,!  (1906);  Idem,  Jerusalem  in  Biblical 
Times,  particularly  c.  iii,  The  Springs  and  Pools  of  Ancient  Jeru- 
salem (Chicago,  1908);  Heidet,  Bethsatde  in  ViG.,  Diet  de  la 
Bible;  Mauss,  La  piscine  de  Bethesda  d  Jerusalem  (Paris,  1888) ; 
Vincent,  Les  murs  de  Jerusalem  d'apris  N^himie  in  Revue  Bibliaue 
(1904),  56-74. 

Charles  L.  Soitvay. 

Poona,  Diocese  OF(PuNENSis),in  India,  comprises 
that  portion  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  which  lies  on 
the  Deccan  plateau  as  far  north  as  the  Tapti  River, 
that  is  to  say  the  coUectorates  of  Poona,  Ahmednagar, 
Nasik,  Kandeish,  Sholapur,  Bijapur,  Satara,  Dharwar, 
a  portion  of  Belgaum,  and  the  Native  States  of  Kolha- 
pur,  Miraj,  Sangfi,  and  others  of  less  note,  but  exclud- 
ing Savantwadi,  a  portion  of  the  collectorate  of  Bel- 
gaum and  the  whole  of  North  Canara,  which  belong 
to  the  Archdiocese  of  Goa.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  Dioceses  of  Nagpur,  Hyderabad,  and  Madras; 
on  the  north  it  touches  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
Rajputana;  on  the  west  the  line  of  the  Western 
ghauts  divides  it  from  the  Diocese  of  Damaun  and  the 
Archdiocese  of  Goa;  and  on  the  south  it  is  contiguous 
to  the  Diocese  of  Mysore.  It  includes  one  detached 
portion  of  territory  at  Barsi  Town  surrounded  by  the 
Diocese  of  Hyderabad,  while  at  Poona  there  is  one 
exempted  church  belonging  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Goa. 
TheCathoUo  population  is  numbered  at  15,487  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop,  omitting  those  who  are 


POOR 


236 


POOR 


attached  to  the  "padroado"  church  at  Poona.  There 
are  twenty-two  churches  and  twenty  chapels  served 
by  twenty-one  Fathers  of  the  German  province  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus  and  twelve  secular  priests  assisted  by 
the  Nuns  of  Jesus  and  Mary  and  the  Daughters  of  the 
Cross.  Besides  military  stations  (Poona,  Kirkee, 
Ahmednagar,  Deolali)  and  churches  for  railway  people 
(Lanowli,  Igatpuri,  Bhusaval,  Sholapur,  HubU,  Dhar- 
war)  there  are  three  mission  fields:  the  Ahmednagar 
group  founded  in  1878  with  a  total  of  5880  Christians; 
the  Gadag  group  founded  in  1868  with  300  recent  con- 
verts besides  other  Christians  of  old  standing;  the 
newly  established  mission  at  Kuna  near  Khandalla. 
The  bishop's  residence  and  cathedral  are  at  Poona. 
There  is  no  diocesan  seminary,  candidates  for  the 
priesthood  being  sent  to  the  papal  seminary  at  Kandy, 
Ceylon. 

From  1637  to  1854  the  districts  comprised  in  the  dio- 
cese formed  part  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the 
Great  Mogul,  which  in  1720  became  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Bombay.  But  except  for  occasional 
attendance  on  the  followers  of  the  Sultan's  Court  at 
Bijapur,  no  missionary  work  seems  to  have  been  at- 
tempted in  these  parts — the  only  Christian  stations 
known  to  exist  in  the  eighteenth  century  being  those  of 
Tumaricop  in  the  south  (ministered  to  by  Carmelite 
tertiaries  from  Goa) ;  Poona  (where  a  chaplain  from 
Goa  was  paid  by  the  peshwa),  and  it  is  said  Bagal- 
hot,  once  visited  by  the  Jesuits  of  Pondicherry(?). 
There  was  also  a  Goan  chapel  at  Satara  in  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  perhaps  one 
or  two  besides,  but  none  of  them  worked  by  the  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Bombay.  The  gradual  growth  of  stations 
for  British  troops  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  the  laying  of  railways  later  chiefly  caused 
the  growth  of  stations  within  this  district.  When  in 
1854  the  Carmehtes  resigned  the  Vicariate  of  Bom- 
bay, the  mission  was  divided  into  two  halves  (Bombay 
and  Poona),  and  the  Poona  portion  was  taken  over 
by  the  German  Jesuits.  In  1858  the  Capuchins,  who 
had  received  the  Bombay  portion,  also  resigned,  and 
thus  the  whole  of  the  Bombay-Poona  district  was 
taken  over  by  the  Jesuits  and  re-united  into  one 
mission.  Although  the  two  vicariates  remained  nom- 
inally distinct,  no  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Poona  was  ever 
appointed,  the  administration  being  in  the  hands  of 
the  \'icar  Apostolic  of  Bombay.  In  1886,  when  the 
hierarchy  was  established,  Poona  became  a  diocese, 
suffragan  to  Bombay.  The  boundaries  between  the 
two  vicariates  were  then  readjusted,  and  afterwards 
those  of  Poona  were  curtailed  by  the  transfer  of  part 
of  the  Belgaum  coUectorate  to  Goa,  since  when  the 
arrangement  has  been  stable. 

For  administrators  from  1854  to  1886,  see  Bombay. 
The  first  bishop  was  Bernard  Beider-Linden,  S.J., 
1886-1907;  the  present  bishop,  Henry  Doering,  S.J., 
from  1907.  Among  its  educational  institutions  are: 
St.  Vincent's  High  School,  Poona  (matriculation,  Bom- 
bay), with  296  day-scholars;  St.  Joseph's  convent 
school,  Poona,  under  eleven  nuns  of  Jesus  and  Mary, 
with  192  pupils,  also  European  orphanage  and  St. 
Anne's  school  with  16  boarders  and  36  day-scholars; 
convent  school  at  Igatpuri  with  76  pupils  and  a  poor 
school  with  47  children;  also  a  conyent  school  at 
Panchgani  with  40  pupils,  both  under  the  Daughters 
of  the  Cross;  English-speaking  schools  at  Bhusaval, 
Igatpuri,  Lanowli,  Sholapur,  Ahmednagar,  Dharwar, 
and  Hubli,  with  a  total  of  483  pupils.  In  the  Ahmed- 
nagar mission  districts  80  village  schools  attended  by 
2400  children;  in  the  Gadag  mission  districts  5  ele- 
mentary schools  with  110  children. 

Madras  Cnthnlic  Directory  (1910);  Church  History  of  the  Bom- 
bay-Poana  Mi.^-^ion  in  The  Examiner  (1905  sq.). 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Poor,  Care  of,  by  the  Church. — I.  Objects, 
History,  and  Organization. — A.  The  care  of  the 


poor  is  a  branch  of  charity.  In  the  narrow  sense 
charity  means  any  exercise  of  mercy  towards  one's 
fellowman  rooted  in  the  love  of  God.  While  numer- 
ous classes  of  persons  are  fit  objects  for  charity,  the 
chief  class  is  constituted  by  the  poor.  By  the  poor 
are  meant  persons  who  do  not  possess  and  cannot 
acquire  the  means  of  supporting  life,  and  are  thus  de- 
pendent on  the  assistance  of  others.  In  accordance 
with  Christ's  command  (Matt.,  xxv,  40),  the  care  of 
the  poor  is  the  duty  of  all  the  members  of  the  Chris- 
tian body,  so  that  by  the  works  of  each  the  welfare 
of  the  whole  community  may  be  promoted.  As,  how- 
ever, success  is  most  readily  attained  by  the  sys- 
tematic co-operation  of  many,  we  find,  since  the 
earliest  days  of  Christianity,  side  by  side  with  the 
private  exercise  of  charity,  strictly  concerted  meas- 
ures taken  by  the  Church  for  the  care  of  the  poor. 
The  Church's  care  of  the  poor  is  by  no  means  a  sub- 
stitute for  private  efforts;  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
intended  to  supplement,  extend,  and  complete  the 
work  of  individuals.  Modern  moralists  distinguish, 
according  to  the  degree  of  need,  three  kinds  of  poverty : 
(1)  ordinary,  such  as  that  of  the  hired  labourer,  who 
lives  from  hand  to  mouth,  has  no  property,  but  whose 
wages  suffices  to  afford  him  a  livelihood  becoming  his 
station;  as  applied  to  this  class,  the  care  of  the  poor 
is  confined  to  preventive  measures  to  keep  them  from 
falling  into  real  poverty;  (2)  real  want,  or  beggary, 
is  the  condition  of  those  who  do  not  possess  and  can- 
not earn  sufficient  means  to  support  life,  and  depend 
on  charity  for  what  is  lacking;  (3)  extreme  want,  or 
destitution,  is  a  state  in  which  the  means  of  support 
are  lacking  to  such  a  degree  that,  without  extraneous 
aid,  existence  is  impossible.  The  latter  two  classes 
are  the  object  first  of  curative,  and  then  of  preventive 
remedies. 

The  object  of  ecclesiastical  provision  for  the  poor 
is,  first  the  removal  of  their  immediate  need,  then  the 
nullification  of  the  demoralizing  effects  of  poverty, 
encouragement,  the  fostering  of  a  desire  for  work 
and  independence,  and  thus  the  exercise  of  an  educa- 
tive influence  on  the  soul:  "the  care  of  souls  is  the 
soul  of  the  care  of  the  poor".  There  is  in  addition 
the  social  object  of  promoting  the  public  welfare  and 
of  procuring  for  the  greatest  possible  number  of 
persons  a  share  in  the  goods  of  material  and  in- 
tellectual civilization.  From  this  object  arise  the 
general  duties  of  ecclesiastical  relief  of  the  poor:  to 
prevent  those  able  to  earn  their  living  from  falling 
into  poverty,  to  assist  with  alms  the  sick  and  the 
poor,  to  raise  the  religious  and  moral  condition  of  the 
poor,  and  to  render  social  life  ablessing  for  needy  man- 
kind. The  relief  of  the  poor  includes  also  to-day  a 
number  of  important  tasks  arising  from  the  injurious 
influences  of  capitalistic  forms  of  production,  the 
modern  system  of  interest  and  usury  in  general,  and 
the  neglect  of  the  moral  foundations  of  social  life 
based  on  Christianity.  The  Church  seeks  to  fulfil 
the  objects  and  duties  of  poor-relief  by  means  of  the 
corporal  and  spiritual  works  of  mercy  usually  in- 
cluded under  the  name  of  alms. 

B.  The  object  of  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  deter- 
mines its  relations  to  social  politics  and  state  pro- 
vision for  the  poor.  Social  politics  and  ecclesias- 
tical relief  of  the  poor  have  both  for  their  object  the 
removal  of  the  material,  intellectual,  and  moral 
needs  of  the  poorer  classes  of  the  community.  They 
are  essentially  distinct  in  three  points:  (1)  the  chief 
motive  of  social  politics  is  justice,  the  chief  motive 
of  ecclesiastical  relief  is  Christian  charity;  (2)  social 
politics  considers  whole  groups  or  great  classes  of 
the  people;  ecclesiastical  relief  concerns  itself  es- 
sentially with  the  needs  of  the  individual;  the  object 
of  the  former  is  to  abolish  pauperism,  while  the  latter 
aims  at  removing  individual  poverty;  (3)  social 
politics  aims  rather  at  prophylactic  measures,  seeking 
to  prevent  the  continuation  and  increase  of  poverty, 


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while  ecclesiastical  relief,  although  also  prophylactic, 
is  mainly  curative,  since  it  relieves  and,  as  far  as 
possible,  removes  existing  need.  Both  ecclesiastical 
i-ehef-work  and  social  politics  are  indispensable  for 
society;  they  act  and  react  on  each  other.  Justice 
without  charity  would  lead  to  rigidity,  and  leave  the 
bitterest  cases  of  need  uncared  for;  charity  without 
justice  would  allow  thousands  to  suffer  destitution, 
and  save  but  a  few.  The  man  who  is  capable  of 
earning  his  own  livelihood  needs  not  alms,  but  work 
and  just  wages. 

Between  State  provision  for  the  poor  and  ecclesias- 
tical relief  the  relation  is  as  follows :  the  State  should 
by  its  social  politics  prepare  the  way  for  the  develop- 
ment of  voluntary  poor-relief,  and  should  put  these 
politics  into  practice  against  lazy  individuals;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  provision  for  the  really  poor  is  in  the 
first  place  the  business  of  the  private  person  and  the 
Church,  in  the  second  place  of  the  community,  and 
in  the  last  place  also  of  the  State.  Liberal  economics 
as  represented  by  Adam  Smith,  Richard  Malthus, 
and  David  Ricardo,  is  based  on  the  ancient  Roman 
view  of  life,  and  claims  exclusively  for  the  State  the 
task  of  relieving  the  poor,  since  this  relief  does  not 
lessen  but  rather  increases  the  amount  of  poverty, 
imposes  huge  expenditure  on  the  State,  and  inclines 
the  lower  classes  to  laziness.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  State  should  support 
the  unaKenable  human  rights  of  the  helpless,  and 
promote  the  common  weal  by  uphfting  the  needy 
classes.  It  is  therefore  bound  not  only  to  interest 
itself  in  the  politics  of  pauperism  (i.  e.  to  wage  war 
on  professional  beggars  and  all  malevolent  exploi- 
tation of  charity) ,  but  also  in  the  private  care  of  the  poor, 
especially  to-day,  when  the  voluntary  ecclesiastical 
and  private  relief  of  the  poor  cannot  possibly  satisfy 
all  the  demands  made  upon  it.  The  Church  has  in- 
deed at  all  times  emphasized  the  duties  of  the  State 
in  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  people.  Leo  XIII's 
EncycUcal  on  the  question  of  the  working  man  (1891) 
assigns  to  the  State  tasks  which  come  under  the  pro- 
gramme of  poor-relief.  The  part  played  by  the  State 
should  however  be  only  subsidiary;  the  chief  role 
should  be  regularly  filled  by  voluntary  relief  and 
neighbourly  charity,  since  thus  alone  will  the  prin- 
ciple of  spontaneous  generosity  and  individuality 
be  retained,  inasmuch  as  State  relief  rests  on  com- 
pulsory taxation  and  always  remains  bureaucratic. 
The  Church  therefore  asserts  her  innate  right  to  care 
for  the  poor  together  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
State,  and  condemns  the  agitation  for  a  state  mo- 
nopoly of  poor-relief  as  a  violation  of  a  principle  of 
justice.  The  political  side  of  pauperism  does  indeed 
pertain  to  the  State;  in  the  actual  relief  of  the  poor, 
however,  Church  and  community  should  co-operate. 
While  the  institutions  founded  by  the  Church  are  to 
be  administered  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  the 
Church  must  be  allowed  to  exercise  also  in  State  in- 
stitutions her  educative  and  moral  influence.  Close 
co-operation  between  ecclesiastical,  public,  and  private 
poor-relief  effectually  prevents  its  exploitation  by  un- 
worthy individuals. 

C.  Ecclesiastical  relief  of  the  poor  is  condemned  by 
Protestants  (e.  g.  in  recent  times  by  Dr.  Uhlhorn), 
who  assert  that  it  is  unmethodical,  uncritical,  and 
without  organization,  and  consequently  fosters  beg- 
ging and  exercises  a  harmful  influence.  To  this  we 
may  reply:  Christianity  disapproves  of  everything 
irrational,  and  therefore  also  a  priori  of  disorganized 
and  uncritical  care  of  the  poor.  But  the  surveil- 
lance must  not  be  injurious  or  degrading  to  the  poor. 
Without  transgressing  the  boundaries  of  charity  and 
respect  for  the  dignity  of  man,  the  New  Testament 
distinctly  demands  discretion  in  the  giving  of  alms, 
and  condemns  professional  begging  (I  Thess.,  iv, 
11;  I  Tim.,  V.  13  sqq.).  The  whole  range  of  ec- 
clesiastical literature  and  even  the  greatest  friends  of 


the  poor  among  the  teachers  of  the  Church  peremp- 
torily insist  upon  order  and  distinction  being  em- 
ployed in  relieving  the  poor,  warn  against  the  en- 
couragement of  lazy  beggars,  and  declare  that  one 
may  as  little  support  laziness  as  immorality;  un- 
justly received  poor-relief  must  be  restored.  Ec- 
clesiastical relief  of  the  poor  has  from  the  very 
beginning  been  very  well  organized,  the  organization 
being  changed  in  every  century  to  suit  the  changing 
conditions  of  the  times.  Not  in  those  places  where 
the  Church  has  controlled  poor-relief^  but  in  those 
where  the  State  or  other  powers  have  mterfered  with 
its  administration,  have  disorder  and  a  want  of  dis- 
crimination been  apparent. 

The  latest  opponents  of  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  are 
the  extreme  Individualists  and  Socialists.  Denying 
a  future  existence,  professing  an  extreme  Evolu- 
tionism and  Relativism,  upholding  in  the  moral 
sphere  the  autonomy  of  the  individual,  and  pro- 
claiming war  on  rank  (i.  e.  a  class  war) ,  they  condemn 
all  benefactions  as  prejudicial  to  the  dignity  of  man 
and  to  the  welfare  of  the  community.  Friedrich 
Nietzsche,  as  an  extreme  Individualist,  sees  in  bound- 
less competition — a  battle  of  all  against  all,  which 
necessarily  means  the  downfall  of  the  weak  and  the 
poor — the  means  of  securing  the  greatest  possible 
personal  welfare.  Socialism,  as  represented  by  Carl 
Marx  and  Carl  Kautsky,  proclaims  a  war  of  the 
propertyless  against  the  propertied  classes,  a  war 
whose  energy  is  paralyzed  and  impaired  (they  assert) 
by  charitable  activity.  In  a  criticism  of  Nietzsche's 
teaching,  it  must  be  emphasized  that  the  superman 
is  a  mere  phantasy  without  any  philosophical  or  his- 
torical foundation  whatever.  Even  the  strongest 
man  is  dependent  on  the  civilization  of  the  past  and 
present,  and  on  the  social  organization.  Against  the 
forces  of  nature,  against  the  accumulated  treasures 
of  civilization,  against  the  combination  of  adverse 
circumstances,  he  is  powerless.  Even  the  strongest- 
willed  man  may  be  in  the  next  moment  the  most 
piteous  mortal  in  extreme  need  of  charity.  If  a 
man  make  himself  the  centre  of  all  his  objects,  he 
challenges  all  men  to  battle.  The  theory  of  the  rights 
of  the  strong  has  as  its  final  consequence  the  reduc- 
tion of  mankind  to  a  horde  of  warring  barbarians. 
Christian  morality,  on  the  other  hand,  distinguishes 
between  just  love  of  self,  which  includes  love  of 
neighbour,  and  the  self-love  which  it  combats  and 
condemns.  In  appraising  the  value  of  the  socialistic 
theory  which  declares  poor-relief  a  disgrace  alike 
to  society  and  the  receiver  of  alms,  we  may  observe: 
Even  if  we  were  disposed  to  grant  that  in  the  socialis- 
tic state  of  the  future  all  moral  defects  and  their 
consequences  will  be  removed  (for  which  there  is 
not  the  least  proof),  the  physical  causes  of  poverty 
would  be  still  present.  Even  in  the  future  there  will 
be  orphans,  invalids,  and  the  helpless  aged;  to  these 
no  bureaucratic  central  authority,  but  sympathetic 
charity  can  afford  a  sufficient  help.  The  acceptance 
of  alms  on  the  part  of  the  guiltless  poor  is  indeed  for 
these  a  certain  mortification,  but  in  no  way  a  dis- 
grace. Otherwise  it  would  be  a  disgrace  to  accept 
the  gifts  of  nature  and  civilization,  which  we  our- 
selves have  not  earned,  and  which  form  the  greater 
part  of  our  material  and  spiritual  possessions.  It 
is  however  a  shame  and  bitter  injustice  to  replace, 
just  wages  by  alms.  This  is  so  far  from  being  the 
object  of  Christian  relief  of  the  poor,  that  Christian 
morality  expressly  condemns  it  as  a  sin  against  dis- 
tributive justice.  But  all  objections  against  ec- 
clesiastical poor-relief  will  be  most  easily  met  by  a 
glance  at  its  history. 

D.  The  history  of  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  is  dif- 
ficult, because,  in  accordance  with  the  command  of 
Christ  (Matt.,  vi,  3),  it  for  the  most  part  avoids 
publicity,  deals  with  individuals,  and  is  to  a  great 
extent  influenced  by  social  institutions.     We  will  con- 


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fine  ourselves  to  brief  notices  of  the  most  important 
historical  phenomena. 

(1)  As  a  natural  characteristic  of  man,  human 
sympathy  was  active  even  among  the  pagans,  who, 
however,  recognized  no  moral  obligation  to  render  as- 
sistance, since  the  knowledge  of  a  common  origin  and 
destiny  and  of  the  equality  of  men  before  God  was 
wanting.  Isolated  suggestions  of  the  Christian 
doctrine  of  neighbourly  charity  are  found  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Cicero,  Seneca,  Epictetus,  and  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  but  these  writers  were  powerless  to  convert  wide 
circles  to  more  humane  sentiments.  Consequently, 
a  public  and  general  care  of  the  poor  existed  nowhere 
in  antiquity,  but  only  isolated  suggestions  thereof. 
In  Athens  Pisistratus  made  provision  for  needy  war- 
invalids  and  citizens,  and  the  application  of  this 
provision  was  later  extended  to  all  residents  whom 
infirmity  rendered  unable  to  work.  Special  officials, 
the  sitarchs,  were  also  appointed  to  prevent  a  short- 
age of  corn.  Similar  institutions  existed  in  other 
Greek  towns.  In  Rome  the  poor  regulations  from 
the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  the  donations  of  corn 
especially  after  the  time  of  Caesar  and  Augustus  must 
be  regarded  as  simply  political  measures  designed  to 
soothe  the  Roman  proletariat  clamouring  for  bread 
and  games.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  children's 
alimenlaturia  founded  by  Nerva  and  Hadrian  and 
perfected  by  Trajan,  of  the  institutions  for  providing 
for  orphans  in  numerous  towns  in  Italy,  supported 
from  the  imperial  purse,  and  of  the  later  private 
foundations  of  the  same  kind  under  State  supervision 
to  be  found  in  Italy  and  in  the  different  provinces. 
Under  the  Empire  the  colleges  of  artisans  were  bound 
to  provide  for  their  impoverished  colleagues.  The 
efforts  of  Julian  the  Apostate  to  plant  Christian 
poor-relief  on  pagan  soil  with  the  assistance  of  the 
pagan  high-priest,  Arsatinus,  met  with  scant  success. 

(2)  The  Mosaic  Law  established  a  preventive 
poor-relief,  contained  numerous  provisions  in  favour 
of  needy  Jews,  and  expressly  commands  the  giving 
of  alms  (Deut.,  xv,  11).  These  precepts  of  the 
Law  were  strongly  inculcated  by  the  prophets.  The 
Divine  command  of  charity  towards  one's  neighbour 
is  clearly  expressed  in  the  Law  (Lev.,  xix,  18),  but 
the  Jews  regarded  as  their  neighbour  only  the  mem- 
bers of  their  race  and  strangers  hving  in  their  terri- 
tories. The  Pharisees  further  intensified  this  narrow 
interpretation  into  scorn  for  heathens  and  hatred  for 
personal  enemies  (Matt.,  v,  37;  Luke,  x,  33).  Meas- 
ures of  preventive  poor -relief  were  the  decisions  of 
the  Law  concerning  the  division  of  the  land  among 
the  tribes  and  families,  the  inalienableness  of  landed 
property,  the  Sabbath  and  Jubilee  year,  usury,  the 
gathering  of  grapes  and  corn,  the  third  tithe,  etc. 

(3)  Jesus  Christ  compared  love  of  neighbour  with 
the  love  of  God;  proclaimed  as  its  prototype  the  love 
of  the  Heavenly  Father  and  His  own  reclaiming  love 
for  all  mankind;  and  taught  the  duties  of  the  prop- 
ertied classes  towards  the  poor.  His  own  life  of 
poverty  and  want  and  the  principle,  "As  long  as  you 
did  it  to  one  of  these  my  least  brethren,  you  did  it 
to  me",  conceded  to  works  of  mercy  a  claim  to  eternal 
reward,  and  to  the  needy  of  every  description  the 
hope  of  kindly  relief.  In  the  doctrine  and  example 
of  Jesus  Christ  lie  the  germs  of  all  the  charitable 
activity  of  the  Church,  which  has  appeared  ever  in 
new  forms  throughout  the  Christian  centuries. 

(4)  In  Apostolic  times  poor-relief  was  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Eucharist  through  the  oblations  and 
agapae  and  through  the  activity  of  the  bishops  and 
deacons  (Acts,  vi,  11  sqq.).  Among  the  Christians 
of  Jerusalem  there  was  voluntary  community  of 
the  use  of  goods,  though  probably  not  community 
of  property  (.Vets,  iv,  37;  xii,  12).  The  care  of  the 
poor  was  such  that  no  one  could  be  said  to  be  in  need 
(Acts,  ii,  34,  44,  45;  iv,  32  sqq.).  By  the  institution 
of  a  common  purse,  administered  first  by  the  Apostles 


and  later  by  the  deacons,  poor-relief  received  a  public 
character.  TThe  pubhc  relief  of  the  poor  was  to  be 
completed  by  private  charity  (I  Tim.,  v,  14).  Private 
individuals  had  to  care  first  for  members  of  their  own 
families,  the  neglect  of  whom  was  likened  with 
apostasy  (I  Tim.,  v,  4,  8,  16),  then  tor  needy  mem- 
bers of  their  community,  then  for  the  Christians  of 
other  communities,  and  finally  for  non-Christiana 
(Gal.,  vi,  10).  The  Apostles  proclaimed  the  high 
moral  dignity  and  the  obligation  of  work:  "If  any 
man  will  not  work,  neither  let  him  eat"  (II  Thess., 
iii,  10);  forbade  intercourse  with  the  lazy  (loc.  cit., 
11),  who  are  unworthy  of  the  Christian  community 
(6  sqq.);  and  forbade  the  support  of  lazy  beggars 
(I  Thess.,  ii,  9;  iv,  11;  Ephes.,  iv,  28;  I  Tim.,  v,  3, 
13).  Almsgiving  is  for  the  propertied  persons  an 
obligation  of  merciful  charity;  the  poor,  however, 
have  no  claim  thereto;  they  should  be  modest  and 
thankful  (I  Tim.,  vi,  6,  8,  10,  17). 

(5)  In  sub-Apostolic  times,  especially  during  the 
persecutions,  the  bishop  continues  to  be  the  ad- 
ministrator of  the  church  property  and  the  director 
of  poor-relief.  His  assistants  were  the  deacons  and 
deaconesses  (q.  v.).  To  the  office  of  deaconess  at 
first  only  widows,  but  later  also  elderly  spinsters 
were  admitted  (Rom.,  xvi,  1;  I  Cor.,  ix,  S;  I  Tim., 
v,  9).  In  addition  to  assisting  at  the  Divine  ser- 
vices and  at  giving  instruction,  they  had  to  visit  the 
sick  and  prisoners,  to  care  for  poor  widows,  etc. 
Individual  provision  for  the  poor  and  visitation  of  the 
poor  in  their  houses  in  accordance  with  a  special 
list  {matricula)  were  strictly  practised  in  every  Chris- 
tian community.  Alms  were  given  only  after  close 
examination  into  the  conditions,  and  the  abuse  of 
charity  by  strangers  was  prevented  by  obliging  new- 
comers to  work  and  demanding  letters  of  recommenda- 
tion. No  lazy  beggar  might  be  supported  (Didache, 
XI,  xii;  Constit.  Apost.,  II,  iv;  III,  vii,  6).  It  was 
sought  to  make  the  poor  independent  by  assigning 
them  work,  procuring  them  positions,  giving  them 
tools  etc.  Orphans  and  foundlings  were  entrusted 
to  Christian  families  for  adoption  and  education 
(Const.  Apost.,  IV,  i);  poor  boys  were  entrusted  to 
master  artisans  for  instruction  (loc.  cit.,  ii).  The 
sources  from  which  the  Church  derived  its  receipts 
for  poor-relief  were:  the  surplus  of  the  oblations  at 
the  Offertory  of  the  Mass,  the  offerings  of  alms 
(Colleda)  at  the  beginning  of  the  service,  the  alms- 
box,  the  firstlings  for  the  support  of  the  clergy,  the 
tithes  (Const.  Apost.,  VIII,  xxx),  the  yield  of  the 
money  collections  made  regularly  on  fast  days  and 
also  in  times  of  special  need,  and  finally  the  free 
contributions. 

(6)  After  the  time  of  Constantine,  who  granted 
the  Church  the  right  to  acquire  property,  the  eccle- 
siastical possessions  grew,  thanks  to  the  numerous 
gifts  of  land,  foundations,  and  the  tithes  which 
gradually  became  established  (from  the  sixth  cen- 
tury) also  in  the  West.  The  defects  of  Roman 
legislation  in  this  respect,  the  incessant  wars,  the 
crowding  of  the  poor  into  the  Church,  made  the  task 
of  relieving  the  poor  ever  more  difficult.  The  bishop 
administered  the  church  property,  being  assisted 
in  the  superintendence  of  poor-relief  by  the  deacons 
and  deaconesses,  and  in  many  places  by  special 
ceconomi  or  by  the  archpresbyters  or  archdeacons.  In 
the  West  the  division  of  the  ecclesiastical  income  into 
four  parts  (for  the  bishop,  the  other  clergy,  church 
building,  and  poor-relief)  began  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. In  addition  to  the  provision  for  the  poor  in 
their  homes,  the  increasing  mass  of  poverty  demanded 
a  new  institution — the  hospital.  It  was  to  serve  for 
a  special  class  of  the  needy,  and  was  the  regular 
completion  of  the  general  charitable  activity  of  the 
district.  Such  institutions  for  the  collective  care  of 
the  poor  were:  the  diaconicB,  great  store-houses  near 
the  church,  where  the  poor  daily  enjoyed  meals  in 


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common;  the  henodochice,  for  strangers;  the  noso- 
comicB  for  the  sick;  the  orphanotrophiw  and  brepho- 
Irophim  for  orphans  and  foundhngs;  the  geronlo- 
comice  for  the  aged.  Of  special  importance  was  the 
hospital  Baa-iXfas  erected  by  St.  Basil  m  Csesarea  about 
369  for  all  classes  of  the  needy.  At  the  end  of  the 
sixth  century  hospitals  and  poorhouses  existed  in 
great  numbers  in  all  the  divisions  of  the  ecclesiastical 
territories.  They  were  all  under  the  bishop,  and 
managed  by  a  special  spiritual  director.  The  sick 
were  nursed  by  deaconesses,  widows,  and  attendants 
under  them  (see  Hospitals). 

(7)  After  Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604),  who  or- 
ganized poor-relief  on  a  model  basis  in  Rome  and  urged 
bishops  and  secular  rulers  to  rational  works  of  pro- 
vision for  the  needy,  the  spread  of  Christianity  to 
the  country  parts  and  to  the  Germanic  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  nomadic  tribes  led  to  the  gradual  extension 
of  the  parish  system,  which  dates  from  the  fourth 
century;  this  movement  was  accompanied  by  the 
decentralization  of  poor-relief.  The  bishop  retained 
the  direction  of  the  poor-relief  of  his  city,  and  the 
dealing  with  special  crises  of  need  in  his  diocese;  on 
the  other  hand,  first  in  Gaul  and  afterwards  in  wider 
circles,  the  parishes  were,  in  accordance  with  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Tours  (567),  to  maintain 
their  poor  at  their  own  cost,  in  order  that  these  might 
not  wander  into  other  communities.  Since  the  early 
Middle  Ages  new  centres  of  ecclesiastical  poor-relief 
were  found  in  the  monasteries,  first  those  of  the 
Benedictines,  later  those  of  the  Cistercians,  Prsemon- 
stratensians  etc.  These  constituted  the  main  factor 
in  the  preventive  and  curative  poor-relief;  gave  an 
example  of  work;  taught  the  uncivilized  peoples 
agriculture,  handicrafts,  and  the  arts;  trained  the 
youth;  erected  and  maintained  hospices  for  strangers 
and  hospitals  for  the  sick.  A  mighty  spur  to  eccle- 
siastical and  private  poor-relief  was  supplied  by  the 
replacing  of  canonical  penances  by  prayer,  fasting, 
and  the  devoting  of  whole  or  part  of  one's  fortune 
to  the  poor,  pious  legacies  for  one's  own  soul  or  for 
that  of  another. 

(8)  From  the  days  of  Constantine  civil  legislation 
supported  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  by  granting 
privileges  in  favour  of  pious  foundations,  legacies, 
hospitals  etc.  The  State  also  adopted  from  the  time 
of  Emperors  Gratian,  Valentinian  II,  and  Justinian, 
measures  against  lazy  beggars.  The  later  Merovin- 
gians diverted  to  some  extent  church  property  from 
its  proper  objects  and  disorganized  poor-relief.  In 
his  capitularies  Charlemagne  created  a  state-eccle- 
siastical organization  for  providing  for  the  poor, 
and  strictly  forbade  vagabondage  (806).  His  or- 
ganization was  revived  by  King  St.  Louis  (d.  1270), 
who  sought  to  make  the  communities  responsible 
for  the  support  of  parochial  poor-relief. 

(9)  During  the  Middle  Ages  properly  so-called 
there  is  an  important  distinction  between  poor- 
relief  in  the  city  and  in  the  country.  The  feudal 
system,  which  had  become  established  in  the  tenth 
century,  threw  the  care  of  impoverished  servants  and 
serfs,  and  thus  of  the  greater  number  of  the  poor  of 
the  country  districts,  on  the  lord  of  the  manor.  In 
addition  the  parish  priest  worked  for  the  poor  of  his 
flock,  and  the  monasteries  and  foundations  for 
strangers  and  the  sick. 

(10)  Provision  forthepoor  was  splendidly  developed 
in  the  cities  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Its  administrators 
were — in  addition  to  the  parish  clergy,  the  monas- 
teries, and  the  hospitals — the  guilds  (q.  v.),  corpora- 
tions, and  confraternities.  The  Hospitallers  cared 
for  the  sick,  the  poor  in  their  houses,  and  travellers; 
the  guilds,  for  sick  and  impoverished  members  and 
their  families;  the  distress  guilds,  for  pilgrims  and 
travellers.  Special  religious  congregations  cared  for 
the  sick  and  prepared  medicines — e.  g.  the  Humiliati, 
the  Jesuati,  the  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the 


Beguines  and  Beghards,  and,  since  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  mendicant  orders,  especially  the  Fran- 
ciscans. The  pawn -offices  {monies  pietatis)  estab- 
lished in  Italy,  and  the  loan  societies  founded  by 
Bishop  Giberti  of  Verona  (1528),  served  as  repressive 
poor-relief. 

It  is  false  to  assert  that  municipal  regulations  in 
aid  of  the  poor  were  a  fruit  of  the  Reformation;  the 
medieval  municipal  magistrates,  in  conjunction  with 
the  clergy,  already  made  extensive  provision  for  the 
poor,  endeavoured  to  stop  begging  by  ordinances  and 
police-regulations,  supported  the  real  poor  and 
municipal  institutions,  and  fostered  the  education 
of  orphans,  in  so  far  as  this  was  not  provided  for  by 
relations  and  the  guilds.  In  general,  medieval  poor- 
relief  was  in  no  way  lacking  in  organization;  in  the 
country  districts  the  organization  was  indeed  per- 
fect; in  the  towns  the  clergy,  monasteries,  magis- 
trates, guilds,  confraternities,  and  private  individuals 
vied  with  one  another  in  providing  for  the  poor  with 
such  discrimination  and  practical  adaptability  that 
in  normal  times  the  provision  satisfied  all  demands, 
extraordinary  calamities  alone  overtaxing  it.  The 
frightful  growth  of  beggary  at  the  close  of  the  Middle 
Ages  arose,  not  from  the  failure  of  ecclesiastical  poor- 
relief,  but  from  the  relative  over-population  of  the 
European  civilized  countries  and  other  economical 
conditions  of  the  time.  The  lack  of  a  central  ad- 
ministration exercised  by  the  bishop,  after  the  model 
of  the  early  Christian  relief,  constituted  indeed  a 
defect  in  organization. 

(11)  The  Reformation  destroyed  the  monasteries 
and  ecclesiastical  foundations,  which  were  for  the 
most  part  applied  to  secular  objects.  The  terrible 
wars  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  ag- 
gravated the  misery  caused  by  the  secularization  of 
the  property  which  had  maintained  poor-relief  to 
such  an  extent  that  poverty,  begging,  crime,  want, 
and  public  insecurity  grew  unchecked.  The  poor- 
regulations  of  the  towns  were  almost  entirely  in- 
effectual, and  the  State  governments  entered  on  a 
warfare  with  poverty  and  vagabondage  by  inflicting 
severe  punishments,  and,  in  England  and  France, 
the  penalty  of  death.  In  opposition  to  the  Christian 
tradition,  the  Reformers  championed  public  relief 
of  the  poor,  administered  by  the  secular  community 
and  the  State,  and  substituted  for  the  principle  of 
charitable  institutions  the  home  principle.  In  Ger- 
many the  secularization  of  poor-relief  began  with 
the  imperial  police  regulations  of  1530;  in  France 
Francis  II  extended  the  compulsory  obligation  of  the 
community  to  give  and  the  right  of  the  poor  to  claim 
support,  decreed  by  Francis  I  for  Paris,  to  all  his 
territories.  It  was  but  to  be  expected  that  poor- 
relief  should  be  secularized  also  in  England  (1536); 
this  provision  was  followed  in  1575  by  the  legal  in- 
stitution of  poorhouses,  and  in  1601  by  the  celebrated 
Poor  Law  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  This  state  continued 
until  1834,  when  the  reform  which  had  been  found 
absolutely  indispensable  was  effected. 

(12)  The  Council  of  Trent  renewed  the  ancient 
precepts  concerning  the  obligations  of  the  bishops 
to  provide  for  the  poor,  especially  to  supervise  the 
hospitals  (Sess.  VII  de  Ref.,  cap.  xv;  Sess.  XXV  de 
Ref.,  cap.  viii)  and  the  employment  of  the  income 
from_  ecclesiastical  prebends  (Sess.  XXV  de  Ref., 
cap.  i).  _  In  accordance  with  these  decrees,  numerous 
provincial  synods  laboured  to  improve  ecclesiastical 
poor-relief.  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  Archbishop  of 
Milan  (d.  1584),  worked  with  special  zeal  and  great 
ability.  Simultaneously  there  arose  especially  for  the 
care  of  the  poor  and  the  sick  and  for  the  training  of 
poor  children  a  number  of  new  orders  and  congre- 
gations—e.  g.:  the  Order  of  Brothers  of  Mercy,  the 
Clerics  Regular  of  St.  Camillus  of  Lellis,  the 
Somaschans,  the  Order  of  St.  Hippolytus  m  Mexico, 
the  Bethlemites,  the  Hospitaller  Sisters,  the  Piarists. 


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240 


POOR 


Fundamental  and  exemplary  was  the  activity  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  (d.  1660).  In  1617  he  founded  the 
Confrerie  de  la  Charitc,  a  women's  association  which, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  parish  priest,  was  to  provide 
for  the  poor  and  the  sick;  in  1634  he  founded  the 
Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  a  visiting  in- 
stitute under  religious  discipline,  which  has  for  cen- 
turies proved  its  efficacy  in  caring  for  the  sick  and  in 
making  provision  for  the  poor ;  it  combines  centraliza- 
tion and  strict  discipline  in  administration  with 
decentrahzation  and  adaptability  in  the  relief  of  the 
poor. 

(13)  The  secularization  of  church  property  during 
the  French  Revolution  and  the  succeeding  period 
(1804)  dealt  a  severe  blow  to  ecclesiastical  poor- 
relief.  Comprehensive  poor-laws  were  passed  by 
several  European  states,  but  in  no  case  were  they  such 
as  to  make  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  dispensable. 

(14)  Since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  development  of  industries,  the  growth  of  cities 
and  freedom  of  emigration  have  reduced  large  num- 
bers of  the  population  to  poverty,  and  necessitated 
gigantic  expenditure  on  the  part  of  the  community 
and  State.  The  States  sought  by  the  legal  protec- 
tion of  labour  in  the  form  of  workmen's  insurance, 
factory  laws,  and  commercial  regulations,  to  prevent 
poverty  and  to  render  stricter  and  perfect  the  poor- 
regulations.  Legislation  is  obliged  to  return  to  the 
old  Christian  principle  of  charit.able  institutions. 
In  Germany  and  the  neighbouring  countries  the 
"Elberf elder  System"  was  adopted  for  the  public 
care  of  the  poor;  this  is  based  on  personal  contact 
between  the  almoner  and  the  impoverished  family, 
and  combines  the  communal  and  private  charitable 
activities.  In  South  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzer- 
land, the  communities  employ  more  than  formerly 
private  bodies  in  their  poorhouses  and  orphanages, 
religious  congregations — e.  g.,  the  Sisters  of  Mercy 
founded  by  Father  Theodosius  Florentini  (1844, 
1852) — being  entrusted  with  the  internal  adminis- 
tration of  such  State  institutions.  Regulations  con- 
cerning the  communities  and  establishments  for 
poor-rehef  have  been  inaugurated  widely  to-day  in 
districts,  provinces,  countries,  and  states. 

(15)  In  addition  to  this  state  provision  for  the 
poor,  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  has  developed  in  re- 
cent times  not  merely  in  the  parishes  and  religious 
orders,  but  also  in  an  incalculable  number  of  chari- 
table institutions.  We  shall  name  only  the  creches, 
schools  for  young  children,  institutions  for  orphans, 
weaklings,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  blind,  cripples, 
unprotected  children,  protectories,  Sunday-schools, 
protectorates  for  apprentices,  the  International  As- 
sociation for  the  Protection  of  Girls,  the  Railway  Mis- 
sion, hospices  for  servants,  workwomen,  fallen  women, 
and  women  exposed  to  danger,  the  provision  for 
liberated  criminals,  for  emigrants,  and  the  aged; 
women's  charitable  associations  (e.  g..  The  Eliza- 
bethen — and  Ludwigsvereine);  the  men's  associations 
for  poor-relief,  including  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  (founded  1833),  the  Charitable  Students'  Circles, 
the  legal  bureaux,  the  colonies  of  workmen,  the  tem- 
perance movement,   and  the  inebriate  asylums. 

(16)  While  politico-religious  Liberalism  destroys 
ecclesiastical  charitable  institutions  and  persecutes 
the  charitable  congregations,  the  Christian  love  of 
neighbour  continues  to  find  new  ways  of  providing  for 
the  poor.  The  necessity  of  securing  unanimity  of 
purpose  among  the  various  ecclesiastical  institutions 
for  the  relief  of  the  poor  has  called  into  life  various 
diocesan  and  national  unions  for  the  organization 
of  charity — e.  g. :  The  CaritaKverband  fiir  Deutsch- 
la.id  (1897),  the  Austrian  Reichsverband  der  kath- 
olischen  Wohltdtigskeitsorganisation  (1900),  the  Cari- 
tasfaktion  der  schweizerisrhe  Katholikrnvereins  (1899). 
On  the  Protestant  side,  the  ecclesiastical  care  of  the 
poor  is  organized  especially  by  the  Home  Missions. 


E.  The  organization  of  ecclesiastical  poor-relief 
is  necessary  to-day  to  bind  together,  after  the  fashion 
of  the  early  Christian  charitable  activity  for  the  re- 
pression and  prevention  of  poverty,  all  religious, 
monastic,  private,  corporate,  state,  and  communal 
forces  aiming  at  this  object;  while  the  varying  na- 
tional and  local  conditions  demand  a  great  diversity 
in  organization,  in  general  the  following  must  be  the 
guiding  principles: 

(1)  For  ecclesiastical  poor-reUef  the  bishop  must 
be  the  soul  and  centre  of  the  diocesan  organization. 
He  directs  undertakings  affecting  the  entire  or  a 
great  portion  of  the  diocese,  and  regulates  and  super- 
vizes  the  general  charitable  activity  of  the  parishes; 

(2)  The  local  pastor  is  the  immediate  director 
of  the  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  of  his  parish.  Monas- 
tic orders  labouring  in  the  parish,  charitable  lay  as- 
sociations, orphanages  and  institutes  for  the  poor 
and  sick  are  all  under  his  direction.  The  parish- 
priest  should  endeavour  to  co-operate  as  far  as  pos- 
sible with  the  secular  and  private  poor-relief  of  his 
district,  and  also  with  the  local  authorities,  so  as  to 
secure  regular  and  uniform  action; 

(3)  The  local  provision  for  the  poor  should  be  as 
far  as  possible  confined  to  the  home,  promoting  per- 
sonal contact  between  the  helper  and  the  poor;  the 
assistance  should  be  as  a  rule  given  in  goods,  the  abuse 
of  gifts  of  money  being  guarded  against  as  far  as 
practical; 

(4)  Ecclesiastical  poor-relief  embraces  all  classes 
of  the  needy,  consideration  being  shown  for  feelings 
of  mortification  and  family  pride.  The  keeping  of  a 
list  of  the  poor  is  indispensable ; 

(5)  The  means  are  to  be  obtained  from  the  income 
from  foundations,  from  the  regular  and  voluntary  con- 
tributions of  the  parishioners,  and,  in  case  of  neces- 
sity, from  extraordinary  collections.  Sometimes  local 
poor-relief  is  combined  with  the  charitable  organiza- 
tions of  the  neighbourhood; 

(6)  Repressive  provision  for  the  poor  concerns  it- 
self in  the  first  place  with  those  able  to  work,  es- 
pecially with:  (a)  children,  who  are  placed  for  train- 
ing either  with  relatives,  with  trustworthy  families, 
or  in  orphanages.  While  maintenance  in  a  family 
is  preferable,  no  general  rule  can  be  laid  down  on  this 
point.  A  new  task  is  the  charitable  provision  for 
children,  who  are  uncared  for  by  their  parents,  and 
who  are  morally  unprotected  (cf.  The  Prussian 
Fiirsorgeerziehungsgesetz  of  1897);  (b)  sick  and  de- 
crepit persons,  who  are  assisted  either  with  gifts  of 
goods,  food,  medicine  etc.  in  their  homes,  or  are  placed 
in  poor-houses  or  hospitals.  Repressive  provision 
for  the  poor  is  also  directed  towards  persons  able  to 
work,  who  can  earn  their  livelihood  and  do  not  do  so. 
If  this  is  the  result  of  obstinate  laziness,  and  an  in- 
clination to  begging  and  vagabondage,  the  State 
should  confine  the  offenders  in  institutions  of  com- 
pulsory labour,  or  engage  them  on  useful  works,  pay- 
ing them  wages  and  supporting  them.  Should, 
however,  it  arise  from  inability  to  find  employment, 
the  State  should  interfere  by  inaugurating  relief- 
works,  comprehensive  organization  of  information 
as  to  labour  conditions,  fostering  private  relief  meas- 
ures, workers'  colonies  etc. 

(7)  Preventive  poor-relief  seeks  to  prevent  the 
fall  into  poverty.  This  is  never  entirely  successful, 
but  it  may  become  partially  so  by  the  combination 
of  the  Church,  State,  trade  organizations,  and  private 
charitable  agencies  along  the  following  lines:  (a) 
by  educating  the  youth  to  thrift,  establishment  of 
school  savings  banks  and  especially  fostering  economy 
among  the  working  classes;  (b)  by  state  and  volun- 
tary insurance  against  illness;  (c)  by  making  the 
employer  responsible  for  accidents  befalling  his  em- 
ployees; (d)  insurance  against  old. age  and  incapacita- 
tion, organized  on  trades  union  or  State  principles; 
(e)  by  the  express  inculcation  of  the  mutual  obliga- 


POOR 


241 


POOR 


tions  of  members  of  the  same  family  and  relatives 
according  to  the  precepts  of  Christianity;  (f)  war 
against  the  passion  for  pleasure  and  a  social  legisla- 
tion guided  by  Christian  principles. 

Devas,  Political  Economy  (London,  1892);  Manning,  Ser~ 
mons  on  Ecclesiastical  Subjects  (London,  1873) ;  Idem,  The 
Eternal  Priesthood  (8th  ed.,  London,  1883);  Glen,  The  Poor 
Law  (London,  1883);  Ratzinger,  Gesch.  der  kirchl.  Armenpflege 
(Freiburg,  1884);  Schaub,  Die  kathol.  Caritas  u.  ihre  Gegner 
(1909) ;  Ehrle,  Beitrdge  zur  Gesch.  u.  Reform  der  Armenpflege 
(Freiburg,  1881);  Uhlhoen,  Die  christl.  Liebesiaiigkeit  in  der 
alien  Kirche  (2nd  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1882) ;  Idem,  Die  christl.  L. 
im  Mittelalter  (1884) ;  Idem,  Die  christl.  L.  seit  der  Reformation 
(1890);  MuNSTEHBERQ,  Die  Armenpflege  (Berlin,  1897); 
Pobcher,  System  der  Armenpflege  u.  Armenpolitik  (3rd  ed., 
Stuttgart,  1906);    Sallemand,  Hist,  de  la  chariU  (Paris,  1902). 

T.  J.  Beck. 

II.  In  Canada. — ^The  Church  of  Canada  has  numer- 
ous charitable  institutions.  As  early  as  1638  the 
Duohesse  d'Aiguillon  founded,  at  the  instance  of  the 
missionaries,  the  Hotel-Dieu  of  Quebec,  where  the 
Hospitallers  of  the  Mercy  of  Jesus  have  since  devoted 
themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick  poor.  They  have 
also  care  of  the  General  Hospital  of  Quebec  (1693), 
the  Sacred  Heart  Hospital  (1873),  and  the  H6tel- 
Dieu  of  Chicoutimi  (1884).     In  1642  Jeanne  Mance 


Communities 

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Brothera  of  Charity .  .  . 
Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel. 
Brothers  of  St.  Francis 

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Brothers  of  N.  D.  des 

Fathers  of  St.  Vincent 

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Sisters   of    Providence. 
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Sisters  of  St.  Joseph. . 
Sisters    of    Charity    of 

Providence 

Sisters  of  Charity  (St. 

John,  N.  B.) 

Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of 

Charity  of  Refuge 
Sisters    of    St.    Joseph 

3 

Daughters   of   Wisdom 
Little  Servants  of   the 

Dominican    Sisters    of 
the     Infant     Jesus 

Little    Franciscan    Sis- 
ters   of    Mary .... 

Franciscan  Missionaries 

Sisters      of      Perpetual 
Succour 

Daughters    of    Jesua .  . 

Sisters    of    St.    Francis 
of  Aflsiai 

Special  Associations .  . . 

1 
1 

1 

2 

7 

4 

2 

i 

7 

5 

2 

1 

2 
5 

Total 

Province  of  Quebec.  .  . 
Province  of  Ontario  .  .  . 
Prince    Edward,     New 
Brunswick,  Halifax 
West  Canada 

63 

29 
15 

6 
13 

63 

65 

53 
7 

2 
3 

65 

78 

58 
6 

5 
9 

5 
5 

8 

3 
2 

2 
1 

Total 

78 

5 

8 

XII.— 16 


founded  the  H6tel-Dieu  of  Montreal,  which  in  1659 
was  confided  to  the  Hospitallers  of  St.  Joseph.  Mgr 
de  Saint- Vallier  (who  had  already  founded  the  Gen- 
eral Hospital  of  Quebec,  a,nd  whose  will  contained 
the  words:  "Forget  me,  but  do  not  forget  my 
poor")  in  1697  requested  the  Ursulines  to  found  a 
hospital  at  Three  Rivers.  This  hospital  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Providence  in  1888.  The 
General  Hospital  of  Montreal  (founded  1694)  was 
entrusted  in  1747  to  Mme  d'Youville,  foundress  of 
the  Grey  Nuns.  This  congregation,  whose  object 
is  the  care  of  foundlings,  orphans,  the  sick,  the  aged, 
and  the  infirm,  was  the  origin  of  other  independent 
communities  engaged  in  the  same  work,  namely  the 
Grey  Nuns  at  St.  Hyacinthe  (1840),  the  Grey  Nuns 
of  the  Cross  at  Ottawa  (1845),  the  Grey  Nuns  of 
Charity  at  Quebec  (1849),  and  the  Grey  Nuns  at 
Nicolet  (1886).  These  communities,  which  are 
spread  throughout  Canada,  accomplish  wonderful 
works  of  charity  in  behalf  of  the  poor.  More  recent 
foundations  are  allied  with  them,  among  the  most 
important  being  the  Sisters  of  Providence  (founded 
at  Montreal  in  1843  by  Mme  Gamelin),  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  spiritual  and  temporal  relief  of  the 
poor  and  sick,  orphans  and  aged,  the  visitation  and 
care  of  the  sick  in  their  homes,  dispensaries,  refuges, 
and  workrooms.  They  have  eighty-five  establish- 
ments. At  Montreal,  Ottawa,  and  Quebec  there  is  a 
society  for  the  Protection  of  Young  Girls,  as  also  the 
Layette  Society,  an  association  of  charitable  women 
which  assists  poor  families  at  the  period  of  the  birth 
of  children.  The  above  table,  though  necessarily  in- 
complete, affords  an  idea  of  the  number  and  variety 
of  charitable  activity  in  Canada. 

The  Church  carries  out  these  undertakings,  at 
least  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  almost  entirely  with 
the  assistance  of  private  charity.  In  1902  the 
Hotel-Dieu  of  Quebec  received  free  1052  sick  poor, 
whose  stay  at  the  hospital  represented  30,892  days 
of  board  and  treatment.  The  sisters  receive  from 
the  Government  an  annual  allowance  of  $448,  but 
nothing  from  the  city,  and  they  pay  the  water  tax. 
In  1910  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Quebec  had  538 
old  men  and  women  and  1704  orphans;  they  received 
$1498  from  the  Government  and  paid  to  the  city 
$1050  for  water.  In  1911  the  Government  of  Quebec 
granted  a  subsidy  of  $56,875.75  to  charitable  in- 
stitutions, Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic.  In 
Ontario  the  Government  pays  20  cents  a  day  for 
120  days  and  7  cents  a  day  for  subsequent  days  for 
each  patient  admitted  to  a  hospital;  the  cities  also 
pay  their  quota.  In  1909  the  subsidies  paid  by  the 
provincial  Government  to  hospitals,  infirmaries,  and 
orphanages  amounted  to  $257,813.53.  The  Society 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  was  established  at  Quebec  in 
1846  by  Dr.  Joseph  Painchaud.  Conferences  were 
formed  at  Montreal  (1848),  Toronto  (1850),  Ottawa 
(1860),  and  Hamilton  (1866).  The  superior  council 
for  all  Canada  is  located  at  Quebec.  In  1896  it 
numbered  104  conferences;  its  receipts  for  the  year 
equalled  $64,000  and  its  expenses  $53,000.  During 
the  past  fifty  years  the  Quebec  conferences  have  ex- 
pended $577,069.98  on  the  poor.  In  1909  the  society 
numbered  97  French  conferences  with  4228  members 
and  59  English  conferences  with  1039  members. 
The  receipts  equalled  $162,199.46  and  the  expendi- 
tures $126,316.12.  Relief  was  given  to  2900  families, 
composed  of  11,524  individuals.  Besides  visiting 
the  poor  in  their  homes,  the  society  has  organized 
patronages  for  the  instruction  of  poor  children  and 
night  shelters  for  the  homeless,  and  finds  homes  with 
families  for  orphaned  apprentices.  In  recent  years 
it  has  been  assisted  by  the  Guignol^e  collection  made 
for  the  poor  on  Christmas  Eve  by  the  Association  of 
Commercial  Travellers.  In  1910  this  collection 
amounted  to  more  than  $8000. 

he  Canada  eccUsiastique  (1910);    Annuaire  de  VHdteUDieu  de 


POOR 


242 


POOR 


Quebec  (1909);  Anniuiire  de  l'H6pital  St- Joseph  (Three  Rivers, 
1906-10) ;  Report  Hospitals  and  Charities  (Ontario,  1909) ;  Budget 
de  la  province  de  Quebec  (1911);  Noces  d'or  de  la  SociSt6  St- 
Yincent  de  Paul,  i  Quebec,  1846-98  (Quebec,  1897);  Rapport  g6- 
neral  du  conseil  supirieur  de  la  SocihS  St- Vincent  de  Paul  du 
Canada   (1910). 

Stanislas-A.  Lortie. 

III.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. — In  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  two  different  types  of  organizations  deal 
with  the  care  of  the  poor:  (a)  public  statutory  bodies; 
(b)  voluntary  associations.  Under  the  former  rnay 
be  included  Parliament,  which  makes  laws  affecting 
the  care  of  the  poor,  and  local  bodies,  such  as  county, 
borough,  town,  and  district  councils,  and  more  par- 
ticularly the  boards  of  guardians  which  administer 
them.  The  tendency  of  modern  legislation  has  been 
to  transfer  certain  sections  of  work  affecting  the  poor 
from  boards  of  guardians  to  other  local  bodies.  As 
education,  public  health,  pension,  and  asylum 
authorities,  municipal  bodies  other  than  boards  of 
guardians  now  deal  with  feeding  necessitous  school 
children,  medical  inspection  and  treatment  of  chil- 
dren attending  the  elementary  schools,  the  after- 
care of  school  children,  scholarships,  schools  for 
defective  children,  inspection  of  laundries,  work- 
shops, common  lodging  houses,  and  houses  let  in 
tenements,  the  allocation  of  old  age  pensions,  and  the 
provision  and  management  of  all  forms  of  asylums 
for  the  insane  and  epileptic.  All  public  statutory 
bodies  dealing  with  the  care  of  the  poor  obtain  their 
funds  from  taxes  or  rates,  to  which  Catholic  as 
citizens  contribute  either  directly  or  indirectly.  In 
Great  Britain  until  recently  Catholics  had  few  or- 
ganizations for  securing  Catholic  representation  upon 
public  bodies.  Within  the  last  few  years,  however, 
the  Catholic  Federation  movement  has  spread  in 
different  parts  of  the  country.  This  aims  at  en- 
couraging Catholics  to  take  their  share  in  public 
affairs  by  becoming  candidates  for  public  office  (not 
necessarily  as  Catholics,  but  as  ordinary  citizens), 
and  to  safeguard  Catholic  interests  by  putting  test 
questions  to  all  candidates  on  matters  affecting 
Catholics  in  order  to  afford  guidance  to  Catholic 
voters.  By  these  efforts,  and  notably  by  the  exer- 
tions of  individuals.  Catholics  have  secured  some 
representation  upon  public  bodies,  though  not  in 
proportion  to  their  numbers.  In  the  House  of 
Commons  elected  in  January,  1910,  there  were  9 
Catholic  members  out  of  495  for  constituencies  in 
England  and  Wales,  but  none  out  of  72  in  Scotland. 
No  figures  for  municipal  bodies  are  available,  but  in 
many  of  the  larger  towns  in  Great  Britain  Catholics 
have  representation  (for  example,  the  London  County 
Council  has  5  Catholic  members  out  of  137).  Catho- 
lics have  greatest  representation  upon  boards  of 
guardians  which  exist  directly  for  the  care  of  the 
poor.  This  is  due  mainly  to  the  efforts  of  the 
Catholic  Guardians  Association  (founded  in  1894), 
which  forms  a  centre  for  Catholic  guardians,  holds 
an  annual  conference,  gives  legal  advice,  conducts 
negotiations  with  Government  departments,  and 
assists  in  various  ways.  Out  of  24,000  members  of 
boards  of  guardians  in  England  and  Wales  540  are 
Catholics.  In  Ireland,  of  course,  except  in  a  few 
districts  in  the  north,  a  large  proportion  of  the 
members  of  all  public  bodies  are  Catholics:  out  of 
103  members  of  Parliament,  for  example,  74  are 
Catholics. 

In  legislation  affecting  the  poor,  CathoKc  members 
of  Parliament  by  their  influence  have  safeguarded 
Catholic  interests.  In  acts,  for  example,  dealing 
with  defective  children,  provisions  have  been  in- 
serted which  secure  to  Catholic  parents  the  right 
under  certain  conditions  to  have  their  children  sent 
to  Cathohc  schools:  in  the  recent  Children's  Act 
similar  restrictions  have  also  been  inserted.  Catho- 
lic members   of  municipal   councils  have  in   many 


cases  secured  the  appointment  of  Catholic  co-opted 
members  upon  the  education  committees,  consid- 
erate treatment  for  Catholic  children  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Provision  of  Meals  (Education) 
Act,  in  the  medical  treatment  and  inspection  of 
school  children,  in  the  work  of  the  Children's  Care 
Committees,  and  in  the  carrying  out  of  the  Indus- 
trial Schools  Acts:  they  have  also  in  many  cases 
obtained  satisfactory  provision  for  religious  ob- 
servances for  Catholic  inmates  of  lunatic  asylums, 
remand  homes,  inebriate  homes,  and  the  like.  The 
efforts  of  the  Catholic  Guardians  have  gained  great 
advantages  for  Catholic  in  many  districts,  such  as 
the  appointment  of  Catholic  religious  instructors 
in  workhouses  and  infirmaries,  facilities  for  Mass 
and  the  sacraments  for  the  inmates  of  poor  law  in- 
stitutions either  within  or  without  these  establish- 
ments, arrangements  for  recognized  Catholic  visitors 
to  workhouses  and  infirmaries,  and  the  safeguarding 
of  the  faith  of  Catholic  children  by  securing  their 
transfer  to  Catholic  poor  law  schools.  Indeed,  be- 
yond the  benefits  to  their  own  coreligionists,  to  the 
influence  of  Catholic  guardians  may  be  attributed 
in  no  small  degree  the  improved  administration  of 
the  Poor  Law  in  recent  years.  A  striking  witness 
to  the  value  of  their  efforts  in  this  respect  may  be 
found  in  the  anxiety  shown  by  those  interested  in  the 
reports  of  the  recent  Royal  Commission  on  the  Poor 
Law  to  secure  the  support  of  Catholics  for  their 
particular  views. 

Catholics  influence  the  care  of  the  poor  through 
voluntary  organizations,  either  by  participating  in 
the  work  of  general  agencies  or  by  their  own  efforts 
on  Catholic  lines.  The  more  important  philan- 
thropic bodies,  such  as  the  Charity  Organization 
Society,  the  National  Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Cruelty  to  Children,  the  Children's  Country  Holi- 
day Fund,  or  the  public  hospitals  supported  by 
voluntary  funds,  all  include  many  Catholics  amongst 
their  members,  with  the  result  that  these  bodies 
usually  willingly  co-operate  with  recognized  Catholic 
organizations,  whenever  Catholic  applicants  for 
relief  have  to  be  considered. 

In  the  absence  of  ofBcial  statistics,  it  is  difficult 
to  estimate  accurately  the  extent  of  charitable 
work  amongst  the  poor  by  Catholics  themselves  as 
Catholics.  Every  Catholic  mission,  with  a  resident 
priest,  serves  as  a  centre  for  such  work.  Poor 
Catholics  in  distress  instinctively  turn  to  the  priest, 
who,  if  he  has  no  suitable  charitable  organization  at- 
tached to  his  church,  usually  acts  as  almoner  him- 
self. Some  approximate  idea  of  the  extent  of  such 
work  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in  England 
and  Wales  there  are  1773  churches,  chapels,  and 
stations  with  3747  priests,  the  corresponding  figures 
for  Scotland  being  394  and  555,  and  for  Ireland 
2468  and  3645.  Similarly,  an  extraordinary  amount 
of  charitable  work  is  regularly  carried  out  by  the 
religious  communities,  especially  by  those  of  women 
who  devote  their  lives  to  personal  service  amongst 
the  poor,  such  as  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  the  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  the  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  the  Little  Sisters 
of  the  Poor,  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  the 
Little  Company  of  Mary,  and  others.  Almost  every 
possible  form  of  charitable  assistance  is  undertaken 
by  these  communities  in  different  parts  of  the  three 
countries.  Orphanages  for  boys  and  girls,  poor  law 
schools,  industrial  schools,  homes  for  physically  and 
mentally  defective  children,  homes  for  the  aged, 
night  refuges  for  the  destitute,  reformatories,  train- 
ing homes  for  servants,  homes  for  working  boys 
and  girls,  hospitals,  hospices  for  the  dying,  con- 
valescent homes,  holiday  homes  in  the  country  and  at 
the  seaside,  working  girls'  clubs,  homes  for  penitents, 
refuges  for  fallen  women,  homes  tor  inebriates,  visit- 
ing the  sick,  nursing  the  sick  poor,  instructing  the 
deaf  and  dumb  in  their  religion,  are  all  amongst  the 


POOR 


243 


POOR 


charitable  works  'under  the  care  of  religious.  Some 
of  these  have  deservedly  gained  a  national  reputation 
for  the  standard  of  excellence  reached — for  example, 
St.  Vincent's  Industrial  School  for  boys;  Dartford 
(under  the  Presentation  Brothers);  the  Home  for 
the  Aged  Poor;  Nazareth  House,  Hammersmith 
(under  Sisters  of  Nazareth);  and  the  Blind  Asylum, 
Merrion,  Dublin  (under  the  Irish  Sisters  of  Charity), 
to  mention  only  a  few.  The  religious  communities, 
whose  work  is  not  directly  charitable,  nevertheless, 
are,  like  the  clergy,  regularly  called  upon  to  act  the 
part  of  almoners.  The  number  of  religious  houses 
of  women,  including  branch  houses,  in  the  three 
countries  must  exceed  1000,  but  this  number  does 
not  afford  any  criterion  of  the  extent  of  the  work  ac- 
complished by  them.  A  good  example,  admittedly 
well  above  the  average,  taken  from  one  of  the  largest 
towns,  will  serve  as  an  illustration.  Situated  in  a 
very  poor  district,  with  twenty  sisters  in  the  com- 
munity, a  Convent  of  Mercy,  besides  supplying  nine 
sisters  as  teachers  in  two  elementary  schools,  has 
charge  of  a  night  refuge  for  nearly  300  men,  women, 
and  children,  a  servants'  home,  a  home  for  young 
working  women,  and  a  soup  kitchen,  and  its  reli- 
gious regularly  visit  the  sick  in  a  large  hospital  and 
the  Catholic  poor  in  the  district. 

The  principal  charitable  voluntary  organization 
for  Catholic  men  is  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  which  flourished  both  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land: in  England  and  Wales,  it  has  274  local  con- 
ferences with  3523  active  members;  in  Scotland,  95 
conferences  with  1316  active  members;  in  Ireland, 
200  conferences  with  3134  active  members.  By  per- 
sonal service  amongst  the  Catholic  poor,  the  society 
unostentatiously  carries  on  a  considerable  amount 
of  charitable  work.  It  practises  many  forms  of 
assistance,  including  feeding  the  hungry,  visiting 
the  sick  in  their  homes  and  in  the  public  infirmaries 
and  hospitals,  visiting  the  imprisoned,  attending 
the  children's  courts  to  watch  Catholic  cases,  finding 
employment  for  those  out  of  work,  acting  as  cate- 
chists  for  poor  boys  in  Sunday  schools  and  bringing 
them  to  Mass  and  the  sacraments,  assisting  in  the 
formation  and  management  of  boys'  clubs  and 
brigades,  and  the  hke.  The  local  conferences  are 
grouped  into  councils  which  hold  quarterly  meetings 
of  all  members  to  discuss  topics  of  general  interest. 
No  general  society  for  Catholic  women  correspond- 
ing to  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  flourishes 
throughout  the  three  countries,  but  kindred  or- 
ganizations, whose  objects  are  similar  in  scope,  thrive 
in  different  parts,  such  as  St.  Elizabeth's  Society, 
the  Ladies  of  Charity,  and  Ladies'  Settlements.  All 
these  resemble  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in 
aiming  primarily  at  the  personal  edification  of  the 
worker,  as  well  as  at  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
benefit  of  those  assisted.  These  organizations,  how- 
ever, do  not  confine  their  efforts  to  women  and  girls, 
but  take  a  large  part  in  work  amongst  boys.  A 
ladies'  settlement  in  London,  for  example,  includes 
in  its  scheme  of  work  visiting  the  sick  and  poor, 
instruction  for  the  sacraments,  mothers'  meetings, 
a  men's  club,  a  girls'  club,  a  clothing  club,  a  sewing 
class,  the  provision  of  free  meals  for  children,  evening 
classes  etc. 

One  of  the  most  striking  developments  of  Catholic 
work  amongst  the  poor  in  recent  years,  especially  in 
England,  has  been  the  organization  of  rescue  societies 
to  safeguard  the  faith  of  Catholic  children  in  dan- 
ger. Mixed  marriages,  poverty,  misfortune,  neglect, 
evil  living,  are  amongst  the  many  causes  which,  par- 
ticularly in  the  larger  towns,  contribute  towards 
placing  in  jeopardy  the  faith  of  little  ones.  The 
children  of  a  mixed  marriage,  in  which  the  father  is  a 
non-Catholic,  who  seek  admission  to  a  poor  law  in- 
stitution, are  held  at  law  to  be  of  the  same  religion 
as  the  father.     The  rescue  societies  save  such  children 


by  placing  them  in  Catholic  voluntary  homes. 
Children  of  Catholic  parents  are  sometimes  by  mis- 
take entered  in  non-Catholic  poor  law  schools.  The 
rescue  societies  watch  carefully  all  such  cases,  recti- 
fying any  mistakes  made.  The  children  of  neglectful 
Catholic  parents  are  not  infrequently  brought  to  the 
notice  of  non-Catholic  organizations,  which  are 
willing  to  assist  them,  if  Catholic  societies  fail  to  do 
so;  in  such  cases  the  rescue  societies  are  always  too 
ready  to  proffer  their  aid.  In  Great  Britain,  eight 
dioceses  have  organized  rescue  societies,  which  deal 
with  many  hundreds  of  children  each  year,  but  every 
diocese  has  its  poor  law  school,  or  its  industrial 
school,  in  which  Catholic  children  can  be  received. 
As  an  outcome  of  the  worii  of  the  rescue  societies, 
a  Catholic  Emigration  Association  has  been  in  exis- 
tence in  England  for  some  years  past,  which  arranges 
for  the  emigration  of  Catholic  children  to  Canada 
after  leaving  the  rescue  institutions  in  order  to  re- 
move them  completely  from  any  danger  of  falling 
back  into  their  early  evil  surroundings.  This  as- 
sociation has  a  receiving  home  in  Ottawa,  whence  the 
young  emigrants  are  placed  out  with  Catholic  farmers, 
and  their  progress  is  watched  until  they  come  of 

Certain  other  Catholic  societies,  which  flourish 
in  some  form  or  other  in  the  three  countries,  carry 
on  very  useful  social  work:  the  Catholic  Prisoners' 
Aid  Society  (with  branches  in  London,  Dublin, 
Glasgow,  and  other  large  towns,  not  necessarily  con- 
nected, but  working  on  similar  lines),  which  assists 
Catholic  prisoners  on  leaving  prison,  and  endeavours 
to  start  them  in  life  again;  the  Catholic  Needlework 
Guild,  whose  members  bind  themselves  each  year  to 
provide  a  certain  number  of  useful  garments  for  the 
poor;  and  the  Catholic  Boys'  Brigade,  whose  aim 
is  to  unite  Catholic  boys  as  they  leave  the  elementary 
schools,  to  keep  them  in  touch  with  the  Church,  and 
to  provide  in  various  ways  for  their  spiritual,  physical, 
and  social  well-being. 

The  great  drawback  to  all  Catholic  social  efforts 
is,  undoubtedly,  the  lack  of  intercommunication 
between  Catholic  workers  in  different  parts.  Two 
organizations  have,  however,  recently'  been  started, 
which  as  they  spread  will  probably  tend  to  remove 
this  defect:  the  Catholic  Women's  League,  which  has 
already  in  London  established  a  social  information 
bureau,  and  has  succeeded  in  bringing  together 
Cathoho  women  workers  from  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try; and  the  Catholic  Social  Guild,  for  CathoUc 
social  study,  which  many  hope  will  eventually  develop 
into  a  Catholic  Institute  of  Social  Service  for  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  upon  lines  which  have  already 
proved  so  useful  in  other  countries. 

Handbook  of  Catholic  Charitable  and  Social  Works  (London, 
1910);  Catholic  Director]/  (London,  1910);  Irish  Catholic  Direc- 
tory (Dublin,  1910);  Catholic  Social  Year  Book  (London,  1910). 

John  W.  (Jilbert. 

IV.  In  the  United  States. — This  description 
is  confined  to  methods  followed  in  serving  the  poor 
outside  of  institutions  strictly  so  called,  and  does  not 
include  institutional  works  conducted  by  religious 
communities,  which  are  described  elsewhere  under 
appropriate  headings,  nor  relief  given  by  individuals 
to  individuals,  as  the  spirit  and  method  in  Catholic 
charity  come  to  best  expression  through  organiza- 
tion. Furthermore,  the  need  of  organization  and  the 
approval  of  it  become  daily  more  and  more  pro- 
nounced. Individuals  contribute  with  increasing 
generosity  to  organizations,  and  refer  to  them  the 
apphcations  for  relief  which  they  meet.  A  sense  of 
responsibility  toward  the  poor  will  be  found  in  the 
parish,  the  city  as  such,  the  diocese,  and  the  rehgious 
community  whether  of  men  or  of  women,  and  each 
accordingly  engage  in  relief  work.  In  our  greater 
cities  a  tendency  is  found  to  establish  central  offices 
through   which  all  Catholic   charities   may  be   co- 


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244 


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ordinated.  A  similar  movement  toward  co-ordina- 
tion of  diocesan  charities  is  also  found.  General 
meetings  of  charitable  organizations  of  all  kinds  for 
purposes  of  discussion  and  improvement  of  methods 
occur  with  increasing  frequency.  Finally,  there  are 
organizations  which  undertake  particular  works  and 
gradually  expand  activity  until  they  include  repre- 
sentation from  a  large  number  of  cities  and  states  in 
their  organization. 

The  combination  of  all  Catholic  charities  in  the 
United  States  into  one  vast  national  conference  has 
just  been  begun  under  the  name  "The  National 
Conference  of  CathoUo  Charities".  The  aims  of  the 
Conference,  much  like  those  of  all  similar  charitable 
organizations,  are  the  following:  (1)  to  bring  about 
exchange  of  views  among  experienced  Catholic  men 
and  women  who  are  active  in  the  work  of  charity; 

(2)  to  collect  and  pubhsh  information  concerning  or- 
ganization, problems,  and  results  in  Catholic  charity; 

(3)  to  bring  to  expression  a  general  policy  toward  dis- 
tinctive modern  questions  in  relief  and  prevention 
and    towards    methods    and    tendencies    in    them; 

(4)  to  encourage  further  development  of  a  literature 
in  which  the  rehgious  and  social  ideals  of  charity 
shall  find  dignified  expression.  Relief  problems  will 
differ  somewhat  with  the  locality  and  with  the 
character  of  those  in  need.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  in  the  United  States  where  city  population  is  so 
heterogeneous.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  confine 
this  description  to  typical  methods,  excluding  those 
peculiar  to  any  locality.  Furthermore,  no  attempt 
is  made  to  indicate  quantities  in  relief  work  or  extent 
in  organization.  The  methods  described  are  the 
methods  actually  found  in  Catholic  circles,  which 
are  to  a  large  extent  like  those  followed  in  organized 
charity  generally,  but  differ  in  motive  and  spirit  and 
the  degree  in  which  certain  principles  are  followed  or 
certain  factors  emphasized. 

Information  concerning  the  needs  of  the  poor 
reaches  the  organization  through  many  channels. 
Application  may  be  made  directly  by  those  in  want. 
Members  of  an  organization  while  working  among  the 
poor  whom  they  know  are  constantly  discovering  new 
cases.  Other  charitable  organizations,  whether  secu- 
lar or  religious,  will  usually  notify  a  Catholic  society 
when  they  discover  Catholics  in  want.  Teaching 
sisters  in  parochial  schools  are  frequently  able  to 
render  most  efficient  service  through  the  knowledge 
which  they  obtain  of  the  needs  of  poor  families. 
Policemen  report  cases  of  which  they  learn.  The 
ministrations  of  the  parish  priest  among  the  poor, 
and  the  prompt  instinctive  turning  of  these  to  the 
priest  when  distress  comes,  enable  the  latter  to  place 
information  concerning  every  conceivable  plight  of 
the  needy  in  the  hands  of  the  charitable  organization. 
We  thus  find  a  fairly  complete  network  of  factors 
through  which  relief  agencies  are  enabled  to  obtain 
early  knowledge  and  give  prompt  assistance.  No 
doubt  the  tendency  in  many  poor  families  to  hide 
their  suffering  and  bear  privation  in  silence  baffles 
the  watchfulness  of  all  agencies,  but  on  the  whole 
these  factors  in  the  work  of  rehef  are  extremely 
helpful. 

Once  it  is  discovered  that  relief  is  needed  an  ex- 
perienced member  of  an  organization  is  directed  to 
take  charge  of  the  case  immediately.  If  an  emer- 
gency is  found  immediate  relief  is  given  without 
question,  otherT\'ise  such  inquiry  is  instituted  as  will 
bring  out  the  cause  of  the  distress  together  with  the 
kind  and  degree  of  relief  needed.  Relatives  are 
sought  out  if  there  are  any  in  position  to  take  care  of 
the  case,  former  employers  or  even  friends  who  might 
be  willing  to  assist  are  looked  for,  and  appeal  is  made 
to  them.  If  there  are  no  such  relations  discovered, 
the  charitable  organization  assumes  charge  of  the 
case  and  accepts  full  responsibility  for  it.  From  that 
moment,  personal  attention  and  service  will  be  given 


to  the  family  or  individual  as  long  as  may  be  needed. 
Spirit  and  practice  in  Catholic  circles  strongly  favour 
most  dehcate  regard  for  the  feelings  and  privacy  of 
the  poor.  In  fact,  organizations  usually  make  pro- 
vision for  exceptional  cases  by  placing  funds  at  the 
disposal  of  the  priests  or  some  officer  of  the  society, 
no  account  of  which  will  be  rendered  even  to  the 
organization  itself.  No  knowledge  of  the  names  of 
those  relieved  or  of  the  nature  of  their  need  is  given 
even  to  any  officer  in  the  organization. 

The  result  of  an  inquiry  into  the  condition  of  a 
family,  full  account  of  the  relief  given,  and  all  the 
salient  facts  in  the  condition  and  history  of  the 
family  or  individual  are  made  a  matter  of  record 
in  the  minutes  of  the  society's  meetings.  These 
minutes  are  accessible  to  the  members  of  the  or- 
ganization and  to  no  one  else  unless  definite  necessity 
require  it.  The  impression  that  records  are  a  matter 
of  indifference  in  Catholic  circles  is  to  some  extent 
inexact.  The  card  index  method  with  its  elaborate 
details  is  not  used  as  widely  as  in  other  circles,  but 
substantial  records  found  in  the  minutes,  supple- 
mented by  definite  personal  knowledge  of  the  poor, 
serve  practically  every  purpose  at  which  any  matter 
of  record-keeping  can  aim.  Cases  are  thoroughly 
discussed  in  the  regular  meetings  of  the  charitable 
society.  Reports  are  made  by  those  in  charge  and 
judgment  in  governing  a  case  is  based  on  thorough 
but  confidential  discussion.  Every  stage  of  relief- 
giving  is  made  a  matter  of  direct  personal  concern 
to  a  member  of  the  society,  who  looks  upon  his  work 
as  an  organic  part  of  his  religious  activity.  This 
service  of  the  poor  is  associated  with  the  work  of 
prayer  and  fasting  in  the  religious  life  of  an  individual. 
The  bond  of  spiritual  union  in  charity,  which  results 
from  this  commonly  shared  estimate  of  its  spiritual 
character,  paves  the  way  for  a  certain  degree  of  co- 
ordination which  adds  greatly  to  the  efficiency  of 
Catholic  charities. 

We  may  take  for  illustration  an  average  poor 
family  and  study  the  process  of  relieving  it.  If 
housing  conditions  are  bad,  they  are  corrected,  or  a 
new  house  found.  If  the  neighbourhood  contains 
elements  of  moral  danger,  the  family  is  moved  to  a 
new  environment  in  another  section  of  the  city  as  a 
first  step  in  its  reconstruction.  If  housing  conditions 
are  satisfactory  and  the  family  is  unable  to  pay  rent, 
provision  is  made  for  it.  The  resources  of  the  family 
are  studied,  and  for  members  who  are  capable  of  wage- 
earning  activity,  employment  is  unfailingly  found. 
This  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  and  help- 
ful features  of  relief  work.  If  the  mother  is  compelled 
to  labour,  provision  is  made  for  the  care  of  her  young 
children,  as  described  below.  If  conditions  do  not 
warrant  the  mother  in  working,  she  is  kept  at  home  to 
care  for  her  family  and  provision  is  made  for  her  sup- 
port. The  family  may  be  able  to  earn  part  but  not 
all  of  the  income  needed,  or  it  may  need  complete 
relief  temporarily.  Whatever  the  condition,  effort 
is  made  to  adjust  the  kind  and  degree  of  relief  to  the 
needs  and  outlook  of  the  family.  At  all  times  the 
primary  aim  is  to  draw  out  their  resources,  to  do 
nothing  which  will  stifle  them,  but  to  do  everything 
which  will  lead  the  family  to  believe  in  itself  and 
effect  its  own  salvation. 

The  standard  of  adequate  relief  cannot  be  a  uni- 
versally determined  quantity.  The  judgment  of 
those  in  immediate  charge  of  the  case  is  usually  ac- 
cepted as  final,  under  the  general  policy  of  not  doing 
too  much  nor  quite  all  that  may  be  needed.  The 
family  is  made  to  reahze  that  self-help  is  in  all  cases 
better  than  relief  from  outside.  The  relief  needed 
may  be  given  in  money  to  be  expended  by  the  family 
or  in  tickets  on  which  are  described  the  items  and  the 
quantities  to  be  obtained.  These  tickets  are  pre- 
sented to  a  selected  retailer  or  to  the  storekeeper  of 
the  organization  itself  when  the  latter  keeps  stand- 


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ard  supplies.  We  find  many  charitable  associations 
which  make  a  specialty  of  furnishing  one  particular 
kind  of  relief.  Thus,  for  instance,  one  society  may 
provide  shoes  and  books  for  school  children;  an- 
other, outfits  for  newly-born  infants  or  for  First  Com- 
munion children;  another  assumes  the  r61e  of  Santa 
Claus  and  makes  provision  to  answer  the  hopeful 
letters  which  the  children  of  the  poor  write  asking  for 
Christmas  gifts.  Certain  organizations,  like  sewing 
circles,  will  meet  regularly  throughout  the  year  or 
during  a  given  period  to  make  garments  for  later  dis- 
tribution. An  interesting  modification  in  relief 
work  which  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  beautiful  Christ- 
mas sentiment  is  found  in  the  practice  of  furnishing 
well-supplied  baskets  of  provisions  for  Christmas 
dinners.  This  practice  is  rapidly  assuming  large 
proportions,  and  appears  to  have  a  high  educational 
value.  Many  who  appear  indifferent  to  the  needs  of 
the  poor  are  won  over  to  an  interest  in  them  by  the 
spirit  of  Christmas  giving,  and  numbers  remain  faith- 
ful contributors  to  charity  work  from  that  time  on. 

If  the  resources  of  a  family  are  temporarily  sus- 
pended, a  loan  rather  than  formal  charity  may  be 
needed,  or  redemption  from  the  bondage  of  the  loan 
shark.  In  such  cases  the  required  loan  is  found,  the 
loan  shark  forcefully  dealt  with,  or  his  claims  taken 
and  carried  by  the  charitable  society.  The  high  sense 
of  honour  frequently  found  among  the  poor  in  re- 
paying such  loans  or  even  money  given  in  charity 
is  worthy  of  mention.  If  the  family  has  need  of 
legal  assistance  as  may  occur  in  cases  of  wife-deser- 
tion, non-support,  cruelty,  or  injustice,  the  need  is 
met  by  attorneys  who  are  active  members  of  a  chari- 
table organization,  or  by  legal  aid  societies  made  up  of 
attorneys  united  for  the  purpose  of  giving  legal  aid 
to  the  poor.  If  the  family  has  sufficient  income  to 
meet  its  wants  and  its  pUght  is  due  rather  to  mis- 
management than  to  need,  efforts  are  made  to  give 
assistance  in  the  management  of  things.  Small 
debts  are  gathered  up  into  one  sum,  the  time  and 
manner  of  paying  them  are  agreed  upon  and  followed 
out,  the  purchase  of  necessaries  is  studied  by  the 
friendly  visitor  and  the  mother  or  father,  with  a  view 
to  intelligent  economy  and  protection  against  fraud. 
The  most  intimate  details  in  household  management 
are  regulated.  If  the  father  has  carried  insurance 
and  is  then  unable  to  pay  his  dues,  the  society  makes 
the  payments.  Such  services  make  up  the  work  of 
the  friendly  visitor.  The  aim  is  to  bring  to  the 
family  the  services  of  a  real  and  helpful  friend  ren- 
dered in  a  natural  and  friendly  spirit,  thus  introducing 
into  the  family  circle  the  strength,  intelligence,  and 
moral  support  that  come  into  normal  lives  through 
normal  friendships.  If  the  mother  is  a  poor  house- 
keeper, she  is  instructed;  if  she  lacks  intelligence  in 
training  her  children,  assistance  is  offered.  There 
is  no  difficulty  or  defect  in  the  whole  economy  of  the 
home  to  which  the  friendly  visitor  will  not  direct 
attention  in  the  hope  of  awakening  the  latent  in- 
telligence and  resources  of  the  little  group. 

Though  every  poor  family  must  be  looked  upon  in- 
dividually and  should  be  relieved  according  to  its 
individual  constitution,  the  presence  of  large  num- 
bers of  poor  families  subjected  to  practically  the  same 
environment  and  manifesting  typical  forms  of  weak- 
ness and  inefficiency  will  present  conditions  which 
may  be  best  dealt  with  collectively.  The  following 
are  typical  methods  of  collective  relief:  When  a 
number  of  poor  mothers  are  compelled  to  work,  pro- 
vision for  the  care  of  their  young  children  is  made  in 
what  is  known  as  the  day  nursery.  A  central  house 
is  rented  or  purchased,  where  the  mothers  bring  their 
children  in  the  morning,  and  call  for  them  after  the 
day's  work  is  done.  The  day  nursery  may  be  in 
charge  of  either  religious  or  lay  women.  The  children 
are  taught,  amused,  fed,  and  clothed.  The  mothers 
are  instructed  as  to  the  care  of  their  children  when 


occasion  arises.  In  some  cases  a  nominal  charge  of 
five  or  ten  cents  per  day  is  made;  in  other  cases  there 
is  no  charge  whatever.  The  policy  is  determined 
not  from  the  standpoint  of  revenue  but  from  that  of 
sustaining  the  self-respect  of  the  family  and  hinder- 
ing possible  abuses  of  the  generosity  of  the  organiza- 
tion. A  second  form  of  collective  service  is  found  in 
what  is  known  as  the  social  settlement.  The  chari- 
table society  selects  a  house  in  a  poor  neighbour- 
hood and  makes  it  a  centre  of  social  activities  for  the 
poor  families  about  it.  Hither  come  mothers  for 
their  club  meetings,  instruction  in  sewing,  house- 
keeping, and  care  of  children;  boys  and  girls,  for  their 
club  meetings,  play,  or  evening  study.  Old  and 
young  find  an  adequate  library  where  the  whole 
range  of  their  approved  tastes  in  reading  may  be 
satisfied.  At  such  times  and  in  such  manner  as  suit 
conditions  instruction  is  given  in  religion,  the  ele- 
ments of  character,  and  simpler  trades;  particular 
attention  is  directed  to  the  work  of  teaching  girls 
to  make  their  own  clothes.  The  social  settlement 
furnishes  for  the  poor  as  wide  a  range  of  opportunity 
for  inspiration  and  self -development  as  the  wealthy 
find  in  their  clubs. 

Collective  relief  is  found  also  in  wha,t  is  known 
as  Fresh  Air  Work.  A  home  is  provided  in  the  coun- 
try to  which  the  children  of  the  poor  are  taken  in 
relatively  large  numbers  and  remain  from  seven  to 
fourteen  days.  A  well-balanced  diet  is  given  to  them 
during  their  stay,  and  their  physical  condition, 
moral,  and  spiritual  needs  are  looked  into.  When 
the  fresh  air  home  is  completely  equipped,  all  phys- 
ical defects  are  carefully  noted  and  cases  requiring 
attention  are  referred  to  charitable  organizations 
for  attention  after  the  child's  return  home.  _  These 
homes  are  under  the  direction  of  either  religious  or 
lay  women.  A  modification  of  this  work  is  found  in 
the  single  day  excursions  which  are  provided  at  fre- 
quent intervals  during  the  summer  for  the  children 
of  the  poor  and  for  children  in  institutions.  Another 
form  of  collective  service  is  that  of  encouraging 
thrift.  The  typical  method  of  doing  this  is  to  send 
collectors  among  the  poor  who  gather  their  nickels 
and  dimes  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted,  giving 
in  return  some  form  of  receipt  such  as  a  stamp  pasted 
into  a  book  used  for  the  purpose.  The  money  thus 
collected  is  held  to  the  credit  of  the  saver  and  is  re- 
tvu-nable  on  demand.  In  this  way,  families  very  fre- 
quently save  sufficient  during  the  summer  to  make 
provision  for  times  of  idleness  or  for  the  severer  de- 
mands of  the  winter. 

The  care  of  the  sick  poor  in  their  homes  is  a  matter 
of  supreme  concern.  Aside  from  the  service  rendered 
by  the  friendly  visitor  whose  function  extends  to  all 
the  members  of  the  family,  whatever  their  condition, 
there  are  communities  of  sisters  and  associations  of 
lay  women  which  aim  to  nurse  the  sick  and  supply 
medicine,  food,  and  clothing  without  remuneration 
of  any  kind.  Physicians  are  found  in  fair  numbers 
among  our  charitable  organizations,  and  their  ser- 
vices are  uniformly  given  in  the  work.  Religious 
communities  thus  engaged  make  no  distinction  as  to 
creed  or  colour.  The  associations  aim  to  supply  defi- 
nite needs  of  the  sick  poor.  If  a  change  of  climate 
is  required  for  an  individual,  the  means  and  direc- 
tions necessary  are  forthcoming;  if  tubercular  pa- 
tients require  a  special  diet  or  delicate  infants  need 
a  certified  milk,  provision  is  made;  surgical  applianoss, 
artificial  limbs,  crutches,  etc.  are  supplied  whenever 
called  for.  Provision  for  the  decent  burial  of  the 
poor  is  found  in  practically  all  Catholic  charitable 
organizations;  traditionally,  the  cemetery  corpora- 
tions furnish  lots  without  expense.  The  hospital 
dispensary  which  is  found  widely  among  Catholic 
hospitals  provides  the  services  of  physicians  in  special, 
as  well  as  in  general,  practice  for  every  type  of  ail- 
ment which  may  be  brought  to  notice  and  furnishes 


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246 


POOR 


medicines.  All  types  of  religious  communities,  except 
those  cloistered,  perform  every  variety  of  service  for  the 
sick  poor  as  conditions  invite  and  circumstances  per- 
mit. The  activities  of  sisters  in  every  form  of  re- 
lief work  concurrently  with  those  of  lay  organizations 
merit  notice  for  their  efficiency  as  well  as  their  extent. 
Thus,  for  instance,  a  community  of  sisters  engaged  in 
hospital  work  will  carry  on  systematically  the  work 
of  giving  relief  to  poor  families,  friendly  visiting, 
conducting  sewing  circles,  instructing  children,  feed- 
ing destitute  adults  under  certain  conditions,  finding 
employment,  and  making  provision  which  the  exi- 
gencies of  illness  may  require. 

Hospitals  furnish  free  wards  for  the  poor  whether 
adults  or  children.  Convalescent  Homes  make 
provison  for  the  sick  poor  who  are  necessarily  dis- 
missed from  hospitals  before  their  final  recovery  from 
illness  or  operations.  Separate  homes  are  found  for 
chronic  and  incurable  cases  such  as  those  afflicted  with 
cancer  or  tuberculosis.  Homes  for  those  temporarily 
out  of  employment,  homes  for  working  girls  where 
food  and  lodging  are  obtained  at  a  cost  proportionate 
to  income,  homes  for  newsboys,  shelters  for  homeless 
children,  and  industrial  schools  where  the  children 
of  the  poor  may  learn  trades,  are  also  found.  The 
lay  charitable  organizations  include  in  their  range  of 
normal  activities  the  visitation  of  inmates  in  such 
institutions  and  very  frequently  assistance  of  a  most 
valuable  kind  is  rendered.  Visitors  go  to  these 
institutions  for  the  purpose  of  chatting  with  inmates 
and  cheering  the  lonely  monotony  which  tends  to 
develop  in  spite  of  the  best  will  and  most  careful 
management.  Reading  matter  is  brought  and  the 
homely  comfort  that  may  be  found  in  a  piece  of  fancy 
work  or  supply  of  chewing  tobacco  is  not  deemed  un- 
worthy of  the  visitor's  attention.  We  find  lay  men 
and  women  constituting  boards  of  directors  to  act  in 
conjunction  with  the  management  of  institutions  and 
acting  on  auxiliary  boards  for  the  more  remote  but 
equally  necessary  purpose  of  raising  money  or  further- 
ing the  interests  of  the  institutions  with  the  public. 
For  instance,  ladies  auxiliary  work  in  conjunction 
with  hospitals.  Good  Shepherd  Homes,  or  orphan 
asylums,  and  raise  money  or  provide  linens  of  all  kinds 
which  are  needed  in  the  normal  work  of  such  in- 
stitutions. The  "linen  shower  "  is  a  picturesque  illus- 
tration of  this  method  of  work.  Annual  social  events 
of  one  kind  or  another  are  inaugurated  for  the  purposes 
of  directing  attention  of  the  public  toward  institu- 
tions and  to  raise  money  for  their  general  work.  The 
tendency  is  marked  to  forget  differences  of  creed  in 
these  larger  events.  One  finds  Catholics  and  non- 
Catholics  working  side  by  side  in  the  spirit  of  a  com- 
mon purpose.  Seminarians  will  at  some  time  form 
organizations  whose  members  devote  one  afternoon 
a  week  to  the  visiting  of  these  institutions,  doing 
the  work  of  the  friendly  visitors  or  good  Samaritans 
in  the  spirit  of  Christian  friendship. 

Various  types  of  child  life  in  our  large  cities  pre- 
sent extremely  distressing  problems  to  the  charitable 
society.  Newsboys,  half-orphans,  friendless  chil- 
dren, who  are  entirely  neglected  by  their  parents  and 
wander  away  from  home,  are  found  in  distressingly 
large  numbers  in  our  great  cities.  All  such  types 
are  kept  in  mind  and  either  lay  or  religious  associa- 
tions aim  to  discover  them  and  to  provide  tem- 
porary or  permanent  homes  for  them.  Usually 
those  working  in  this  manner  act  as  emplojrment 
agencies,  and  endeavour  to  find  work  for  the  children 
if  they  are  of  legal  age,  or  to  restore  them  to  their 
homes  and  obtain  for  them  the  attention  and  pro- 
vision to  which  they  have  a  natural  right.  When  a 
boy  leaves  an  industrial  school  the  authorities  will 
find  board  and  lodging  without  cost  to  him  until  he 
secures  work.  When  work  is  found  a  representative 
of  the  school  selects  a  safe  boarding  place  for  the  boy, 
encourages  him  to  save  his  money,  and  keeps  in  touch 


with  him  either  personally  or  by  correspondence  as 
long  as  there  is  need. 

Homes  for  the  aged  under  the  care  of  sisters  are 
numerous,  though  Catholics  are,  of  course,  often 
found  in  public  poor-houses.  The  visitation  of  in- 
mates of  all  such  institutions  is  well-organized. 
Homes  are  found  for  friendless  women  of  good  charac- 
ter and  destitute  mothers  with  infants,  where  pro- 
tection may  be  had  until  employment  is  found  or 
provision  made  for  whatever  relief  the  circumstances 
demand.  Lodging  and  food  are  furnished  for  friend- 
less and  destitute  men  during  periods  of  enforced  idle- 
ness. This  is  done  entirely  without  cost  or  possibly 
on  the  payment  of  a  nominal  charge  of  ten  or  fifteen 
cents  per  day.  Lodging-houses  in  the  large  cities 
contain  vast  numbers  of  men  of  every  kind  and  charac- 
ter. The  danger  in  these  places  is  more  or  less  great 
because  of  their  tendency  to  develop  an  atmosphere 
of  vulgar  abandon.  In  the  largest  cities  Catholic 
charitable  societies  provide  halls  and  offer  weekly 
entertainments  exclusively  to  this  type  of  friendless 
men.  Volunteers  are  found  who  furnish  musical 
or  literary  entertainment,  and  all  are  encouraged  to 
sing.  Lectures  are  given,  usually  by  a  priest  on  some 
moral  or  spiritual  topic.  Appeal  is  made  gently  but 
strongly  to  the  better  element  of  these  homeless  and 
friendless  men,  with  the  result  that  in  large  numbers 
they  reform  and  return  home  or  feel  a  renewal  of 
spiritual  vigour  and  helpfulness.  Much  temperance 
work  is  done  among  them,  with  results  which  are  en- 
couraging in  the  extreme. 

A  notably  large  percentage  of  delinquents  come 
from  among  the  poor,  hence  the  normal  range  of 
activity  of  Catholic  charitable  organizations  extends 
to  those  upon  whom  the  hand  of  the  law  has  de- 
scended. The  work  of  rescuing  fallen  women  is  nota- 
bly well  developed  through  the  activity  of  religious. 
Little  girls  in  danger  of  moral  perversion  are  received 
by  such  homes  where  they  have  opportunity  to  learn 
a  trade  and  arrive  safely  at  maturity.  Youthful  of- 
fenders who  come  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Juvenile  Court  are  committed  to  reformatories  or 
industrial  schools  or  placed  on  probation.  Cathohc 
charitable  societies  and  individual  Catholics  are 
active  in  co-operating  with  the  probation  feature  of 
the  court.  Sometimes  an  association  pays  the  salary 
of  a  Catholic  probation  officer  who  will  be  recognized 
by  the  court,  or  Catholics  in  a  position  to  do  so  offer 
their  services  as  volunteer  probation  officers  without 
compensation.  The  organization  of  Catholics  thus 
engaged  is  now  under  way  in  the  formation  of  Catho- 
lic Probation  Leagues.  This  service  is  rendered  by 
both  men  and  women.  Associations  provide  truant 
officers  whose  duty  is  to  follow  up  cases  of  truancy 
in  parochial  schools  and  report  on  them.  The  work 
of  the  big  brother,  in  which  an  adult  takes  personal 
charge  of  a  juvenile  delinquent  or  of  a  poor  boy  and 
estabhshes  informal  friendly  relations  with  him,  is 
taking  on  hopeful  proportions.  The  visiting  of 
prisoners  plays  a  considerable  part  in  the  life  of  nearly 
all  important  Catholic  charitable  societies.  The 
visitors  call  in  a  friendly  way,  encourage  the  prisoners 
to  take  hopeful  outlook,  induce  them  to  resume  cor- 
respondence with  their  families,  and  lead  them  to  the 
promise  of  amended  life  which  in  many  cases  effects 
striking  reforms.  Reform  schools  for  boys  and  girls 
are  regularly  visited  in  the  same  manner. 

Practically  all  activity  related  to  the  care  of  de- 
fectives is  concentrated  in  institutions.  Provision 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  blind,  insane,  epileptic,  feeble- 
minded, and  crippled  is  made  by  religious  communi- 
ties to  such  an  extent  as  resources  permit.  The  in- 
terests of  dependents,  defectives,  and  delinquents 
of  the  Catholic  Faith  who  are  inmates  of  public  in- 
stitutions are  provided  for  in  a  general  way  by  the 
public  policy  found  throughout  the  United  States. 
There   are   State   Boards   of   Charity   under   whose 


POOR 


.247 


POOR 


jurisdiction  in  one  way  or  another  all  such  institu- 
tions fall.  Much  of  the  energy  and  resources  of 
Catholic  charitable  associations  is  taken  up  in  the 
work  of  representing  and  protecting  the  interests  of 
Catholic  inmates  in  public  institutions.  Catholics 
are  found  in  numbers  among  the  members  of  such 
boards,  or  they  appear  before  boards  in  the  interests 
of  Catholic  institutions  with  which  the  State  deals, 
or  of  Catholic  inmates  of  public  institutions. 

It  is  impractical  to  attempt  to  describe  within  the 
limits  of  this  exposition  the  numbers  of  Catholics 
engaged  in  this  work,  or  to  measure  it  in  terms  of 
money.  Practically  all  of  the  activities  described  are 
carried  on  by  men  and  women  who  are  busy  at  their 
daily  occupations  and  who  give  their  time,  energy, 
and  largely  of  their  means  to  these  works  of  charity, 
without  compensation.     One  finds  throughout  this 


whole  range  of  relief-giving  the  aim  of  spiritual 
strengthening  and  regenerating  of  the  poor.  This 
spiritual  complement  of  modern  relief  is  developed 
because  of  the  conviction  that  faith  is  the  founda- 
tion of  character  and  the  one  source  from  which  any 
correct  attitude  toward  the  mysteries  of  life  may  be 
found.  Throughout  the  range  of  Catholic  charities 
one  finds  a  spirit  of  tolerance  for  human  nature  and 
its  failings  and  a  comprehensiveness  of  sympathy 
which  reaches  low  enough  to  think  of  homely  com- 
forts and  high  enough  to  accompany  the  victim  of 
distress  to  the  temple  of  God  for  purposes  of  worship. 

Report  of  the  First  National  Conference  of  Catholic  Charities, 
held  at  the  Catholic  University,  Washington,  1910;  Reports  of 
the  National  Conferences  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
held  at  St.  Louis,  1903,  Richmond.  1008,  Boston,  1911;  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  Qiuirterly  (New  York)  files;  reports  of  organiza- 
tions and  institutions,  passim.  Wm    J    KerBY 


Statistics 

OF  Catholic  Institutions  for  Care  of 

Poor  in 

THE 

[Jnited  States 

Archdioceses 

i 
1 

i 

o 

1 
1 

IB 

s 

a 

h 

s« 

a 
0 

M 
1 
3 
4 
2 
2 

1 
m 

J 
S 

B 

s 

1 

II 

0 

1 

•^1 
1 

0  i) 

P 

0 

S 

W 
"S 

1 

i 

n 

CO   0 

1     1 

Ml 

J. 

6 

2 
1 
1 

1 

1 

2 
4 
5 
2 
3 
2 
3 
4 
1 
3 
4 
2 
3 

1 

"i" 

1 

1 
1 
1 

1 

1 
1 

4 
2 
2 

1 

1 

2 
1 

1 

2 

Chicago 

5 

4 

4 

' 

1 
2 

:i 

s 

Milwaukee 

4 

s 

1 
1 
1 
1 

"2" 

1 

1 

1 
3 

1 

.  .  1      1 

1 

15 

"e" 

s 

S 
5 

7 
1 

2 

2 

4 

7 

1 

2 

2 

2 

Philadelphia 

"i" 

2 

1 

4 
2 

.:t. 

1 

1 

1 
.... 

1 

2 

Rt   Paul             

1 

1 

2 

"2" 

2 

Santa  F§ 1 

DiO.-KSES 

s 

\lbanv                   

1 

2 
4 

1 

1 

3 

2 
1 

Baker  City 

1 

Belleville 

1 

1 

i?' 

2 
5 
3 

11 

7 
1 
4 
2 
1 
2 

4 
3 

2 
4 
1 

1 

1 
1 

5 

1 

1 

1 

Buffalo         

2 

i 

Cleveland 

1 
1 

1 

Cookstown 

2 

Dallas 

1 
1 
4 
3 
1 
1 
3 
1 
2 
1 
2 
1 
4 
1 
4 
1 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
3 
7 
1 
3 
8 
2 
2 
12 
2 

3 

1 

Detroit 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Duluth 

Erie 

1 
1 

Fall  River 

1 

1 

1 
1 

Fort  Wayne 

2 

Galveston 

Grand  Kapids 

1 

Great  Falls 

3 

2 

Green  Bay 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Hartford 

2 

1 

2 

3 

2 
1 

1 

Kansas  City 

1 

1 

Lincoln 

Little  Rock 

1 
1 

Louisville 

2 
1 

"2" 

1 

1 

Manchester 

1 

1 

Mobile 

1 
3 
1 

1 

Monterey  and  Los  Angeles . 

1 

1 
1 

Nashville 

Natchez 

Newark 

2 
1 

2 

1 

3 

3 

Ogdensburg 

Oklahoma 

3 

Omaha 

1 

1 
4 
5 
2 
3 

1 
2 
3 
1 
1 
1 

1 

1 

Peoria 

Pittsburg 

1 
2 

1 

1 

1 

Portland 

Providence 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

Richmond ■. 

2 

POOR 


248 


POOR 


Statistics  op  Catholic  Institutions  for  Cake  of  Poor  in  the  United  States 

DiOCESEB 

1 

1 
1 

t— 1 

a  h 

c5" 

1 
< 

1 
1 

1 

w 

s 

o 

M 

Is 

p 

fe-B 
1° 
|3 

|l 
•2fq 

-2 
1 

P 

.^1 
il 

II 

o 

w 

1 

1 

■si 

'S  e 
1 

III 

1 1 

,1t 

o 
Q 

3 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
6 
1 
4 

1 

1 

St   Cloud 

1 

1 

Salt  Lake 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 

"i" 

2 

1 
1 

1 
1 

3 

1 
1 





1 

1 
1 

1 

5 
3 
4 
1 
3 
2 
2 
1 

2 

2 
3 

1 

1 

1 

] 

Wheeling 

Wichita 

1 

1 

1 

Winona 

Vicariate  Apostolic 

North  Carolina 

2 

1 

Orphanages 

Infant  Asyluma 

Orphanages  for  Coloured  Children 

Homes  for  the  Aged 

Homes  for  Women  and  Girls 

Homes  for  Boys 

Homes  for  Destitute  Children 

Homes  for  Destitute  Coloured  Children 

Institutions  for  the  Blind 

Institutions  for  Deaf-mutes 

Institutions  for  the  Feeble-minded 

Day  Nurseries 

Emigrant  Homes 

Industrial  and  Reform  Schools 

Industrial  and  Reform  Schools  for  Coloured  and  Indian  Children. 
Communities  nursing  the  poor  in  their  homes 


Totatj  Number 
OF  Institutions 


252 
32 

9 

103 

50 

14 

25 

1 

5 
13 

2 
29 

7 
64 
24 
25 


Inmates 


45,910 

12,834 

675 

3,714 

3,916 

2,309 

5,252 

151 

128 

1,243 

79 

300,681 

■it  ,326 

11,0£1 

2,796 


Persons  in 
Charge 


2,863 
442 

54 

1,266 

327 

131 

317 

13 

13 
113 

26 
110 

41 
637 
169 


Poor,  Little  Sisters  op  the,  an  active,  unen- 
closed religious  congregation  founded  at  St  Servan, 
Brittany,  1839,  through  the  instrumentahty  of  AbbI 
Augustin  Marie  Le  Pailleur.  To  two  of  his  penitents, 
in  whom  he  discerned  an  unusual  aptitude  for  spiritual 
things,  he  had  given  a  rule  of  life,  and  had  placed  one 
of  them,  Marie  Jamet,  in  the  position  of  superior  to 
her  companion,  Virginie  Tr^daniel.  These  young 
workwomen,  at  the  instance  of  their  director,  added 
to  their  daily  duties  the  personal  care  and  support  of 
a  poor  bhnd  woman.  Wliile  in  search  of  a  lodging  for 
this  aged  woman  the  Abb6  Le  PaiUeur  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  Jeaime  Jugan,  who  was  bom  at 
Cancale,  15  May,  1793.  She  was  soon  eager  to  share 
in  the  charitable  work,  and  on  15  October,  1840,  Marie 
Jamet  and  Virginie  Tr^daniel,  with  their  charge,  went 
to  live  in  her  house.  The  three  young  women  went 
out  daily  to  their  work,  bringing  home  their  earnings 
for  their  common  support  and  that  of  the  blind  woman. 
In  course  of  time  they  were  joined  by  Madeleine 
Bourges  and  gave  shelter  to  other  helpless  old  people. 
The  zeal  displayed  by  Jeanne  Jugan  in  securing  the 
means  to  support  those  in  their  care  has  caused  her 
to  be  regarded  as  the  real  foundress  of  the  order. 

The  congregation  is  included  in  the  class  of  hospital- 
lers. Its  constitutions  are  based  on  the  Rule  of  St. 
Augustine,  and  the  sisters  take  simple  and  perpetual 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  to  which 
they  add  a  fourth,  hospitality.  They  receive  into 
their  houses  aged  men  and  women  who  have  no  other 
shelter.  Sixty  is  the  youngest  age  at  which  they  are 
admitted,  after  which  they  are  members  of  what  is 
known  as  the  "Little  Family",  the  superior  being 
caUed  by  all  the  "Good  Mother"      To  the  best  of 


their  ability  they  assist  the  sisters  in  the  work  of  the 
home.  For  the  support  of  their  foundation  the  sisters 
are  dependent  absolutely  on  charity,  having  no  fixed 
income  or  endowments,  and  most  of  what  they  receive 
thf  y  procure  by  begging.  The  constitution  was  defin- 
itively approved  by  Pius  X,  7  May,  1907.  The 
mother -house  and  novitiate  are  at  La  Tour  St 
Joseph,  St.  Pern,  Ue-et-Vilaine,  France;  there  are 
also  novitiates  in  Italy,  Spain,  Belgium,  and  the 
United  States.  The  total  number  of  foundations 
(1911)  is  307;  in  France  there  are  more  than  100 
houses,  seven  of  them  being  in  Paris ;  there  are  thirty 
in  England,  fifteen  in  Belgium,  fifty-two  in  Spain, 
sixteen  in  Italy,  four  in  Sicily,  forty-nine  in  America, 
three  in  Australia,  one  in  New  Zealand,  one  in  New 
Caledonia,  etc.  The  order  numbers  more  than  5400 
members.  On  19  January,  1911,  the  sisters  in  charge 
of  the  refuge  of  Campolide,  Lisbon,  where  they  cared 
for  329  inmates,  were  ordered  to  leave,  their  places  to 
be  supplied  by  lay  attendants.  In  Rome  the  sisters 
have  a  house  near  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli.  In  Kimberley, 
South  Africa,  they  are  known  as  Sisters  of  Nazareth. 

Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kongregationen,  III  (Paderborn, 
1908),  388;  Steele,  Convents  of  Great  Britain  (St.  Louis,  1902),  244; 
Lerot,  Au  pays  de  la  Chariti  (Abbeville,  1903) ;  Messenger  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  (February,  1890),  103-12;  Tablet  (Oct.  24,  1896), 
647;    Ram,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  (London,  1894). 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Poor  Brothers  of  St.  Francis  Seraphicus,  a 

congregation  of  lay  brotners  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  instituted  for  charitable  work  among  orphan 
boys  and  for  educating  the  youth  of  the  poorer  classes. 
The  founder  was  PhiUp  Hoever,  b.  at  Obersthohe, 
near  Cologne,   Germany,    1816;    a  schoolmaster  at 


POOR 


249 


POOR 


Breidt  and  Aachen.  Through  the  influence  of  Mother 
Frances  Schervier,  foundress  of  the  Little  Sisters 
of  the  Poor  of  St.  Francis,  Hoever,  at  Cliristmas,  1857, 
dedicated  liimself  with  four  others  to  the  service  of 
God  and  of  the  abandoned  men.  In  1860  the 
Brothers  obtained  a  home  at  Aachen.  In  the  following 
year  (5  Jan.)  Cardinal  Geissel,  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
approved  the  new  congregation.  When  Hoever  died 
in  1864,  it  had  twenty-six  members  and  some  postu- 
lants. In  1869  the  institution  received  a  Catholic 
orphanage  at  Moabit,  Berlin,  and  since  1866  it  has 
spread  in  the  United  States  (Teutopolis,  Illinois; 
Detroit,  Michigan;  Thenville,  Kentucky;  and  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio) .  Although  in  the  Austro-Prussian  war, 
1866,  and  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  1870-71,  the 
Poor  Brothers  were  helpful  in  the  field  hospitals,  the 
Prussian  KuUurkampf  did  not  spare  them;  in  1876-77 
they  had  to  give  up  all  their  houses  in  Prussia.  They 
retired  to  Blyerheide  on  the  Dutch  frontier,  where 
the  new  mother-house  was  erected.  After  1888  the 
Brothers  were  allowed  to  return  to  Prussia,  and  differ- 
ent houses  were  founded;  Hohenhof  in  Upper  Silesia, 
1891 ;  Dormagenon  the  Rhine,  1902,  etc. ;  in  Belgium  at 
Voelkerioh,  1900;  in  Holland  at  Roermond,  1903.  In 
the  United  States  the  Poor  Brothers  possess  a  house 
of  education  at  Mt.  Alverno  near  Cincinnati;  and  St. 
Vincent's  in  Cincinnati.  In  1907  the  members  of  the 
Congregation  were  230,  of  whom  50  were  in  the  United 
States.  The  constitutions  of  the  Poor  Brothers  were 
approved  by  Pius  X  in  1910. 

Der  selige  P.  Johannes  Hoever  und  seine  Stiftung  (Aachen, 
1896) :  Heimbttcher,  Die  Orden  und  Kongregationen,  II  (Pader- 
born,  1907),  a.  v.  Arme  Briider  vom  hi.  Franziscus. 

LlVAEITJS  OlIGEB. 

Poor  Catholics  {Pauperes  Catholici),  a  rehgious 
mendicant  order,  organized  in  1208,  to  reunite  the 
Waldenses  with  the  Church  and  combat  the  current 
heresies,  especially  the  Albigensian.  The  recruits 
were  taken  from  the  "Pauperos  Lugdunenses"  (orig- 
inal name  of  the  Waldenses) ;  however,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  latter,  Innocent  III  gave  them  the 
name  of  "Pauperes  Catholici". 

The  heretical  movement  of  the  Albigenses  had  taken 
such  enormous  proportions  in  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  that  they  were  justly  called  by 
Innocent  III  a  greater  peril  to  the  Church  than  the 
Saracens.  Their  doctrine  was  dualistic.  They  be- 
lieved and  taught  that  the  visible  and  invisible  world 
emanated  from  two  separate  and  distinct,  coeternal 
principles,  one  essentially  bad,  which  created  the 
material  world,  and  the  other  essentially  good,  author 
of  the  spiritual  world.  This  doctrine  led  logically  to 
the  renunciation  of  all  things  material.  Hence  they 
rejected  marriage,  the  use  of  animal  food,  hell,  purga- 
tory etc.,  and  advocated  a  life  of  self-denial  and  re- 
nunciation of  all  material  pleasures.  The  systematic 
teaching  of  these  doctrines,  as  well  as  the  abstemious 
life  of  the  sectaries,  rapidly  influenced  the  richer 
classes,  especially  the  nobility,  of  whom  it  is  said  that 
they  preferred  sending  their  children  for  education  to 
the  heretics  rather  than  to  Catholic  schools.  The 
Waldenses,  on  the  other  hand,  formed  a  rehgious, 
social  movement  among  the  common  people,  who  had 
become  dissatisfied  with  their  economic  and  social 
conditions  and  estranged  from  religion  on  account  of 
the  scandalous  neglect  of  the  clergy.  The  latter,  un- 
fortunately, took  more  interest  in  the  administration 
of  their  temporal  affairs  than  in  administering  to  the 
spiritual  needs  of  the  faithful.  Innocent  III  com- 
plains bitterly,  in  a  letter  to  the  bishops,  sa3dng  that 
the  people  are  hungry  for  the  Bread  of  Life,  but  that 
there  is  no  one  to  break  it  for  them.  Public  preaching, 
exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  bishops,  had  become  a 
rare  event. 

The  result  was  that  the  common  people,  who  needed 
spiritual  help  in  a  time  of  religious  and  social  disturb- 
ance, looked  for  religious  support  elsewhere.    They 


began  to  study  the  Sacred  Scriptures  and,  not  having 
the  proper  rehgious  guidance,  soon  regarded  them  as 
theur  sole  authority.  They  practised  religion  accord- 
ing to  their  conception  of  the  Gospel  and  preached  the 
same  openly  to  their  fellow-men,  believing  this  to  be 
in  conformity  with  the  teaching  of  Christ.  Still,  they 
tried  to  live  up  to  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the 
Church  but,  being  told  by  the  pope  to  stop  preaching 
until  they  had  conferred  with  the  proper  author- 
ities, they  disobeyed,  continuing  to  preach  as  usual, 
attacking  the  scandalous  hfe  of  the  clergy,  and  finally 
becoming  antagonistic  to  the  Church  itself.  Although 
at  war  with  the  Church,  they  vigorously  fought  its 
most  dangerous  enemy,  the  Albigenses,  whom  they 
regarded  in  the  beginning  as  equally  dangerous  to 
themselves.  The  position  of  the  Church  was  critical, 
yet  not  hopeless.  Having  thus  far  failed  in  its  at- 
tempts to  suppress  the  heresy,  on  account  of  the  in- 
adequate methods  of  its  missionaries,  it  now  adopted 
a  new  method,  which  consisted  in  meeting  the  enemy 
with  its  own  weapons:  fearlessly  preaching  the  word 
of  God  and  leading  a  life  of  resignation  and  evangeUcal 
poverty.  Those  who  already  practised  this  life  were, 
of  course,  considered  the  fittest  men  for  this  work. 
The  Church  saw  that  the  Waldenses,  who  constituted 
the  masses,  were  gradually  drifting  away.  Its  plan 
was  to  bring  these  still  harmless  but  zealous  workers 
back  to  the  fold  in  reorganizing  them  according  to 
their  former  practice  of  studying  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, preaching  the  ward  of  God,  and  following  the 
rule  of  absolute  poverty  and  resignation.  Once  re- 
united, they  would  then  form  a  phalanx  of  energetic 
soldiers  fit  to  oppose  the  Albigenses. 

Through  the  missionary  activities  of  Bishop  Diego 
of  Osma  and  St.  Dominic,  a  small  group  of  Waldenses, 
under  the  leadership  of  Duran  of  Huesca  (Spain),' was 
won  back  to  the  Church  during  a  rehgious  discussion 
at  a  meeting  held  at  Pamiers  (France)  towards  the 
end  of  1207.  These  new  converts,  desirous  of  continu- 
ing their  religious  activity,  went  the  same  year  to 
Rome,  where  they  were  welcomed  by  Innocent  III. 
Anxious  to  realize  his  plan,  the  pope  gave  the  young 
band,  seven  in  number,  a  constitution  by  which  they 
could  retain  their  former  rule  of  life,  and  which 
pointed  out  to  them  a  definite  plan  they  were  to  follow 
in  preaching  against  the  Albigenses.  Aside  from  this 
they  had  to  make  a  profession  of  faith  which  repre- 
sented the  doctrine  of  the  Church  relative  to  all  cur- 
rent heresies,  and  which  was  intended,  not  only  to  free 
their  minds  from  all  heretical  tendencies  and  subject 
them  to  the  authority  of  the  Church,  but  also  to  offer 
them  a  guide  according  to  which  they  could  enter  upon 
their  missionary  activities  with  a  series  of  formulated 
truths  giving  them  a  clear  outline  of  their  faith  and 
absolute  certainty  in  their  work.  After  having  prom- 
ised allegiance  to  the  pope  and  the  doctrines  of  the 
Church,  they  entered  upon  their  mission  in  the  begin- 
ning of  1208.  Innocent  III  recommended  them  to  the 
bishops  of  Southern  France  and  Spain.  They  seemed 
to  be  successful,  for  we  soon  find  them  busy,  not  only 
through  Southern  France,  but  even  as  far  as  Milan, 
where  they  founded  a  school  in  1209  to  gather  and 
educate  recruits  for  their  order.  Three  years  later, 
1212,  a  group  of  penitents  placed  themselves  under 
their  spiritual  direction.  Within  four  years  of  their 
foundation  they  extended  their  activities  over  the  Dio- 
ceses of  B^ziers,  Uz§s,  Ntmes,  Carcassonne,  Narbonne, 
Taragon,  Marseilles,  Barcelona,  Huesca,  and  Milan. 

However,  in  spite  of  their  apparent  success,  the 
undertaking  of  the  Poor  Catholics  was  doomed  from 
the  beginning.  They  became  a  victim  of  the  unfavour- 
able conditions  under  which  they  originated.  After 
1212  they  began  to  disintegrate.  Innocent  III  stood 
by  them  for  four  years,  making  concession  after  con- 
cession, repeatedly  urging  the  bishops  to  support 
them,  recommending  them  to  the  King  of  Taragon; 
he  even  went  so  far  as  to  exempt  them  from  taking 


POOR 


250 


POOR 


the  oath  of  allegiance,  as  this  was  contrary  to  the 
teachings  of  the  Waldenses,  and  finally  placed  them 
under  the  protectorate  of  St.  Peter,  but  all  in  vain. 
They  did  not  show  any  positive  results  and,  for  this 
reason,  the  pope  abandoned  them  in  1212  and  gave 
his  attention  to  the  Preaching  Friars  of  St.  Dominie 
and  the  Friars  Minor  of  St.  Francis,  whose  labours 
promised  better  results.  In  1237  Gregory  IX  re- 
quested the  provincial  of  the  Preaching  Friars  to  visit 
the  provinces  of  Narbonne  and  Taragon  and  compel 
the  Poor  Catholics  to  adopt  one  of  the  approved  rules, 
which,  if  we  consider  the  similarity  of  purpose,  jus- 
tifies the  supposition  that  the  Poor  Catholics  in  these 
provinces  were  affiliated  with  the  friars.  In  Milan  we 
find  them  tiU  12.56  when,  by  a  Decree  of  Innocent  IV, 
they  were  united  with  the  Augustinian  Hermits. 

The  principal  causes  of  their  failure  were  the  or- 
ganization adopted  from  the  Waldenses,  and  the  ob- 
ject of  their  foundation.  The  whole  enterprise  was 
looked  upon  as  an  innovation  contrary  to  all  estab- 
lished rights  and  privileges  of  the  clergy,  and  naturally 
called  forth  a  severe  opposition  by  these.  Their  chief 
occupation  remained,  as  it  was  before  their  reconcilia- 
tion, the  preaching  of  the  word  of  God  directed 
against  the  heretics.  To  be  successful  in  realizing  his 
plan  Innocent  III  placed  himself  as  sole  director  at 
the  head  of  the  organization,  thus  replacing  the 
majoralis,  leader  of  the  Waldenses.  He  gave  them  the 
nameof  "Pauperes  Catholici",  to  show  that  they  prac- 
tised poverty  in  common  with  the  "Pauperes  Lug- 
dunenses"  but  were  separated  from  them  in  enjoying 
the  benefits  and  sympathy  of  the  Church.  The  divi- 
sion into  "perfecti"  and  "credentes  remained  the 
same,  only  the  names  were  changed  into  "fratres" 
and  ."amici".  In  their  activity  the  Waldenses  were 
divided  into  three  classes:  the  "sandaliati",  who  had 
received  sacred  orders  and  the  especial  office  to  con- 
fute the  heresiarchs;  the  "doctores",  who  had  charge 
of  the  instructing  and  training  of  the  missionaries; 
and  the  "novellani",  whose  chief  work  consisted  in 
preaching  to  the  common  people.  The  work  of  the 
Poor  Catholics  had  the  same  division;  however,  the 
names  "sandaliati",  "doctores".  and  "novellani" 
were  changed  into  "doctiores",  honestiores ",  and 
"idonei".  The  habit,  a  light  gray,  remained  un- 
changed, except  the  buckles  on  the  sandals,  by  which 
the  Waldenses  were  known  as  heretics.  Manual 
labour  was  forbidden  as  before.  The  only  means  of 
support  were  the  daily  offerings  of  the  faithful.  It 
was  thought  that,  by  giving  the  Poor  Catholics  this 
organization,  the  Waldenses  could  be  won  back  easily 
to  the  Church.  However,  the  danger  existed  that, 
with  their  former  customs  and  habits,  they  would  also 
retain  their  heretical  tendencies.  This  proved  only 
too  true  and  gave  rise  to  frequent  complaints  by  the 
bishops.  The  fact,  however,  that  simple  laymen, 
although  they  had  received  the  tonsure  and  were  re- 
garded as  clerics,  publicly  preached  the  doctrine  of 
the  Church,  and  this  under  the  protection  of  the 
supreme  pontiff  himself,  was  unheard  of  and  looked 
upon  as  a  usurpation  of  episcopal  powers  and  rights 
and,  naturally,  occasioned  severe  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  higher  clergy.  The  latter  even  went  so  far  it  seems 
as  to  curtail  the  offerings  of  the  faithful,  the  only  sup- 
port of  the  Poor  Cathohcs.  Under  these  conditions 
it  was  impossible  for  them  to  prosper.  Still,  the  great 
work  of  reformation  was  begun  and,  although  they 
were  sacrificed  by  introducing  it,  it  was  continued  and 
successfully  carried  out  by  the  Preaching  Friars  and 
the  Friars  Minor. 

Reconciled  Lombards. — An  article  on  Poor 
Catholics  would  be  incomplete  without  some  account 
of  the  Reconciled  Lombards.  Peter  Waldes  had 
not  confined  his  teaching  to  Lyons  alone,  where  he 
set  the  Waldensian  movement  on  foot.  When  he 
was  expelled  from  that  city,  he  decided  to  go  to 
Rome  and  make  a  personal  plea  for  his  cause  to  the 


pope.  Going  through  Lombardy,  he  propagated 
his  ideas.  The  lay  people  readily  accepted  his  views 
on  religion  and  formed  an  economic,  religious  body 
known  by  the  name  of  Humiliates  {humiliati). 
Some  of  them  appeared  in  Rome  with  him  the  fol- 
lowing year,  1179,  and  asked  Alexander  III  to  sanc- 
tion their  rule  or  form  of  life,  which  consisted  in 
leading  a  religious  life  in  their  separate  homes,  ab- 
staining from  the  oath,  and  defending  the  Catholic 
doctrine  by  pubho  preaching.  The  pope  granted 
them  permission  to  lead  a  religious  life  in  their  homes, 
but  forbade  them  to  pre3,ch.  Unmindful  of  the  pon- 
tiff's answer  and  continuing  their  former  life,  they 
were  excommunicated  by  Lucius  III  about  the  year 
1184.  In  this  state  they  remained  until  1201,  when, 
upon  presentation  of  their  constitution.  Innocent 
III  reconciled  them  with  the  Church,  and  reorganized 
them  in  conformity  with  their  economic  and  reli- 
gious customs,  also  approving  of  the  name  "Humi- 
liati". This  brought  most  of  them  back  to  the 
Church;  but  a  number  persevered  in  the  heresy 
and  continued  their  former  life  under  the  direction 
of  the  Poor  of  Lyons,  with  whom  they  were  naturally 
affihated.  Economic  and  religious  difficulties,  how- 
ever, aggravated  long-felt  dissensions  between  the 
two  groups  and,  in  1205,  these  non-reconciled  Humi- 
liates separated  from  the  Lyonese  and  formed  a 
distinct  group,  adopting  the  name  of  Poor  Lombards, 
"Pauperes  Lombard!" 

In  order  to  bring  the  Poor  Lombards  back  to  the 
Church,  Innocent  III  founded  and  organized  in 
1210  the  order  of  the  Reconciled  Lombards,  under 
the  immediate  supervision  of  the  supreme  pontiff. 
The  recruits  were  taken  from  the  ranks  of  the  Poor 
Lombards.  Their  first  superior  was  Bernard  Primus, 
a  former  Lombard  leader,  who,  with  a  few  followers, 
had  given  the  impetus  for  the  foundation  of  the  order 
by  presenting  a  rule  of  life  to  the  pope.  Innocent 
III  did  not  entrust  the  reconciliation  of  the  Poor 
Lombards  to  the  Poor  Catholics  on  account  of  their 
divergent  views  on  the  subject  of  labour.  The 
latter  had  abolished  all  manual  labour  for  the  mis- 
sionaries. The  Lombards  and  the  Humiliates,  on 
the  contrary,  gave  manual  labour  the  first  place. 
Every  member,  irrespective  of  position  or  talent, 
had  to  learn  «.  trade  in  order  to  make  his  living. 
This  predominance  of  manual  labour  we  also  find  a 
deciding  factor  in  the  reorganization  of  the  Reconciled 
Lombards.  Two  years  later,  however.  Innocent 
III  gave  them  a  new  constitution,  in  which  he  re- 
tained manual  labour  for  all  the  members  of  the 
order,  but  declared  it  only  of  secondary  value  for 
the  missionaries  or  friars  to  whom  he  assigned  the 
study  of  Holy  Scripture  and  preaching  as  main 
occupation.  He  also  makes  a  more  definite  division 
of  the  members  into  three  classeSj  or  orders,  com- 
prising respectively  the  missionaries  or  friars,  the 
women  who  took  the  vows,  and  the  married  peojDle. 
The  object  of  this  second  constitution  was  to  bring 
order  into  the  chaos  of  social  and  religious  agita- 
tion among  the  different  classes  of  members  and,  at 
the  same  time,  to  bring  the  better  elements  to  the 
front  to  train  them  for  missionary  work  against 
the  Cathari.  The  Reconciled  Lombards,  like  the 
Poor  Catholics,  did  not  meet  with  the  expectations 
of  the  Roman  Curia;  both  failed  for  the  same  reasons. 
They  succumbed  in  preparing  and  initiating  the  great 
work  of  reform  so  successfully  carried  out  by  the 
Dominicans    and   Franciscans. 

Castro,  Biblioteca  espaHola,  II  (Madrid,  1786) ;  Devic  and 
VaissJjtb,  Hist.  gen.  de  Languedoc,  VI  (Toulouse,  1879) ;  Guiraud, 
Questions  d'hist.  et  d'arcMol.  chrU.  (Paris,  1899) ;  Huhter,  Gesch. 
Papst  Inn.  Ill,  II  (Hamburg,  1834) ;  H^ltot,  Klosier-u.  Ritter- 
orden,  III  (Leipzig,  1754) ;  Lea,  A  History  of  the  Inquisition,  1 
(New  Yorlc,  a.  d.) ;  Mandonnet,  Les  origines  de  I'Ordo  de  'pmni- 
tentia  (Fribourg,  1898);  Luchaire,  Innocent  III  (Paris,  1906); 
Mt^LLER,  Die  Waldenser  u.  ihre  einz.  Grup,  (Gotha,  1886); 
PiERRON,  Die  hath.  Armen  (Fribourg,  1911). 

Sources:— Innoc.  Ill  in  P.  L.,  CCXV,  CCXVI;  Torelli,  Secoli 


POOR 


251 


POOR 


Aoostiniani,  IV  (Bologna,  1675),  545,  607;  William  or  PuY- 
Latjrent  in  Recueil  des  hist,  des  Gaules  et  de  la  France,  XIX,  200; 
Peter  of  Vaux-Cernay,  ibid.,  XIX,  10;  Chron.  Urspergense  in 
Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:   Script,  XXIII,  367,  ad  an.  1212. 

J.    B.    PlEERON. 

Poor  Child  Jesus,  Sisters  op  the,  a  congregation 
founded  at  Aachen  in  1844  for  the  support  and  educa- 
tion of  poor,  orphan,  and  destitute  children,  especially 
girls;  approved  by  Pius  IX  in  1862  and  1869,  and  by 
Leo  XIII  in  1881  and  1888.  Clara  Fey,  Leocadia 
Startz,  Wilhelmina  Istas,  and  Aloysia  Vossen  were  at 
school  together  at  Aachen;  they  were  the  co-foun- 
dresses of  the  congregation.  The  home  of  Clara  Fey 
was  a  rendezvous  for  priests  and  earnest-minded  laity 
for  the  discussion  of  religious  and  social  questions.  In 
February,  1837,  Clara  and  some  companions  rented  a 
house,  gathered  together  some  children,  fed,  clothed, 
and  taught  them.  Soon  the  old  Dominican  convent 
was  secured  and,  with  other  houses,  opened  as  schools. 
After  seven  years  of  rapid  progress  the  four  foundresses 
entered  upon  community  life  2  Feb.,  1844,  under  the 
rule  and  direction  of  Clara  Fey  (b.  11  April,  1815;  d.  8 
May,  1894) .  Fifty  children  were  housed  with  the  com- 
munity, andseveral  hundreds  attended  the  day  schools. 
In  1845  Card.  Geissel  of  Cologne  approved  the  rules 
and  obtained  recognition  from  the  Holy  See,  whilst  the 
Prussian  Government  also  authorized  the  foundation. 
An  old  convent  in  Jakobstrasse  became  the  first 
mother-house  of  the  new  order.  The  growth  was 
rapid,  and  in  quick  succession  houses  were  opened  at 
Bonn,  Derendorf,  Diisseldorf,  Neuss,  Cologne,  Co- 
blenz,  Landstuhl,  Luxemburg,  Stolberg,  and  Vienna. 

The  need  of  providing  funds  for  the  original  work 
of  rescue,  as  well  as  the  entreaties  of  bishops,  led  to 
other  activities  being  undertaken,  e.  g.  high  schools 
for  girls,  training  of  domestics,  homes  for  girls  in  busi- 
ness, modelling  of  wax  figures  for  statues,  and  notably 
church  embroidery.  For  the  latter,  designs  were 
furnished  by  Pugin  at  the  instance  of  Mrs.  Edgar,  an 
English  resident  of  Aachen,  and  the  exquisite  needle- 
painting  of  the  sisters  became  famed  throughout  Ger- 
many and  the  neighbouring  countries.  The  house  at 
Burtscheid  (Aachen)  became,  and  still  remains,  the 
German  secretariate  of  the  society  of  the  Holy  Child- 
hood. In  twenty  years  the  number  of  houses  had 
grown  to  twenty-five,  with  450  sisters.  Invaluable 
advice  and  assistance  were  afforded  the  order  by 
Bishop  Laurent,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Luxemburg,  and 
by  Pastor  Sartorius  of  Aachen,  who  with  Father 
Andreas  Fey,  a  brother  of  Clara,  acted  as  spiritual 
director  and  confessor.  After  the  Franco-Prussian 
war,  the  devotion  of  the  sisters  in  nursing  the  sick  and 
wounded  was  rewarded  by  an  autograph  letter  from 
the  emperor  and  decorations  for  many  sisters.  The 
influence  of  the  empress  delayed  the  expulsion  of  the 
congregation  during  the  Kulturkampf  until  1875, 
when  steps  were  taken  to  close  the  houses  in  Prussia; 
but  not  until  1878  was  the  mother-house  at  Aachen 
transferred  to  Simpelveld,  a  few  miles  over  the  Dutch 
frontier.  There  Bishop  Laurent,  who  had  resigned  his 
see,  took  up  his  residence,  and  remained  as  counsellor 
until  his  death  in  1884.  The  exiles  found  refuge  in 
Holland,  Bavaria,  Belgium,  Luxemburg,  a,nd  Austria. 
In  England  a  house  was  established  in  1876  at 
Southam,  where  an  orphanage  was  immediately 
opened  by  the  ten  exiles  who  arrived  there.  This 
community  now  numbers  over  forty  sisters  with 
orphanage,  day  and  boarding  schools,  and  a  school  of 
embroidery. 

The  relaxation  of  the  Falk  Laws  enabled  the  congre- 
gation in  1887  to  regain  many  of  its  convents.  At  the 
present  time  (1911)  the  total  number  of_  houses  is  38, 
with  over  2000  sisters  engaged  in  a  variety  of  chari- 
table and  educational  occupations,  with  thousands  of 
children  of  every  class. 

The  range  of  work  is  wide:  seminaries  for  teachers 
as  at  Maastricht,  Ehrenfeld,  Brussels ;   high  schools 


(boarding  and  day),  Godesberg,  Diisseldorf,  Vienna, 
Roermond,  Maastricht,  Brussels,  Borsbeeck,  Antwerp, 
Plappeville  etc.;  domestic  training  at  many  houses; 
embroidery  at  Simpelveld,  Aachen,  Brussels,  Land- 
stuhl, Southam,  Vienna  (DobUng);  elementary 
schools  and  orphanages  at  most  houses.  The  mother 
general  resides  at  Simpelveld,  the  mother-house  and 
chief  novitiate,  with  provincials  for  Austria  and  Hol- 
land. The  constitutions  aim  at  promoting  a  simplicity 
of  character  and  joyful  spirit  in  imitation  of  the  Child 
Jesus  born  in  poverty.  The  twenty-fifth  of  each 
month  is  a  day  of  special  devotion  before  the  Crib, 
the  nineteenth  in  honour  of  St.  Joseph,  the  chief 
patron.  Guardian  of  the  Poor  Child;  and  the  secon- 
dary patron  is  St.  Dominic. 

PfUlf,  Mutter  Clara  Fey  Vom  Armen  Kinde  Jesus  (Freiburg, 
1907);  Mutter  Clara  (Simpelveld,  1910);  Heimbucher,  Die  Orden 
und  Kongregationen  (Paderborn,  1897). 

Walter  Hofler. 

Poor  Clares  (Poor  Ladies,  Sisters  of  St. 
Clare),  the  Second  Order  of  St.  Francis.  The  sub- 
ject will  be  treated  here  under  the  following  heads:  I. 
Beginnings  at  San  Damiano;  II.  Rule  of  Ugohno;  III. 
Definitive  Rule  of  St.  Clare;  IV.  Spread  of  the  Order; 
V.  Colettine  Reform;  VI.  In  England  and  America; 
VII.  Mode  of  Life;  VIII.  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the 
Order;  IX.  Present  Status. 

I.  In  the  great  Franciscan  movement  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  an  important  part  was  played  by  this 
order  of  religious  women,  which  had  its  beginning  in 
the  convent  of  San  Damiano,  Assisi.  When  St.  Clare 
(q.  V.)  in  1212,  following  the  advice  of  St.  Francis  (q. 
v.),  withdrew  to  San  Damiano,  she  was  soon  sur- 
rounded by  a  number  of  ladies  attracted  by  the  holi- 
ness of  her  life.  Among  the  first  to  join  her  were  sev- 
eral immediate  relatives,  including  her  sister  Agnes, 
her  mother,  aunt,  and  niece.  Thus  was  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  new  order.  Here  St.  Clare  became  the 
counsellor  of  St.  Francis  and  after  his  death  remained 
the  supreme  exponent  of  the  Franciscan  ideal  of  pov- 
erty. "This  ideal  was  the  exaltation  of  the  beggar's 
estate  into  a  condition  of  spiritual  liberty,  wherein 

.  man  would  live  in  conscious  dependence  upon  the 
providence  of  God  and  the  good  will  of  his  fellow- 
men"  (Cuthbert,  "The  Life  and  Legend  of  the  Lady 
St.  Clare",  p.  4).  At  the  outset  St.  Clare  received 
from  St .  Francis  a  ' '  formula  vitae  "  for  the  growing  com- 
munity. This  was  not  a  formal  rule,  but  simply  a  di- 
rection to  practise  the  counsels  of  the  Gospel  (Sera- 
phicse  legislationis  textus  originales,  p.  62).  "Vivere 
secundum  perf  ectionem  sancti  E vangelii ' '  was  the  key- 
note of  St.  Francis's  message.  On  behalf  of  the  sisters, 
St.  Clare  petitioned  Innocent  III  for  the  "privilege' 
of  absolute  poverty,  not  merely  for  the  individual 
members  but  for  the  community  as  a  whole.  Highly 
pleased  with  the  unusual  request  he  granted  it,  says 
the  saint's  biographer,  with  his  own  hand  "cum  hilari- 
tate  magna"  ("Rom.  Quartalschrift",  1902,  p.  97; 
see,  however,  Robinson,  "Life  of  St.  Clare",  note  114). 

II.  In  1217  an  event  occurred  which  proved  to  be  of 
first  importance  in  the  development  of  the  new  com- 
munity. In  that  year  Ugolino,  Cardinal -Bishop  of 
Ostia,  was  sent  to  Tuscany  as  Apostolic  delegate;  he 
formed  a  warm  attachment  for  St.  Francis,  and  soon 
became  the  confidant  and  adviser  of  the  seraphic  doc- 
tor in  all  things  relating  to  the  second  Order  ("Ana- 
lecta  Francisoana",  III,  p.  686).  Concerning  the 
manner  of  life  of  the  religious  who  gathered  in  various 
places  imitating  the  example  of  the  community  at  San 
Damiano  we  have  only  the  account  given  by  Jacques 
de  Vitry  in  1216  and  the  letters  of  Ugolino  to  Hono- 
rius  III  in  1218.  The  former  speaks  of  women  who 
dwell  in  hospices  in  community  life  and  support  them- 
selves by  their  own  labour.  Ugolino  writes  that  many 
women  have  renounced  the  world  and  desired  to  es- 
tablish monasteries  where  they  would  live  in  total 
poverty  with  no  possessions  except  their  houses.    For 


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252 


POOR 


this  purpose  estates  were  often  donated,  but  the  ad- 
ministration of  these  presented  difficulties.  The  pope 
decided  that  Ugolino  should  accept  these  estates  in  the 


St.  Clahe 

Freaco  by  Simone  Martini  in  the  lower  Cturch  of  San  Francesco 

at  Asaiai 

name  of  the  Church  and  that  the  houses  established 
thereon  should  be  immediately  subject  to  the  pope. 
About  1219  Ugolino  drew  up  a  rule  for  these  groups  of 
women,  taking  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  as  a  ground 
work,  with  severe  regulations  having,  however,  no  dis- 
tinctively Franciscan  element  in  them.  His  first 
foundation  was  the  monastery  of  Monticello  near 
Florence  (1219).  This  rule  was  soon  adopted  by  the 
monasteries  at  Perugia,  Siena,  Gattajola,  and  else- 
where. There  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever  accepted 
at  San  Damiano.  It  is  noteworthy  that  it  does  not 
raise  the  question  of  the  ownership  of  property  by  the 
various  monasteries.  This  was  a  point  on  which  St. 
Francis  and  Ugolino  did  not  agree.  The  subsequent 
modifications  which  this  rule  underwent  at  the  hands 
of  Innocent  IV  in  1247,  and  of  Urban  IV  in  126.3,  re- 
sulted in  the  triumph  of  Ugolino's  view,  while  St. 
Francis's  ideal  of  utter  poverty  found  expression  in  a 
definitive  rule,  the  confirmation  of  which  St.  Clare  se- 
cured in  1253.  The  opening  words  of  Ugolino's  Rule, 
"Regulam  beatissimi  Benedicti  vobis  tradimus  obser- 
vandam",  have  been  taken  to  indicate  that  the  Poor 
Clares  were  an  offshoot  of  the  Benedictines.  This 
conclusion,  however,  is  unwarranted.  The  Lateran 
Council,  a  few  years  earlier,  had  decreed  that  new 
orders  should  adopt  a  rule  already  approved.  The 
new  order  was  not  bound  to  the  observance  of  the 
older  rule,  except  in  regard  to  the  three  customary 
vows.  This  was  Ugolino's  intention  in  drawing  up  the 
rule,  and  it  is  confirmed  by  a  letter  of  Innocent  IV  to 
Agnes  of  Bohemia,  in  which  he  explains  the  meaning 
of  the  words  in  question  (Sbaralea,  I,  p.  31.5). 

After  the  death  of  St.  Francis  (1226)  and  the  eleva- 
tion of  Ugolino  to  the  papal  chair  as  Gregory  IX 
(1227),  certain  changes  were  introduced  in  the  practi- 
cal direction  of  conventual  life.  The  pope  offered  to 
bestow  possessions  on  the  convent  of  San  Damiano 
over  which  St.  Clare  presided.  She  firmly  refused  the 
offer  and  petitioned  to  be  permitted  to  continue  in  the 


spirit  of  St.  Francis.  In  response  to  this  request, 
Gregory  granted  her  (17  September,  1228)  the  "privi- 
lege of  most  high  poverty",  namely,  "ut  recipere  pos- 
sessiones  a  nullo  compelh  possitis  "  The  convents  of 
Perugia  and  Florence  followed  the  example  of  San 
Damiano.  Other  convents,  however,  gladly  availed 
themselves  of  the  possessions  which  the  pope  offered 
them,  "propter  eventus  temporum  et  pericula  saecu- 
lorum".  Thus  were  laid  the  foundation  of  the  two 
observances  which  obtain  among  the  daughters  of  St. 
Clare.  The  plea  of  Agnes  of  Bohemia  for  a  new  rule  was 
rejected  by  Gregory  IX  in  1238,  and  again  by  Inno- 
cent IV  in  1243.  In  1247  Innocent  IV,  to  secure  unity 
of  observance  and  peace  of  conscience  for  the  sisters, 
modified  the  original  rule  in  two  points.  In  place  of 
the  reference  to  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  he  inserted  a 
reference  to  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis,  which,  in  the  mean- 
time, had  been  approved,  and  he  embodied  in  the  rule 
regulations  covering  certain  changes  already  intro- 
duced in  various  convents  by  his  predecessor  or  by 
himself.  Thus,  the  direction  of  the  communities  of 
the  order  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  general  and 
provincial  of  the  Franciscans.  The  sisters  were  di- 
rected to  recite  the  Divine  Office  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Friars  Minor.  The  regulations  concerning 
silence  and  abstinence  were  modified.  The  length  of 
novitiate  was  fixed  at  one  year.  The  most  notable 
change  is  to  be  found  in  the  express  permission  granted 
to  every  convent  to  hold  possessions,  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  which  a  prudent  procurator  was  to  be  se- 
cured by  each  house.  In  the  year  1263  the  original 
rule  underwent  a  final  modification  at  the  hands  of 
Urban  IV.  On  18  October  of  that  year  the  sovereign 
pontiff  issued  the  rule  which  is  in  the  most  general  ob- 
servance among  the  Poor  Clares  and  which  has  given 
the  name  "Urbanist"  to  a  large  division  of  the  order. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  in  Urban's  Rule  the  new  com- 
munity received  for  the  first  time  the  official  title  of 


The  small  choie  of  St.  Clare  in  the  Chubch  of  San 
Damiano,  Aasiai 

"Order  of  St.  Clare"  In  a  few  particulars  the  new 
regulations  were  less  severe  than  in  the  rule  of  1247. 
For  instance,  the  abbess  was  empowered  to  dispense 
with  the  obligation  of  silence  during  certain  hours  of 
the  day  at  her  good  pleasure.    The  sections  of  the  rule 


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253 


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are  arranged  in  a  new  order  and  are  divided  into 
twenty-six  chapters.  For  the  most  part  the  very 
words  of  the  previous  rule  are  employed.  One  impor- 
tant change  must  be  noted.  Innocent  IV  had  left  the 
Second  Order  in  charge  of  the  general  and  provincial 
of  the  Friars  Minor.  Urban  IV  withdrew  from  these 
officials  practically  all  their  authority  over  the  Second 
Order  and  bestowed  it  on  the  cardinal  protector. 

III.  Meanwhile,  St.  Clare  had  secured  from  Inno- 
cent IV  the  confirmation  of  a  new  rule  differing  widely 
from  the  original  rule  drawn  up  by  Ugolino,  and  modi- 
fied by  his  successors  on  the  papal  throne.  For  forty 
years  she  had  been  the  living  rule  from  which  the  com- 
munity at  San  Damiano  had  imbibed  the  spirit  of  St. 
Francis.  A  few  days  before  her  death  she  placed  the 
convent  under  a  rule  which  embodied  that  spirit  more 
perfectly  than  did  Ugolino's  Rule.  The  Bull  "Solet 
annuere",  9  August,  1253,  confirming  St.  Clare's  Rule, 
was  directed  to  the  Sisters  of  San  Damiano  alone. 
The  new  rule  was  soon  adopted  by  other  convents  and 
forms  the  basis  of  the  second  grand  division  of  the 
Poor  Clares.  It  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Franciscan 
Rule  to  the  needs  of  the  Second  Order.  Its  twelve 
chapters  correspond  substantially  to  those  of  the 
Franciscan  Rule,  and  in  large  sections  there  is  a  verbal 
agreement  between  the  two  rules.  In  a  few  instances 
it  borrows  regulations  from  the  original  rule  and  from 
the  modified  form  of  that  rule  published  by  Innocent 
IV.  The  most  important  characteristic  of  St.  Clare's 
Rule  is  its  express  declaration  that  the  sisters  are  to 
possess  no  property,  either  as  individuals  or  as  a  com- 
munity. In  this  regulation  the  new  rule  clearly 
breathes  the  spirit  of  the  seraphic  founder.  It  is  im- 
probable, however,  that  St.  Francis  was  the  author  of 
it  or  that  it  was  approved  by  Gregory  IX,  as  is  some- 
times asserted.  With  the  data  obtainable  no  categori- 
cal answer  can  be  given  to  the  question  of  authorship, 
though  the  compiler  may  well  have  been  St.  Clare  her- 
self (Lemmens  in  "Rom.  Quartalschr.",  I,  page  118). 
The  original  Bull  of  Innocent  IV  confirming  the  Rule 
of  St.  Clare  was  discovered  in  1893  in  a  mantle  of  the 
saint  which  had  been  preserved,  among  other  relics, 
at  the  monastery  of  St.  Clare  at  Assisi  (Robinson, 
"Inventarium  documentorum",  1908). 

IV.  While  the  rule  was  undergoing  these  various 
modifications,  the  order  was  rapidly  spreading 
throughout  Europe.  At  San  Damiano,  St.  Clare's 
sister,  Agnes,  and  her  aunt,  Buona  Guelfucoio  (in  re- 
ligion Sister  Facifica),  played  a  large  part  in  its  early 
development.  In  1318  permission  was  obtained  from 
the  Bishop  of  Perugia  for  the  establishment  of  a  mon- 
astery in  that  city.  The  following  year  Agnes  founded 
at  Florence  a  community  which  became  the  centre  of 
numerous  new  foundations,  namely,  those  at  Venice, 
Mantua,  and  Padua.  Monasteries  of  the  order  were 
soon  to  be  found  at  Todi,  Volterra,  Foligno,  and  Be- 
ziers.  St.  Clare's  niece,  Agnes,  introduced  the  new 
order  into  Spain.  The  cities  of  Barcelona  and  Burgos 
became  thriving  communities.  The  first  foundation 
in  Belgium  was  effected  at  Bruges  by  Sister  Ermen- 
trude,  who,  after  the  death  of  St.  Clare,  displayed  great 
zeal  in  spreading  the  order  through  Belgium  and  north- 
ern France.  The  earhest  community  in  France,  how- 
ever, was  planted  at  Reims  in  1229  at  the  request  of 
the  archbishop  of  that  see.  The  monasteries  at  Mont- 
peUer,  Cahors,  Bordeaux,  Metz,  and  Besangon  sprang 
from  the  house  at  Reims;  and  that  of  Marseilles  was 
founded  from  Assisi  in  1254.  The  Royal  Abbey  at 
Longchamp,  which  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Bl.  Isa- 
bel, daughter  of  Louis  VIII  and  Blanche  of  Castile, 
is  usually  though  with  some  question  counted  as  a 
branch  of  the  Poor  Clares.  (See  article  Isabel  op 
France.)  Among  the  earliest  foundations  in  Ger- 
many was  that  of  Strasburg,  where  Innocent  IV's  re- 
vision of  the  rule  was  accepted  in  1255.  In  Bohemia 
the  order  had  an  illustrious  patroness,  Princess  Agnes 
(Blessed  Agnes  of  Prague),  a  cousin  of  St.  EUzabeth  of 


Hungary.  Agnes  was  but  one  of  the  ladies  of  high  rank 
who,  attracted  to  the  new  order,  put  aside  the  vani- 
ties of  their  social  position  to  embrace  a  life  of  poverty 
and  seclusion  from  the  world. 

V.  For  a  century  after  the  death  of  St.  Clare  com- 
paratively few  of  the  convents  had  adopted  the  Rule  of 
1253.  Most  of  them  had  availed  themselves  of  the 
permission  to  hold  property  in  the  name  of  the  com- 
munity. Moreover,  in  the  fourteenth  century  the 
order  suffered  very  much  during  the  Great  Western 
Schism,  which  was  responsible  for  the  general  dechne 
of  disciphne  (Manuale  Historise  Ordinis  Fratrum  Mi- 
norum,  p.  586) .  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, however,  the  spirit  of  utter  poverty  was  revived 
through  the  instrumentality  of  St.  Colette  (d.  1447), 
who  instituted  the  most  vigorous  reform  the  Second 
Order  has  ever  experienced.  Her  desire  to  restore  or 
introduce  the  practice  of  absolute  poverty  was  put  on 
a  fair  way  to  reaUzation  when,  in  1406,  Benedict  XIII 
appointed  her  reformer  of  the  whole  order  and  gave 
her  the  office  of  Abbess  General  over  all  convents  she 
should  establish  or  reform.  In  1412  St.  Colette  es- 
tablished a  monastery  at  Besangon.  Before  her  death 
(1447)  she  had  founded  17  new  monasteries,  to  which, 
in  addition  to  the  Rule  of  St.  Clare,  she  gave  constitu- 
tions and  regulations  of  her  own.  These  Constitutions 
of  St.  Colette  were  confirmed  by  Pius  II  (Seraphicae 
Legislationis  Textus  Originales,  99-175).  After  the 
death  of  St.  Colette  her  reform  continued  to  spread  and 
by  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  reformed  convents 
were  to  be  found  throughout  France,  Flanders,  Bra- 
bant, Savoy,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  The  numlser  of 
sisters  at  that  time  exceeded  35,000  and  they  were 
everywhere  commended  by  the  austerity  of  their  lives 
(Pidoux,  "Sainte  Colette",  p.  158).  From  the  year  1517 
the  spiritual  direction  of  the  Poor  Clares,  the  Colet- 
tines  not  excepted,  was  given  to  the  Observants.  This 
was  a  return  to  the  condition  existing  before  the  year 
1263,  at  which  time  the  Friars  Minor,  under  the  lead- 
ership of  St.  Bonaventure,  at  the  General  Chapter  of 
Pisa  sought  to  resign  the  spiritual  care  of  the  Second 
Order  (Archivum  Franciscanum  Historicum,  October, 
1910,  664-79).  The  first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury witnessed  a  widespread  revival  of  the  Urbanist 
Rule.  Towards  the  end  of  the  same  century,  though 
the  religious  wars  had  destroyed  many  monasteries, 
there  were  about  six  hundred  houses  in  existence. 
Subsequently  the  order  experienced  a  rapid  growth 
and  the  external  development  of  the  Poor  Clares  ap- 
pears to  have  reached  its  culmination  about  1630  in 
925  monateries  with  34,000  sisters  under  the  direction 
of  the  minister  general.  If  we  can  credit  contempo- 
rary chroniclers,  there  were  still  more  sisters  under  the 
direction  of  the  bishops,  making  the  entire  number 
about  70,000.  After  the  opening  years  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  the  order  declined  and  the  French 
Revolution  and  the  subsequent  policy  of  seculariza- 
tion almost  totally  destroyed  it,  except  in  Spain,  where 
the  monasteries  were  undisturbed. 

VI.  In  1807  a  Poor  Clare  community  of  the  Urban- 
ist Observance,  fleeing  from  the  terrors  of  the  French 
Revolution,  took  refuge  in  England  and  founded  a 
monastery  at  Scorton  Hall  in  Yorkshire.  They  were 
the  first  of  their  order  to  establish  themselves  in  that 
country  since  the  religious  changes  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Fifty  years  after  their  arrival  they  removed 
to  their  present  home,  the  Monastery  of  St.  Clare  at 
Darhngton,  also  in  Yorkshire.  Refugees  from  the 
French  Revolution  likewise  found  their  way  to  Amer- 
ica. In  1801  a  community,  presided  over  by  Abbess 
Marie  de  la  Marche,  purchased  property  in  George- 
town, D.  C,  and  opened  a  school  for  their  support. 
Their  efforts  met  with  little  success  and  they  returned 
to  Europe.  The  suppression  of  the  religious  in  Italy 
was  the  occasion  of  the  first  permanent  settlement  of 
the  Poor  Clares  in  the  United  States.  In  August,  1875, 
two  sisters  by  blood  as  well  as  in  reUgion,  Maria  Mad- 


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delena,  and  Maria  Costanza  Bentivoglio,  from  the 
celebrated  Monastery  of  San  Lorenzo-in-Panisperma, 
came  to  America  by  direction  of  Pius  IX  in  response  to 
a  petition  presented  by  Mother  Ignatius  Hayes  of  the 
Third  Order  Regulars  of  St.  Francis.  After  vainly  seek- 
ing to  found  convents  in  New  York,  Cincinnati,  and 
Philadelphia,  they  went  to  New  Orleans,  but  soon  re- 
moved to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  they  were  joined  by  a 
community  of  German  Poor  Clares  to  whom  they  relin- 
quished the  convent.  The  new  German  community 
remained  in  Cleveland  and  have  since  founded  an- 
other convent  in  Chicago;  they  follow  the  reform  of  St. 
Colette.  Meanwhile  the  Italian  sisters  found  a  per- 
manent home  in  Omaha,  thanks  to  the  munificence  of 
Mr.  John  Creighton.  On  14  July,  1882,  the  canonical 
enclosure  was  established  in  the  new  monastery. 
From  the  monastery  of  St.  Clare  in  Omaha  have  sprung 
directly,  or  indirectly,  the  foundations  of  the  order  at 
New  Orleans;  Evansville,  Ind.;  Boston;  and  Borden- 
town,  N.  J. 

VII.  The  daily  life  of  the  Poor  Clares  is  occupied 
with  both  work  and  prayer.  It  is  a  life  of  penance  and 
contemplation.  The  rule  says  that  the  sisters  shall 
fast  at  all  times  except  on  the  Feast  of  the  Nativity. 
The  constitutions  explain  that  meat  may  not  be  used 
even  on  Christmas.  The  "  great  silence  "  is  from  Com- 
pline until  after  the  conventual  Mass.  During  the  day 
there  is  one  hour  of  recreation  except  on  Friday. 
Meals  are  taken  in  silence.  The  Divine  Office  is  re- 
cited, not  sung.  The  Franciscan  breviary  is  used. 
The  habit  is  a  loose  fitting  garment  of  gray  frieze ;  the 
cord  is  of  Unen  rope  about  one-half  inch  in  thickness 
having  four  knots  representing  the  four  vows;  the  san- 
dals are  of  cloth. 

VIII.  Among  the  saints  of  the  order  may  be  men- 
tioned: the  founder,  Clare  of  Assisi  (d.  1253);  Agnes 
of  Assisi  (d.  1253);  CoUette  of  Corbie  (d.  1447); 
Catharine  of  Bologna  (d.  1463);  Veronica  Giuliani 
(d.  1727).  Holzapfel  enumerates  seventeen  Blessed 
of  the  order  (Manuale,  638),  of  whom  the  following  are 
the  more  important:  Agnes  of  Bohemia  (d.  1280) ;  Isa- 
bel of  France  (d.  1270) ;  Margaret  Colonna  (d.  1284) ; 
Cunegundis  of  Hungary  (d.  1292);  Antonia  of  Flor- 
ence (d.  1472). 

IX.  According  to  the  census  of  the  Poor  Clares, 
taken  in  October,  1909,  the  following  is  the  present 
status  of  the  order:  Italy,  Houses  108,  Members  1816; 
Sardinia,  H.  3,  M.  40;  Corsica,  H.  1,  M.  24;  Palestine, 
H.  2,  M.  54;  Tyrol,  H.  1,  M.  50;  Dalmatia,  H.  1,  M. 
15;  Prussia,  H.  4,  M.  126;  Bavaria,  H.  3,  M.  100; 
Holland,  H.  4,  M.  112;  Belgium,  H.  39,  M.  870;  Ire- 
land, H.  9,  M.  178;  England,  H.  11,  M.  129;  France,  H. 
31,  M.  760;  Spain,  H.  247,  M.  5543;  Portugal,  H.  3, 
M.  40  (now  dispersed);  Peru,  H.  1,  M.  34;  Columbia, 
H.  5,  M.  136;  Ecuador,  H.  5,  M.  155;  Bolivia,  H.  2, 
M.  36;  Argentina,  H.  1,  M.  36;  Brazil,  H.  2,  M.  3(?); 
Mexico,  H.  14,  M.  204;  Canada,  H.  1,  M.  20;  United 
States,  H.  7,  M.  125;  Total  H.  505,  M.  10,586. 

Thomas  of  Celano,  Vita  S.  ClartF  in  Acta  SS.,  II,  Aug.  (ed. 
Paris,  1867),  7.54-67;  Robinson,  Life  of  St.  Clare  (Philadelphia, 
1910) :  Seraphicee  legistationis  textutj  originates  (Quaracchi,  1897) 
containing  of  interest  to  the  Second  Order  the  following  docu- 
ments: the  Bull  "Solet  annuerc"  with  the  Rule  of  1253  (49-76), 
"Privilegium  seraphicEB  paupertatis"  granted  by  Gregory  IX 
(97-8),  "Textus  originalea  Constitutionum  Coletee"  in  fifteen 
chapter.^,  with  the  Bull  of  confirmation  by  Pius  II  (99-175), 
"Tfstumentum  S.  Clara"  (273),  "Benedictio  S.  Clarje"  (281), 
and  the  "Testamentum  S.  Colette"  (298-301);  Miguet,  Rigle  de 
Ste  Clnire  (Chamb^ry,  1693) ;  Francois  du  Puis,  La  vie  et  Ugende 
de  Madame  Ste  Claire  (ed.,  Paris,  1902) ;  Ch^ranc^,  Ste  Claire 
dMs.viat:  (Paris,  1901);  Balfour,  The  Life  and  Legend  of  the  Lady 
St.  Claire  (London,  1910) ;  Sbaralea,  Bullarium  Franciscanum, 
I-IV  (Rome,  1759-08).  continued  by  Eubel,  V-VII  (Rome,  1898- 
1904);  Anal.  Francisc.,  I-IV  (Quaracchi,  1885-1906);  Wadding, 
Annales  Minorum  (Rome,  1731-6) ;  De  Gubernatis,  Orbis  Sera- 
phicus,  I-IV  (1682-5);  Archiv.  Francisc.  Histor.,  I-III  (Quaracchi, 
1908-10) ;  PiDOUx,  Ste  Colletle  (Paris,  1907) ;  Germain,  Ste  Col- 
lette  de  Corbie  (Paris,  1904) ;  Ubald  D'ALENgON,  Documents  siir  la 
Reforme  de  Ste  CoUette  en  France  in  Archiv.  Francis.  Hist.,  II,  447; 
Lemmen.s,  Die  Anfdnge  des  Klarissenordens  in  Rom.  Quartalschr., 
XVI,  pts.  j-ii;  Lempp,  Briegers  Zeitschr.  fur  Kirchengesch.,  XII 
(189.3),  181;  XXIIl,  626;  Lazzeri,  Documenta  controversiam  inter 
FF,  Minores  et  Clarissas  spectantia  {1S8S-97)  in  Archiv.  Francis. 


Hist.  (1910),  fasc.  iv;  Sabatier,  Speculum  Perfectionis;  Legenda 
antiquissima  S.  Francisci  (Paris,  1898) ;  Fiege,  Princess  of  Pov- 
erty (Evansville,  1900) ;  Holzapfel,  Manuale  histories  Ordinis 
Fratrum  Minorum,  tr.  (1909) ;  Idem,  Handbuch  der  Gesch.  d. 
Franciscanerordens  (Freiburg,  1909) ;  Eohmer,  Analekten  zur 
Gesch.  des  hi,  Franz  (Tubingen,  1904) ;  Hist,  abregee  de  Vordre  de  Ste 
Claire  d' Assise  (2  vols.,  Lyons  and  Paris,  1906) ;  Wauer,  Entste- 
hung  u.  Ausbreitung  d.  Klarissenordens,  besonders  in  den  deulschen 
Minoritenprovinzen  (Leipzig,  1906). 

Edwin  V.  O'Hara. 

Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus  Christ,  a  community 
founded  by  Catherine  Kasper,  a  native  of  Dernbach, 
Germany.  She  was  born  26  May,  1820,  of  humble 
parents,  and  at  an  early  age  resolved  to  consecrate 
her  life  to  God.  She  was  animated  with  the  spirit 
of  Mary  and  the  activity  of  Martha  and  wished  to 
combine  the  contemplative  and  the  active  life  in  the 
service  of  her  Master.  She  and  two  companions  took 
vows  and  professed  themselves  Poor  Handmaids  of 
Jesus  Christ,  on  15  August,  1851.  Sister  Mary  (Cath- 
erine Kasper)  was  chosen  mother-general  of  the  newly 
founded  community  and  continued  as  such  until  her 
death,  2  Feb.,  1898,  when  the  community  had 
branches  throughout  Germany,  Austria,  England, 
Holland,  and  North  America. 

Mother  Mary  Kasper  had  at  first  simply  desired 
that  her  community  be  devoted  to  the  sick  and  needy 
and  especially  the  orphan;  but  it  soon  engaged  in  the 
work  of  teaching  and  began  to  conduct  in  Germany 
parochial  schools,  academies,  boarding  schools,  kin- 
dergartens, and  industrial  schools.  The  KuUurkampf 
compelled  the  sisters  to  abandon  their  parochial 
schools,  but  they  continued  the  other  works  of  charity. 
The  constitution  of  the  community  was  temporarily 
approved  by  Pius  IX  in  1870  and  finally  confirmed  by 
Leo  XIII. 

Through  Bishop  Luers  and  Rev.  Edward  Koenig, 
pastor  of  St.  Paul's  Church  at  Fort  Wayne,  the  com- 
munity began  to  labour  at  Hesse  Cassel  in  the  Diocese 
of  Fort  Wayne  on  3  August,  1863.  From  this  place 
three  sisters  were  called  to  Chicago  in  1869  by  the 
Very  Rev.  Peter  Fischer,  vicar  general,  to  take  charge 
of  the  German  orphan  asylum,  which  opened  with 
twelve  children,  but  now  shelters  more  than  six  hun- 
dred orphans.  On  9  May,  1869,  the  Rockhill  property 
at  Fort  Wayne  was  purchased  and  converted  into  a 
hospital.  To  this  was  added  a  convent  and  chapel  in 
1883  at  a  cost  of  $32,000.  The  convent  is  the  pro- 
vincial mother-house  of  the  community  in  Amer- 
ica. 

The  first  parochial  school  conducted  by  the  sister- 
hood in  this  country  was  St.  Paul's  in  Fort  Wayne, 
of  which  they  took  charge  on  6  October,  1869.  Now 
the  community  is  represented  in  the  Dioceses  of  Fort 
Wayne,  Belleville,  Alton,  Superior,  and  in  the  Arch- 
dioceses of  St.  Paul,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  and  St. 
Louis.  The  sisters  are  engaged  in  teaching,  and 
nursing  the  sick  in  hospitals  and  private  homes.  Of 
the  3500  members  which  the  community  now  num- 
bers, 500  labour  in  the  United  States. 

Mother  M.  Sectjnda. 

Poor  Laws  are  those  legal  enactments  which  have 
been  made  at  various  periods  of  the  world's  history 
in  many  countries  for  the  relief  of  various  forms  of 
distress  and  sickness  prevailing  amongst  the  destitute. 
In  England  this  is  not  strictly  accurate,  as  certain 
laws  have  been  enacted  for  the  special  benefit  of  the 
poor,  which  have  not  been  classified  as  poor  laws, 
in  order  to  avoid  classifying  the  recipients  of  relief 
as  paupers,  a  name  much  disliked  amongst  the  poor. 
A  person  of  seventy  years  of  age  in  receipt  of  relief 
from  the  guardians  of  the  poor  would  be  classed  a 
pauper,  but  if  the  relief  were  granted  under  the  Old 
Age  Pension  Act  such  would  not  be  the  case,  as  the 
grant  would  be  made  up,  to  a  large  extent,  from  im- 
perial taxation  instead  of  local  rates  and  the  guardians 
of  the  poor  would  have  no  control  over  its  distribution. 


POOR 


255 


POOR 


The  English  poor  law  system  is  the  most  compre- 
hensive and  is  the  result  of  nearly  four  centuries  of 
experiment;  even  now  it  is  receiving  the  most  careful 
consideration  with  a  view  to  further  legislation  in 
consequence  of  the  report  of  the  Royal  Commission 
on  the  Poor  Laws  issued  in  1909.  This  commission 
sat  for  three  years,  held  over  two  hundred  meetings, 
took  evidence  from  over  one  thousand  three  hundred 
witnesses,  and  the  commissioners  made  upwards  of 
eight  hundred  personal  visits  to  Unions,  meetings  of 
Boards  of  Guardians,  and  institutions  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  The  volume  containing  the 
report  consists  of  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty 
folio  pages,  six  hundred  and  forty  of  which  are  signed 
by  a  majority  of  fourteen  out  of  eighteen  of  the  com- 
missioners, and  over  five  hundred  by  a  minority  of 
four.  The  two  reports  are  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
cussion, and  rival  associations  are  formed  to  further 
their  respective  recommendations.  That  more  mod- 
ern European  systems  can  show  many  points  of 
improvement  upon  the  English  system  as  a  whole  is 
obvious. 

The  system  in  Denmark  is  considered  by  many 
to  be  vastly  superior  to  the  English  system,  in  that 
infinite  trouble  is  taken  to  prevent  any  person  who 
deserves  a  better  fate  from  becoming  a  pauper  owing 
to  misfortune,  temporary  distress,  illness,  or  accident. 
In  England  no  one  would  ever  think  of  applying  to  a 
poor  law  officer  for  advice,  or  for  a  loan  or  gift  to 
help  him  over  evil  days,  but  in  Denmark  this  is  often 
done.  At  the  same  time  those  who  receive  poor  law 
relief  in  Denmark  are  subject  to  penalties  which 
would  not  be  tolerated  in  England.  In  Austria  and 
Russia  great  interest  is  taken  in  homes  for  the  aged 
poor  and  the  inmates  always  seem  much  brighter 
and  happier  than  the  average  poor  person  in  an  Eng- 
Ush  workhouse.  In  Belgium  there  is  no  poor  rate, 
but  large  endowments  exist.  In  France  there  are 
hospices  civiles  for  indoor  relief,  and  bureaux  de 
bienfaisance  for  outdoor  relief,  but  the  relief  of  the 
poor  is  not  compulsory  except  for  foundlings  and 
lunatics.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Italy,  but  the 
charitable  foundations  there  amount  to  more  than 
thirty  millions  sterling.  The  poor  laws  of  the  United 
States  are  in  many  respects  like  the  English  poor 
laws,  although  not  so  comprehensive,  and  they  are 
not  universally  adopted  in  all  states.  Every  man  is 
entitled  by  law  to  relief  from  the  town  of  his  settle- 
ment, the  rate  being  assessed  on  whole  towns  and  not 
on  parishes.  These  areas  bear  the  burden  of  the 
settled  poor;  the  unsettled  poor,  including  Indians, 
are  a  charge  upon  the  state.  In  New  York  one 
year's  residence  is  sufficient  to  constitute  a  settle- 
ment. In  some  states  outdoor  relief  is  considered 
more  economical  than  relief  in  a  workhouse.  The 
idle  and  the  vagrant  may  be  committed  to  the  work- 
house and  forced  to  labour  as  in  a  house  of  correction. 
The  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  overseers,  but 
the  counties  elect  superintendents,  holding  office  for 
three  years,  who  are  again  responsible  to  a  Board 
of  Supervisors.  Generally  the  American  system  is 
marked  by  a  high  degree  of  classification,  variety  of 
work,  special  education,  and  liberal  treatment  in  the 
matter  of  diet.  In  Canada  and  Australia  there  are 
practically  no  poor  laws,  but  many  Catholic  chari- 
table institutions  exist  for  dealing  with  the  various 
forms  of  destitution  and  sickness. 

The  history  of  the  poor  laws  in  England  practically 
had  its  beginning  with  the  abolition  of  the  monas- 
teries by  Henry  VIII.  A  curious  act  of  Edward  VI 
(1551)  enacted  that  everyone  should  give  alms  to  the 
collectors  on  Sundays,  and  that  if  any  one  refused  the 
bishop  should  admonish  him.  This  form  of  "moral 
suasion"  was  not  sufficient  for  the  congregations  of  the 
new  worship;  and  a  few  years  later  another  act 
directed  the  bishop  to  commit  those  who  did  not  give 
sufficient  alms  to  the  justices,  who  were  to  levy  on 


them  whatever  rate  they  thought  fair.  The  establish- 
ment of  an  official  poor  fund  led  to  the  establishment 
of  an  official  register  of  the  poor;  and  an  early  act 
of  EHzabeth  caused  dwellings  to  be  built,  overseers 
to  be  appointed  and  "stuff"  to  be  provided  to  set  the 
sturdy  paupers  to  work.  In  1604  the  act  of  43 
Ehzabeth,  c.  2,  crystallized  the  whole  arrangement, 
leaving  the  main  administrative  power  in  the  hands 
of  parochial  authorities,  annually  appointed.  Among 
other  things  it  provided  for  setting  to  work  children 
of  parents  unable  to  maintain  them;  also  for  setting 
to  work  all  such  persons,  married  or  unmarried,  who 
had  no  ordinary  daily  occupation  to  obtain  a  living. 
It  provided  for  the  relief  of  the  lame,  impotent, 
and  blind,  and  those  poor  who  were  unable  to 
work. 

This  and  other  acts  were  renewed  in  the  reign  of 
James  I  and  made  perpetual  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
I.  Each  renewal  saw  some  new  development.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  many  experimental  acts  were 
passed,  some  of  which  were  completely  opposite  in 
policy.  In  1772  the  workhouse  test  was  introduced 
and  no  one  who  refused  to  be  lodged  and  kept  in 
such  houses  was  entitled  to  parochial  relief.  In 
1782  by  an  act  known  as  Gilbert's  Act  power  was 
given  to  adjacent  parishes  to  unite  into  a  union  and 
to  build  workhouses  for  combined  parishes.  Section 
29  of  this  act  provided  that  no  person  should  be  sent 
to  the  poorhouse  except  such  as  were  become  in- 
digent by  old  age,  sickness,  or  infirmities,  and  were 
unable  to  acquire  a  maintenance  by  their  labour,  and 
orphan  children.  For  the  able-bodied  the  guardians 
were  ordered  to  find  suitable  employment  near  their 
own  homes.  Poor  law  expenditure  was  beginning  to 
grow  and  by  1785  it  amounted  to  £2,000,000.  In 
1796  an  act  (36  Geo.  Ill,  c.  23)  was  passed,  repealing 
an  act  of  1722  which  restricted  out-relief.  This 
reversal  of  policy  encouraged  out-relief  to  poor  per- 
sons in  their  own  homes  and  the  cost  of  relief  rose 
with  frightful  rapidity  until  it  reached  in  1818  the 
sum  of  £7,870,000.  This  was  looked  upon  as  an 
intolerable  burden  and  many  petitions  were  pre- 
sented to  Parliament  for  its  alleviation. 

In  1832  a  royal  commission  was  appointed  to  in- 
vestigate the  working  of  the  poor  laws  and  the  report 
issued  by  the  commissioners  in  1834  presents  a  very 
unsatisfactory  state  of  things.  It  was  reported  that 
funds  collected  were  applied  to  purposes  opposed  to 
the  letter  and  still  more  to  the  spirit  of  the  law,  and 
the  morals  and  welfare  of  the  people  were  being  de- 
stroyed. It  was  found  that  in  many  places  not  only 
the  rates  due  from  the  people  were  being  paid  from 
poor  funds,  but  their  house  rent  as  well;  consequently 
paupers  became  a  very  desirable  tjlass  of  tenant. 
In  many  districts  it  was  the  custom  to  make  up  the 
earnings  of  a  family  to  what  was  considered  a  living 
wage,  which  enabled  employers  of  labour  to  pay  low 
wages,  knowing  the  earnings  would  be  supplemented 
from  the  poor  funds.  To  provide  employment  in 
return  for  relief  granted  was  most  unusual  and  even 
where  any  attempt  to  do  so  was  made,  it  was  of  a 
most  unsatisfactory  nature.  The  men  were  usually 
paid  at  a  higher  rate  of  wage  than  the  indepen- 
dent labourer  and  were  required  to  work  fewer 
hours.  Wives  of  independent  labourers  were  often 
heard  regretting  that  their  husbands  were  not  pau- 
pers. 

The  method  of  collecting  rates  for  the  poor  fund  was 
found  to  be  as  bad  as  its  distribution.  No  general 
method  existed:  sometimes  tradespeople  would  be 
called  upon  to  pay  the  rates  and  in  addition  compelled 
to  give  employment  where  it  was  not  required;  at 
another  time  and  place  farmers  would  have  to  bear 
the  burden.  An  instance  is  given  of  a  farmer  with 
five  hundred  acres  having  to  pay  ten  per  cent  per 
acre  and  to  employ  four  or  five  more  labourers  than 
he  required,  costing  him  another  £100,  to  say  noth- 


POOR 


256 


POOR 


ing  of  the  damage  done  by  worthless  labour.  The 
evils  existing  in  the  workhouses  were  absence  of 
classification,  discipline,  and  employment,  and  the 
extravagance  of  allowances.  Children  were  herded 
with  older  people  and  soon  acquired  their  bad  habits; 
particularly  was  this  the  case  with  young  girls  who 
were  obliged  to  associate  with  the  many  women  of 
evil  repute  who  came  in  to  recruit  their  health  and 
then  return  to  their  trade;  paupers  were  allowed  to 
leave  the  workhouse  one  day  a  week  and  return  in- 
toxicated without  punishment.  Only  in  a  very  few 
instances  were  things  found  to  be  in  the  least  degree 
satisfactory  and  these  particular  instances  were  due 
to  the  extraordinary  energy  and  wisdom  of  a  few  in- 
dividuals. It  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  the  disas- 
trous effect  these  abuses  had  upon  all  classes  of  the 
community.  The  independent  labourers,  the  em- 
ployers of  labour,  the  owners  of  property,  were  all 
seriously  affected.  The  foregoing  evils  were  to  a 
large  extent  due  to  the  administrative  machinery, 
upon  which  the  commissioners  were  no  less  severe 
in  their  report.  Overseers,  assistant  overseers,  open 
vestries,  representative  vestries,  self-appointed  ves- 
tries, and  magistrates,  were  the  chief  administrators 
of  the  poor  funds.  Some  of  these  had  to  serve  com- 
pulsorily  without  payment  and  much  against  their 
will;  others  were  paid  and  were  of  a  most  illiterate 
class,  many  not  being  able  to  read  or  write,  and  a 
final  appeal  for  the  pauper  against  the  overseers  or 
vestries  was  with  the  magistrate,  who  not  having 
the  time  nor  inclination  to  go  into  the  details  of  the 
cases  brought  to  his  notice  would  invariably  give 
a  wrong  decision,  against  which  there  was  no 
appeal. 

One  portion  of  the  report  is  not  without  interest 
to  Catholics,  viz.,  that  in  which  the  commissioners 
refer  to  the  large  number  of  Roman  Catholic  children 
who  were  illegitimate  in  consequence  of  the  priest 
alone  having  married  the  parents.  A  magistrate 
said  that  as  many  as  a  dozen  of  these  cases  had  come 
under  his  notice  in  a  single  day.  The  remedial  meas- 
ures proposed  by  the  commissioners  fill  two  hundred 
and  thirty-six  quarto  pages  of  close  print,  and  the 
result  of  their  report  was  the  passing  of  the  Poor  Law 
Amendment  Act  of  18.34  (4  &  5  William  IV,  c. 
76) .  The  act  consists  of  one  hundred  and  ten  clauses, 
the  first  fifteen  of  which  deal  with  the  appointment  and 
duties  of  "The  Poor  Law  Commissioners  for  England 
and  Wales",  three  in  number,  afterwards  called  the 
Local  Government  Board.  The  future  administra- 
tion of  the  poor  laws,  power  to  make  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  the  management  of  the  poor,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  workhouses,  were  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  new  commissioners.  They  are  required  to  make 
an  annual  report  to  be  placed  before  Parliament  and 
to  give  the  Secretary  of  State  any  information  re- 
specting their  proceedings  he  may  require.  The 
succeeding  sections  of  the  act  deal  with  the  altera- 
tion and  building  of  workhouses;  the  union  and  dis- 
solution of  unions  of  parishes;  the  number,  duties, 
and  qualifications  of  guardians  and  their  elections; 
expenditure  and  assessment;  qualifications,  duties, 
and  salaries  of  officers;  making  of  contracts;  regu- 
lation of  rehef  to  the  able-bodied  and  their  famihes; 
raising  of  money;  audit  of  accounts;  and  appren- 
ticeship of  children.  The  Roman  Catholic  Relief 
Bill,  passed  in  1829,  gave  courage  and  hope  to  a  cer- 
tain number  of  Catholics,  who  soon  began  to  bestir 
themselves  in  the  interests  of  their  poorer  brethren 
in  the  workhouses,  and  the  result  of  their  efforts  was 
seen  in  section  19  of  the  Act  of  1834.  This  section 
provides   that 

"No  Rules,  Orders  or  Regulations  of  the  said 
Commissioners,  nor  any  By-Laws  at  present  in 
force,  or  to  be  hereafter  made,  shall  oblige  any 
inmate  of  any  workhouse  to  attend  any  religious 
service  which  may  be  celebrated  in  a  mode  con- 


trary to  the  religious  principles  of  such  inmate, 
nor  shall  authorize  the  education  of  any  child 
in  such  workhouse  in  any  religious  creed  other 
than  that  professed  by  the  parents  or  surviving 
parent  of  such  child,  and  to  which  such  parents 
or  parent  shall  object,  or,  in  the  case  of  an  or- 
phan, to  which  the  godfather  or  godmother  of 
such  orphan  shall  so  object:   provided  also,  thft 
it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  for  any  licensed  minis- 
ter of  the  rehgious  persuasion  of  any  inmate  of 
such  workhouse,  at  all  times  in  the  day,  on  the 
request  of  such  inmate,  to  visit  such  workhouse 
for  the  purpose  of  affording  religious  assistance 
to  such  inmate,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
structing his  child  or  children  in  the  principles 
of  their  religion." 
Section  55  provides  for  masters  of  workhouses  and 
overseers  keeping  a  register  of  all  reUef  given,  and  sub- 
sequent orders  of  the  Poor  Law  Board  provide  for 
the  entry  in  this  register  of  the  religious  creed  of 
those  receiving  indoor  relief. 

Although  the  Act  of  1834  was  the  beginning  of 
religious  freedom  for  Catholics  under  the  poor  laws, 
it  was  not  without  considerable  difficulty,  and  in  some 
cases  legal  action,  before  the  Catholic  clergy  and  the 
inmates  were  able  to  obtain  the  benefit  of  that  act. 
Some  Boards  of  Guardians  refused  to  admit  a  priest 
into  the  workhouse  even  when  an  inmate  had  made 
a  request  for  him  to  visit,  and  others  would  give  him 
no  facilities  for  finding  those  who  were  Catholics. 
The  creed  register  was  therefore  instituted  in  1868 
by  the  Poor  Law  Amendment  Act,  31  and  32  Vict., 
c.  122.  Sections  16,  17,  and  19  provide  for  a  separate 
register  to  be  kept  in  every  workhouse,  district,  or 
other  pauper  school,  into  which  the  religious  creed  of 
every  inmate  shall  be  entered :  the  religious  creed  of  a 
child  under  twelve  shall  be  entered  as  that  of  his 
father  if  it  can  be  ascertained,  if  not,  as  that  of  his 
mother.  The  religious  creed  of  an  illegitimate 
child  shall  be  deemed  to  be  that  of  his  mother. 
Should  the  father  be  a  Protestant  and  wish  his  child 
educated  as  a  CathoHc,  he  is  entitled  to  have  his  wish 
carried  out,  but  the  entry  in  the  creed  register  must 
be  that  of  the  father's  religion.  Such  register  is  to 
be  opened  to  the  inspection  of  any  minister  of  any 
denomination,  nearest  the  workhouse  or  school,  or 
any  rate-payer  of  any  parish  in  the  Union,  at  any  time 
of  the  day  between  ten  and  four  o'clock,  except 
Sunday.  Section  18 .  provides  for  any  question  as  to 
correctness  of  entry  being  settled  only  by  the  Local 
Government  Board.  Section  20  provides  for  the 
minister  visiting  and  instructing  those  who  are  of  the 
same  religion  as  himself.  Although  the  act  pro- 
vides for  the  child  being  instructed  according  to  the 
entry  in  the  creed  register,  the  act  of  William  IV 
referred  to  above  in  some  instances  contradicts  it. 
A  child  may  be  entered  as  a  Roman  Catholic,  that 
being  the  religion  of  his  father,  but  he  being  dead,  the 
Protestant  mother  can  object  to  the  child  being  in- 
structed in  the  Catholic  Faith.  Section  22  provides 
for  a  child  above  the  age  of  twelve  years  altering  his 
religion  if  the  Local  Government  Board  consider  him 
competent  to  exercise  a  judgment  upon  the  subject. 
Those  for  whom  no  religious  service  is  provided  in 
the  workhouse  are  allowed  by  section  21  to  attend  a 
place  of  worship  of  their  own  denomination  within  a 
convenient  distance  of  the  workhouse.  Many  guar- 
dians have  refused  to  allow  inmates  under  sixty  years 
of  age  to  go  out  to  Mass  on  Sundays,  Good  Friday, 
and  Christmas  Day,  but  this  is  not  legal  and  can  be 
remedied  by  applying  to  the  local  Government 
Board  (Order  1847,  Art.  126).  This  right  can  only 
be  stopped  if  abused  and  then  the  guardians  must 
enter  the  cause  in  the  minutes.  The  Local  Govern- 
ment Board  have  permitted  the  appointment  of  a 
considerable  number  of  priests,  with  stipends,  to 
attend  to  the  spiritual  interests  of  Catholic  inmates  of 


POOR 


257 


POOR 


workhouses;  they  cannot  be  called  chaplains,  but  are 
known  as  Roman  Catholic  instructors.  Mass  is 
regularly  said  in  many  workhouses  and  in  some  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  reserved.  Benediction  is  also 
given  in  several  workhouses. 

By  the  act  to  provide  for  the  maintenance  and  educa- 
tion of  pauper  children,  1862  (25  and  26  Vict.,  c. 
43),  guardians  are  empowered  (section  1)  to  send  any 
poor  child  to  any  school  certified  by  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board,  and  supported  wholly  or  partially  by 
voluntary  subscriptions,  and  to  pay  out  of  the  funds 
in  their  possession  the  expenses  of  maintenance, 
clothing,  and  education.  By  an  act  of  1SS2  (45  and 
46  Vict.,  c.  58,  s.  13),  the  rate  of  payment  is  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Local  Government  Board  and  it  varies 
from  five  to  seven  shillings  a  week.  The  amount  of 
the  payment,  within  this  limit,  will  be  a  matter  of 
agreement  between    the   guardians  and  the  school. 

Certified  schools  are  inspected  by  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board  inspector;  and  guardians  who  have  sent 
a  child  to  any  such  school  may  from  time  to  time 
appoint  one  of  their  body  to  visit  and  inspect.  A 
child  cannot  be  sent  to  a  certified  school  without  the 
consent  of  its  parents  or  surviving  parent,  unless  it 
be  an  orphan  or  a  child  deserted  by  its  parents  or 
sur\'iving  parent.  This  regulation  is  neither  rec- 
ognized by  the  guardians  nor  enforced  by  the  Local 
Government  Board  in  London.  A  child  cannot  be 
sent  to  a  school  conducted  on  the  principles  of  a 
religion  to  which  the  child  does  not  belong  (25  & 
28  Vict.,  c.  43,  s.  9).  Should  a  Board  of  Guardians 
refuse  to  send  a  child  to  a  certified  school,  the  course 
to  adopt  to  compel  them  to  do  so  is  to  apply  to  the 
Local  Govermnent  Board.  Orphan  and  deserted 
children,  and  children  adopted  by  the  guardians  under 
the  acts  of  1889  and  1898  may  be  boarded  out  under 
very  strict  regulations  compiled  in  the  orders  of 
1905  and  1909,  but  in  no  case  may  a  child  be  boarded 
out  with  a  foster-parent  of  a  religious  creed  different 
from  that  to  which  the  child  belongs.  Formerly 
if  a  child  were  adopted  and  taken  off  the  rates  al- 
together, the  jurisdiction  both  of  the  guardians  and 
of  the  Local  Government  Board  was  at  an  end;  now, 
however,  the  Poor  Law  Act  1899  provides  that  where 
a  child  maintained  by  guardians  is  with  their  consent 
adopted  by  any  person,  the  guardians  must,  during  a 
period  of  tlu-ee  years  from  the  date  of  the  adoption, 
cause  the  child  to  be  visited  at  least  twice  in  each 
year  by  some  competent  person  appointed  by  them 
for  the  purpose,  who  is  to  report  to  them.  And  the 
guardians  may,  if  they  think  fit,  at  any  time  during 
the  three  years  revoke  their  consent  to  the  adoption 
and  the  child  must  thereupon  be  returned  to  them 
by  the  person  having  the  custody  of  him.  Efforts 
are  now  being  made  to  have  all  such  children  placed 
under  the  regulations  of  the  boarding  out  orders. 
Guardians  are  authorized  to  bury  Catholics  in  a 
Catholic  burial  ground  and  a  Catholic  priest  may 
officiate  and  be  paid  a  reasonable  sum  for  his  ser- 
vices. 

FowLE,  The  Poor  Law  (London,  1890);  Glen,  The  Poor  Law 
Orders  (11th  ed.,  London,  1900);  Aschrott,  The  Engtinh  Poor 
Law  System,  Past  and  Present,  English  tr.  by  Pbbston-Thomas 
(London,  1888) ;  Maude,  The  Poor  Law  Handbook  (London, 
1903) ;  Idem,  The  Religious  Rights  of  the  Catholic  Poor  (2nd  ed., 
London,  1910);  Reprint  of  the  Poor  Law  Cojnmissioners'  Report 
of  1834  (London);  Royal  Commission  on  the  Poor  Laws,  1906-9 
Report  (London) ;  Sellers,  Foreign  Solutions  of  Poor  Law  Prob- 
lems (London,  1904) ;  Idem,  The  Danish  Poor  Law  Relief 
System  (London,  1904) ;  Cowen,  The  Poor  Laws  of  the  State  of 
New  York  (Albany,  iss?) ;  Reports  of  Poor  Law  in  Foreign  Coun- 
tries in  Parliamentary  Papers,  LXV  (1875). 

Thomas  G.  King. 

Poor  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the,  a  Congrega- 
tion, founded  by  the  Venerable  Mother  Frances  Scher- 
vier  at  Aachen  in  the  year  1845,  whose  mem- 
bers observe  the  Rule  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  as  given  by  Leo  X  for  Tertiaries  Uving  in 
XIL— 17 


community,  and  Constitutions  adapted  to  their 
special  work,  care  of  the  sick  poor,  dependent  upon 
charity. 

Foundation. — Frances  Schervier,  b.  in  Aachen,  3 
January,  1819,  was  the  child  of  John  Henry  Caspar 
Schervier,  proprietor  of  a  needle  manufactory  and 
associate  magistrate  of  the  city,  and  Maria  Louisa 
Migeon,  descendant  of  a  wealthy  French  family. 
Frances's  education  was  thorough,  and  it  was  always 
her  desire  to  serve  the  sick  and  poor.  She  began  by 
giving  them  food  and  clothing,  labouring  for  them, 
and  visiting  them  in  their  homes  and  hospitals.  In 
1840  she  joined  a  charitable  society,  in  order  to  exer- 
cise this  charity  more  actively.  In  1844  she  and  four 
other  young  ladies  (Catherine  Daverkosen,  Gertrude 
Frank,  Joanna  Bruchhans,  and  Catherine  Lassen)  be- 
came members  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis.  The 
following  year,  with  the  permission  of  a  priest,  they 
went  to  live  together  in  a  small  house  beyond  St. 
James's  Gate,  and  Frances  was  chosen  superior  of  the 
community.  The  life  of  the  sisters  was  conventual, 
and  the  time  spent  in  religious  exercises,  hou.sehold 
duties,  and  caring  for  the  sick  poor.  In  1848  the  com- 
munity numbered  thirteen  members. 

Development. — In  the  latter  part  of  1848  a  mild 
form  of  cholera  broke  out  in  Aachen,  followed  by  an 
epidemic  of  small  pox,  and  an  infirmary  was  opened  in 
an  old  Dominican  building,  the  property  of  the  citj^. 
The  Sisters  offered  their  services  as  nurses  and  they 
were  authorized  to  take  up  their  abode  in  the  building 
(1849).  New  members  were  admitted  in  1849,  when 
they  were  called  to  take  charge  of  an  infirmary  for 
cholera  patients  in  Burtscheid.  In  1850  they  estab- 
lished a  hospital  for  incurables  in  the  old  Dominican 
building,  and  the  home  nursing  and  charity  kitchens 
in  different  parishes  were  entrusted  to  them.  In  1850 
the  "Constitutions"  were  compiled  and  submitted  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  They  were  approved,  and 
on  12  August,  1851,  Mother  Frances  and  her  twenty- 
three  associates  were  invested  with  the  habit  of  St. 
Francis.  On  13  June,  1850,  they  took  charge  of  a  hos- 
pital in  Juelich  (later  abandoned).  In  1851  a  founda- 
tion was  established  at  Bonn  and  also  at  Aachen  for  the 
care  of  the  female  prisoners  in  the  House  of  Deten- 
tion. When  the  home  of  the  Poor  Clares,  before  their 
suppression  in  1803,  was  offered  for  sale  in  the  summer 
of  1852,  Mother  Frances  purchased  the  spacious  build- 
ing for  a  convent — the  first  mother-house.  The  con- 
gregation grew  steadily  and  rapidly.  In  1852  two 
houses  were  founded  in  Cologne,  and  a  hospital  was 
opened  at  Burtscheid.  Foundations  were  established 
in  Ratingen,  Mayence,  Coblenz  (1854);  Kaisers werth, 
Crefeld,  Euskirchen  (1855);  Eschweiler  (1858);  Stol- 
berg  and  Erfurt  (1863),  etc.  The  number  of  institu- 
tions in  Europe  at  time  of  present  writing  (1911)  is 
about  49. 

Congregation  in  America. — The  year  1858  marks  an 
important  epoch  in  the  development  of  the  congrega- 
tion, namely:  the  transplanting  of  the  congregation  to 
America.  Mrs.  Sarah  Peter,  a  convert  of  Cincinnati, 
p.,  received  a  commission  from  the  archbishop 
in  that  city  to  bring  German  Sisters  to  America 
to  care  for  the  destitute  poor  of  German  nationality, 
and  Irish  Sisters  for  the  Irish  poor,  ^^'hile  in  Rome  in 
1857  she  submitted  the  plan  to  the  Holy  Father,  who 
advised  her  to  apply  for  German  Sisters  to  some  Aus- 
trian bishop.  Cardinal  Von  Geissel,  the  Archbishop 
of  Cologne,  earnestly  recommended  the  Congregation 
of  Mother  Frances  for  the  purpose.  In  Ireland  she 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  Mother 
Frances  resolved  to  found  a  house  in  Cincinnati,  and 
on  24  August,  1858,  the  six  sisters  chosen  by  her  set 
sail  for  America.  Upon  their  arrival  in  Cincinnati,  the 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  kindly  gave  them  hospi- 
tality. Soon  they  received  the  offer  of  the  gratuitous 
use  of  a  vacated  orphanage  for  their  patients.  The 
following  year  three  more  sisters  arrived  from  Europe, 


POOR 


258 


POPE 


and  in  March  they  purchased  several  lots  at  the  corner 
of  Linn  and  Betts  Streets  (the  present  site  of  St.  Mary's 
Hospital),  and  began  constructing  a  hospital.  More 
sisters  soon  arrived  from  tlic  mother-house,  and  in  1860 
they  were  able  to  establish  a  branch-house  in  Coving- 
ton, Ky. 

In  the  spring  of  18(11  Mrs.  J'cter  offered  her  resi- 
dence to  the  sisters  for  a  novitiate,  and  home  for  the 
Clarissos  or  recluses,  a  contemplative  branch  of  the 
congregation,  for  whose  coming  she  had  long  been 
negotiating  with  Mother  Frances.  In  October,  Istil, 
three  reclu.ses  came  to  America,  and  from  their  arrival 
up  to  the  present  time  perpetual  adoration  of  the 
Most  Blessed  Sacrament  has  been  carried  on  without 
interruption  in  this  novitiate  convent  of  St.  Clara. 
Mrs.  Peter  reserved  for  herself  the  use  of  several  rooms, 
wherein  she  lived  a  life  of  retirement  until  her  death  in 
Feb.,  1877.  The  congregation  owed  much  of  its  rapid 
progress  in  the  New  World  to  the  influence  of  this 
noble  lady.  Hospitals  have  been  founded  in  the  fol- 
lowing cities  of  the  United  States :  Cincinnati  (1858); 
Covington,  Ky.  (1S60);  Columbus,  O.  (1862);  Hobo- 
ken,  N.  J.  (1863);  Jersey  City,  N.  J.  (1864);  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.  (1864);  5th  St.,  N.Y.  City  (1865);  Quincy, 
111.  (1866);  Newark,  N.  J.  (1867);  Dayton,  O.  (1878); 
N.  Y.  City  (1882);  Kansas  City,  Kan.  (1887);  Fair- 
mount,  Cin.,  O.  (1888);  Columbus,  O.  (1891);  142nd 
St.,  N.  Y.  City  (1906).  In  1896  the  novitiate  was 
removed  to  Hartwell,  O.,  where  the  congregation  pos- 
sesses a  large  convent,  church,  and  grounds,  the  centre 
of  activity  of  the  Province  in  America. 

WiLSTACH,  Frances  Sch-rvier  and  her  Poor  Sisters  in  Catholic 
World   Mfign:ine,  LXIII   (New  York),  261. 

Sister  Antonia. 

Poor    Servants    of    the    Mother    of    God,    a 

religious  congregation  founded  in  1808  by  Mother 
Mary  Magdalen  Taylor  in  conjunction  with  Lady 
Georgiana  FuUerton  (q.  v.).  Mother  M.  Magdalen 
was  the  daughter  of  a  Church  of  England  clergyman. 
As  one  of  Miss  Nightingale's  band  of  nurses  in  the 
Crimea  she  became  acquainted  with  the  Catholic 
Faith  as  manifested  by  many  of  the  soldiers,  and  on 
her  return  to  England  entered  the  Church.  Her  sub- 
sequent intimacy  with  Lady  Georgiana  Fullerton  led 
to  the  foundation  of  a  congregation  for  work  among 
the  poor  of  London,  then  inadequately  served  by  a 
single  convent.  At  first  an  affiliation  with  the  Little 
Sisters  of  Mary  (Archduchy  of  Posen)  was  considered, 
but  this  was  found  to  be  impracticable,  and  the  new 
order  was  placed  under  the  direction  of  its  own 
superior  general  (Mother  M.  Magdalen).  From  the 
first  it  was  approved  and  encouraged  by  Cardinal 
Manning,  its  spiritual  training  being  committed  to 
the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  near  whose  church 
in  Farm  St.,  London,  its  existence  began.  Its  Consti- 
tutions are  based  on  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and 
the  congregation  was  approved  by  Leo  XIII  in  1885. 
The  members  devote  themselves  to  visiting  the  poor, 
teaching  in  parochial  schools,  nursing,  and  conducting 
institutions  of  refuge  and  rescue  for  women.  To  the 
mother-house  in  Rome  are  attached  two  schools  and 
the  public  church  of  St.  George  and  the  Enghsh 
Martyrs.  In  this  church  on  Good  Friday,  1887,  the 
Three  Hours  was  preached  for  the  first  time  in  Enghsh 
by  Father  Lucas,  S.J.  Other  houses  are  in  Florence; 
London  (2);  Brentford;  Roehampton;  Streatham; 
St.  Helen's,  Lancashire,  where  the  sisters  conduct  the 
only  free  hospital  in  the  town;  Liverpool;  Brighton; 
Dublin  (2);  Carrightowhill,  Co.  Cork;  Youghal,  Co. 
Cork.  The  congregation  is  under  the  direction  of  a 
superior  general.  A  black  habit  is  worn,  with  a  blue 
scapular  and  a  black  veil.    There  are  no  lay  sisters. 

Taylor,  Inner  Life  of  Lady  G.  Fullerton  (London,  1899) ;  Idem, 
Memoir  of  Father  Dignam,  S.J.  (London,  s.  d.);  (Jhaven,  Lady 
Georgiana  Fullerton  (Paris,  1888) ;  Steele,  Convents  of  Great 
Britain  (London,  1901);  Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (April, 
1901). 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 


Popay§.n,  Archdiocese  op  (Popatanensis),  lies 
approximately  between  1°  20'  and  3°  2'  north  latitude, 
and  78°  4'  and  80°  3'  east  longitude.  Since  the 
Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Consistory 
(7  July,  1910),  the  boundaries  of  the  archdiocese  are, 
on  the  north,  the  Diocese  of  Call,  along  the  Rivers 
Sonso  and  Rio  Claro;  on  the  west,  the  same  diocese, 
along  the  mountain  chain  of  the  Cordillera  Occidental; 
on  the  south,  the  Diocese  of  Pasto,  along  the  Rivers 
Patia  and  Juanambu,  and  on  the  east,  the  Diocese  of 
Garzon,  along  the  Cordillera  Central.  The  archdio- 
cese comprises  the  entire  Department  of  del  Cauca, 
and  portions  of  the  Departments  of  Nariilo  and  El 
^'alle.  The  diocese  was  established  by  Paul  III 
1  Sept.,  1546;  the  see,  howe\er,  was  not  erected  until 
8  Sept.,  1547,  when  the  first  bishop  named  to  the  see, 
Don  Juan  del  Valle,  performed  the  ceremony  by 
Apostolic  delegation  at  Aranda  del  Duero,  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Osma,  Spain.  The  diocese  became  a  suffragan 
of  Lima,  and  so  remained  until  1573,  in  which  year 
Bogota  became  a  metropolitan  see  and  received 
Popaydn  among  its  suffragans.  The  Sacred  Congre- 
gation of  the  Consistory,  however,  by  its  Decree  of 
20  June,  1900,  made  Popaydn  an  archdiocese,  with 
Pasto,  Garz6n,  and  Call  for  suffragans,  its  first  arch- 
bishop being  Don  Manuel  Jose  de  Cayzedo.  Among 
the  Bishops  of  Popayiin,  special  mention  should  be 
made  of  Agustin  de  la  Corufia  (1509-89),  an  Augus- 
tinian,  who  was  a  student  under  St.  Thomas  of  Villa- 
nova.  He  suffered  vexations,  and  even  banishment, 
for  his  activity  in  defence  of  the  Indians.  Bishop 
Carlos  Bernnidez  (1827-86)  restored  the  seminary, 
and  suffered  banishment  through  his  firm  defence  of 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Church.  The  Bishop 
Juan  Buenaventura  Ortiz  (1840-94)  wrote  a  history 
of  the  Diocese  of  Popaydn  (Historia  de  la  Di6- 
cesis)  and  a  treatise  on  religion  for  colleges  (Religi6n 
para  los  Colegios). 

M.  Antonio  Arbolida. 

Pope,  Alexander,  poet,  son  of  Alexander  Pope 
and.  his  second  wife,  Edith  Turner,  b.  in  London, 
England,  22  May,  1688;  d.  at  Twickenham,  England, 
30  May,  1744.  His  parents  were  both  Catholics,  and 
the  son  lived  and  died  in  the  profession  of  the  faith  to 
which  he  was  born.  The  poet's  father  was  a  linen  mer- 
chant in  Lombard  Street,  London,  who  before  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century  retired  on  a  moderate  fortune 
first  to  Kensington,  then  to  Binfield,  and  finally  to 
Chiswick,  where  he  died  in  1717.  Soon  after  this 
event  Pope  with  his  mother  removed  to  the  villa  at 
Twickenham,  which  became  his  permanent  abode, 
and  which,  with  its  five  acres,  its  gardens,  and  its 
grotto,  will  be  forever  associated  with  his  memory. 
As  a  child  he  was  very  delicate,  and  he  retained  a  con- 
stitutional weakness  as  well  as  a  deformity  of  body 
all  through  his  life,  while  in  stature  he  was  very 
diminutive.  His  early  education  was  spasmodic  and 
irregular,  but  before  he  was  twelve  he  had  picked  up 
a  smattering  of  Latin  and  Greek  from  various  tutors 
and  at  sundry  schools,  and  subsequently  he  acquired 
a  similar  knowledge  of  French  and  Italian.  From  his 
thirteenth  year  onward  he  was  self-instructed  and  he 
was  an  extensive  reader.  Barred  from  a  political  and 
to  a  great  extent  from  a  professional  career  by  the 
penal  laws  then  in  force  against  Catholics,  he  did  not 
feel  the  restraint  very  acutely,  for  his  earliest  aspira- 
tion was  to  be  a  poet,  and  at  an  exceptionally  youthful 
period  he  was  engaged  in  writing  verses.  His  first  idea 
was  to  compose  a  great  epic,  the  subject  that  pre- 
sented itself  being  a  mythological  one,  with  Alcander, 
a  prince  of  Rhodes,  as  hero;  and  perhaps  he  never 
wholly  relinquished  his  intention  of  producing  such  a 
poem,  for  after  his  death  there  was  found  among  his 
papers  a  plan  for  an  epic  on  Brutus,  the  mythical 
great-grandson  of  vEneas  and  reputed  founder  of 
Britain.     The  Alcander  epic,  which  had  reached  as 


POPE 


259 


POPE 


many  as 4000 lines,  was  laid  aside  and  never  completed,     son,  the  publisher,  an  annotated  edition  of  Shake- 
Pope's  first  pubUcation  was  the  "Pastorals";   "Jan-     speare,  whichappearedinl725,  a  task  for  which  Pope's 


uary  and  May",  the  latter  a  version  of  Chaucer's 
"Merchant's  Tale";  and  the  "Episode  of  Sarpedon" 
from  the  "Iliad".  These  appeared  in  1709  in  Ton- 
son's  "Poetical  Miscellanies"  His  "Essay  on  Criti- 
cism" appeared  in  May,  1711,  and  some  months  later 
was  warmly,  if  not  enthusiastically,  commended  by 
Addison  in  the  "Spectator"  (No.  2,'53,  20  Dec,  1711). 
Steele  was  eager  to  get  hold  of  the  ri.sing  poet  to  con- 
tribute to  the  paper,  and  eventually  succeeded,  for 
practically  the  entire  literary  portion  of  one  issue  of 
the  "Six'ctator"  (No.  o7S,  14  May,  1712)  is  given  over 
to  Pope's  "Messiah:  A  Sacred  Eclogue".  In  1712 
the  first  edition  of  "The  Kape  of  the  Lock",  in  two 
cantos,  came  out  in  Lin  tot's  "  Miscellany  "-  Later  Pope 
extended  the  work  to  five  cantos,  and  by  introducing 
the  supernatural  machinery  of  sylphs  and  gnomes 
and  all  the  light  militia  of  the 
lower  sky,  he  gave  to  the  world 
in  1714  one  of  its  airiest,  most 
delightful,  and  most  cherished 
specimens  of  the  mock-heroic 
poem.  In  the  -\^pril  of  the 
preceding  year  (1713),  Addi- 
son's tragedy  of  "Cato"  was 
produced  with  almost  unparal- 
leled success  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre  and  the  prologue,  a, 
dignified  and  spirited  com- 
position, as  Macaulay  describes 
it,  was  written  by  Pope.  It 
was  published  with  the  play 
and  also  in  No.  33  of  the 
"Guardian".  To  the  "Guar- 
dian" also  Pope  contributed 
eight  papers  in  1713.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  his 
"Windsor  Forest"  and  the 
"Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day". 
"The  Wife  of  Bath",  from 
Chaucer,  and  two  translations 
from  the  "  Odyssey ' ' — the  ' '  Ar- 
rival of  Ulysses  at  Ithaca" 
and  the  "Garden  of  Alcinous'' 
— came  out  in  1714  in  a  vol- 
ume of  miscellanies  edited  by 
Steele  for  Tonson,  the  pub- 
hsher.  "The  Temple  of  Fame",  in  which  Steele  said 
there  were  a  thousand  beauties,  was  separately  pub- 
lished in  the  following  year,  1715. 

In  November  of  1713  a  turning  point  was  reached 
in  Pope's  fortunes.  He  issued  proposals  for  the  pub- 
Ucation, by  subscription,  of  a  translation  of  Homer's 
"Iliad"  into  English  verse,  with  notes.  The  matter 
was  warmly  taken  up,  and  subscriptions  poured 
in  apace.  His  friends  stood  by  him.  Swift  in  par- 
ticular obtaining  a  long  list  of  influential  patrons. 
Work  was  at  once  begun  on  the  undertaking,  and 
the  first  four  books  appeared  in  1715,  the  remain- 
ing volumes  coming  out  at  intervals  in  1716,  1717, 
1718,  and  1720,  when  the  task  was  completed.  Three 
years  later  he  undertook  the  translation  of  the 
"Odyssey",  which,  with  the  aid  of  Broome  and  Fen- 
ton  as  collaborators,  he  completed  by  1726.  Pope's 
exact  share  was  twelve  books;  the  rest  were  by  his 
assistants.  By  Homer  Pope  made  close  on  £9000, 
w;hich,  added  to  what  his  father  had  left  him,  placed 
him  in  a  position  of  independence  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  While  engaged  on  his  great  trans- 
lation Pope  found  time  for  other  forms  of  literary 
work,  and  in  1717  he  published  two  of  the  very  best 
of  his  lyrics,  namely,  the  "Elegy  to  the  Memory  of  an 
Unfortunate  Lady"  and  the  "Epistle  of  Eloisa  to 
Abelard",  and  he  joined  with  Gay  and  Arbuthnot  in 
writing  and  producing  the  unsuccessful  farce  "Three 
Hours  after  Marriage".    He  also  undertook  for  Ton- 


Alexandeb  Pope 


powers  were  unequal,  for  he  was  not  sufficiently 
versed  in  the  literature  of  the  Elizabethan  and 
Jacobean  period,  and  although  the  preface  is  very 
fine  and  many  shrewd  emendations  were  made  in 
the  text.  Pope's  Shakespeare  was  on  the  whole  far 
from  being  a  success.  It  was  at  once  attacked  by 
Theobald,  who  thus  exposed  himself  to  the  character- 
istic vengeance  which  Pope  was  shortly  to  take  by 
makinghimthefirstheroof  the  "Dunciad".  In  1713-14 
Pope,  with  Swift,  Arbuthnot,  and  other  leaders  of  the 
Tory  Party,  had  formed  a  sort  of  literary  society 
called  the  Scriblerus  Club,  and  had  amused  them- 
selves by  burlesquing  the  vagaries  of  literature  in  the 
"  Memoirs  of  Martinus  Scriblerus",  which,  although  in- 
cluded in  the  edition  of  Pope's  prose  works  in  1741, 
was  mainly  the  composition  of  Arbuthnot.  Arising 
partly  out  of  the  performance 
of  "Scriblerus",  Pope  and 
Swift  published  in  1727-28 
three  volumes  of  their  "Miscel- 
lanies", which  contained 
among  other  things  Pope's 
"Treatise  on  the  Bathos,  or 
the  Art  of  Sinking  in  Poetry", 
illustrated  by  examples  from 
the  inferior  poets  of  the  day. 
These  "Miscellanies",  and  par- 
ticularly the  "Bathos",  drew 
down  upon  the  authors  a  tor- 
rent of  abuse  from  every  quill- 
driver  and  poetaster  who  had 
been  in  reality  attacked  or  fan- 
cied himself  ridiculed.  The 
"Dunciad"  was  in  turn  the 
outcome  of  these  invectives. 
This  celebrated  satire  first  ap- 
peared, in  three  books,  in 
May,  1728,  and  an  enlarged 
edition  followed  in  1729.  In 
1742  a  further  issue  appeared 
with  the  addition  of  a  fourth 
book,  and  in  1743  the  poem 
came  out  in  its  final  form  with 
Theobald  dethroned  and  CoUey 
Cibber  installed  in  his  room 
as  King  of  the  Dunces.  The 
publication  of  this  swingeing  satire  naturally  increased 
the  fury  against  Pope,  w  ho  was  roundly  abused  in  all 
the  moods  and  tenses.  Nor  did  he  shrink  from  the  fray. 
He  gave  back  blow  for  blow  for  eight  years,  1730-37, 
in  a  weekly  sheet,  the"  Grub  Street  Journal ",  as  well  as 
paying  off  old  scores  when  opportunity  offered  in  his 
avowed  and  more  ambitious  publications. 

While  thus  engaged  Pope  came  more  directly  than 
ever  before  under  the  influence  of  Bolingbroke,  with 
whom  he  had  been  on  intimate  terms  in  the  palmy 
pre-Georgian  days.  Bolingbroke  undoubtedly  indoc- 
trinated Pope  with  the  tenets  of  his  own  system  of 
metaphysics  and  natural  theology,  and  the  fruit  was 
seen  in  the  "Essay  on  Man",  in  four  "Epistles" 
(1732-34),  and  in  the  "Moral  Essays",  also  in  four 
"Epistles"  (1731-35).  The  fifth  Epistle— "To  Mr. 
Addison,  occasioned  by  his  'Dialogues  on  Medals' " — 
placed  arbitrarily  enough  by  Warburton  in  this 
series  of  "Moral  Essays",  was  actually  written  in 
1715,  and  has  appeared  in  Tickell's  edition  of  Addi- 
son's works  in  1720.  Bolingbroke,  in  another  con- 
nexion, once  said  of  Pope  that  he  was  "a  very  great 
wit,  but  a  very  indifferent  philosopher";  and  in  these 
"Essays",  especially  in  the  "Essay  on  Man",  he  was 
endeavouring  to  expound  a  system  of  philosophy 
which  he  but  imperfectly  understood.  The  result  is 
that  the  tendency  of  his  principal  theories  is  towards 
fatalism  and  naturalism,  and  the  consequent  reduc- 
tion of  man  to  a  mere  puppet.    This  position  Pope 


POPE 


260 


POPE 


never  had  the  intention  of  taking  up,  and  he  shrank 
from  it  when  it  was  forcibly  exposed  by  Crousaz  as 
logically  leading  to  Spinozism.  To  clear  himself  of 
the  charge  of  a  denial  of  revealed  religion  and,  in 
Johnson's  celebrated  phrase,  of  representing  "the 
whole  course  of  things  as  a  necessary  concatenation  of 
indissoluble  fatality",  he  wrote,  in  1738,  the  "Uni- 
versal Prayer",  which  is  now  generally  appended  to 
the  "Essay  on  Man",  but  which,  despite  the  piety  it 
displays,  is  not  entirely  convincing.  From  1732  to 
1738  he  was  busy  with  the  composition  and  pubhca- 
tion  of  his  "Imitations  of  Horace",  which,  in  diction 
and  versification  at  least,  some  critics  consider  his 
masterpieces.  He  also  at  this  period  published  two  of 
the  "Satires  of  Dr.  Donne",  which  he  had  versified 
earlier  in  life.  In  1735  appeared  the  "Epistle  to  Dr. 
Arbuthnot,  or  Prologue  to  the  Satires",  and  in  1738 
the  "Epilogue  to  the  Satires,  in  Two  Dialogues"  In 
1737  he  published  an  authorized  and  carefully  pre- 
pared edition  of  his  "Correspondence",  which  had 
been  brought  out  in  1735  by  Curll  in  what  Pope 
alleged  to  be  a  garbled  form. 

With  the  pubhoation  of  the  "Dunciad",  in  1743, 
Pope's  literary  activity  ceased.  He  indeed  set  about 
the  collection  of  his  works  with  a  view  to  an  authori- 
tative edition;  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  the 
attempt.  His  health,  always  poor,  began  rapidly  to 
fail.  He  always  expressed  undoubting  confidence  in 
a  future  state,  and  when  his  end  was  obviously  ap- 
proaching he  willingly  yielded  to  the  representations 
of  a  Catholic  friend  that  he  should  see  a  priest.  It 
was  noticed  by  those  about  him  that  after  he  had 
received  the  last  sacraments  his  frame  of  mind  was 
very  peaceable.  He  died  calmly  the  next  day,  30  May, 
1744,  in  the  fifty-seventh  year  of  his  age.  He  was 
buried  near  the  monument  which  he  had  raised  to  the 
memory  of  his  father  and  mother  at  Twickenham. 

Probably  no  writer,  as  such,  ever  made  more  ene- 
mies than  Pope.  Not  only  did  he  lash  Bufo  and 
Sporus,  Sappho  and  Atossa,  and  scores  of  others  by 
their  own  names  or  under  thin  disguise,  but  he  boasted 
that  he  made  a  hundred  smart  in,  Timon  and  in 
Balaam.  Herein  indeed  he  over-reached  himself, 
for  the  gj-eat  majority  of  the  victims  of  his  satire  would 
have  been  long  ago  forgotten  but  that  he  has  em- 
balmed them  for  all  time  in  the  "Dunciad"  and  else- 
where. But  if  he  had  the  fatal  gift  of  arousing 
enmity  and  the  fault  of  vindictiveness  in  the  per- 
secution of  those  who  had  incurred  his  wrath,  it  must 
be  put  to  the  credit  side  of  his  account  that  scattered 
throughout  his  works  there  are  many  generous 
tributes  to  worth  among  his  contemporaries.  He 
possessed  beyond  question  a  deep  fund  of  affection. 
He  was  a  loving  and  devoted  son,  a  loyal  and  con- 
stant friend.  His  happy  relations  with  Arbuthnot 
and  Swift,  with  Atterbury  and  Oxford,  with  Parnell 
and  Prior,  with  Bolingbroke  and  Gay,  with  Warbur- 
ton  and  Spence,  and  with  many  others  of  his  acquain- 
tances were  interrupted  only  by  death.  His  friend- 
ship with  Addison,  which  augured  so  auspiciously  at 
first,  was  unfortunately  soon  clouded  over.  The 
question  of  their  estrangement  has  been  so  volumi- 
nously discussed  by  Johnson,  Macaulay,  Ward,  and 
others  that  it  is  unnecessary,  as  it  would  be  unprofit- 
able, to  pursue  it  here  in  detail.  It  will  perhaps  be 
sufficient  to  say  that  there  were  probably  faults  on 
both  sides.  If  Pope  was  unduly  suspicious,  Aiidison 
was  certainly  too  partial  to  the  members  of  his  own 
immediate  little  coterie.  And  if  for  real  or  fancied 
slights  or  wrongs  Pope  took  an  exemplary  vengeance 
in  hia  celebrated  character  of  Atticus  (Epistle  to 
Dr.  Arbuthnot,  II,  193-214),  it  must  always  be  borne 
in  mind  that  he  has  taken  care  in  many  passages  to 
pay  compliments  to  Addison,  and  not  empty  com- 
phments  either,  but  as  handsome  as  they  were  well 
deserved.  A  reference,  for  example,  to  Epistle  I 
of  the  Second  Book  of  Horace,  will  sufficiently  prove 


the  truth  of  this  statement.  Regarding  Pope's 
position  in  the  literature  of  his  country,  there 
has  been  an  extraordinary  amount  of  controversy; 
some  critics  going  the  length  of  denying  him 
the  right  to  be  called  a  poet  at  all.  Opinion  has 
fluctuated  remarkably  on  his  merits.  By  his  contem- 
poraries he  was  regarded  with  a.  sort  of  reverential 
awe.  To  his  immediate  successors  he  was  the  grand 
exemplar  of  what  a  poet  should  be.  His  standing  was 
first  assailed  by  Joseph  A\'arton,  in  1756,  in  his 
"Essay  on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Pope",  but 
Johnson  gave  the  great  weight  of  his  authority  to  the 
other  side.  During  the  Romantic  reaction  of  the  last 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  he  lost  caste  to  some 
extent,  and  his  reputation  was  very  seriously  jeop- 
ardized in  the  height  of  the  Romantic  movement  from 
about  1820  onward.  He  was,  however,  warmly  de- 
fended by  Campbell,  Byron,  and  others.  Nor  is  he 
without  stalwart  champions  in  our  own  day.  At 
present  opinion  appears  to  have  crystallized  in  the 
direction  of  recognizing  him  as  among  the  really  great 
names  of  English  literature.  Johnson's  criticism  may, 
on  the  whole,  be  regarded  as  sound.  His  opinion,  ex- 
pressed in  his  biography  of  the  poet,  is  that  Pope  had 
in  proportions  very  nicely  adjusted  to  one  another  all 
the  qualities  that  constitute  genius,  invention,  im- 
agination, judgment,  rare  power  of  expression,  and 
melody  in  metre;  and  he  replies  to  the  question  that 
had  been  raised,  as  to  whether  Pope  was  a  poet,  by 
asking  in  return;  If  Pope  be  not  a  poet,  where  is  poetry 
to  be  found?  To  treat  this  subject  fully  would  lead 
to  a  discussion  of  two  very  vexed  questions,  namely 
what  poetry  really  is,  and  what  the  proper  subjects 
of  poetry  are.  It  will  perhaps  serve  the  purpose 
if  the  opinion  be  indicated  that,  when  detraction  has 
done  its  worst,  Pope  will  still  stand  out,  not  perhaps  as 
a  master-genius,  but  as  the  typical  man  of  letters  and 
as  the  great  representative  English  poet  of  the  first 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Dennis,  Re/lections  upon  a  late  Rhapsody  called  an  Essay  upon 
Criticism  (London,  1711);  Idem,  True  Character  of  Mr.  Pope 
(London,  1716) ;  Idem,  Remarks  upon  Mr.  Pope's  Translation  of 
Homer,  with  two  Letters  concerning  Wiii'hor  Forest  and  the  Temple 
of  Fame  (London,  1717) ;  Spence,  An  E.-'^ay  on  Pope's  Translation 
of  Homer's  Odyssey  (London,  1727);  Idem.  Anecdotes,  Observations, 
and  Characters  of  Books  and  Men,  collected  from  the  Conversation 
of  Mr.  Pope  and  others  (London,  1820) ;  Ayre,  Memoirs  of  the 
Life  and  Writings  of  Alexander  Pope  (London,  1745) ;  Warton, 
Essay  on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Pope,  I  (London,  1756), 
II  (London,  1782) ;  Johnson,  Life  of  Pope  (London,  1781) ;  Earl 
OF  Carlisle,  Two  Lectures  on  the  Poetry  of  Pope  (London,  1851); 
Ward,  Introductory  Memoir  prefixed  to  the  Globe  ed.  of  The 
Poetical  Works  of  Alexander  Pope  (London,  1869) ;  Edwin 
Abbott,  A  Concordance  to  the  Works  of  Alexander  Pope,  with  an 
Introductionhy^.  A.  Abbott  (London,  1875) ;  iStephen,  Alexander 
Pope  in  "Enqlish  Men  of  Letters"  series  (London  and  New  York, 
1880):  Emily  Morse  Symonds,  Mr.  Pope,  His  Life  and  Times 
(I^ondon,  1909) ;  eds.  of  Pope's  Works  by  Warburton  (London, 
1751,  reprinted  1769,  with  Life  by  Rdffhead);  Bowles,  with 
Life  (London,  1806,  new  ed.,  1847) ;  RoscoE,  with  Life  (London, 
1824,  new  ed.,  1847);  Carruthers,  with  Life  (London,  1853, 
second  ed.  of  the  Life,  1857) ;  and  Elwin  and  Courthope,  with 
Life  by  Courthope  (London,  1871-1889). 

P.  J.  Lennox. 


Pope,       Election     op    the. 
Papal  Election 


See     Conclave; 


Pope  (eccles.  Lat.,  papa  from  Gr.  wd-n-as,  a  variant 
of  irdTTTras,  father;  in  classical  Latin  pappas — Juvenal, 
"Satires",  vi,  633),  The.  The  title  pope,  once  used 
with  far  greater  latitude  (see  below,  section  V),  is  at 
present  employed  solely  to  denote  the  Bishop  of  Rome, 
who,  in  virtue  of  his  position  as  successor  of  St.  Peter, 
is  the  chief  pastor  of  the  whole  Church,  the  Vicar  of 
Christ  upon  earth.  Besides  the  bishopric  of  the 
Roman  Diocese,  certain  other  dignities  are  held  by 
the  pope  as  well  as  the  supreme  and  universal  pastor- 
ate: he  is  Archbishop  of  the  Roman  Province,  Primate 
of  Italy  and  the  adjacent  islands,  and  sole  Patriarch 
of  the  Western  Church.  The  Church's  doctrine  as 
to  the  pope  was  authoritatively  declared  in  the  Vati- 
can Council  in  the  Conistitution  "Pastor  .^ternus" 
The  four  chapters  of  that  Constitution  deal  respec- 


POPE 


261 


POPE 


tively  with  the  office  of  Supreme  Head  conferred  on 
St.  Peter,  the  perpetuity  of  this  office  in  the  person  of 
the  Roman  pontiff,  the  pope's  jurisdiction  over  the 
faithful,  and  his  supreme  authority  to  define  in  all 
questions  of  faith  and  morals.  This  last  point  has 
been  sufficiently  discussed  in  the  article  Infallibil- 
ity, and  will  be  only  incidentally  touched  on  here. 
The  present  article  is  divided  as  follows :  I.  Institution 
of  a  Supreme  Head  by  Christ;  II.  Primacy  of  the 
Roman  See;  III.  Nature  and  Extent  of  the  Papal 
Power;  IV.  Jurisdictional  Rights  and  Prerogatives  of 
the  Pope;  V.  Primacy  of  Honour:  Titles  and  Insignia; 
VI.  Election  of  the  Popes;  VII.  Chronological  List  of 
the  Popes. 

I.  Institution  of  a  Supreme  Head  by  Christ. — 
The  proof  that  Chi-ist  constituted  St.  Peter  head  of 
His  Church  is  found  in  the  two  famous  Petrine  texts, 
Matt.,  xvi,  17-19,  and  John,  xxi,  15-17.  In  Matt., 
xvi,  17-19,  the  office  is  solemnly  promised  to  the 
Apostle.  In  response  to  his  profession  of  faith  in  the 
Divine  Nature  of  his  Master,  Christ  thus  addresses 
him;  "Blessed  art  thou,  Simon  Bar-Jona:  because 
flesh  and  blood  hath  not  revealed  it  to  thee,  but  my 
Father  who  is  in  heaven.  And  I  say  to  thee:  That 
thou  art  Peter;  and  upon  this  rock  I  will  build  my 
church,  and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against 
it.  And  I  will  give  to  thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven.  And  whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  on  earth 
it  shall  be  bound  also  in  heaven :  and  whatsoever  thou 
shalt  loose  on  earth,  it  shall  be  loosed  also  in  heaven." 
The  prerogatives  here  promised  are  manifestly  per- 
sonal to  Peter.  His  profession  of  faith  was  not  made, 
as  has  been  sometimes  asserted,  in  the  name  of  the 
other  Apostles.  This  is  evident  from  the  words  of 
Christ.  He  pronounces  on  the  Apostle,  distinguish- 
ing him  by  his  name  Simon  son  of  John,  a  peculiar  and 
personal  blessing,  declaring  that  his  knowledge  regard- 
ing the  Divine  Sonship  sprang  from  a  special  revela- 
tion granted  to  him  by  the  Father  (cf.  Matt.,  xi,  27). 
He  further  proceeds  to  recompense  this  confession  of 
His  Divinity  by  bestowing  upon  him  a  reward  proper 
to  himself:  "Thou  art  Peter  [Cepha,  transliterated 
also  Kipha]  and  upon  this  rock  [Cepha]  I  will  build 
my  Church."  The  word  for  Peter  and  for  rock  in  the 
original  Aramaic  is  one  and  the  same  (NC;) ;  this  renders 
it  evident  that  the  various  attempts  to  explain  the 
term  "rock"  as  having  reference  not  to  Peter  himself 
but  to  something  else  are  misinterpretations.  It  is 
Peter  who  is  the  rock  of  the  Church.  The  term 
ecclesia  (iKKXitcrla)  here  employed  is  the  Greek  render- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  qahal  {b~T}),  the  name  which  denoted 
the  Hebrew  nation  viewed  as  God's  Church  (see 
Church,  The,  I). 

Here  then  Christ  teaches  plainly  that  in  the  future 
the  Church  will  be  the  society  of  those  who  acknowl- 
edge Him,  and  that  this  Church  will  be  built  on  Peter. 
The  expression  presents  no  difficulty.  In  both  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  the  Church  is  often  spoken 
of  under  the  metaphor  of  God's  house  (Num.,  xii,  7; 
Jer.,  xii,  7;  Osee,  viii,  1;  ix,  15;  I  Cor.,  iii,  9-17,  Eph., 
ii,  20-2;  I  Tim.,  iii,  5;  Heb.,  iii,  5;  I  Peter,  ii,  5).  Peter 
is  to  be  to  the  Church  what  the  foundation  is  in  re- 
gard to  a  house.  He  is  to  be  the  principle  of  unity, 
of  stability,  and  of  increase.  He  is  the  principle  of 
unity,  since  what  is  not  joined  to  that  foundation  is 
no  part  of  the  Church;  of  stability,  since  it  is  the 
firmness  of  this  foundation  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Church  remains  unshaken  by  the  storms  which  buffet 
her;  of  increase,  since,  if  she  grows,  it  is  because  new 
stones  are  laid  on  this  foundation.  It  is  through  her 
union  with  Peter,  Christ  continues,  that  the  Church 
will  prove  the  victor  in  her  long  contest  with  the  Evil 
One:  "The  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against  it." 
There  can  be  but  one  explanation  of  this  striking 
metaphor.  The  only  manner  in  which  a  man  can 
stand  in  such  a  relation  to  any  corporate  body  is  by 
possessing  authority  over  it.     The  supreme  head  of  a 


body,  in  dependence  on  whom  all  subordinate  author- 
ities hold  their  power,  and  he  alone,  can  be  said  to  be 
the  principle  of  stability,  unity,  and  increase.  The 
promise  acquires  additional  solemnity  when  we  re- 
member that  both  Old  Testament  prophecy  (Is., 
xxviii,  16)  and  Christ's  own  words  (Matt,,  vii,  24) 
had  attributed  this  office  of  foundation  of  the  Church 
to  Himself.  He  is  therefore  assigning  to  Peter,  of 
course  in  a  secondary  degree,  a  prerogative  which  is 
His  own,  and  thereby  associating  the  Apostle  with 
Himself  in  an  altogether  singular  manner. 

In  the  following  verse  (Matt.,  xvi,  19)  He  promises 
to  bestow  on  Peter  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 
The  words  refer  evidently  to  Is.,  xxii,  22,  where  God 
declares  that  EUacim,  the  son  of  Helcias,  shall  be  in- 
vested with  office  in  place  of  the  worthless  Sobna: 
"And  I  will  lay  the  key  of  the  house  of  David  upon 
his  shoulder:  and  he  shall  open,  and  none  shall  shut: 
and  he  shall  shut  and  none  shall  open."  In  all 
countries  the  key  is  the  symbol  of  authority.  Thus, 
Christ's  words  are  a  promise  that  He  will  confer  on 
Peter  supreme  power  to  govern  the  Church.  Peter 
is  to  be  His  vicegerent,  to  rule  in  His  place.  Further, 
the  character  and  extent  of  the  power  thus  bestowed 
are  indicated.  It  is  a  power  to  " bind "  and  to  "loose " 
— words  which,  as  is  shown  below,  denote  the  grant 
of  legislative  and  judicial  authority.  And  this  power 
is  granted  in  its  fullest  measure.  Whatever  Peter 
binds  or  looses  on  earth,  his  act  will  receive  the  Divine 
ratification.  The  meaning  of  this  passage  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  challenged  by  any  writer  until  the 
rise  of  the  sixteenth-century  heresies.  Since  then  a 
great  variety  of  interpretations  have  been  put  forward 
by  Protestant  controversialists.  These  agree  in  little 
save  in  the  rejection  of  the  plain  sense  of  Christ's 
words.  Recent  Anglican  controversy  tends  to  the 
view  that  the  reward  promised  to  St.  Peter  consisted 
in  the  prominent  part  taken  by  him  in  the  initial 
activities  of  the  Church,  but  that  he  was  never  more 
than  primus  inter  pares  among  the  Apostles  (see 
Lightfoot,  "Apost.  Fathers",  II,  480;  Gore,  "Roman 
Cath.  Claims",  v;  Puller,  "Primitive  Saints,  etc.", 
lect.  3).  It  is  manifest  that  this  is  quite  insufficient 
as  an  explanation  of  the  terms  of  Christ's  promise. 
For  a  more  detailed  consideration  of  the  passage  the 
following  works  may  be  consulted:  Knabenbauer, 
"In  Matt.",  ad  loc;  Passaglia,  "De  Praerog.  B.  Petri.", 
II,  iii-x;  Palmieri  "De  Rom.  Pont.",  225-78. 

The  promise  made  by  Christ  in  Matt.,  xvi,  16-19, 
received  its  fulfilment  after  the  Resurrection  in  the 
scene  described  in  John,  xxi.  Here  the  Lord,  when 
about  to  leave  the  earth,  places  the  whole  flock — the 
sheep  and  the  lambs  alike — in  the  charge  of  the 
Apostle.  The  term  employed  in  xxi,  16,  "Be  the 
shepherd  [iroiimi.ve]  of  my  sheep",  indicates  that 
his  task  is  not  merely  to  feed  but  to  rule.  It  is 
the  same  word  as  is  used  in  Ps.  ii,  9  (Sept.):  "Thou 
shalt  rule  [iroifnaveTs]  them  with  a  rod  of  iron''.  The 
scene  stands  in  striking  parallehsm  with  that  of  Matt., 
xvi.  As  there  the  reward  was  given  to  Peter  after  a 
profession  of  faith  which  singled  him  out  from  the 
other  eleven,  so  here  Christ  demands  a  similar  pro- 
testation, but  this  time  of  a  yet  higher  virtue: 
"Simon,  son  of  John,  lovest  thou  Me  more  than  these"? 
Here,  too,  as  there,  He  bestows  on  the  Apostle  an 
office  which  in  its  highest  sense  is  proper  to  Himself 
alone.  There  Christ  had  promised  to  make  Peter  the 
foundation-stone  of  the  house  of  God :  here  He  makes 
him  the  shepherd  of  God's  flock  to  take  the  place  of 
Himself,  the  Good  Shepherd.  The  passage  receives 
an  admirable  comment  from  St.  Chrysostom:  "He 
saith  to  him,  'Feed  my  sheep'.  Why  does  He  pass 
over  the  others  and  speak  of  the  sheep  to  Peter?  He 
was  the  chosen  one  of  the  Apostles,  the  mouth  of  the 
disciples,  the  head  of  the  choir.  For  this  reason  Paul 
went  up  to  see  him  rather  than  the  others.  And  also 
to  show  him  that  he  must  have  confidence  now  that 


POPE 


262 


POPE 


his  denial  had  been  purged  away.  He  entrusts  him 
with  the  rule  [irpoo-Tao-ia]  over  the  brethren.  .  .  If 
anyone  should  say  'Why  then  was  it  James  who  re- 
ceived the  See  of  Jerusalem?',  I  should  reply  that  He 
made  Peter  the  teacher  not  of  that  see  but  of  the  whole 
world"  ["Hom.  Ixxxviii  (Ixxxvii)  in  Joan.",  i,  in  P.  G., 
LIX,  478.  Cf.  Origen,  "In  Ep.  ad  Rom.",  v,  10,  in 
P.  C,  XIV,  1053;  Ephraem  Syrus,  "Hymn,  in  B. 
Petr."  in  "Bibl.  Orient.  Assemani",  I,  95;  Leo  I, 
"Serm.  iv  de  natal.",  ii,  in  P.  L.,  LIV,  151,  etc.].  Even 
certain  Protestant  commentators  (e.  g.  Hengstenberg 
and  recently  Weizsacker)  frankly  own  that  Christ 
undoubtedly  intended  here  to  confer  the  supreme 
pastorate  on  Peter.  On  the  other  hand  Dr.  Gore 
(op.  cit.,  79)  and  Mr.  Puller  (op.  cit.,  119),  relying  on  a 
passage  of  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  ("In  Joan.",  XII, 
i,  in  P.  G.,  LXXIV,  750),  maintain  that  the  purpose 
of  the  threefold  charge  was  simply  to  reinstate  St. 
Peter  in  the  Apostolic  commission  which  his  threefold 
denial  might  be  supposed  to  have  lost  to  him.  This 
interpretation  is  devoid  of  all  probability.  There  is 
not  a  word  in  Scripture  or  in  patristic  tradition  to 
suggest  that  St.  Peter  had  forfeited  his  Apostolic 
commission;  and  the  supposition  is  absolutely  ex- 
cluded by  the  fact  that  on  the  evening  of  the  Resur- 
rection he  received  the  same  Apostolic  powers  as  the 
others  of  the  eleven.  The  solitary  plirase  of  St.  Cyril 
is  of  no  weight  against  the  overwhelming  patristic 
authority  for  the  other  view.  That  such  an  interpre- 
tation should  be  seriously  advocated  proves  how 
great  is  the  difficulty  experienced  by  Protestants  re- 
garding this  text. 

The  position  of  St.  Peter  after  the  Ascension,  as 
shown  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  reahzes  to  the  full 
the  great  commission  bestowed  upon  him.  He  is  from 
the  first  the  chief  of  the  Apostolic  band — not  "primus 
inter  pares,  but  the  undisputed  head  of  the  Church 
(see  Church,  The,  HI).  If  then  Christ,  as  we  have 
seen,  established  His  Church  as  a  society  subordinated 
to  a  single  supreme  head,  it  follows  from  tlie  very 
nature  of  the  case  that  this  office  is  perpetual,  and 
cannot  have  been  a  mere  transitory  feature  of  eccle- 
siastical life.  For  the  Church  must  endure  to  the  end 
the  very  same  organization  which  Christ  established. 
But  in  an  organized  society  it  is  precisely  the  constitu- 
tion which  is  the  essential  feature.  A  change  in  con- 
stitution transforms  it  into  a  society  of  a  different 
kind.  If  then  the  Church  should  adopt  a  constitution 
other  than  Christ  gave  it,  it  would  no  longer  be  His 
handiwork.  It  would  no  longer  be  the  Divine  king- 
dom established  by  Him.  As  a  society,  it  would  have 
passed  through  essential  modifications,  and  thereby 
would  have  become  a  human,  not  a  Divine  institution. 
None  who  believe  that  Christ  came  on  earth  to  found 
a  Church,  an  organized  society  destined  to  endure  for 
ever,  can  admit  the  possibility  of  a  change  in  the  or- 
ganization given  to  it  by  its  Founder.  The  same  con- 
clusion also  follows  from  a  consideration  of  the  end 
which,  by  Christ's  declaration,  the  supremacy  of  Peter 
was  intended  to  effect.  He  was  to  give  the  Church 
strength  to  resist  her  foes,  so  that  the  gates  of  hell 
should  not  prevail  against  her.  The  contest  with  the 
powers  of  evil  does  not  belong  to  the  Apostolic  age 
alone.  It  is  a  permanent  feature  of  the  Church's  life. 
Hence,  throughout  the  centuries  the  office  of  Peter 
must  be  realized  in  the  Church,  in  order  that  she  may 
prevail  in  her  age-long  struggle.  Thus  an  analysis  of 
Christ's  words  shows  us  that  the  perpetuity  of  the 
office  of  supreme  head  is  to  be  reckoned  among  the 
truths  revealed  in  Scripture.  His  promise  to  Peter 
conveyed  not  merely  a  personal  prerogative,  but  es- 
tabhshed  a  permanent  office  in  the  Church.  And  in 
this  sense,  as  will  appear  in  the  next  section.  His  words 
were  understood  by  Latin  and  Greek  Fathers  alike. 

II.  Primacy  op  the  Roman  See. — We  have  shown 
in  the  last  section  that  Christ  conferred  upon  St.  Peter 
the  office  of  chief  pastor,  and  that  the  permanence  of 


that  office  is  essential  to  the  very  being  of  the  Church. 
It  must  now  be  established  that  it  belongs  of  right  to 
the  Roman  See.  The  proof  will  fall  into  two  parts: 
(1)  that  St.  Peter  was  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  (2)  that 
those  who  succeed  him  in  that  see  succeed  him  also  in 
the  supreme  headship. 

(1)  It  is  no  longer  denied  by  any  writer  of  weight 
that  St.  Peter  visited  Rome  and  suffered  martyrdom 
there  (Harnack,  "Chronol.",  I,  244,  n.  2).  Some,  how- 
ever, of  those  who  admit  that  he  taught  and  suffered 
in  Rome,  deny  that  he  was  ever  bishop  of  the  city — 
e.  g.  Lightfoot,  "Clement  of  Rome",  II,  501;  Har- 
nack, op.  cit.,  I,  703.  It  is  not,  however,  difficult  to 
show  that  the  fact  of  his  bishopric  is  so  well  attested 
as  to  be  historically  certain.  In  considering  this 
point,  it  will  be  well  to  begin  with  the  third  century, 
when  references  to  it  become  frequent,  and  work  back- 
wards from  this  point.  In  the  middle  of  the  third 
century  St.  Cyprian  expressly  terms  the  Roman  See 
the  Chair  of  St.  Peter,  saying  that  Cornelius  has  suc- 
ceeded to  "the  place  of  Fabian  which  is  the  place  of 
Peter"  (Ep.  Iv,  8;  cf.  lix,  14).  FirraiUan  of  CaBsarea 
notices  that  Stephen  claimed  to  decide  the  contro- 
versy regarding  rebaptism  on  the  ground  that  he  held 
the  succession  from  Peter  (Cyprian,  Ep.  Ixxv,  17). 
He  does  not  deny  the  claim:  yet  certainly,  had  he 
been  able,  he  would  have  done  so.  Thus  in  250  the 
Roman  episcopate  of  Peter  was  admitted  by  those 
best  able  to  know  the  truth,  not  merely  at  Rome  but 
in  the  churches  of  Africa  and  of  Asia  Minor.  In  the 
first  quarter  of  the  century  (about  220)  TertuUian 
(De  Pud.,  xxi)  mentions  Callistus's  claim  that  Peter's 
power  to  forgive  sins  had  descended  in  a  special  man- 
ner to  him.  Had  the  Reman  Church  been  merely 
founded  by  Peter,  and  not  reclconed  him  as  its  first 
bishop,  there  could  have  been  no  ground  for  such  a 
contention.  TertuUian,  like  Firmilian,  had  every 
motive  to  deny  the  claim.  Moreover,  he  had  himself 
resided  at  Rome,  and  would  have  been  well  aware  if 
the  idea  of  a  Roman  episcopate  of  Peter  had  been,  aa 
is  contended  by  its  opponents,  a  novelty  dating  from 
the  first  years  of  the  tiiird  century,  supplanting  the 
older  tradition  according  to  which  Peter  and  Paul  were 
co-founders,  and  Linus  first  bishop.  About  the  same 
period,  Hippolytus  (for  Lightfoot  is  surely  right  in 
holding  him  to  be  the  author  of  the  first  part  of  the 
"Liberian  Catalogue" — "Clement  of  Rome",  I,  259) 
reckons  Peter  in  the  fist  of  Roman  bishops. 

We  have  moreover  a  poem,  "  Adversus  Marcionem  ", 
written  apparently  at  the  same  period,  in  which  Peter 
is  said  to  have  passed  on  to  Linus  "the  chair  on  which 
he  himself  had  sat"  (P.  L.,  II,  1077).  These  witnesses 
bring  us  to  the  beginning  of  the  third  century.  In  the 
second  century  we  cannot  look  for  much  evidence. 
With  the  exception  of  Ignatius,  Polycarp,  and  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria,  all  the  writers  whose  works  we 
possess  are  apologists  against  either  Jews  or  pagans. 
In  works  of  such  a  character  there  was  no  reason  to 
refer  to  such  a  matter  as  Peter's  Roman  episcopate. 
Irenseus,  however,  supplies  us  with  a  cogent  argument. 
In  two  passages  (Adv.  ha3r.,  I,  xxvii,  1,  and  III,  iv,  3) 
he  speaks  of  Hyginus  as  ninth  Bishop  of  Rome,  thus 
employing  an  enumeration  which  involves  the  inclu- 
sion of  Peter  as  first  bishop  (Lightfoot  was  undoubt- 
edly wrong  in  supposing  that  there  was  any  doubt  as 
to  the  correctness  of  the  reading  in  the  first  of  these 
pa,ssages.  See  "Zeitschrift  ftir  kath.  Theol.",  1902. 
In  III,  iv,  3,  the  Latin  version,  it  is  true,  gives  "oc- 
tavus";  but  the  Greek  text  as  cited  by  Eusebius 
reads  ivaroi).  Irenaeus  we  know  visited  Rome  in 
177.  At  this  date,  scarcely  more  than  a  century 
after  the  death  of  St.  Peter,  he  may  well  have  come 
in  contact  with  men  whose  fathers  had  themselves 
spoken  to  the  Apostle.  The  tradition  thus  supported 
must  be  regarded  as  beyond  all  legitimate  doubt. 
Lightfoot's  suggestion  (Clement,  I, '64),  maintained  as 
certain  by  Mr.  Puller,  that  it  had  its  origin  in  the 


POPE 


263 


POPE 


Clementine  romance,  has  proved  singularly  unfor- 
tunate. For  it  is  now  recognized  that  tliis  worii  be- 
longs not  to  the  second,  but  to  the  fourth  century. 
Nor  is  there  the  slightest  ground  for  the  assertion 
that  the  language  of  Irenaeus,  III,  iii,  3,  implies  that 
Peter  and  Paul  enjoyed  a  divided  episcopate  at  Rome 
— an  arrangement  utterly  unknown  to  the  Church  at 
any  period.  He  does,  it  is  true,  speak  of  the  two 
Apostles  as  together  handing  on  the  episcopate  to 
Linus.  But  this  expression  is  explained  by  the  pur- 
pose of  his  argument,  which  is  to  vindicate  against 
the  Gnostics  the  validity  of  the  doctrine  taught  in  the 
Roman  Church.  Hence  he  is  naturally  led  to  lay 
stress  on  the  fact  that  that  Church  inherited  the  teach- 
ing of  both  the  great  A]iostles.  Epiphanius  ("Ha!r.", 
xx\-ii,  6,  in  P.  G.,  XLI,  372)  would  indeed  seem  to  sug- 
gest the  divided  episcopate;  but  he  has  apparently 
merely  misunderstood  the  words  of  Irenaeus. 

(2)  History  bears  complete  testimony  that  from  the 
very  earliest  times  the  Roman  See  has  ever  claimed  the 
supreme  headship,  and  that  that  headship  has  been 
freely  acknowledged  by  the  universal  Church.  We 
shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of  the 
evidence  afforded  by  the  first  three  centuries.  The 
first  witness  is  St .  Clement,  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles, 
who,  after  Linus  and  ^^.nacletus,  succeeded  St.  Peter 
as  the  fourth  in  the  Ust  of  popes.  In  his  "Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians",  written  in  95  or  96,  he  bids  them 
receive  back  the  bishops  whom  a  turbulent  faction 
among  them  had  expelled.  "If  any  man",  he  says, 
"should  be  disobedient  unto  the  words  spoken  by 
God  through  us,  let  them  understand  that  they  will 
entangle  themselves  in  no  slight  transgression  and 
danger"  (Ep.  n.  59).  Moreover,  he  bids  them  "render 
obedience  unto  the  things  written  by  us  through  the 
Holy  Spirit".  The  tone  of  authority  which  inspires 
the  latter  appears  so  clearly  that  Lightfoot  did  not 
hesitate  to  speak  of  it  as  "the  first  step  towards  papal 
domination"  (Clement,  I,  70).  Thus,  at  the  very 
commencement  of  church  history,  before  the  last  sur- 
vivor of  the  Apostles  had  passed  away,  we  find  a 
Bishop  of  Rome,  himself  a  disciple  of  St.  Peter,  inter- 
vening in  the  affairs  of  another  Church  and  claiming 
to  settle  the  matter  by  a  decision  spoken  under  the 
influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Such  a  fact  admits  of 
one  explanation  alone.  It  is  that  in  the  days  when  the 
Apostolic  teaching  was  yet  fresh  in  men's  minds  the 
universal  Church  recognized  in  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
the  office  of  supreme  head. 

A  few  years  later  (about  107)  St.  Ignatius  of  An- 
tioch,  in  the  opening  of  his  letter  to  the  Roman 
Church,  refers  to  its  presiding  over  all  other  Churches. 
He  addresses  it  as  "presiding  over  the  brotherhood 
of  love  [irpoKaeriij.^vr!  rijs  iiydir7ii\."  The  expression, 
as  Funk  rightly  notes,  is  grammatically  incompatible 
with  the  translation  advocated  by  some  non-Catholic 
writers,  "preeminent  in  works  of  love".  The  same 
century  gives  us  the  witness  of  St.  Irenaeus — a  man 
who  stands  in  the  closest  connexion  with  the  age  of 
the  Apostles,  since  he  was  a  disciple  of  St.  Polycarp, 
who  had  been  appointed  Bishop  of  Smyrna  by  St. 
John.  In  his  work  "Adversus  Haereses"  (III,  iii,  2) 
he  brings  against  the  Gnostic  sects  of  his  day  the 
argument  that  their  doctrines  have  no  support  in  the 
Apostolic  tradition  faithfully  preserved  by  the 
Churches,  which  could  trace  the  succession  of  their 
bishops  back  to  the  Twelve.  He  writes:  "Because  it 
would  be  too  long  in  such  a  volume  as  this  to  enumer- 
ate the  successions  of  all  the  churches,  we  point  to  the 
tradition  of  that  very  great  and  very  ancient  and 
universally  known  Church,  which  was  founded  and 
established  at  Rome,  by  the  two  most  glorious  Apos- 
tles, Peter  and  Paul:  we  point,  I  say,  to  the  tradition 
which  this  Church  has  from  the  Apostles,  and  to  her 
faith  proclaimed  to  men  which  comes  down  to  our 
time  through  the  succession  of  her  bishops,  and  so  we 
put  to  shame  all  who  assemble  in  unauthor- 


ized meetings.  For  with  this  Church,  because  of  its 
superior  authority,  every  Church  must  agree — that  is 
the  faithful  everywhere — in  communion  with  which 
Church  the  tradition  of  the  Apostles  has  been  always 
preserved  by  those  who  are  everywhere  [Ad  hano 
enim  ecclesiam  propter  potentiorem  principalitatem 
necesse  est  omnem  convenire  ecclesiam,  hoc  est  eos 
qui  sunt  undique  fideles,  in  quii  semper  ab  his  qui 
sunt  undique,  conservata  est  ea  quae  est  ab  apostolis 
traditio]"  He  then  proceeds  to  enumerate  the 
Roman  succession  from  Linus  to  Eleutherius,  the 
twelfth  after  the  Apostles,  who  then  occupied  the  see. 
Non-Catholic  writers  have  sought  to  rob  the  passage 
of  its  importance  by  translating  the  word  convenire 
"to  resort  to",  and  thus  understantling  it  to  mean  no 
more  than  that  the  faithful  from  every  side  (undique) 
resorted  to  Rome,  so  that  thus  the  stream  of  doctrine 
in  that  Church  was  kept  immune  from  error.  Such 
a  rendering,  however,  is  excluded  by  the  construction 
of  the  argument,  which  is  based  entirely  on  the  con- 
tention that  the  Roman  doctrine  is  pure  by  reason  of 
its  derivation  from  the  two  great  Apostolic  founders 
of  the  Church,  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul.  The  frequent 
visits  made  to  Rome  by  members  of  other  Christian 
Churches  could  contribute  nothing  to  this.  On  the 
other  hand  the  traditional  rendering  is  postulated  by 
the  context,  and,  though  the  object  of  innumerable 
attacks,  none  other  possessing  any  real  degree  of 
probability  has  been  suggested  in  its  place  (see  Dom. 
J.  Chapman  in  "R6vue  b^n^dictine",  1895,  p.  48). 

During  the  pontificate  of  St.  Victor  (189-98)  we 
have  the  most  explicit  assertion  of  the  supremacy  of 
the  Roman  See  in  regard  to  other  Churches.  A  dif- 
ference of  practice  between  the  Churches  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  rest  of  the  Christian  world  in  regard 
to  the  day  of  the  Paschal  festival  led  the  pope  to  take 
action.  There  is  some  ground  for  supposing  that  the 
Montanist  heretics  maintained  the  Asiatic  (or  Quarto- 
deciman)  practice  to  be  the  true  one:  in  this  case  it 
would  be  undesirable  that  any  body  of  Catholic 
Christians  should  appear  to  support  them.  But,  un- 
der any  circumstances,  such  a  diversity  in  the  eccle- 
siastical life  of  different  countries  may  well  have 
constituted  a  regrettable  feature  in  the  Church,  whose 
very  purpose  it  was  to  bear  witness  by  her  unity  to 
the  oneness  of  God  (John,  xvii,  21).  Victor  bade  the 
Asiatic  Churches  conform  to  the  custom  of  the  re- 
mainder of  the  Church,  but  was  met  with  determined 
resistance  by  Polycrates  of  Ephesus,  who  claimed  that 
their  custom  derived  from  St.  John  himself.  Victor 
replied  by  an  excommunication.  St.  Irenseus,  how- 
ever, intervened,  exhorting  Victor  not  to  out  off  whole 
Churches  on  account  of  a  point  which  was  not  a  matter 
of  faith.  He  assumes  that  the  pope  can  exercise  the 
power,  but  urges  him  not  to  do  so.  Similarly  the 
resistance  of  the  Asiatic  bishops  involved  no  denial 
of  the  supremacy  of  Rome.  It  indicates  solely  that 
the  bishops  beheved  St.  Victor  to  be  abusing  his  power 
in  biddmg  them  renounce  a  custom  for  which  they 
had  Apostolic  authority.  It  was  indeed  inevitable 
that,  as  the  Church  spread  and  developed,  new  prob- 
lems should  present  themselves,  and  that  questions 
should  arise  as  to  whether  the  supreme  authority 
could  be  legitimately  exercised  in  this  or  that  case. 
St.  Victor,  seeing  that  more  harm  than  good  would 
come  from  insistence,  withdrew  the  imposed  penalty. 

Not  many  years  since  a  new  and  important  piece 
of  evidence  was  brought  to  light  in  Asia  Minor  dating 
from  this  period.  The  sepulchral  inscription  of 
Abercius,  Bishop  of  Hieropolis  (d.  about  200),  con- 
tains an  account  of  his  travels  couched  in  allegorical 
language  (see  Abercius,  Inscription  of)  .  He  speaks 
thus  of  the  Roman  Church:  "To  Rome  He  [sc.  Christ] 
sent  me  to  contemplate  majesty:  and  to  see  a  queen 
golden-robed  and  golden-sandalled."  It  is  difficult 
not  to  recognize  in  this  description  a  testimony  to  the 
supreme  position  of  the  Roman  See.     TertuUian's 


POPE 


264 


POPE 


bitter  polemic,  "De  Pudioitia"  (about  220),  was 
called  forth  by  an  exercise  of  papal  prerogative.  Pope 
Callistus  had  decided  that  the  rigid  discipline  which 
had  hitherto  prevailed  in  many  Churches  must  be  in 
a  large  measure  relaxed.  Tertullian,  now  lapsed  into 
heresy,  fiercely  attacks  "the  peremptory  edict", 
which  "the  supreme  pontiff,  the  bishop  of  bishops", 
has  sent  forth.  The  words  are  intended  as  sarcasm: 
but  none  the  less  they  indicate  clearly  the  position  of 
authority  claimed  by  Rome.  And  the  opposition 
comes,  not  from  a  Catholic  bishop,  but  from  a  Mon- 
tanist  heretic. 

The  views  of  St.  Cyprian  (d.  258)  in  regard  to  papal 
authority  have  given  rise  to  much  discussion  (see 
Cyprian  of  Carthage,  Saint).  He  undoubtedly 
entertained  e.xaggerated  views  as  to  the  independence 
of  individual  bishops,  which  eventually  led  him  into 
serious  conflict  with  Rome.  Yet  on  the  fundamental 
principle  his  position  is  clear.  He  attributed  an  ef- 
fective primacy  to  the  pope  as  the  successor  of  Peter. 
He  makes  communion  with  the  See  of  Rome  essential 
to  Catholic  communion,  speaking  of  it  as  "the  prin- 
cipal Church  whence  episcopal  unity  had  its  rise" 
(ad  Petri  cathedram  et  ad  eoclesiam  principalem  unde 
unitas  sacerdotalis  exorta  est).  The  force  of  this  ex- 
pression becomes  clear  when  viewed  in  the  light  of 
his  doctrine  as  to  the  unity  of  the  Church.  This  was, 
he  teaches,  established  by  Christ  when  He  founded 
His  Church  upon  Peter.  By  this  act  the  unity  of  the 
Apostolic  college  was  ensured  through  the  unity  of  the 
foundation.  The  bishops  through  all  time  form  a 
similar  college,  and  are  bound  in  a  like  indivisible 
unity.  Of  this  unity  the  Chair  of  Peter  is  the  source. 
It  fulfils  the  very  office  as  principle  of  union  which 
Peter  fulfilled  in  his  lifetime.  Hence  to  communicate 
with  an  antipope  such  as  Novatian  would  be  schism 
(Ep.  Ixviii,  1).  He  holds,  also,  that  the  pope  has 
authority  to  depose  an  heretical  bishop.  When 
Marcian  of  Aries  fell  into  heresy,  Cyprian,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  bishops  of  the  province,  wrote  to  urge 
Pope  Stephen  "to  send  letters  by  which,  Marcian 
having  been  excommunicated,  another  may  be  sub- 
stituted in  his  place"  (Ep.  Ixviii,  3).  It  is  manifest 
that  one  who  regarded  the  Roman  See  in  this  fight, 
believed  that  the  pope  possessed  a  real  and  effective 
primacy.  At  the  same  time  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that 
his  views  as  to  the  right  of  the  pope  to  interfere  in  the 
government  of  a  diocese  already  subject  to  a  legiti- 
mate and  orthodox  bishop  were  inadequate.  In  the 
rebaptism  controversy  his  language  in  regard  to  St. 
Stephen  was  bitter  and  intemperate.  His  error  on 
this  point  does  not,  however,  detract  from  the  fact 
that  he  admitted  a  primacy,  not  merely  of  honour, 
but  of  jurisdiction.  Nor  should  his  mistake  occasion 
too  much  surprise.  It  is  as  true  in  the  Church  as  in 
merely  human  institutions  that  the  full  implications 
of  a  general  principle  are  only  realized  gradually. 
The  claim  to  apply  it  in  a  particular  case  is  often  con- 
tested at  first,  though  later  ages  may  wonder  that 
such  opposition  was  possible. 

Contemporary  with  St.  Cyprian  was  St.  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria.  Two  incidents  bearing  on  the  present 
question  are  related  of  him.  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl., 
VII,  ix)  gives  us  a  letter  addressed  by  him  to  St. 
Xystus  II  regarding  the  case  of  a  man  who,  as  it  ap- 
peared, had  been  invalidly  baptized  by  heretics,  but 
who  for  many  years  had  been  frequenting  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  Church.  In  it  he  says  that  he  needs  St. 
Xystus's  advice  and  begs  for  his  decision  {ypthii-qv), 
that  he  may  not  fall  into  error  (SeSiws  ixri  S.pa  a-(l>iXKaij.ai.) . 
Again,  some  years  later,  the  same  patriarch  occasionecl 
anxiety  to  some  of  the  brethren  by  making  use  of  some 
expressions  which  appeared  hardly  compatible  with  a 
full  belief  in  the  Divinity  of  Christ.  They  promptly 
had  recourse  to  the  Holy  See  and  accused  him  to  his 
namesake,  St.  Dionysius  of  Rome,  of  heretical  lean- 
ings.    The  pope  repUed  by  laying  down  authorita- 


tively the  true  doctrine  on  the  subject.  Both  events 
are  instructive  as  showing  us  how  Rome  was  recog- 
nized by  the  second  see  in  Christendom  as  empowered 
to  speak  with  authority  on  matters  of  doctrine.  (St. 
Athanasius,  "De  sententia  Dionysii"  in  P.  G.,  XXV, 
500).  Equally  noteworthy  is  the  action  of  Emperor 
Aurelian  in  270.  A  synod  of  bishops  had  condemned 
Paul  of  Samosata,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  on  a  charge 
of  heresy,  and  had  elected  Domnus  bishop  in  his  place. 
Paul  refused  to  withdraw,  and  appeal  was  made  to  the 
civil  power.  The  emperor  decreed  that  he  who  was 
acknowledged  by  the  bishops  of  Italy  and  the  Bishop 
of  Rome,  must  be  recognized  as  rightful  occupant  of 
the  see.  The  incident  proves  that  even  the  pagans 
themselves  knew  well  that  communion  with  the 
Roman  See  was  the  essential  mark  of  all  Christian 
Churches.  That  the  imperial  Government  was  well 
aware  of  the  position  of  the  pope  among  Christians 
derives  additional  confirmation  from  the  saying  of  St. 
Cyprian  that  Deoius  would  have  sooner  heard  of  the 
proclamation  of  a  rival  emperor  than  of  the  election 
of  a  new  pope  to  fill  the  place  of  the  martyred  Fabian 
(Ep.  Iv,  9). 

The  limits  of  the  present  article  prevent  us  from 
carrying  the  historical  argument  further  than  the  year 
300.  I^or  is  it  in  fact  necessary  to  do  so.  From  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century  the  supremacy  of 
Rome  is  writ  large  upon  the  page  of  history.  It  is 
only  in  regard  to  the  first  age  of  the  Church  that  any 
question  can  arise.  But  the  facts  we  have  recounted 
are  entirely  sufficient  to  prove  to  any  unprejudiced 
mind  that  the  supremacy  was  exercised  and  acknowl- 
edged from  the  days  of  the  Apostles.  It  was  not  of 
course  exercised  in  the  same  way  as  in  later  times. 
The  Church  was  as  yet  in  her  infancy :  and  it  would  be 
irrational  to  look  for  a  fully  developed  procedure  gov- 
erning the  relations  of  the  supreme  pontiff  to  the 
bishops  of  other  sees.  To  establish  such  a  system  was 
the  work  of  time,  and  it  was  only  gradually  embodied 
in  the  canons.  There  would,  moreover,  be  little  call 
for  frequent  intervention  when  the  Apostolic  tradi- 
tion was  still  fresh  and  vigorous  in  every  part  of 
Christendom.  Hence  the  papal  prerogatives  came 
into  play  but  rarely.  But  when  the  Faith  was 
threatened,  or  the  vital  welfare  of  souls  demanded 
action,  then  Rome  intervened.  Such  were  the  causes 
which  led  to  the  intervention  of  St.  Dionysius,  St. 
Stephen,  St.  Callistus,  St.  Victor,  and  St.  Clement, 
and  their  claim  to  supremacy  as  the  occupants  of  the 
Chair  of  Peter  was  not  disputed.  In  view  of  the  pur- 
poses with  which,  and  with  which  alone,  these  early 
popes  employed  their  supreme  power,  the  contention, 
so  stoutly  maintained  by  Protestant  controversialists, 
that  the  Roman  primacy  had  its  origin  in  papal  am- 
bition, disappears.  The  motive  which  inspired  these 
men  was  not  earthly  ambition,  but  zeal  for  the  Faith 
and  the  consciousness  that  to  them  had  been  commit- 
ted the  responsibility  of  its  guardianship.  The  con- 
troversialists in  question  even  claim  that  they  are 
justified  in  refusing  to  admit  as  evidence  for  the  papal 
primacy  any  pronouncement  emanating  from  a  Roman 
source,  on  the  ground  that,  where  the  personal  in- 
terests of  anyone  are  concerned,  his  statements  should 
not  be  admitted  as  evidence  (cf.,  for  example.  Puller, 
op.  cit.,  99,  note).  Such  an  objection  is  utterly 
fallacious.  We  are  dealing  here,  not  with  the  state- 
ments of  an  individual,  but  with  the  tradition  of  a 
Church- — of  that  Church  which,  even  from  the  earliest 
times,  was  known  for  the  purity  of  its  doctrine,  and 
which  had  had  for  its  founders  and  instructors  the  two 
chief  Apostles,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  That  tradi- 
tion, moreover,  is  absolutely  unbroken,  as  the  pro- 
nouncements of  the  long  series  of  popes  bear  witness. 
Nor  does  it  stand  alone.  The  utterances,  in  which 
the  popes  assert  their  claims  to  the  obedience  of  all 
Christian  Churches,  form  part  and  parcel  of  a  great 
body  of  testimony  to  the  Petrine  privileges,  issuing 


POPE 


265 


POPE 


not  merely  from  the  Western  Fathers  but  from  those 
of  Greece,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  The  claim  to  reject  the 
evidence  which  comes  to  us  from  Rome  may  be  skilful 
as  a  piece  of  special  pleading,  but  it  can  claim  no  other 
value.  The  first  to  employ  this  argument  were  some 
of  the  Galileans.  But  it  is  deservedly  repudiated  as 
fallacious  and  unworthy  by  Bossuet  in  his  "Detensio 
cleri  gallicani"  (II,  1.  XI,  c.  vi). 

The  primacy  of  St.  Peter  and  the  perpetuity  of  that 
primacy  in  the  Roman  Scx'  are  dogmatically  defined  in 
the  canons  attached  to  the  first  two  chapters  of  the 
Constitution  "Pastor  jEternus" :  (a)  "If  anyone  shall 
say  that  Blessed  Peter  the  Apostle  was  not  constituted 
by  Christ  our  Lord  as  chief  of  all  the  Apostles  and  the 
visible  head  of  the  whole  Church  militant :  or  that  he 
did  not  receive  directly  and  immediately  from  the 
same  Lord  Jesus  Christ  a  primacy  of  true  and  proper 
jurisdiction,  but  one  of  honour  only:  let  him  be  ana- 
thema." (b)  "  If  any  one  shall  say  that  it  is  not  by  the 
institution  of  Christ  our  Lord  Himself  or  by  divinely 
established  right  that  Blessed  Peter  has  perpetual 
successors  in  his  primacy  over  the  universal  Church: 
or  that  the  Roman  Pontiff  is  not  the  successor  of 
Blessed  Peter  in  this  same  primacy: — lot  him  be 
anathema"  (Denzinger-Bannwart,  "Enchiridion",  nn. 
1X23,  1S2.5). 

(0)  A  question  may  be  raised  as  to  the  precise  dog- 
matic value  of  the  clause  of  the  second  canon  in  which 
it  is  asserted  that  the  Roman  pontiff  is  Peter's  succes- 
sor. The  truth  is  infallibly  defined.  But  the  Church 
has  authority  to  define  not  merely  those  truths  which 
form  part  of  the  original  deposit  of  revelation,  but  also 
such  as  are  necessarily  connected  with  this  deposit. 
The  former  are  held  fide  divina,  the  latter  fide  infalli- 
hili.  .\lthough  Christ  established  the  perpetual  office 
of  supreme  head,  .Scripture  does  not  tell  us  that  He 
fixed  the  law  according  to  which  the  headship  should 
descend.  Granting  that  He  left  this  to  Peter  to  deter- 
mine, it  is  plain  that  the  Apostle  need  not  have  at- 
tached the  primacy  to  his  own  see:  he  might  have 
attached  it  to  another.  Some  have  thought  that  the 
law  establishing  the  succession  in  the  Roman  episco- 
pate became  known  to  the  Apostolic  Church  as  an 
historic  fact.  In  this  case  the  dogma  that  the  Roman 
pontiff  is  at  all  times  the  Church's  chief  pastor  would 
be  the  conclusion  from  two  premises — the  revealed 
truth  that  the  Church  must  ever  have  a  supreme  head, 
and  the  historic  fact  that  8t.  Peter  attached  that  office 
to  the  Roman  See.  Tliis  conclusion,  while  necessarily 
connected  with  revelation,  is  not  part  of  revelation, 
and  is  accepted  fiAe  infallibili.  According  to  other 
theologians  the  proposition  in  question  is  part  of  the 
deposit  of  faith  itself.  In  this  case  the  Apostles  must 
have  known  the  law  determining  the  succession  to  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  not  merely  on  human  testimony,  but 
also  by  Divine  revelation,  and  they  must  have  taught 
it  as  a  revealed  truth  to  their  disciples.  It  is  this  view 
which  is  commonly  adopted.  The  definition  of  the 
Vatican  to  the  effect  that  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  is 
ever  to  be  found  in  the  Roman  pontiff  is  almost  uni- 
versally held  to  be  a  truth  revealed  by  the  Holy  Spirit 
to  the  Apostles,  and  by  them  transmitted  to  the 
Church. 

III.  Nature  and  Extent  of  the  Papal  Power. — 
This  section  is  divided  as  follows:  (1)  the  pope's  uni- 
versal coercive  jurisdiction;  (2)  the  pope's  immediate 
and  ordinary  jurisdiction  in  regard  of  all  the  faithful, 
whether  singly  or  collectively;  (3)  the  right  of  enter- 
taining appeals  in  all  ecclesiastical  causes.  The  rela- 
tion of  the  pope's  authority  to  that  of  oecumenical 
councils,  and  to  the  civil  power,  are  discussed  in  sep- 
arate articles  (see  Councils,  General;  Civil  Alle- 
giance). 

(1)  Popes. — Not  only  did  Christ  constitute  St.  Peter 
head  of  the  Church,  but  in  the  words,  "Whatsoever 
thou  shaft  bind  on  earth,  it  shall  be  bound  also  in 
heaven;  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt  loose  on  earth,  it 


shall  be  loosed  in  heaven,"  He  indicated  the  scope  of 
this  headship.  The  expressions  binding  and  loosing 
here  employed  are  derived  from  the  current  terminol- 
ogy of  the  Rabbinic  schools.  A  doctor  who  declared  a 
thing  to  be  prohibited  by  the  law  was  said  to  bind 
("CX))  for  thereby  he  imposed  an  obligation  on  the 
conscience.  He  who  declared  it  to  be  lawful  was  said 
to  loose  (T.nn,  Aramaic  J<"!B).  In  this  way  the  terms 
had  come  respectively  to  signify  official  commands  and 
permissions  in  general.  The  words  of  Christ,  there- 
fore, as  understood  by  liis  hearers,  conveyed  the 
promise  to  St.  Peter  of  legislative  authority  within  the 
kingdom  over  which  He  had  just  set  him,  and  legisla- 
tive authority  carries  with  it  as  its  necessary  accom- 
paniment judicial  authority.  Moreover,  the  powers 
conferred  in  these  regards  are  plenary.  This  is  plainly 
indicated  by  the  generality  of  the  terms  employed: 
"Whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  .  .  .  A^  hatsoever 
thou  shalt  loose";  nothing  is  withheld.  Further, 
Peter's  authority  is  subordinated  to  no  earthly  supe- 
rior. The  sentences  which  he  gives  are  to  be  forthwith 
ratified  in  heaven.  They  do  not  need  the  antecedent 
approval  of  any  other  tribunal.  He  is  independent  of 
all  save  the  Master  who  appointed  him.  The  words 
as  to  the  power  of  binding  and  loosing  are,  therefore, 
elucidatory  of  the  promise  of  the  keys  which  imme- 
diately precedes.  They  explain  in  what  sense  Peter  is 
governor  and  head  of  Christ's  kingdom,  the  Church, 
by  promising  him  legislative  and  judicial  authority  in 
the  fullest  sense.  In  other  words,  Peter  and  his  succes- 
sors have  power  to  impose  laws  both  preceptive  and 
prohibitive,  power  likewise  to  grant  dispensation  from 
these  laws,  and,  when  needful,  to  annul  them.  It  is 
theirs  to  judge  offences  against  the  laws,  to  impose 
and  to  remit  penalties.  This  judicial  authority  will 
even  include  the  power  to  pardon  sin.  For  sin  is  a 
breach  of  the  laws  of  the  supernatural  kingdom,  and 
falls  under  the  cognizance  of  its  constituted  judges. 
The  gift  of  this  particular  power,  howe-s'er,  is  not  ex- 
pressed with  full  clearness  in  this  passage.  It  needed 
Christ's  words  (John,  xx,  23)  to  remove  all  ambiguity. 
Further,  since  the  Church  is  the  kingdom  of  the  truth, 
so  that  an  essential  note  in  all  her  members  is  the  act 
of  submission  by  which  they  accept  the  doctrine  of 
Christ  in  its  entirety,  supreme  power  in  this  kingdom 
carries  with  it  a  supreme  magisterium — authority  to 
declare  that  doctrine  and  to  prescribe  a  rule  of  faith 
obUgatory  on  all.  Here,  too,  Peter  is  subordinated  to 
none  save  his  ]\  I  aster  alone;  he  is  the  supreme  teacher 
as  he  is  the  supreme  ruler.  However,  the  tremendous 
powers  thus  conferred  are  limited  in  their  scope  by 
their  reference  to  the  ends  of  the  kingdom  and  to  them 
only.  The  authority  of  Peter  and  his  successors  does 
not  extend  beyond  this  sphere,  ^^■ith  matters  that  are 
altogether  extrinsic  to  the  Church  they  are  not  con- 
cerned. 

Protestant  controversialists  contend  strenuously 
that  the  words,  "Whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  etc.", 
confer  no  special  prerogative  on  Peter,  since  precisely 
the  same  gift,  they  allege,  is  conferred  on  all  the  Apos- 
tles (Matt.,  xviu,  18).  It  is,  of  course,  the  case  that  in 
that  passage  the  same  words  are  used  in  regard  of  all 
the  "Twelve.  Yet  there  is  a  manifest  difference  be- 
tween the  gift  to  Peter  and  that  bestowed  on  the 
others.  In  his  case  the  gift  is  connected  with  the 
power  of  the  keys,  and  this  power,  as  we  have  seen, 
signified  the  supreme  authority  over  the  whole  king- 
dom. That  gift  was  not  bestowed  on  the  other 
eleven:  and  the  gift  Christ  bestowed  on  them  in 
Matt.,  xviii,  18,  was  received  by  them  as  members  of 
the  kingdom,  and  as  subject  to  the  authority  of  him 
who  should  be  Christ's  vicegerent  on  earth.  There  is 
in  fact  a  striking  parallelism  between  Matt.,  xvi,  19, 
and  the  words  employed  in  reference  to  Christ  Himself 
in  Apoc,  iii,  7:  "He  that  hath  the  key  of  David;  he 
that  openeth,  and  no  man  shutteth;  shutteth,  and  no 
man  openeth."     In  both  cases  the  second  clause  de- 


POPE 


266 


POPE 


clares  the  meaning  of  the  first,  and  the  power  signified 
in  the  first  clause  by  the  metaphor  of  the  keys  is 
supreme.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  to  no  one  else  save 
to  Christ  and  His  chosen  vicegerent  does  Holy  Scrip- 
ture attribute  the  power  of  the  keys. 

Certain  patristic  passages  are  further  adduced  by 
non-Catholics  as  adverse  to  the  meaning  given  by  the 
Church  to  ]\latt.,  xvi,  19.  St.  Augustine  in  several 
places  tells  us  that  Peter  recpi\'cd  the  keys  as  repre- 
senting the  Church — e.  g.  "In  Joan.",  tr.  1,  12,  in  P. 
L.,  XXXV,  1763:  "Si  hoc  Petro  tantum  dictum  est, 
non  facit  hoc  Ecclesia  .  .  .  ;  si  hoc  ergo  in 
Ecclesia  fit,  Petrus  quando  claves  accepit,  Ecclesiam 
sanctam  significavit"  (If  this  was  said  to  Peter  alone, 
the  Church  cannot  exercise  this  power  .  .  .  ;  if 
this  power  is  exercised  in  the  Church,  then  when  Peter 
received  the  kevs,  he  signified  the  Holy  Church) ;  cf . 
tr.  cxxiv,  5,  in  P.  L.,  XXXV,  1973;  "Serm.",  ccxcv, 
in  P.  L.,  XXVIII,  1349.  It  is  argued  that,  according 
to  Augustine,  the  power  denoted  by  the  keys  resides 
primarily  not  in  Peter,  but  in  the  whole  Church. 
Christ's  gift  to  His  people  was  merely  bestowed  on  Peter 
as  representing  the  whole  body  of  the  faithful.  The 
right  to  forgive  sins,  to  exclude  from  communion,  to 
exercise  any  other  acts  of  authority,  is  really  the  pre- 
rogative of  the  whole  Christian  congregation.  If  the 
minister  performs  these  acts  he  does  so  as  delegate  of 
the  people.  The  argument,  which  was  formerly  em- 
ployed by  Galilean  controversialists  (cf.Febronius,"De 
statu  ecel.",  i,  §  6),  however,  rests  on  a  misunderstand- 
ing of  the  passages.  Augustine  is  controverting  the 
Novatian  heretics,  who  affirmed  that  the  power  to 
remit  sins  was  a  purely  personal  gift  to  Peter  alone, 
and  had  disappeared  with  him.  He  therefore  asserts 
that  Peter  received  it  that  it  might  remain  for  ever  in 
the  Church  and  be  used  for  its  benefit.  It  is  in  tliat 
sense  alone  that  he  says  that  Peter  represented  the 
Church.  There  is  no  foundation  whatever  for  saying 
that  he  desired  to  affirm  that  the  Church  was  the  true 
recipient  of  the  power  conferred.  Such  a  view  would 
be  contrary  to  the  whole  patristic  tradition,  and  is 
expressly  reprobated  in  the  Vatican  Decree,  cap.  i. 

It  appears  from  what  has  been  said  that,  when  the 
popes  legislate  for  the  faithful,  when  they  try  offenders 
by  juridical  process,  and  enforce  their  sentences  by 
censures  and  excommunications,  they  are  employing 
powers  conceded  to  them  by  Christ.  Their  authority 
to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  this  way  is  not  founded  on 
the  grant  of  any  civil  ruler.  Indeed  the  Church  has 
claimed  and  exercised  these  powers  from  the  very  first. 
When  the  Apostles,  after  the  Council  of  Jerusalem, 
sent  out  their  decree  as  vested  with  Di^'ine  authority 
(Acts,  XV,  2.S),  they  were  imposing  a  law  on  the  faith- 
ful. AA'hen  St.  Paul  bids  Timothy  not  receive  an 
accusation  against  a  presbyter  unless  it  be  supported 
by  two  or  three  witnesses,  he  clearly  supposes  him  to 
be  empowered  to  judge  him  in  foro  externa.  This 
claim  to  exercise  coercive  jurisdiction  has,  as  might 
be  expected,  been  denied  by  various  heterodox  writ- 
ers. Thus  Marsilius  Patavinus  (Defensor  Pacis,  II, 
iv),  Antonius  de  Dominis  (De  rep.  eccl.,  IV,  vi,  vii, 
ix).  Richer  (De  eccl.  et  pol.  potestate,  xi-xii),  and  later 
the  Synod  of  Pistoia,  all  alike  maintained  that  coer- 
cive jurisdiction  of  every  kind  belongs  to  the  civil 
power  alone,  and  sought  to  restrict  the  Church  to  the 
use  of  moral  means.  This  error  has  always  been 
condemned  by  the  Holy  See.  Thus,  in  the  Bull 
"Auctorem  Fidel",  Pius  Vl  makes  the  following  pro- 
nouncement regarding  one  of  the  Pistoian  proposi- 
tions: ''[The  aforesaid  proposition]  in  respect  of  its 
insinuation  that  the  Church  does  not  possess  author- 
ity to  exact  subjection  to  her  decrees  otherwise  than 
by  means  dependent  on  persua.sion:  so  far  as  this 
signifies  that  the  Church  'has  not  received  from  God 
power,  not  mereh'  to  direct  by  counsel  and  persuasion, 
but  further  to  command  by  laws,  and  to  coerce  and 
compel  the  delinquent  and  contumacious  by  external 


and  salutary  penalties'  [from  the  brief  'Ad  assiduas' 
(1756)  of  Benedict  XIV],  leads  to  a  system  already 
condemned  as  heretical."     Nor  may  it  be  held  that 
the  pope's  laws  must  exclusively  concern  spiritual 
objects,  and  their  penalties  be  exclusively  of  a  spiritual 
character.      The   Church   is   a   perfect   society    (see 
Church,  XIII).     She  is  not  dependent  on  the  per- 
mission of  the  State  for  her  existence,  but  holds  her 
charter  from  God.    As  a  perfect  society  she  has  a  right 
to  all  those  means  which  are  necessary  for  the  attain- 
ing of  her  end.    These,  however,  will  include  far  more 
than  spiritual  objects  and  spiritual  penalties  alone: 
for  the  Church  requires  certain  material  possessions, 
such,  for  example,  as  churches,  schools,  seminaries, 
together  with  the  endowments  necessary  for  their  sus- 
tentation.    The  administration  and  the  due  protection 
of  these  goods  will  require  legislation  other  than  what 
is  limited  to  the  spiritual  sphere.     A  large  body  of 
canon  law  must  inevitably  be  formed  to  determine  the 
conditions  of  their  management.     Indeed,  there  is  a 
fallacy  in  the  assertion  that  the  Church  is  a  spiritual 
society;   it  is  spiritual  as  regards  the  ultimate  end  to 
which  all  its  acti^'ities  are  directed,  but  not  as  regards 
its  present  constitution  nor  as  regards  the  means  at 
its  disposal.     The  question  has  been  raised  whether 
it  be  lawful  for  the  Church,  not  merely  to  sentence  a 
delinquent  to  physical  penalties,  but  itself  to  inflict 
these  penalties.    As  to  this,  it  is  sufficient  to  note  that 
the  right  of  the  Church  to  invoke  the  aid  of  the  civil 
power  to  execute  her  sentences  is  expressly  asserted 
by  Boniface  VIII  in  the  Bull  "Unam  Sanctam".  This 
declaration,  even  if  it  be  not  one  of  those  portions  of 
the  Bull  in  which  the  pope  is  defining  a  point  of  faith, 
is  so  clearly  connected  with  the  parts  expressly  stated 
to  possess  such  character  that  it  is  held  by  theologians 
to  be  theologically  certain  (Palmieri,  "Do  Romano 
Pontifice",  thes.  xxi).    The  question  is  of  theoretical, 
rather  than  of  practical  importance,  since  civil  Gov- 
ernments have  long  ceased  to  own  the  obligation  of 
enforcing  the  decisions  of  any  ecclesiastical  authority. 
This  indeed  became  inevitable  when  large  sections  of 
the  population  ceased  to  be  Catholic.     The  state  of 
things  supposed  could  only  exist  when  a  whole  nation 
T^-as  thoroughly  Catholic  in  spirit,  and  the  force  of 
papa!  decisions  was  recognized  by  all  as  binding  in 
conscience. 

(2)  In  the  Constitution  "Pastor  jEternus",  cap. 
iii,  the  pope  is  declared  to  possess  ordinary,  immediate, 
and  episcopal  jurisdiction  over  all  the  faithful:  "We 
teach,  moreover,  and  declare  that,  by  the  disposition 
of  God,  the  Roman  Church  possesses  supreme  ordi- 
nary authority  over  all  Churches,  and  that  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Roman  Pontiff,  which  is  true  episcopal 
jurisdiction,  is  immediate  in  its  character"  (Enchir., 
n.  1827).  It  is  further  added  that  this  authority  ex- 
tends to  all  alike,  both  pastors  and  faithful,  whether 
singly  or  collectively.  An  ordinarj'  jurisdiction  is  one 
which  is  exercised  by  the  holder,  not  by  reason  of  any 
delegation,  but  in  virtue  of  the  office  which  he  himself 
holds.  All  who  acknowledge  in  the  pope  any  primacy 
of  jurisdiction  acknowledge  that  jurisdiction  to  be 
ordinary.  This  point,  therefore,  does  not  call  for  dis- 
cussion. That  the  papal  authority  is  likewise  imme- 
diate has,  however,  been  called  in  question.  Jurisdic- 
tion is  immediate  when  its  possessor  stands  in  direct 
relation  to  those  with  whose  oversight  he  is  charged. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  supreme  authority  can  only 
deal  directly  with  the  proximate  superiors,  and  not 
with  the  subjects  save  through  their  intervention,  his 
power  is  not  immediate  but  mediate.  That  the  pope's 
jurisdiction  is  not  thus  restricted  appears  from  the 
analysis  already  given  of  Christ's  words  to  St.  Peter. 
It  has  been  shown  that  He  conferred  on  him  a  primacy 
over  the  Church,  which  is  universal  in  its  scope,  ex- 
tending to  all  the  Church's  members,  and  which  needs 
the  support  of  no  other  power.  A  primacy  such  as  this 
manifestly  gives  to  him  and  to  his  successors  a  direct 


POPE 


267 


POPE 


authority  over  all  the  faithful.  This  is  also  implied  in 
the  words  of  the  pastoral  commission,  "Feed  my 
sheep".  The  shepherd  exercises  immediate  authority 
over  all  the  sheep  of  his  flock.  Every  member  of  the 
Church  has  been  thus  committed  to  Peter  and  those 
who  follow  him.  This  immediate  authority  has  been 
always  claimed  by  the  Holy  See.  It  was,  however, 
denied  by  Febronius  (op.  cit.,  vii,  §  7).  That  writer 
contended  that  the  duty  of  the  pope  was  to  exercise 
a  general  oversight  over  the  Church  and  to  direct  the 
bishops  by  his  counsel ;  in  case  of  necessii  y,  where  the 
legitimate  pastor  was  guilty  of  grave  wrong,  he  could 
pronounce  sentence  of  excommunication  against  him 
and  proceed  against  him  according  to  the  canons,  but 
he  couki  not  on  his  o'OTI  authority  depose  him  (op. 
cit.,  ii,  §§  4,  9).  The  Febronian  doctrines,  though  de- 
void of  any  historical  foundation,  yet,  through  their 
appeal  to  the  spirit  of  nationalism,  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  for  harm  on  Catholic  life  in  Germany  during 
the  eighteentli  and  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Thus  it  was  imperative  that  the  error  should  be 
definitively  condemned.  That  the  pope's  power  is 
truly  episcopal  needs  no  proof.  It  follows  from  the 
fact  that  he  enjoys  an  ordinary  pastoral  authority, 
both  legislative  and  judicial,  and  immediate  in  rela- 
tion to  its  subjects.  Moreover,  since  this  power  re- 
gards the  pastors  as  well  as  the  faithful,  the  pope  is 
rightly  termed  Pastor  pastorum,  and  Episcopiis  epis- 
coporum. 

It  is  frequently  objected  by  writers  of  the  Anglican 
school  that,  by  declaring  the  pope  to  possess  an  im- 
mediate episcopal  jurisdiction  over  all  the  faithful, 
the  Vatican  Council  destroyed  the  authority  of  the 
diocesan  episcopate.  It  is  further  pointed  out  that 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  expressly  repudiated  this  title 
(Ep.  vii,  27;  viii,  30).  To  this  it  is  replied  that  no 
difficulty  is  in-\'olved  in  the  exercise  of  immediate 
jurisdiction  o\ev  the  same  subjects  by  two  rulers,  pro- 
vided only  that  these  rulers  stand  in  subordination, 
the  one  to  the  other.  We  constantly  see  the  system 
at  work.  In  an  army  the  regimental  officer  and  the 
general  both  possess  immediate  authority  over  the 
soldiers;  yet  no  one  maintains  that  the  inferior  au- 
thority is  thereby  annulled.  The  objection  lacks  all 
weight.  The  Vatican  Council  says  most  justly  (cap. 
iii):  "This  power  of  the  supreme  pontiff  in  no  way 
derogates  from  the  ordinary  immediate  power  of  epis- 
copal jurisdiction,  in  virtue  of  which  the  bishops,  who, 
appointed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  [Acts,  xx,  28],  have  suc- 
ceeded to  the  place  of  the  Apostles  as  true  pastors, 
feed  and  rule  their  several  flocks,  each  the  one  which 
has  been  assigned  to  him :  that  power  is  rather  main- 
tained, confirmed  and  defended  by  the  supreme 
pastor"  (Enchir.,  n.  1828).  It  is  without  doubt  true 
that  St.  Gregory  repudiated  in  strong  terms  the  title 
of  universal  bishop,  and  relates  that  St.  Leo  rejected 
it  when  it  was  offered  him  by  the  fathers  of  Chalce- 
don.  But,  as  he  used  it,  it  has  a  different  signification 
from  that  with  which  it  was  employed  in  the  Vatican 
Council.  St.  Gregory  understood  it  as  involving  the 
denial  of  the  authority  of  the  local  diocesan  (Ep.  v, 
21).  No  one,  he  maintains,  has  a  right  so  to  term 
himself  universal  bishop  as  to  usurp  that  apostolic- 
ally  constituted  power.  But  he  was  himself  a  stren- 
uous asserter  of  that  immediate  jurisdiction  over  all 
the  faithful  which  is  signified  by  this  title  as  used  in 
the  Vatican  Decree.  Thus  he  reverses  (Ep.  vi,  15)  a 
sentence  passed  on  a  priest  by  Patriarch  John  of 
Constantinople,  an  act  which  itself  involves  a  claim 
to  universal  authority,  and  explicitly  states  that  the 
Church  of  Constantinople  is  subject  to  the  Apostolic 
See  (Ep.  ix,  12).  The  title  of  universal  bishop  occurs 
as  early  as  the  eighth  century;  and  in  1413  the  faculty 
of  Paris  rejected  the  proposition  of  John  Hus  that  the 
pope  was  not  universal  bishop  (Natalis  Alexander, 
"Hist.  eccL",  ssec.  XV  and  XVI,  c.  ii,  art.  3,  n.  6). 

(3)  The  Council  goes  on  to  affirm  that  the  pope  is 


the  supreme  judge  of  the  faithful,  and  that  to  him 
appeal  may  be  made  in  all  ecclesiastical  causes.  The 
right  of  appeal  follows  as  a  necessary  corollary  from 
the  doctrine  of  the  primacy.  If  the  pope  really  pos- 
sesses a  supreme  jurisdiction  over  the  Church,  every 
other  authority,  whether  episcopal  or  synodal,  being 
subject  to  him,  there  must  of  necessity  be  an  appeal 
to  him  from  all  inferior  tribunals.  This  question,  how- 
ever, has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy.  The 
Galilean  divines  de  Marca  and  Quesnel,  and  in  Ger- 
many Febronius,  sought  to  show  that  the  right  of  appeal 
to  the  pope  was  a  mere  concession  derived  from  eccle- 
siastical canons,  and  that  the  influence  of  the  pseudo- 
Isidorean  decretals  had  led  to  many  unjustifiable 
exaggerations  in  the  papal  claims.  The  arguments  of 
these  writers  are  at  the  present  day  employed  by 
frankly  anti-Catholic  controversialists  with  a  view  to 
showing  that  the  whole  primacy  is  a  merely  human 
institution.  It  is  contended  that  the  right  of  appeal 
was  first  granted  at  Sardica  (343),  and  that  each  step 
of  its  subsequent  development  can  be  traced.  His- 
tory, however,  renders  it  abundantly  clear  that  the 
right  of  appeal  had  been  known  from  primitive  times, 
and  that  the  purpose  of  the  Sardican  canons  was 
merely  to  give  conciliar  ratification  to  an  already 
existing  usage.  It  will  be  convenient  to  speak  first  of 
the  Sardican  question,  and  then  to  examine  the  evi- 
dence as  regards  previous  practice. 

In  the  years  immediately  preceding  Sardica,  St. 
Athanasius  had  appealed  to  Rome  against  the  decision 
of  the  Council  of  Tyre  (335).  Pope  Julius  had  an- 
nulled the  action  of  that  council,  and  had  restored 
Athanasius  and  Marcellus  of  Ancyra  to  their  sees. 
The  Eusebians,  however,  had  contested  his  right  to 
call  a  conciliar  decision  in  question.  The  fathers  who 
met  at  Sardica,  and  who  included  the  most  eminent 
of  the  orthodox  party  from  East  and  West  alike,  de- 
sired by  their  decrees  to  affirm  this  right,  and  to 
establish  a  canonical  mode  of  procedure  for  such 
appeals.  The  principal  provisions  of  the  canons  which 
deal  with  this  matter  are:  (1)  that  a  bishop  condemned 
by  the  bishops  of  his  province  may  appeal  to  the  pope 
either  on  his  own  initiative  or  through  his  judges;  (2) 
that  if  the  pope  entertains  the  appeal  he  shall  appoint 
a  court  of  second  instance  drawn  from  the  bishops  of 
the  neighbouring  provinces;  he  may,  if  he  thinks  fit, 
send  judges  to  sit  with  the  bishops.  There  is  nothing 
whatever  to  suggest  that  new  privileges  are  being  con- 
ferred. St.  Julius  had  recently,  not  merely  exercised 
the  right  of  hearing  appeals  in  the  most  formal  man- 
ner, but  had  severely  censured  the  Eusebians  for 
neglecting  to  respect  the  supreme  judicial  rights  of  the 
Roman  See:  "for",  he  writes,  "if  they  [Athanasius 
and  Marcellus]  really  did  some  wrong,  as  you  say,  the 
judgnient  ought  to  have  been  given  according  to  the 
ecclesiastical  canon  and  not  thus.  .  Do  you  not 
know  that  this  has  been  the  custom  first  to  write  to 
us,  and  then  for  that  which  is  just  to  be  defined  from 
hence?"  (Athanasius,  "Apol.",  35).  Nor  is  there  the 
smallest  ground  for  the  assertion  that  the  pope's 
action  is  hedged  in  within  narrow  limits,  on  the  ground 
that  no  more  is  permitted  than  that  he  should  order 
a  rehearing  to  take  place  on  the  spot.  The  fathers  in 
no  way  disputed  the  pope's  right  to  hear  the  case  at 
Rome.  But  their  object  was  to  deprive  the  Eusebians 
of  the  facile  excuse  that  it  was  idle  for  appeals  to  be 
carried  to  Rome,  since  there  the  requisite  evidence 
could  not  be  forthcoming.  They  therefore  provided  a 
canonical  procedure  which  should  not  be  open  to  that 
objection. 

Having  thus  shown  that  there  is  no  ground  for  the 
assertion  that  the  right  of  appeal  was  first  granted  at 
Sardica,  we  may  now  consider,  the  evidence  for  its 
existence  in  eariier  times.  The  records  of  the  second 
century  are  so  scanty  as  to  throw  but  little  Ught  on  the 
subject,  Yet  it  would  seem  that  Montanus,  Prisca, 
and  Maximilla  appealed  to  Rome  against  the  decision 


POPE 


268 


POPE 


of  the  Phrygian  bishops.  TertuUian  (Con.  Prax.,  i) 
tells  us  that  the  pope  at  first  acknowledged  the  genu- 
ineness of  their  prophecies,  and  that  thus  "he  was 
giving  peace  to  the  Churches  of  Asia  and  Phrygia", 
when  further  information  led  him  to  recall  the  letters 
of  peace  which  he  had  issued.  The  fact  that  the  pope's 
decision  had  weight  to  decide  the  whole  question  of 
their  orthodoxy  is  sufficiently  significant.  But  in  St. 
Cyprian's  correspondence  we  find  clear  and  unmis- 
takable evidence  of  a  system  of  appeals.  Basihdes  and 
Martial,  the  bishops  of  Leon  and  Merida  in  Spain,  had 
in  the  persecution  accepted  certificates  of  idolatry. 
They  confessed  their  guilt,  and  were  in  consequence 
deposed,  other  bishops  being  appointed  to  the  sees. 
In  the  hope  of  having  themseh'es  reinstated  they 
appealed  to  Rome,  and  succeeded,  by  misrepresenting 
the  facts,  in  imposing  on  St.  Stephen,  who  ordered  their 
restoration.  It  has  been  objected  to  the  evidence 
drawn  from  this  incident,  that  St.  Cyprian  did  not 
acknowledge  the  validity  of  the  papal  decision,  but 
exhorted  the  people  of  Leon  and  Merida  to  hold  fast 
to  the  sentence  of  deposition  (Ep.  Ixvii,  6).  But  the 
objection  misses  the  point  of  St.  Cyprian's  letter.  In 
the  case  in  question  there  was  no  room  for  a  legitimate 
appeal,  since  the  two  bishops  had  confessed.  An  ac- 
quittal obtained  after  spontaneous  confession  could 
not  be  valid.  It  has  further  been  urged  that,  in  the 
case  of  Fortunatus  (Ep.  lix,  10),  Cyprian  denies  his 
right  of  appeal  to  Rome,  and  asserts  the  sufficiency  of 
the  African  tribunal.  But  here  too  the  objection  rests 
upon  a  misunderstanding.  Fortunatus  had  procured 
consecration  as  Bishop  of  Carthage  from  a  heretical 
bishop,  and  St.  Cyprian  asserts  the  competency  of  the 
local  synod  in  his  case  on  the  ground  that  he  is  no  true 
bishop — a  mere  pseudo-episcopus .  Juridically  consid- 
ered he  is  merely  an  insubordinate  presbyter,  and  he 
must  submit  himself  to  his  own  bishop.  At  that  period 
the  established  custom  denied  the  right  of  appeal  to 
the  inferior  clergy.  On  the  other  hand,  the  action  of 
Fortunatus  indicates  that  he  based  his  claim  to  bring 
the  question  of  his  status  before  the  pope  on  the 
ground  that  he  was  a  legitimate  bishop.  Privatus  of 
Lambcse,  the  heretical  consecrator  of  Fortunatus  who 
had  previously  been  himself  condemned  by  a  synod  of 
ninety  bishops  (Ep.  lix,  10),  had  appealed  to  Rome 
without  success  (Ep.  xxxvi,  4). 

The  difficulties  at  Carthage  which  led  to  the  Dona- 
tist  schism  provide  us  with  another  instance.  When 
the  seventy  Numidian  bishops,  who  had  condemned 
Caecilian,  invoked  the  aid  of  the  emperor,  the  latter 
referred  them  to  Rome,  that  the  ease  might  be  decided 
by  Pope  Miltiades  (.313).  St.  Augustine  makes  fre- 
quent mention  of  the  circumstances,  and  indicates 
plainly  that  he  holds  it  to  ha\e  been  Ctecihan's  un- 
doubted right  to  claim  a  trial  before  the  pope.  He 
says  that  Secundus  should  never  have  dared  to  con- 
demn Caecilian  when  he  declined  to  submit  his  case  to 
the  African  bishops,  since  he  had  the  right  "to  reserve 
his  whole  case  to  the  judgment  of  other  colleagues, 
especially  to  that  of  Apostolical  Churches"  (Ep.  xliii, 
7).  A  little  later  (367)  a  council,  held  at  Tyana  in 
Asia  Minor,  restored  to  his  see  Eustathius,  bishop  of 
that  city,  on  no  other  ground  than  that  of  a  successful 
appeal  to  Rome.  St.  Basil  (Ep.  oclxiu,  3)  tells  us  that 
they  did  not  know  what  test  of  orthodoxy  Liberius 
had  required.  He  brought  a  letter  from  the  pope  de- 
manding his  restoration,  and  this  was  accepted  as 
decisive  by  the  council.  It  should  be  observed  that 
there  can  be  no  question  here  of  the  pope  employing 
prerogatives  conferred  on  him  at  Sardioa,  for  he  did 
not  follow  the  procedure  there  indicated.  Indeed  there 
is  no  good  reason  to  belie^'e  that  the  Sardican  pro- 
cedure ever  came  into  use  in  either  East  or  West. 
In  378  the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  received 
civil  sanction  from  Emperor  Gratian,  Any  charge 
against  a  metropolitan  was  to  come  before  the  pope 
himself  or  a  court  of  bishops  nominated  by  him,  while 


all  (Western)  bishops  had  the  right  of  appeal  from 
their  provincial  synod  to  the  pope  (Mansi,  III,  624). 
Similarly  Valentinian  III  in  445  assigned  to  the  pope 
the  right  of  evoking  to  Rome  any  cause  he  should 
think  fit  (Cod.  Theod.  Novell.,  tit.  xxiv,  De  episco- 
porum  ordin.).  These  ordinances  were  not,  however, 
in  any  sense  the  source  of  the  pope's  jurisdiction, 
which  rested  on  Divine  institution;  they  were  civil 
sanctions  enabling  the  pope  to  avail  himself  of  the 
civil  machinery  of  the  empire  in  discharging  the  duties 
of  his  office.  What  Pope  Nicholas  I  said  of  the  synodal 
declarations  regarding  the  privileges  of  the  Holy  See 
holds  good  here  also:  "Ista  privilegia  huic  sanctae 
Ecclesiae  a  Christo  donata,  a  synodis  non  donata,  sed 
jam  solummodo  venerata  et  celebrata"  (These  privi- 
leges bestowed  by  Christ  on  this  Holy  Church  have 
not  been  granted  her  by  synods,  but  merely  pro- 
claimed and  honoured  by  them)  ("Ep.  ad  Michaelem 
Imp."  in  P.  L.,  CXIX,  948). 

Much  has  been  made  by  anti-Catholic  writers  of 
the  famous  letter  "Optaremus",  addressed  in  426  by 
the  African  bishops  to  Pope  St.  Celestine  at  the  close 
of  the  incident  relating  to  the  priest  Apiarius.  As  the 
point  is  discussed  in  a  special  article  (Apiarius  of 
Sicca),  a  brief  reference  will  suffice  here.  Protestant 
controversialists  maintain  that  in  this  letter  the  Afri- 
can bishops  positively  repudiate  the  claim  of  Rome  to 
an  appellate  jurisdiction,  the  repudiation  being  conse- 
quent on  the  fact  that  they  had  in  419  satisfied  them- 
selves that  Pope  Zosimus  was  mistaken  in  claiming  the 
authority  of  Nica;a  for  the  Sardican  canons.  This  is 
an  error.  The  letter,  it  is  true,  urges  with  some  dis- 
play of  irritation  that  it  would  be  both  more  reason- 
able and  more  in  harmony  with  the  fifth  Nicene  canon 
regarding  the  inferior  clergy  and  the  laity,  if  even  epis- 
copal cases  were  left  to  the  decision  of  the  African 
synod.  The  pope's  authority  is  nowhere  denied,  but 
the  sufficiency  of  the  local  tribunals  is  asserted.  In- 
deed the  right  of  the  pope  to  deal  with  episcopal  cases 
was  freely  acknowledged  by  the  African  Church  even 
after  it  had  been  shown  that  the  Sardican  canons  did 
not  emanate  from  Nicasa.  Antony,  Bishop  of  Fussala, 
prosecuted  an  appeal  to  Rome  against  St.  Augustine 
in  423,  the  appeal  being  supported  by  the  Primate  of 
Numidia  (Ep.  ccix).  Moreover,  St.  Augustine  in  his 
letter  to  Pope  Celestine  on  this  subject  urges  that  pre- 
vious popes  have  dealt  with  similar  cases  in  the  same 
manner,  sometimes  by  independent  decisions  and  some- 
times by  confirmation  of  the  decisions  locally  given 
(ipsa  sede  apostolica  judicante  vel  aliorum  judicata 
firman te) ,  and  that  he  could  cite  examples  cither  from 
ancient  or  from  more  recent  times  (Ep.  ccix,  8) .  These 
facts  appear  to  be  absolutely  conclusive  as  to  the  tra- 
ditional African  practice.  That  the  letter  "Optare- 
mus" did  not  result  in  any  change  is  e\inced  by  a 
letter  of  St.  Leo's  in  446,  directing  what  is  to  be  done 
in  the  case  of  a  certain  Lupicinus  who  had  appealed  to 
him  (Ep.  xii,  13).  It  is  occasionally  argued  that  if  the 
pope  really  possessed  jure  divino  a  supreme  jurisdic- 
tion, the  African  bishops  would  neither  have  raised 
any  question  in  419  as  to  whether  the  alleged  canons 
were  authentic,  nor  again  have  in  426  requested  the 
pope  to  take  the  Nicene  canon  as  the  norm  of  his 
action.  Those  who  reason  in  this  way  fail  to  see  that, 
where  canons  have  been  established  prescribing  the 
mode  of  procedure  to  be  followed  in  the  Church,  right 
reason  demands  that  the  supreme  authority  should 
not  alter  them  except  for  some  grave  cause,  and,  as 
long  as  they  remain  the  recognized  law  of  the  Church, 
should  observe  them.  The  pope  as  God's  vicar  must 
govern  according  to  reason,  not  arbitrarily  nor  capri- 
ciously. This,  however,  is  a  very  different  thing  from 
saying,  as  did  the  Galilean  divines,  that  the  pope  is 
subject  to  the  canons.  He  is  not  subject  to  them,  be- 
cause he  is  competent  to  modify  or  to  annul  them  when 
he  holds  this  to  be  best  for  the  Church. 

IV.    JUKISDICTIONAL  RiGHTS  AND  PREROGATIVES  OF 


POPE 


269 


POPE 


THE  Pope. — In  virtue  of  his  office  as  supreme  teacher 
and  ruler  of  the  faithful,  the  chief  control  of  every  de- 
partment of  the  Church's  life  belongs  to  the  pope.  In 
this  section  the  rights  and  duties  which  thus  fall  to  his 
lot  will  be  briefly  enumerated.  It  will  appear  that,  in 
regard  to  a  considerable  number  of  points,  not  merely 
the  supreme  control,  but  the  whole  exercise  of  power 
is  reserved  to  the  Holy  ISce,  and  is  only  granted  to 
others  by  express  delegation.  This  system  of  reserva- 
tion is  possible,  since  the  pope  is  the  universal  source 
of  all  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  Hence  it  rests  with 
him  to  determine  in  what  measure  he  will  confer  juris- 
diction on  bishops  and  other  prelates. 

(1)  As  the  suprem(>  teacher  of  the  Church,  whose  it 
is  to  prescribe  what  is  to  be  believed  by  all  the  faithful, 
and  to  take  measures  for  the  preservation  and  the 
propagation  of  the  faith,  the  following  are  the  rights 
which  pertain  to  the  pope:  (a)  it  is  his  to  set  forth 
creeds,  and  to  determine  when  and  by  whom  an  ex- 
phcit  profession  of  faith  shall  be  made  (cf.  Council  of 
Trent,  Sess.  XXH',  cc.  i,  xii);  (b)  it  is  his  to  prescribe 
and  to  command  books  for  the  religious  instruction  of 
the  faithful;  thus,  for  example,  Clement  XIII  has 
recommended  the  Roman  Catechism  to  all  the  bish- 
ops, (c)  The  pope  alone  can  establish  a  university, 
possessing  the  status  and  privileges  of  a  canonioally 
erected  Catholic  university;  (d)  to  him  also  belongs 
the  direction  of  Catholic  missions  throughout  the 
world;  this  charge  is  fulfilled  through  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Propaganda,  (e)  It  is  his  to  prohibit  the 
reading  of  such  books  as  are  injurious  to  faith  or 
morals,  and  to  determine  the  conditions  on  which 
certain  classes  of  books  may  be  issued  by  Catholics; 
(f)  his  is  the  condemnation  of  given  propositions  as 
being  either  heretical  or  deserving  of  some  minor  de- 
gree of  censure,  and  lastly  (g)  he  has  the  right  to 
interpret  authentically  the  natural  law.  Thus,  it  is 
his  to  say  what  is  lawful  or  unlawful  in  regard  to  social 
and  family  life,  in  regard  to  the  practice  of  usury,  etc. 

(2)  AA'ith  the  pope's  office  of  supreme  teacher  are 
closely  connected  his  rights  in  regard  to  the  worship 
of  God:  for  it  is  the  law  of  prayer  that  fixes  the  law  of 
behef .  In  this  sphere  very  much  has  been  reserved  to 
the  sole  regulation  of  the  Holy  See.  Thus  (a)  the 
pope  alone  can  prescribe  the  liturgical  services  em- 
ployed in  the  Church.  If  a  doubt  should  occur  in 
regard  to  the  ceremonial  of  the  liturgy,  a  bishop  may 
not  settle  the  point  on  his  own  authority,  but  must 
have  recourse  to  Rome.  The  Holy  See  likewise 
prescribes  rules  in  regard  to  the  devotions  used  by  the 
faithful,  and  in  this  way  checks  the  growth  of  what 
is  novel  and  unauthorized,  (b)  At  the  present  day 
the  institution  and  abrogation  of  festivals,  which  was 
till  a  comparatively  recent  time  free  to  all  bishops  aa 
regards  their  own  dioceses,  is  reserved  to  Rome,  (c) 
The  solemn  canonization  of  a  saint  is  proper  to  the 
pope.  Indeed  it  is  commonly  held  that  this  is  an 
exercise  of  the  papal  infalhbility.  Beatification  and 
every  permission  for  the  public  veneration  of  any  of 
the  servants  of  God  is  likewise  reserved  to  his  deci- 
sion, (d)  He  alone  gives  to  anyone  the  privilege  of  a 
private  chapel  where  Mass  may  be  said,  (e)  He  dis- 
penses the  treasury  of  the  Church,  and  the  grant  of 
plenary  indulgences  is  reserved  to  him.  While  he  has 
no  authority  in  regard  to  the  substantial  rites  of  the 
sacraments,  and  is  bound  to  preserve  them  as  they 
were  given  to  the  Church  by  Christ  and  His  Apostles, 
certain  powers  in  their  regard  belong  to  him;  (f)  he 
can  give  to  simple  priests  the  power  to  confirm,  and 
to  bless  the  oil  of  the  sick  and  the  oil  of  catechumens, 
and  (g)  he  can  establish  diriment  and  impedient  im- 
pediments to  matrimony. 

(3)  The  legislative  power  of  the  pope  carries  with  it 
the  following  rights :  (a)  he  can  legislate  for  the  whole 
Church,  witli  or  without  the  assistance  of  a  general 
council;  (b)  if  he  legislates  with  the  aid  of  a  council, 
it  is  his  to  convoke  it,  to  preside,  to  direct  its  delibera^ 


tions,  to  confirm  its  acts,  (c)  He  has  full  authority  to 
interpret,  alter,  and  abrogate  both  his  own  laws  and 
those  established  by  his  predecessors.  He  has  the  same 
plenitude  of  power  as  they  enjoyed,  and  stands  in  the 
same  relation  to  their  laws  as  to  those  which  he  him- 
self has  decreed;  (d)  he  can  dispense  individuals  from 
the  obligation  of  all  purely  ecclesiastical  laws,  and  can 
grant  privileges  and  exemptions  in  their  regard.  In 
this  connexion  may  be  mentioned  (e)  his  power  to 
dispense  from  vows  where  the  greater  glory  of  God 
renders  it  desirable.  Considerable  powers  of  dispensa- 
tion are  granted  to  bishops,  and,  in  a  restricted  meas- 
ure, also  to  priests;  but  there  are  some  vows  reserved 
altogether  to  the  Holy  See. 

(4)  In  virtue  of  his  supreme  judicial  authority  (a) 
causae  majores  are  reserved  to  him.  By  this  term  are 
signified  cases  dealing  with  matters  of  great  moment, 
or  those  in  which  personages  of  eminent  dignity  are 
concerned,  (b)  His  appellate  jurisdiction  has  been  dis- 
cussed in  the  previous  section.  It  should,  however,  be 
noted  (c)  that  the  pope  has  full  right,  should  he  see  fit, 
to  deal  even  with  causce  minorea  in  the  first  instance, 
and  not  merely  by  reason  of  an  appeal  (Trent,  Sess. 
XXIV,  cap.  xx).  In  what  concerns  punishment,  (d) 
he  can  inflict  censures  either  by  judicial  senlcnce  or 
by  general  laws  which  operate  without  need  of  such 
sentence,  (e)  He  further  reserves  certain  cases  to  his 
own  tribunal.  All  cases  of  heresy  come  before  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Inquisition.  A  similar  reservation 
covers  the  cases  in  which  a  bishop  or  a  reigning  prince 
is  the  accused  party. 

(5)  As  the  supreme  governor  of  the  Church  the  pope 
has  authority  over  all  appointments  to  its  public 
offices.  Thus  (a). it  is  his  to  nominate  to  bishoprics, 
or,  where  the  nomination  has  been  conceded  to  others, 
to  give  confirmation.  Further,  he  alone  can  translate 
bishops  from  one  see  to  another,  can  accept  their 
resignation,  and  can,  where  grave  cause  exists,  sen- 
tence to  deprivation,  (b)  He  can  establish  dioceses, 
and  can  annul  a  previously  existing  arrangement  in 
favour  of  a  new  one.  Similarly,  he  alone  can  erect 
cathedral  and  collegiate  chapters,  (c)  He  can  approve 
new  religious  orders,  and  (d)  can,  if  he  sees  fit,  exempt 
them  from  the  authority  of  local  ordinaries,  (e) 
Since  his  office  of  supreme  ruler  imposes  on  him  the 
duty  of  enforcing  the  canons,  it  is  requisite  that  he 
should  be  kept  informed  as  to  the  state  of  the  various 
dioceses.  He  may  obtain  this  information  by  legates 
or  by  summoning  the  bishops  to  Rome.  At  the 
present  day  this  jus  relationum  is  exercised  through 
the  triennial  visit  ad  limina  required  of  all  bishops. 
This  system  was  introduced  by  Sixtus  V  in  1585 
(Constitution,  "Rom.  Pontifex"),  and  confirmed  by 
Benedict  XIV in  1740  (Constitution,  "Quod  Sancta"). 
(f)  It  is  to  be  further  observed  that  the  pope's  office 
of  chief  ruler  of  the  Church  carries  with  it  jure  diidno 
the  right  to  free  intercourse  with  the  pastors  and  the 
faithful.  The  placitum  regium,  by  which  this  inter- 
course was  limited  and  impeded,  was  therefore  an 
infringement  of  a  sacred  right,  and  as  such  was  sol- 
emnly condemned  by  the  Vatican  Council  (Constitu- 
tion, "Pastor  ^ternus",  cap.  iii).  To  the  pope  like- 
wise belongs  the  supreme  administration  of  the  goods 
of  the  Church.  He  alone  (g)  can,  where  there  is  just 
cause,  alienate  any  considerable  quantity  of  such 
property.  Thus,  e.  g.,  Julius  III,  at  the  time  of  the 
restoration  of  religion  in  England  under  Queen  Mary, 
validated  the  title  of  those  laymen  who  had  acquired 
Church  lands  during  the  spoliations  of  the  previous 
reigns,  (h)  The  pope  has  further  the  right  to  impose 
taxes  on  the  clergy  and  the  faithful  for  ecclesiastical 
purposes  (cf.  Trent,  Sess.  XXI,  cap.  iv  de  Ref.). 
Though  the  power  of  the  pope,  as  we  have  described  it, 
is  very  great,  it  does  not  follow  that  it  is  arbitrary 
and  unrestricted.  "The  pope",  as  Cardinal  Hergen- 
rother  well  says,  "is  circumscribed  by  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  necessity  of  making  a  righteous  and  benefi- 


POPE 


270 


POPE 


cent  use  of  the  duties  attached  to  his  privileges. 
He  is  also  circumscribed  by  the  spirit  and  practice  of 
the  Church,  by  the  respect  due  to  General  Councils 
and  to  ancient  statutes  and  customs,  by  the  rights  of 
bishops,  by  his  relation  with  civil  powers,  bv  the  tra- 
ditional mild  tone  of  government  indicated  by  the  aim 
of  the  institution  of  the  papacy — to  'feed' — and 
finally  by  the  respect  indispensable  in  a  spiritual  power 
towards  the  spirit  and  mind  of  nations"  ("Cath. 
Church  and  Christian  State",  tr.,  I,  197). 

V.  Primacy  of  Honour:  Titles  .a.nd  Insignia. — ■ 
Certain  titles  and  distincti\'e  marks  of  honour  are 
assigned  to  the  pope  alone;  these  constitute  what  is 
termed  his  primacy  of  honour.  These  prerogatives  are 
not,  as  are  his  jurisdictional  rights,  attached  jure 
divino  to  his  office.  They  have  grown  up  in  the  course 
of  history,  and  are  consecrated  by  the  usage  of  cen- 
turies;  yet  they  are  not  incapable  of  modification. 

(1)  Titles. — The  most  noteworthy  of  the  titles  are 
Papa,  Suinmus  Ponlifex,  Pontifex  Maximus,  Servus 
servorum  Dei.  The  title  pope  (papa)  was,  as  has  been 
stated,  at  one  time  employed  with  far  more  latitude. 
In  the  East  it  has  always  been  used  to  designate 
simple  priests.  In  the  Western  Church,  however,  it 
seems  from  the  beginning  to  have  been  restricted  to 
bishops  (Tertulhan,  "De  Pud.",  xiii).  It  was  appar- 
ently in  the  fourth  century  that  it  began  to  become  a 
distinctive  title  of  the  Roman  Pontiff.  Pope  Siricius 
(d.  39N)  seems  so  to  use  it  (Ep.  vi  in  P.  L.,  XIII, 
lltU),  and  Ennodius  of  Pavia  (d.  473)  employs  it  still 
more  clearly  in  this  sense  in  a  letter  to  Pope  Sym- 
machus  (P.  L.,  LXIII,  69).  Yet  as  late  as  the  seventh 
century  St.  Gall  (d.  Ij4())  addresses  Desiderius  of 
Cahors  as  papa  (P.  L.,  LXXX\TI,  26.5).  Gregory 
VII  finally  prescribed  that  it  should  be  confined  to 
the  successors  of  Peter.  The  terms  Pontifex  Maxi- 
mus, iSuiiiinus  Pontifex,  were  doubtless  originally  em- 
ployed with  reference  to  the  Jewish  high-priest,  whose 
place  the  Christian  bishops  were  regarded  as  holding, 
each  in  his  own  diocese  (I  Clem.,  xl).  As  regards  the 
title  Pontifex  Maximus,  especially  in  its  application  to 
the  pope,  there  was  further  a  reminiscence  of  the  dig- 
nity attached  to  that  title  in  pagan  Rome.  TertuUian, 
as  has  already  been  said,  uses  the  phrase  of  Pope 
Callistus.  Though  his  words  are  ironical,  they  prob- 
ably indicate  that  Catholics  already  applied  it  to  the 
pope.  But  here  too  the  terms  were  once  less  narrowly 
restricted  in  their  use.  Pontifex  summus  was  used  of 
the  bishop  of  some  notable  see  in  relation  to  those  of 
less  importance.  Hilary  of  Aries  (d.  449)  is  so  styled 
by  Eucherius  of  Lyons  (P.  L.,  L,  773),  and  Lanfrano 
is  termed  "primas  et  pontifex  summus"  by  his  biog- 
rapher, Milo  Crispin  (P.  L.,  CL,  10).  Pope  Nicholas 
I  is  termed  "summus  pontifex  et  universalis  papa"  by 
his  legate  Arsenius  (Hardouin,  "Cone",  V,  280),  and 
subsequent  examples  are  common.  After  the  eleventh 
century  it  appears  to  be  only  used  of  the  popes.  The 
phrase  ,Se.rvus  servorum  Dei  is  now  so  entirely  a  papal 
title  that  a  Bull  in  which  it  should  be  wanting  would 
be  reckoned  unauthentic.  Yet  this  designation  also 
was  once  applied  to  others.  Augustine  ("Ep.  ccxvii 
a.  d.  Vitalem"  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII,  978)  entitles  himself 
"servus  Christi  et  per  Ipsum  servus  servorum  Ipsius" 
Desiderius  of  Cahors  made  use  of  it  (Thomassin, 
"Ecclesiae  nov.  et  vet.  disc",  pt.  I,  1.  I,  c.  iv,  n.  4): 
so  also  did  St.  Boniface  (740),  the  apostle  of  Germany 
(P.  L.,  LXXIX,  700).  The  first  of  the  popes  to  adopt 
it  was  seemingly  Gregory  I ;  he  appears  to  have  done 
80  in  contrast  to  the  claim  put  forward  by  the  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  to  the  title  of  universal  bishop 
(P.  L.,  LXXV,  87).  The  restriction  of  the  term  to  the 
pope  alone  began  in  the  ninth  century. 

(2)  Insignia  and  Marks  of  Hnn.our. — The  pope  is 
distinguished  by  the  use  of  1;he  tiara  or  triple  crown 
(see  Tiara).  At  what  date  the  custom  of  crowning 
the  pope  was  introduced  is  unknown.  It  was  cer- 
tainly previous  to  the  forged  donation  of  Constantine, 


which  dates  from  the  commencement  of  the  ninth 
century,  for  mention  is  there  made  of  the  pope's 
coronation.  The  triple  crown  is  of  much  later  origin. 
The  pope  moreover  does  not,  like  ordinary  bishops, 
use  the  bent  pastoral  staff,  but  only  the  erect  cross. 
This  custom  was  introduced  before  the  reign  of  In- 
nocent III  (119S-1216)  (cap.  un.  X  de  sacra  unctione, 
I,  15).  He  further  uses  the  pallium  (q.  v.)  at  all 
ecclesiastical  functions,  and  not  under  the  same  re- 
strictions as  do  the  archbishops  on  whom  he  has  con- 
ferred it.  The  kissing  of  the  pope's  foot — the 
characteristic  act  of  reverence  by  which  all  the  faith- 
ful do  honour  to  him  as  the  vicar  of  Christ — is  found 
as  early  as  the  eighth  century.  V\c  read  that  Em- 
peror Justinian  II  paid  this  respect  to  Pope  Constan- 
tine (708-16)  (Anastasius  Bibl.  in  P.  L.,  CXXVIII, 
949).  Even  at  an  earlier  date  Emperor  Justin  had 
prostrated  himself  before  Pope  John  I  (523-6;  op. 
cit.,  515),  and  Justinian  I  before  Agapetus  (535-6; 
op.  cit.,  551).  The  pope,  it  may  be  added,  ranks  as 
the  first  of  Christian  princes,  and  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries his  ambassadors  have  precedence  o\-er  other 
members  of  the  diplomatic  body. 

VI.  Election  of  the  Popes. — The  supreme  head- 
ship of  the  Church  is,  we  have  seen,  annexed  to  the 
office  of  Roman  bishop.  The  pope  becomes  chief 
pastor  because  he  is  Bishop  of  Rome :  he  does  not  be- 
come Bishop  of  Rome  because  he  has  been  chosen  to 
be  head  of  the  universal  Church.  Thus,  an  election 
to  the  papacy  is,  properly  speaking,  primarily  an 
election  to  the  local  bishopric.  The  right  to  elect 
their  bishop  has  ever  belonged  to  the  members  of  the 
Roman  Church.  They  possess  the  prerogative  of 
giving  to  the  universal  Church  her  chief  pastor;  they 
do  not  receive  their  bishop  in  virtue  of  his  election  by 
the  universal  Church.  This  is  not  to  say  that  the 
election  should  be  by  popular  vote  of  the  Romans. 
In  ecclesiastical  affairs  it  is  always  for  the  hierarchy 
to  guide  the  decisions  of  the  flock.  The  choice  of  a 
bishop  belongs  to  the  clergy :  it  may  be  confined  to  the 
leading  members  of  the  clergy.  It  is  so  in  the  Roman 
Church  at  present.  The  electoral  college  of  cardinals 
exercise  their  office  because  they  are  the  chief  of  the 
Roman  clergy.  Should  the  college  of  cardinals  ever 
become  extinct,  the  duty  of  choosing  a  supreme  pastor 
would  fall,  not  on  the  bishops  assembled  in  council, 
but  upon  the  remaining  Roman  clergy.  At  the  time 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  Pius  IV,  thinking  it  possible 
that  in  the  event  of  his  death  the  council  might  lay 
some  claim  to  the  right,  insisted  on  this  point  in  a 
consistorial  allocution  (Phillips,  "Kirchenrecht",  V,  p. 
737  n.).  It  is  thus  plain  that  a  pope  cannot  nominate 
his  successor.  History  tells  us  of  one  pope — Bene- 
dict II  (530) — who  meditated  adopting  this  course. 
But  he  recognized  that  it  would  be  a  false  step,  and 
burnt  the  document  which  he  had  drawn  up  for  the 
purpose.  On  the  other  hand  the  Church's  canon  law 
(10  D.  79)  supposes  that  the  pope  may  make  provision 
for  the  needs  of  the  Church  by  suggesting  to  the  car- 
dinals some  one  whom  he  regards  as  fitted  for  the 
office:  and  we  know  that  Gregory  VII  secured  in  this 
way  the  election  of  Victor  III.  Such  a  step,  however, 
does  not  in  any  way  fetter  the  action  of  the  cardinals. 
The  pope  can,  further,  legislate  regarding  the  mode  in 
which  the  subsequent  election  shall  be  carried  out, 
determining  the  composition  of  the  electoral  college, 
and  the  conditions  requisite  for  a  definitive  choice. 
The  method  at  present  followed  is  the  result  of  a  series 
of  enactments  on  this  subject. 

A  brief  historical  review  will  show  how  the  princi- 
ple of  election  by  the  Roman  Church  has  been  main- 
tained through  all  the  vicissitudes  of  papal  elections. 
St.  Cyprian  tells  us  in  regard  to  the  election  of  Pope 
St.  Cornelius  (251)  that  the  comprovincial  bishops, 
the  clergy,  and  the  people  all  took  part  in  it:  "He  was 
made  bishop  by  the  decree  of  God  and  of  His  Church, 
by  the  testimony  of  nearly  all  the  clergy,  by  the  col- 


POPE 


271 


POPE 


lege  of  aged  bishops  [sacerdotum],  and  of  good  men" 
(Ep.  Iv  ad  Anton.,  n.  8).  And  a  precisely  similar 
ground  is  alleged  by  the  Roman  priests  in  their  letter 
to  Emperor  Honorius  regarding  the  validity  of  the 
election  of  Boniface  I  (a.  d.  418;  P.  L.,  XX,  750). 
Previous  to  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  interference 
by  the  civil  power  seems  to  have  been  inconsiderable. 
Constantius,  it  is  true,  endeavoured  to  set  up  an 
antipopc,  Felix  II  (355),  but  the  act  was  universally 
regarded  as  heretical.  Honorius  on  the  occasion  of 
the  contested  election  of  41S  (Iccrocd  that,  when  the 
election  was  dubious,  neither  party  should  hold  the 
papacy,  but  that  a  new  election  should  take  place. 
This  method  was  applied  at  the  elections  of  Conon 
(686)  and  SiTgius  I  ((iS7).  The  law  is  found  in  the 
Church's  code  (c.  8,  J.  LXXTX),  though  Gratian  de- 
clares it  void  of  force  as  ha\ing  emanated  from  civil 
and  not  ecclesiastical  authority  (d.  XC^'I,  proem.;  d. 
XCVII,  proem.).  After  the  barbarian  conquest  of 
Italy,  the  Church's  rights  wore  less  carefully  observed. 
Basilius,  the  prefect  of  Odoacer,  claimed  the  right  of 
supervising  the  election  of  4.S3  in  the  name  of  his 
master,  alleging  that  Pope  Simplicius  had  himself 
requested  him  to  do  so  (Hard.,  II,  977).  The  dis- 
turbances which  occurred  at  the  disputed  election  of 
Symmachus  (498)  led  that  pope  to  hold  a  council  and 
to  decree  the  severest  penalties  on  all  who  should  be 
guilty  of  canvassing  or  bribery  in  order  to  attain  the 
pontificate.  It  was  moreover  decided  that  the  ma- 
jority of  votes  should  decide  the  election.  Theodoric 
the  Ostrogoth,  who  at  this  period  ruled  Italy,  became 
in  his  later  years  a  persecutor  of  the  Church.  He  even 
went  so  far  as  to  appoint  Felix  III  (IV)  in  526  as  the 
successor  of  Pope  John  I,  whose  death  was  due  to  the 
incarceration  to  which  the  king  had  condemned  him. 
Felix,  however,  was  personally  worthy  of  the  office, 
and  the  appointment  was  confirmed  by  a  subsequent 
election.  'The  precedent  of  interference  set  by 
Theodoric  was  fruitful  of  evil  to  the  Church.  After 
the  destruction  of  the  Gothic  monarchy  (537),  the 
Byzantine  emperors  went  even  farther  than  the 
heretical  Ostrogoth  in  encroaching  on  ecclesiastical 
rights.  Vigilius  (540)  and  Pelagius  I  (553)  were 
forced  on  the  Church  at  imperial  dictation.  In  the 
case  of  the  latter  there  seems  to  have  been  no  election : 
his  title  was  vahdated  solely  through  his  recognition 
as  bishop  by  clergy  and  people.  'The  formalities  of 
election  at  this  time  were  as  follows  (Lib.  Diurnus 
Rom.  Pont.,  ii,  in  P.  L.,  CV,  27).  After  the  pope's 
death,  the  archpriest,  the  archdeacon,  and  the  primi- 
cerius  of  the  notaries  sent  an  official  notification  to 
the  exarch  at  Ravenna.  On  the  third  day  after  the 
decease  the  new  pope  was  elected,  being  invariably 
chosen  from  among  the  presbyters  or  deacons  of  the 
Roman  Church  (cf.  op.  cit.,  ii,  titt.  2,  3,  5),  and  an 
embassy  was  despatched  to  Constantinople  to  request 
the  official  confirmation  of  the  election.  Not  until 
this  had  been  received  did  the  consecration  take  place. 
The  Church  acquired  greater  freedom  after  the  Lom- 
bard invasion  of  568  had  destroyed  the  prestige  of 
Byzantine  power  in  Italy.  Pelagius  II  (578)  and 
Gregory  I  (590)  were  the  spontaneous  choice  of  the 
electors.  And  in  684,  owing  to  the  long  delays  in- 
volved in  the  journey  to  Constantinople,  Constantino 
IV  (Pogonatus)  acceded  to  Benedict  II's  request  that 
in  future  it  should  not  be  necessary  to  wait  for  con- 
firmation, but  that  a  mere  notification  of  the  election 
would  suffice.  The  loss  of  the  exarchate  and  the 
iconoclastic  heresy  of  the  Byzantine  court  completed 
the  severance  between  Rome  and  the  Eastern  Empire, 
and  Pope  Zacharias  (741)  dispensed  altogether  with 
the  customary  notice  to  Constantinople. 

In  769  a  council  was  held  under  Stephen  III  to 
rectify  the  confusion  caused  by  the  intrusion  of  the 
antipope  Constantine.  This  usurper  was  a  layman 
hurriedly  raised  to  priest's  orders  to  render  his  nomi- 
nation to  the  pontificate  possible.     To  make  a  repeti- 


tion of  the  scandal  impossible  it  was  decreed  that  only 
members  of  the  sacred  college  were  eligible  for  elec- 
tion. The  part  of  the  laity  was,  moreover,  reduced 
to  a  mere  right  of  acclamation.  Under  Charlemagne 
and  Louis  the  Pious  th('  Church  retained  her  freedom. 
Lothair,  however,  claimed  more  ample  rights  for  the 
civil  power.  In  824  he  exacted  an  oath  from  the 
Romans  that  none  should  be  consecrated  pope  with- 
out the  permission  and  the  presence  of  his  ambas- 
sadors. This  was,  in  fact,  done  at  most  of  the 
elections  during  the  ninth  century,  and  in  898  the 
riots  which  ensued  upon  the  death  of  Pope  Stephen  V 
led  John  IX  to  give  ecclesiastical  sanction  to  this 
system  of  imperial  control.  In  a  council  held  at 
Rome  in  that  year  he  decri'cd  that  the  election  should 
be  made  by  bishops  (cardinal)  and  clergy,  regard 
being  had  to  the  wishes  of  the  people,  but  that  no  con- 
secration should  take  place  except  in  the  presence  of 
the  imperial  legate  (Mansi,  XVIII,  225). 

The  due  formalities  at  least  of  election  appear  to 
have  been  observed  through  the  wild  disorders  which 
followed  the  collapse  of  the  Carlovingian  Empire:  and 
the  same  is  true  as  regards  the  times  of  Otto  the  Great 
and  his  son.  Under  the  restored  empire,  however, 
the  electors  enjoyed  no  freedom  of  choice.  Otto  I 
even  compelled  the  Romans  to  swear  that  they  would 
never  elect  or  ordain  a  pope  without  his  or  his  son's 
consent  (963;  cf.  Liutprand,  "Hist.  Ott.",  viii).  In 
1046  the  scandals  of  the  preceding  elections,  in  which 
the  supreme  pontificate  had  become  a  prize  for  rival 
factions  entirely  regardless  of  what  means  they  em- 
ployed, led  clergy  and  people  to  leave  the  nomination 
to  Henry  III.  Three  popes  were  chosen  in  this  man- 
ner. But  Leo  IX  insisted  that  the  Church  was  free 
in  the  choice  of  her  pastors,  and,  until  he  was  duly 
elected  at  Rome,  declined  to  assume  any  of  the  state 
of  his  office.  The  party  of  reform,  of  which  Hilde- 
brand  was  the  moving  spirit,  were  eager  for  some 
measure  which  should  restore  an  independent  choice 
to  the  Church.  This  was  carried  out  by  Nicholas  II. 
In  1059  he  held  a  council  in  the  Lateran  and  issued 
the  Decree  "In  Nomine".  This  document  is  found 
in  two  recensions,  a  papal  and  an  imperial,  both  of 
early  date.  There  is  however  little  doubt  that  the 
papal  recension  embodied  in  the  "Decretum  Gra- 
tiani"  (c.  1.  d.  XXIII)  is  genuine,  and  that  the  other 
was  altered  in  the  interest  of  the  antipope  Guibert 
(1080;  Hefele,  "Conoiliengesch.",  IV,  800,  899).  The 
right  of  election  is  confined  to  the  cardinals,  the 
effective  choice  being  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
cardinal  bishops:  clergy  and  people  have  a  right  of 
acclamation  only.  The  right  of  confirmation  is 
granted  to  the  Emperor  Henry  IV  and  to  such  of  his 
successors  as  should  personally  request  and  receive 
the  privilege.  The  pope  need  not  necessarily  be  taken 
from  the  number  of  cardinals,  though  this  should  be 
the  case  if  possible. 

■This  decree  formed  the  basis  of  the  present  legis- 
lation on  the  papal  election,  though  the  system  under- 
went considerable  development.  The  first  important 
modification  was  the  Constitution  "  Licet  de  Vitanda" 
[o.  vi,  X,  "De  elect."  (I,  6)]  of  Alexander  III,  the  first 
of  the  decrees  passed  by  the  Third  CEcumenical 
Council  of  the  Lateran  (1179).  To  prevent  the  evils 
of  a  disputed  election  it  was  established  by  this  law 
that  no  one  should  be  held  duly  elected  until  two- 
thirds  of  the  cardinals  should  have  given  their  votes 
for  him.  In  this  decree  no  distinction  is  made  be- 
tween the  rights  of  the  cardinal  bishops  and  those  of 
the  rest  of  the  Sacred  College.  The  imperial  privilege 
of  confirming  the  election  had  already  become  obso- 
lete owing  to  the  breach  between  the  Church  and  the 
Empire  under  Henry  IV  and  Frederick  I.  Between 
the  death  of  Clement  IV  (1268)  and  the  coronation 
of  Gregory  X  (1272)  an  interregnum  of  nearly  three 
years  intervened.  To  prevent  a  repetition  of  so  great 
a  misfortune  the  pope  in  the  Council  of  Lyons  (1179) 


POPE 


272 


POPE 


issued  the  Decree  "Ubi  periculum"  [c.  iii,  "De 
elect.",  in  6°  (I,  6)],  by  which  it  was  ordained  that 
during  the  election  of  a  pontiff  the  cardinals  should  be 
secluded  from  the  world  under  exceedingly  stringent 
regulations,  and  that  the  seclusion  should  continue 
till  they  had  fulfilled  their  duty  of  providing  the 
Church  with  a  supreme  pastor.  To  this  electoral 
s(>ysiou  was  given  the  name  of  the  Conclave  (q.  v.). 
This  system  prevails  at  the  present  day. 

VII.  ChronoijOgical  List  of  the  Popes. — The 
historical  lists  of  the  popes,  from  those  drawn  up  in 
the  second  century  to  those  of  the  present  day,  form 
in  themselves  a  considerable  body  of  literature.  It 
would  be  beyond  the  scope  of  the  article  to  enter  upon 
a  discussion  of  these  catalogues.  For  an  account  of 
the  most  famous  of  them  all,  the  article  Libeh  Pontifi- 
CALis  may  be  consulted.  It  appears,  however,  desir- 
able to  indicate  very  briefly  what  are  our  authorities 
for  the  names  and  the  durations  in  office  of  the  popes 
for  the  first  two  centuries  of  the  Church's  existence. 

Irenseus,  writing  between  175  and  190,  not  many 
years  after  his  Roman  sojourn,  enumerates  the  series 
from  Peter  to  Eleutherius  (Adv.  Haer.,  Ill,  iii,  3; 
Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  V,  vi).  His  object,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  was  to  establish  the  orthodoxy  of  the 
traditional  doctrine,  as  opposed  to  heretical  novelties, 
by  showing  that  the  bishop  was  the  natural  inheritor 
of  the  Apostolic  teaching.  He  gives  us  the  names 
alone,  not  the  length  of  the  various  episcopates.  This 
need  is  supplied  by  other  witnesses.  Most  important 
evidence  is  furnished  by  the  document  entitled  the 
"  Liberian  Catalogue" — so  called  from  the  pope  whose 
name  ends  the  list.  The  collection  of  tracts  of  which 
this  forms  a  part  was  edited  (apparently  by  one  Furiua 
Dionysius  Philocalus)  in  354.  The  catalogue  consists 
of  a  list  of  the  Roman  bishops  from  Peter  to  Liberius, 
with  the  length  of  their  respective  episcopates,  the 
consular  dates,  the  name  of  the  reigning  emperor,  and 
in  many  cases  other  details.  There  is  the  strongest 
ground  for  believing  that  the  earlier  part  of  the  cata- 
logue, as  far  as  Pontian  (230-35),  is  the  work  of  Hippo- 
lytus  of  Portus.  It  is  manifest  that  up  to  this  point 
the  fourth-century  compiler  was  making  use  of  a  dif- 
ferent authority  from  that  which  he  employs  for  the 
subsequent  popes:  and  there  is  evidence  rendering  it 
almost  certain  that  Hippolytus's  work  "Chronica" 
contained  such  a  list .  The  reign  of  Pontian,  moreover, 
would  be  the  point  at  which  that  list  would  have 
stopped:  for  Hippolytus  and  he  were  condemned  to 
servitude  in  the  Sardinian  mines — a  fact  which  the 
chronographer  makes  mention  when  speaking  of 
Pontian's  episcopate.  Lightfoot  has  argued  that 
this  list  originally  contained  nothing  but  the  names 
of  the  bishops  and  the  duration  of  their  episco- 
pates, the  remaining  notes  being  additions  by  a 
later  hand.  The  list  of  popes  is  identical  with  that  of 
Irenaeus,  save  that  Anacletus  is  doubled  into  Cletus 
and  Anacletus,  while  Clement  appears  before,  instead 
of  after,  these  two  names.  The  order  of  Popes  Pius 
and  Anicetus  has  also  been  interchanged.  There  is 
every  reason  to  regard  these  differences  as  due  to  the 
errors  of  copyists.  Another  witness  is  Eusebius.  The 
names  and  episcopal  years  of  the  bishops  can  be  gath- 
ered alike  from  his  "History"  and  his  "Chronicle" 
The  notices  in  the  two  works  can  be  shown  to  be 
in  agreement,  notwithstanding  certain  corruptions  in 
many  texts  of  the  "Chronicle"  This  Eastern  hst  in 
the  hands  of  Eusebius  is  seen  to  have  been  identical 
with  the  Western  list  of  Hippolytus,  except  that  in  the 
East  the  name  of  linus's  successor  seems  to  have  Ijeen 
given  as  Anencletus,  in  the  original  Western  list  as 
Cletus.  The  two  authorities  presuppose  the  following 
list:  (1)  Peter,  xxv;  (2)  Linus,  xii;  (3)  Anencletus 
[Cletus],  xii;  (4)  Clement,  ix;  (5)  Evarestus,  viii;  (6) 
Alexander,  x;  (7)  Sixtus,  x;  (8)  Telesphorus,  xi;  (9) 
Hyginus,  iv;  (10)  Pius,  xv;  (11)  Anicetus,  xi;  (12) 
Soter,  viii;   (13)  Eleutherius,  xv;   (14)  Victor,  x;   (15) 


Zephyrinus,  xviii;   (16)  Callistus,  v;   (17)  Urban,  viii; 
(18)  Pontian,  v  (Harnack,  "Chronologie",  I,  152). 

We  learn  from  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  IV,  xxii)  that 
in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  Hegesippus,  the 
Hebrew  Christian,  visited  Rome,  and  that  he  drew  up 
a  list  of  bishops  as  far  as  Anicetus,  the  then  pope. 
Eusebius  does  not  quote  his  catalogue,  but  Lightfoot 
sees  ground  for  holding  that  we  possess  it  in  a  passage 
of  Epiphanius  (Haer.,  xxvii,  6),  in  which  the  bishops 
as  far  as  Anicetus  are  enumerated.  This  list  of  Hege- 
sippus, drawn  up  less  than  a  century  after  the  martyr- 
dom of  St.  Peter,  was,  he  believes,  the  foundation  alike 
of  the  Eusebian  and  Hippolytan  catalogues  (Clement 
of  Rome,  I,  325  sq.).  His  view  has  been  accepted  by 
many  scholars.  Even  those  who,  like  Harnack  (Chro- 
nologic, I,  184  sq.),  do  not  admit  that  this  list  is  really 
that  of  Hegesippus,  recognize  it  as  a  catalogue  of 
Roman  origin  and  of  very  early  date,  furnishing 
testimony  independent  alike  of  the  Eusebian  and 
Liberian  lists. 

The  "Liber  Pontificalis",  long  accepted  as  an  au- 
thority of  the  highest  value,  is  now  acknowledged  to 
have  been  originally  composed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century,  and,  as  regards  the  early  popes,  to  be 
dependent  on  the  "Liberian  Catalogue". 

In  the  numbering  of  the  successors  of  St.  Peter,  cer- 
tain differences  appear  in  various  lists.  The  two  forma 
Anacletus  and  Cletus,  as  we  have  seen,  very  early 
occasioned  the  third  pope  to  be  reckoned  twice.  There 
are  some  few  cases,  also,  in  which  it  is  still  doubted 
whether  particular  individuals  should  be  accounted 
genuine  popes  or  intruders,  and,  according  to  the  view 
taken  by  the  compiler  of  the  list,  they  will  be  included 
or  excluded.  In  the  accompanying  list  the  Stephen 
immediately  following  Zacharias  (752)  is  not  num- 
bered, since,  though  duly  elected,  he  died  before  his 
consecration.  At  that  period  the  papal  dignity  was 
held  to  be  conferred  at  consecration,  and  hence  he  is 
excluded  from  all  the  early  lists.  Leo  VIII  (963)  is  in- 
cluded, as  the  resignation  of  Benedict  V,  though  en- 
forced, may  have  been  genuine.  Boniface  VII  is  also 
ranked  as  a  pope,  since,  in  984  at  least,  he  would  seem 
to  have  been  accepted  as  such  by  the  Roman  Church. 
The  claim  of  Benedict  X  (1058)  is  likewise  recognized. 
It  cannot  be  affirmed  that  his  title  was  certainly 
invalid,  and  his  name,  though  now  sometimes  ex- 
cluded, appears  in  the  older  catalogues.  It  should  be 
observed  that  there  is  no  John  XX  in  the  catalogue. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  the  "Liber  Pontificalis", 
two  dates  are  given  in  connexion  with  the  life  of  John 
XIV  (983).  This  introduced  confusion  into  some  of 
the  papal  catalogues,  and  a  separate  pope  was  assigned 
to  each  of  these  dates.  Thus  three  popes  named  John 
were  made  to  appear  between  Benedict  VII  and  Greg- 
ory V.  The  error  led  the  pope  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury who  should  have  been  called  John  XX  to  style 
himself  John  XXI  (Duchesne,  "Lib.  Pont.",  II,  xvii). 
Some  only  of  the  antipopes  find  mention  in  the  list. 
No  useful  purpose  would  be  served  by  giving  the  name 
of  every  such  claimant.  Many  of  them  possess  no 
historical  importance  whatever.  From  Gregory  VII 
onward  not  merely  the  years  but  the  precise  days  are 
assigned  on  which  the  respective  reigns  commenced 
and  closed.  Ancient  authorities  furnish  these  details 
in  the  case  of  most  of  the  foregoing  popes  also :  but, 
previously  to  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  the 
information  is  of  uncertain  value.  With  Gregory  VII 
a  new  method  of  reckoning  came  in.  The  papal  dig- 
nity was  held  to  be  conferred  by  the  election,  and  not 
as  previously  by  the  coronation,  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  reign  was  computed  from  the  day  of  elec- 
tion. This  point  seems  therefore  a  convenient  one  at 
which  to  introduce  the  more  detailed  indications. 

List  of  the  Popes. — 

(1)  St.  Peter,  d.  67(?) 

(2)  St.  Linus,  67-79 (?) 


POPE 


273 


POPE 


(3) 

St.  Anacletus  I,  79-90(?) 

(78) 

(4) 

St.  Clement  I,  90-99(?) 

(79) 

(5) 

St.  Evaristus,  99-107(?) 

(80) 

(6) 

St.  Alexander  I,  107-16(?) 

(81) 

(7) 

St.  Sixtus  (Xystus)  I,  116-25(?) 

(82) 

(8) 

St.  Telesphorus,  125-36(?) 

(83) 

(9) 

St.  Hyginus,  136-40(?) 

(84) 

(10) 

St.  Pius,  140-54(?) 

(85) 

(11) 

St.  Anicetus,  154r-65(?) 

(86) 

(12) 

St.  Soter,  165-74 

(87) 

(13) 

St.  Eleutherius,  174-89 

(88) 

(14) 

St.  Victor,  189-98 

(89) 

(15) 

St.  Zephyrinus,  198-217 

(90) 

(16) 

St.  Callistus  I,  217-22 

(91) 

(17) 

St.  Urban  I,  222-30 

(18) 

St.  Pontian,  230-35 

(92) 

(19) 

St.  Anterus,  235-36 

(93) 

(20) 

St.  Fabian,  236-50 

(21) 

St.  Cornelius,  251-53 

(94) 

Novatianus,  251-58(?) 

(95) 

(22) 

St.  Lucius  I,  253-54 

(96) 

(23) 

St.  Stephen  I,  254-57 

(97) 

(24) 

St.  Sixtus  (Xystus)  II,  257-58 

(98) 

(25) 

St.  Dionysius,  259-68 

(99) 

(26) 

St.  Felix  I,  269-74 

(100) 

(27) 

St.  Eutychian,  275-83 

(101) 

(28) 

St.  Caius,  283-96 

(102) 

(29) 

St.  Marcellinus,  296-304 

(103) 

(30) 

St.  Marcellus  I,  308-09 

(104) 

(31) 

St.  Eusebius,  309(310) 

(32) 

St.  Melchiades  (Miltiades),  311-14 

(105) 

(33) 

St.  Sylvester  I,  314-35 

(106) 

(34) 

St.  Marcus,  336 

(107) 

(35) 

St.  Julius  I,  337-52 

(108) 

(36) 

St.  Liberius,  352-66 

(109) 

Felix  II,  355-65 

(110) 

(37) 

Damasus  I,  366-84 

(111) 

(38) 

St.  Siricius,  384-98 

(112) 

(39) 

St.  Anastasius  I,  398-401 

(113) 

(40) 

St.  Innocent  I,  402-17 

(114) 

(41) 

St.  Zosimus,  417-18 

(115) 

(42) 

St.  Boniface  I,  418-22 

(116) 

(43) 

St.  Celestine  I,  422-32 

(117) 

(44) 

St.  Six-tus  (Xystus)  III,  432-40 

(118) 

(45) 

St.  Leo  I,  440-61 

(119) 

(46) 

St.  Hilarius,  461-68 

(120) 

(47) 

St.  Simplicius,  468-83 

(121) 

(48) 

St.  Felix  II  (III),  483-92 

(122) 

(49) 

St.  Gelasius  I,  492-96 

(123) 

(50) 

St.  Anastasius  II,  496-98 

(124) 

(51) 

St.  Symmachus,  498-514 

(125) 

(52) 

St.  Hormisdas,  514-23 

(126) 

(53) 

St.  John  I,  523-26 

(127) 

(54) 

St.  FeUx  III  (IV),  526-30 

(128) 

(55) 

Boniface  II,  530-32 

(129) 

(56) 

John  II,  533-35 

(130) 

(57) 

St.  Agapetus  I,  53.5-36 

(131) 

(58) 

St.  Silverius,  536-38 (?) 

(132) 

(59) 

Vigilius,  538(?)-55 

(133) 

(60) 

Pelagius  I,  556-61 

(134) 

(61) 

John  III,  561-74 

(135) 

(62) 

Benedict  I,  575-79 

(63) 

Pelagius  II,  579-90 

(136) 

(64) 

St.  Gregory  I,  590-604 

(137) 

(65) 

Sabinianus,  604r-O6 

(138) 

(66) 

Boniface  III,  607 

(139) 

(67) 

St.  Boniface  IV,  608-15 

(140) 

(68) 

St.  Deusdedit,  615-18 

(69) 

Boniface  V,  619-25 

(141) 

(70) 

Honorius  I,  625-38 

(142) 

(71) 

Severinus,  638-40 

(143) 

(72) 

John  IV,  640-2 

(144) 

(73) 

Theodore  I,  642-49 

(145) 

(74) 

St.  Martin  I,  649-55 

(146) 

(75) 

St.  Eugene  I,  654-57 

(147) 

(76) 

St.  Vitalian,  657-72 

(77) 

Adeodatus,  672-76 
XII.-18 

(148) 

)  Bonus,  676-78 

)  St.  Agatho,  678-81 

)  St.  Leo  II,  682-83 

)  St.  Benedict  II,  684-85 

:)  John  V,  685-86 

)  Conon,  686-87 

)  St.  Sergius  I,  687-701 

)  John  VI,  701-05 

)  John  VII,  705-07 

)  Sisinnius,  708 

)  Constantine,  708-15 

0  St.  Gregory  II,  715-31 

i)  St.  Gregory  III,  731-41 

)  St.  Zacharias,  741-52 

Stephen  (11),  752 
)  Stephen  II  (III),  752-57 
)  St.  Paul  I,  757-67 

Constantine,  767-68 
)  Stephen  III  (IV),  768-72 
)  Adrian  I,  772-95 
)  St.  Leo  III,  795-816 
)  Stephen  IV  (V),  816-17 
)  St.  Paschal  I,  817-24 
)  Eugene  II,  824-27 
0  Valentine,  827 
)  Gregory  IV,  827-44 
)  Sergius  II,  844-47 
)  St.  Leo  IV,  847-55 
)  Benedict  III,  855-58 

Anastasius,  855 
)  St.  Nicholas  I,  858-67 
)  Adrian  II,  867-72 
)  John  VIII,  872-82 
)  Marinus  I  (Martin  II),  882-84 
)  Adrian  III,  884-85 
')  Stephen  V  (VI),  885-91 
)  Formosus,  891-96 
)  Boniface  VI,  896 
)  Stephen  VI  (VII),  896-97 
)  Romanus,  897 
)  Theodore  II,  897 
)  John  IX,  898-900 
)  Benedict  IV,  900-03 
)  Leo  V,  903 
)  Christopher,  903-04 
)  Sergius  III,  904-11 
)  Anastasius  III,  911-13 
)  Lando,  913-14 
)  John  X,  914^28 
)  Leo  VI,  928 

)  Stephen  VII  (VIII),  928-31 
)  John  XI,  931-36 
)  Leo  VII,  936-39 
)  Stephen  VIII  (IX),  939-42 
')  Marinus  II  (Martin  III),  942-46 
)  Agapetus  II,  946-55 
)  John  XII,  955-64 
)  Leo  VIII,  963-65 
)  Benedict  V,  964 
)  John  XIII,  965-72 
)  Benedict  VI,  973-74 

Boniface  VII,  974 
)  Benedict  VII,  974-83 
)  John  XIV,  983-84 
)  Boniface  VII,  984-85 
')  John  XV,  985-96 
I)  Gregory  V,  996-99 

John  XVI,  997-98 
)  Silvester  II,  999-1003 
)  John  XVII,  1003 
)  John  XVni,  1003-09 
)  Sergius  IV,  1009-12 
)  Benedict  VIII,  1012-24 
)  John  XIX,  1024-32 
)  Benedict  IX  (a),  1032-45 

Silvester  III,  1045 

Gregory  VI,  1045-46 


POPE 


274 


POPE 


(149) 

(150) 
(151) 

(152) 
(153) 
(154) 
(155) 
(156) 

(157) 

(158) 
(159) 
(160) 

(161) 

(162) 
(163) 

(164) 


(165) 
(166) 

(167) 
(168) 

(169) 
(170) 


(171) 

(172) 
(173) 
(174) 
(175) 
(176) 
(177) 
(178) 
(179) 
(180) 
(181) 
(182) 
(183) 
(184) 
(185) 
(186) 
(187) 
(188) 
(189) 
(190) 
(191) 
(192) 
(193) 
(194) 
(195) 
(196) 

(197) 
(198) 
(199) 
(200) 
(201) 
(202) 

(203) 

(204) 
(205) 
(206) 
(207) 
(208) 


Clement  II,  1046-47 

Benedict  IX  (b),  1047-48 

Damasus  II,  1048 

St.  Leo  IX,  1049-54 

Victor  II,  1055-57 

Stephen  IX  (X),  1057-58 

Benedict  X,  1058-59 

Nicholas  II,  1059-61 

Alexander  II,  1061-73 

Homrius  II,  1061-64 

St.  Gregory  VII,  22  Apr.,  1073-25  May,  1085 

demerit  III,  1084-1100 

Victor  III,  9  May,  1087-16  Sept.,  1087 

Urban  II,  12  March,  1088-29  July,  1099 

Paschal  II,  13  Aug.,  1099-21  Jan.,  1118 

Sylvester  IV,  1105-11 

Gelasius  II,  24  Jan.,  1118-28  Jan.,  1119 

Gregory  VIII,  1118-21 

Callistus  11,  2  Feb.,  1119-13  Dec,  1124 

Honorius  II,  15  Dec,  1124-13  Feb.,  1130 

Celestine  II,  1124 

Innocent  II,  14  Feb.,  1130-24  Sept.,  1143 

Anadetus  II,  1130-38 

Victor  IV,  1138 

Celestine  II,  26  Sept.,  1143-8  March,  1144 

Lucius  II,  12   March,    1144    (cons.)-15    Feb., 

1145 
Eugene  III,  15  Feb.,  1145-8  July,  1153 
Anastasius  IV,  12  July,  1153  (cons.)-3  Dec, 

11,54 
Adrian  IV,  4  Dec,  1154-1  Sept.,  1159 
Alexander  III,  7  Sept.,  1159-30  Aug.,  1181 
Victor  IV,  1159-64 
Paschal  III,  1164-68 
Callistus  III,  1168-78 
Innocent  III,  1179-80 
Lucius  III,  1  Sept.,  1181-25  Nov.,  1185 
Urban  III,  25  Nov.,  1185-20  Oct.,  1187 
Gregory  VIII,  21  Oct.-17  Dec,  1187 
Clement  III,  19  Dec,  1187-March,  1191 
Celestine  III,  30  March,  1191-8  Jan,,  1198 
Innocent  III,  8  Jan.,  1198-16  July,  1216 
Honorius  III,  18  July,  1216-18  March,  1227 
Gregory  IX,  19  March,  1227-22  Aug.,  1241 
Celestine  IV,  25  Oct.-lO  Nov.,  1241 
Innocent  IV,  25  June,  1243-7  Dec,  1254 
Alexander  IV,  12  Dec,  1254-25  May,  1261 
Urban  IV,  29  Aug.,  1261-2  Oct.,  1264 
Clement  IV,  5  Feb.,  1265-29  Nov.,  1268 
St.  Gregory  X,  1  Sept.,  1271-10  Jan.,  1276 
Innocent  V,  21  Jan.-22  June,  1276 
Adrian  V,  11  July-18  Aug.,  1276 
John  XXI,  8  Sept.,  1276-20  May;  1277 
Nicholas  III,  25  Nov.,  1277-22  Aug.,  1280 
Martin  IV,  25  Feb.,  1281-28  March,  1285 
Honorius  IV,  2  Apr.,  1285-3  Apr.,  1287 
Nicholas  IV,  22  Feb.,  1288^  Apr.,  1292 
St.  Celestine  V,  5  July-13  Dec,  1294 
Boniface  VIII,  24  Dec,  1294^11  Oct.,  1303 
Benedict  XI,  22  Oct.,  1303-7  July,  1304 
Clement  V,  5  June,  1305-20  Apr.,  1314 
John  XXII,  7  Aug.,  1316-4  Dec,  1334 
Nicholas  V,  1328-30 

Benedict  XII,  20  Dec,  1334-25  Apr.,  1342 
Clement  VI,  7  May,  1342-6  Dec,  1352 
Innocent  VI,  18  Dec,  1352-12  Sept.,  1362 
Urban  V,  6  Nov.,  1362  (cons.)-19  Dec,  1370 
Gregory  XI,  30  Dec,  1370-27  March,  1378 
Urban  VI,  8  Apr.,  1378-15  Oct.,  1389 
Clement  VII,  1378-94 
Boniface  IX,  2  Nov.,  1389-1  Oct.,  1404 
Benedict  XIII,  1394-1424 
Innocent  VII,  17  Oct.,  1404-6  Nov.,  1406 
Gregory  XII,  30  Nov.,  1406-4  July,  1415 
Alexander  V,  26  June,  1409-3  May,  1410 
John  XXIII,  17  May,  1410-29  May,  1415 
Martin  V,  11  Nov.,  1417-20  Feb.,  1431 


Clement  VIII,  1424-29 
Benedict  XIV,  1424 

(209)  Eugene  IV,  3  March,  1431-23  Feb.,  1447 
Felix  V  1439—49 

(210)  Nicholas  V,  6  March,  1447-24  March,  1455 

(211)  Callistus  III,  8  Apr,,  1455-6  Aug,,  14,58 

(212)  Pius  II,  19  Aug,,  1458-15  Aug,,  1464 

(213)  Paul  II,  31  Aug,,  1464-26  July,  1471 

(214)  Sixtus  IV,  9  Aug,,  1471-12  Aug.,  1484 

(215)  Innocent  VIII,  29  Aug.,  1484-25  July,  1492 

(216)  Alexander  VI,  11  Aug.,  1492-18  Aug.,  1503 

(217)  Pius  III,  22  Sept.-18  Oct.,  1503 

(218)  Julius  II,  1  Nov.,  1503-21  Feb.,  1513 

(219)  Leo  X,  11  March,  1513-1  Dec,  1521 

(220)  Adrian  VI,  9  Jan.,  1522-14  Sept,,  1523 

(221)  Clement  VII,  19  Nov,,  1523-25  Sept,,  1534 

(222)  Paul  III,  13  Oct,,  153^10  Nov,,  1549 

(223)  Julius  III,  8  Feb.,  1550-23  March,  1555 

(224)  Marcellus  II,  9-30  Apr.,  1555 

(225)  Paul  IV,  23  May,  1555-18  Aug.,  1559 

(226)  Pius  IV,  25  Dec,  1559-9  Dec,  1565 

(227)  St.  Pius  V,  7  Jan.,  1566-1  May,  1572 

(228)  Gregory  XIII,  13  May,  1572-10  Apr.,  1585 

(229)  Sixtus  V,  24  Apr.,  1585-27  Aug.,  1590 

(230)  Urban  VII,  15-27  Sept.,  1590 

(231)  Gregory  XIV,  5  Dec,  1590-15  Oct.,  1591 

(232)  Innocent  IX,  29  Oct.-30  Dec,  1591 

(233)  Clement  VIII,  30  Jan.,  1592-5  March,  1605 

(234)  Leo  XI,  1-27  Apr.,  1605 

(235)  Paul  V,  16  May,  1605-28  Jan.,  1621 

(236)  Gregory  XV,  9  Feb.,  1621-8  July,  1623 

(237)  Urban  VIII,  6  Aug.,  1623-29  July,  1644 

(238)  Innocent  X,  15  Sept.,  1644-7  Jan.,  1655 

(239)  Alexander  VII,  7  Apr.,  1655-22  May,  1667 

(240)  Clement  IX,  20  June,  1667-9  Dec,  1669 

(241)  Clement  X,  29  Apr.,  1670-22  July,  1676 

(242)  Innocent  XI,  21  Sept.,  1676-11  Aug.,  1689 

(243)  Alexander  VIII,  6  Oct.,  1689-1  Feb.,  1691 

(244)  Innocent  XII,  12  July,  1691-27  Sept.,  1700 

(245)  Clement  XI,  23  Nov.,  1700-19  March,  1721 

(246)  Innocent  XIII,  8  May,  1721-7  March,  1724 

(247)  Benedict  XIII,  29  May,  1724-21  Feb.,  1730 

(248)  Clement  XII,  12  July,  1730-6  Feb.,  1740 

(249)  Benedict  XIV,  17  Aug.,  1740-3  May,  1758 

(250)  Clement  XIII,  6  July,  1758-2  Feb.,  1769 

(251)  Clement  XIV,  19  May,  1769-22  Sept.,  1774 

(252)  Pius  VI,  15  Feb.,  1775-29  Aug.,  1799 

(253)  Pius  VII,  14  March,  1800-20  Aug.,  1823 

(254)  Leo  XII,  28  Sept.,  1823-10  Feb.,  1829 

(255)  Pius  VIII,  31  March,  1829-30  Nov.,  1830 

(256)  Gregory  XVI,  2  Feb.,  1831-1  June,  1846 

(257)  Pius  IX,  16  June,  1846-7  Feb.,  1878 

(258)  Leo  XIII,  20  Feb.,  1878-20  July,  1903 

(259)  Pius  X,  4  Aug.,  1903- 

RocABERTi,  Bibl.  Maxima  Pontificia  (21  vola.,  Rome,  1695- 
99) ;  RoskovAny,  Romanus  Pontifex  tanquam  Prhnas  Eccle- 
sicB  et  princeps  civilis  e  Monument,  omnium  sceculorum  demonstra- 
tus  (16  vols.,  Neutra,  1867-79).  The  collection  of  Rocabebti 
embraces  the  works  of  more  than  a  hundred  authors  (from  the 
ninth  to  the  seventeenth  century)  on  the  primacy.  RoskovXny's 
work  is  a  collection  of  documents  dealing  with  the  primacy,  the 
civil  principality,  infallibility,  the  Vatican  Council,  etc.  A  valu- 
able feature  of  the  work  is  a  vast  bibliography  of  books  and 
pamphlets  treating  of  the  subject  from,  the  earliest  times  up 
to  the  date  of  publication,  with  useful  appreciations  of  many 
of  the  works  mentioned.  Bellarmine,  De  Summo  Pontifice  in 
ContToversi(E,  I  (Ingolstadt,  1601) ;  Ballerini,  De  primatu 
romani  pontificis  in  Migne,  Thesaurus,  III,  906;  Palmieri,  De 
romano  pontifice  (Rome,  1877);  Passaglia,  De  prmrogaiivis  b. 
Petri  apostolorum  principis  (Ratisbon,  1850) ;  HergenrOther, 
Catholic  Church  and  Christian  State  (London,  1876).  On  the 
primacy  in  the  primitive  Church:  Rivington,  The  Primitive 
Church  and  the  See  of  Peter  (London,  1894);  Idem,  The  Roman 
Primacy  430-451  (London,  1899) ;  Chapman,  Bishop  Gore  and 
the  Catholic  Claims  (London,  1905),  vi-vii. 

On  the  right  of  the  pope  to  receive  appeals:  Lupus,  Divinum 
et  immutabile  S.  Petri  circa  omnium  sub  coslo  fidelium  ad  Ro- 
manam  ejus  Cathedram  Appellationes  in  Opera,  VIII  (Venice, 
1726);  Alexander  Nataus,  Hist.  eccL,  saec.  IV,  dissertatio 
xxviii;  De  Jure  Appellationum;  Ballerini,  Annotationes  in 
Dissert.,  V.  Quesnellii  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  LV,  534;  Hepele- 
Leclercq.  Hist,  des  conciles,  I  (2),  p.  759  sq.  (Paris,  1907). 
On  the  primacy  of  honour:  Phillips,  Kirchenreckt  (Ratisbon, 
1854) ;  HiNSCHius,  System  des  kathol.  Kirchenrechts  (Berlin,  1869). 


POPISH 


275 


POPULAR 


On  papal  elections:  Phillips,  op.  dt.;  Hinbchitjs,  op.  cit.; 
Thomasbin,  Vetus  et  nova  ecclesics  discipUna  (Lyons,  1706) ; 
ScHEFFER-BoicHORST,  Die  Neuordnutig  der  Papstwahl  durch 
Nicolaus  // (Strasburg,  1879).  On  the  chronology  of  the  popes: 
Duchesne,  Liber  pontif.  (Paris,  1892) ;  Gams,  Series  episcoporum 
(Ratisbon,  1873). 

G.  H.  Joyce. 
Popish  Plot.     See  Oates's  Plot. 

Poppo,  Saint,  abbot,  b.  977;  d.  at  Marchiennes,  25 
January,  1048.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of 
Flanders;  his  parents  were  Tizekinus  and  Adalwif. 
About  the  year  1000  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land  with  two  others  of  his  countrymen.  Soon  after 
this  he  also  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  He  was 
about  to  marry  a  lady  of  noble  family,  when 
an  impressive  experience  led  him  to  seek  another 
mode  of  life.  As  he  was  journeying  late  at 
night  a  flame  burst  forth  over  his  head  and  his  lance 
radiated  a  brilliant  light.  He  believed  this  to  be  an 
illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  soon  after, 
1005,  he  entered  the  monastery  of  St.  Thierry  at 
Reims.  About  1008  Abbot  Richard  of  St.  Vannes  at 
Verdun,  who  was  a  zealous  reformer  of  monasteries  in 
the  spirit  of  the  reform  of  Cluny,  took  Poppo  with 
him  to  his  monastery.  Richard  made  Poppo  prior  of 
St.  ^'aast  d' Arras,  in  the  Diocese  of  Cambrai,  about 
1013.  Here  Poppo  proved  himself  to  be  the  right  man 
for  the  position,  reclaimed  the  lands  of  the  monastery 
from  the  rapacious  vassals,  and  secured  the  posses- 
sion of  the  monastery  by  deeds.  Before  1016  he  was 
appointed  to  the  same  position  at  Vasloges  {Beloacum, 
Beaulieu)  in  the  Diocese  of  Verdun.  In  1020  the  Em- 
peror Henry  II,  who  had  become  acquainted  with 
Poppo  in  1016,  made  him  abbot  of  the  royal  Abbeys  of 
Stablo  (in  Lower  Lorraine,  now  Belgium)  and  Mal- 
medy.  Richard  was  very  unwilling  to  lose  him. 
Poppo  also  received  in  1023  the  Abbey  of  St.  Maximin 
at  Trier,  and  his  importance  became  still  greater  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Conrad  11.  From  St.  Maximin  the 
Cluniac  reform  now  found  its  way  into  the  German 
monasteries.  The  emperor  placed  one  royal  monas- 
tery after  another  under  Poppo's  control  or  super- 
vision, as  Limburg  an  der  Hardt,  Echternach,  St. 
Gislen,  Weissenburg,  St.  Gall,  Hersfeld,  Waulsort,  and 
Hostieres.  In  the  third  decade  of  the  century  Poppo 
gave  these  positions  as  abbot  to  his  pupils.  The  bish- 
ops and  laymen  who  had  founded  monasteries  placed 
a  series  of  other  monasteries  under  his  care,  as  St. 
Laurence  at  Li&ge,  St.  Vincent  at  Metz,  St.  Eucharius 
at  Trier,  Hohorst,  Brauweiler,  St.  Vaast,  Marchi- 
ennes, etc.  However,  the  Cluniac  reform  had  at  the 
time  no  permanent  success  in  Germany,  because  the 
monks  were  accustomed  to  a  more  independent  and 
individual  way  of  action  and  raised  opposition.  After 
1038  the  German  court  no  longer  supported  the 
reform. 

Personally  Poppo  practised  the  most  severe  asceti- 
cism. He  had  no  interest  in  literary  affairs, 
and  also  lacked  the  powers  of  organization  and 
centralization.  Neither  was  he  particularly  promi- 
nent in  politics,  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III  he  was 
no  longer  a  person  of  importance.  Death  overtook 
him  while  he  was  on  a  journey  on  behalf  of  his  efforts 
at  monastic  reform.  His  funeral  took  place  in  the 
presence  of  a  great  concourse  of  people  at  Stablo. 

Ladewig,  Poppo  von  Stablo  und  die  Klosterreform  unter  den 
ersten  Saliern  (Berlin,  1883) ;  Sackur,  Die  Cluniacenser,  II  (Hali6, 
1894),  174-79,244-61,292-96;  Uavcth,  Kirchengeschichte Deutsch- 
lands,  3rd  and  4th  eds..  Ill  (Leipzig,  1906),  499-514. 

Klbmens  Lopflbk. 

Popular  Devotions. — Devotion,  in  the  language 
of  ascetical  writers,  denotes  a  certain  ardour  of  affec- 
tion in  the  things  of  God,  and  even  without  any  quali- 
fying prefix  it  generally  implies  that  this  ardour  is  of  a 
sensible  character.  On  the  other  hand,  by  the  term 
"devotions"  in  the  plural,  or  "popular  devotions",  we 
commonly  understand  those  external  practices  of  piety 


by  which  the  devotion  of  the  faithful  finds  life  and  ex- 
pression. The  efficacy  of  these  practices  in  eliciting  feel- 
ings of  devotion  is  derived  from  four  principal  sources, 
either  (1)  by  the  strong  appeal  which  they  make  to 
man's  emotional  instincts,  or  (2)  by  the  simplicity  of 
form  which  puts  them  within  the  reach  of  all,  or  (3)  by 
the  stimulus  of  association  with  many  others-  in  the 
same  good  work,  or  (4)  by  their  derivation  from  the 
example  of  pious  persons  who  are  venerated  for  their 
holiness.  No  doubt  other  reasons  besides  these  might 
be  found  why  this  or  that  exercise  brings  with  it  a  cer- 
tain spiritual  unction  which  stimulates  and  comforts 
the  soul  in  the  practice  of  virtue,  but  the  points  just 
mentioned  are  the  most  noteworthy,  and  in  the  more 
familiar  of  our  popular  devotions  all  these  four  influ- 
ences will  be  found  united. 

Historically  speaking,  our  best  known  devotions 
have  nearly  all  originated  from  the  imitation  of  some 
practice  peculiar  to  the  rehgious  orders  or  to  a  specially 
privileged  class,  and  consequently  owe  most  of  their 
vogue  to  the  fourth  of  the  influences  just  mentioned. 
The  Rosary,  for  instance,  is  admitted  by  all  to  have 
been  known  in  its  earliest  form  as  "Our  Lady's  Psal- 
ter". At  a  time  when  the  recitation  of  the  whole 
hundred  and  fifty  Psalms  was  a  practice  inculcated 
upon  the  religious  orders  and  upon  persons  of  educa- 
tion, simpler  folk,  unable  to  read,  or  wanting  the  neces- 
sary leisure,  recited  instead  of  the  Psalms  a  hundred 
and  fifty  Pater  nosters  or  supplied  their  place  more 
expeditiously  still  by  a  hundred  and  fifty  Hail  Marys 
said  as  salutations  of  Our  Lady.  The  Rosary  is  thus 
a  miniature  Psalter.  Again,  at  a  time  when  the  most 
ardent  desires  of  Christendom  centred  in  the  Holy 
Land,  and  when  lovers  of  the  Crucified  gladly  faced  all 
hardships  in  the  attempt  to  visit  the  scenes  of  the 
Saviour's  Passion,  those  unable  to  accomplish  such  a 
journey  strove  to  find  an  equivalent  by  following 
Christ's  footsteps  to  Calvary  at  least  in  spirit.  The 
exercise  of  the  Stations  of  the  Cross  thus  formed  a 
miniature  pilgrimage.  Similarly,  the  wearing  of  a 
scapular  or  a  girdle  was  a  form  of  investiture  for  peo- 
ple living  in  the  world,  by  which  they  might  put  on  the 
livery  of  a  particular  religious  institute;  in  other 
words,  it  was  a  miniature  habit.  Or  again,  those  who 
coveted  the  merits  attaching  to  the  recitation  of  the 
day  and  night  hours  of  the  clergy  and  the  monks 
supplied  their  place,  by  various  miniature  Offices  of 
devotion,  of  which  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  the  Hours  of  the  Passion  were  the  most 
familiar. 

Even  devotions  which  at  first  sight  suggest  nothing 
of  imitation  prove  on  closer  scrutiny  to  be  illustrations 
of  the  same  principle.  The  triple  Hail  Mary  of  the 
Angelus  probably  owes  its  actual  form  to  the  Tres 
preces  said  by  the  monastic  orders  at  Prime  and  Com- 
plin as  far  back  as  the  eleventh  century,  while  our 
famihar  Benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  has 
almost  certainly  developed  out  of  an  imitation  of  the 
musical  rendering  of  the  antiphons  of  Our  Lady, 
notably  the  Salve  Regina,  which  to  the  popular  taste 
were  the  most  attractive  feature  of  the  monastic  office. 
To  classify  these  practices  of  piety,  and  especially 
those  others  which  concern  the  observance  of  special 
times  and  seasons,  for  example,  the  consecration  of  the 
month  of  May  to  Our  Lady,  or  of  the  month  of  June 
to  the  Sacred  Heart,  is  not  easy;  for  the  pious  in- 
genuity of  the  faithful  is  fertile  in  new  devices,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  decide  what  degree  of  acceptance  war- 
rants us  in  regarding  a  new  devotion  as  legitimately 
estabhshed.  The  dedication  of  May  and  June  just 
referred  to,  and  that  of  November  to  the  Holy  Souls, 
is  recognized  everywhere,  but  there  is  far  less  una- 
nimity about  the  consecration  of  October,  for  example, 
to  the  honour  of  the  Guardian  Angels.  This  devotion 
is  no  doubt  indicated  in  many  prayer  books,  but  it  has 
been  in  a  measure  obscured  of  late  years  by  the  special 
papal  commendation  of  the  Rosary  in  October,  while 


POPULATION 


276 


POPULATION 


Indulgences  are  also  granted  for  the  novena  and  other 
exercises  in  honour  oi  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  during  the 
same  month.  We  may  note  that  the  consecration  of 
March  to  St.  Joseph,  of  September  to  the  Seven 
Dolours,  and,  less  directly,  that  of  July  to  the  Precious 
Blood,  are  also  recognized  by  the  grant  of  indulgences. 

Again,  there  are  other  devotions  whose  popularity 
has  been  limited  to  certain  periods  or  certain  localities. 
For  example,  the  various  sets  of "  Little  Offices  "  (e.g. of 
the  Passion  or  of  the  Blessed  Trinity),  which  occupy 
so  much  space  in  the  printed  Horae  and  Primers  of  the 
early  sixteenth  century,  are  hardly  heard  of  at  present. 
The  "Seven  Blood-Sheddings "  or  the  "Seven  Falls" 
of  Our  Blessed  Lord,  once  so  much  honoured,  have  now 
passed  out  of  recollection.  Similarly  the  exercise  of 
the  Jesus  Psalter,  which  was  incredibly  dear  to  our 
ancestors  in  the  old  penal  days,  seems  never  to  have 
spread  beyond  English-speaking  countries  and  has 
never  been  indulgenced.  On  the  other  hand,  the  prev- 
alence of  more  frequent  Communion  since  the  six- 
teenth century  has  introduced  many  new  practices  of 
devotion  unknown  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Six  Sun- 
days of  St.  Aloysius,  the  Five  Sundays  of  St.  Francis's 
Stigmata,  the  Seven  Sundays  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, the  Seven  Sundays  of  St.  Joseph,  the  Ten 
Sundays  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  the  Ten  Sundays  of 
St.  Ignatius  Loyola,  and  especially  the  Nine  Fri- 
days in  honour  of  the  Sacred  Heart  are  all  in 
various  degrees  authorized  and  familiar.  And,  as  these 
last  examples  suggest,  there  is  everywhere  a  tendency 
to  multiply  imitations.  We  have  now  not  one  Rosary, 
but  many  rosaries  or  ohaplets  (of  which  imitations 
perhaps  the  best  known  is  the  Rosary  of  the  Seven 
Dolours),  not  one  scapular  but  many  scapulars,  not 
one  "miraculous  medal"  but  several.  Neither  must 
we  always  expect  to  find  consistency.  In  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  the  Seven  Dolours 
and  Seven  Joys  of  Our  Lady  were  commonly  Five 
Dolours  and  Five  Joys  (see  "Analecta  BoUandiana", 
1893,  p.  333),  while  this  last  reckoning  probably  owed 
much  to  the  great  popularity  of  the  devotion  to  the 
Five  Wounds.  On  the  other  hand,  indulgences,  which 
may  be  found  in  the  Raocolta,  have  been  granted 
to  certain  prayers  in  honour  of  the  Seven  Sorrows 
and  Seven  Joys  of  St.  Joseph. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  devotional 
extravagances  are  suffered  to  multiply  unchecked. 
Although  the  Holy  See  as  a  rule  refrains  from  inter- 
vention, except  when  abuses  are  directly  denounced  to 
it  (the  practice  being  in  such  matters  to  leave  the 
repression  of  what  is  unseemly  or  fantastic  to  the  local 
ordinary),  still,  every  now  and  again,  where  some  theo- 
logical principle  is  involved,  action  is  taken  by  one  of 
the  Roman  Congregations,  and  some  objectionable 
practice  is  prohibited.  Not  very  long  since,  for  exam- 
ple, the  propagation  of  a  particular  form  of  prayer  was 
forbidden  in  connexion  with  the  so-called  "Brief  of  St. 
Anthony  ".  The  history  of  the  slow  recognition  by  the 
Church  of  the  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  might 
very  well  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  caution  with 
which  the  Holy  See  proceeds  in  matters  where  there  is 
question  of  any  theological  principle.  The  precise 
number  of  Christ's  blood-sheddings,  or  of  Mary^  joys, 
the  fashion  or  colour  of  scapulars,  medals,  or  badges, 
the  veneration  of  Our  Lady  under  one  particular  invo- 
cation rather  than  another,  are  obviously  matters  of 
subordinate  importance  in  which  no  great  harm  can 
result  if  some  measure  of  freedom  is  allowed  to  the  pious 
imagination  of  the  faithful. 

No  good  purpose  would  be  served  by  attempting  a 
catalogue  of  approved  Catholic  devotions.  It  may  be 
sufficient  to  note  that  the  list  of  indulgenced  prayers 
and  practices  provided  in  the  Raccolta  or  in  the  larger 
works  of  Beringer  and  Mocchegiani  afford  a  sufficient 
practical  indication  of  the  measure  in  which  such  prac- 
tices are  recognized  and  recommended  by  the  Church. 
Most  of  the  principal  devotions  are  dealt  with  sep- 


arately in  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  whether  we 
regard  different  objects  and  motives  of  devotion — -such 
as  the  Blessed  Sacrament  (see  Eucharist),  the  Pas- 
sion, the  Five  Wounds,  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Seven 
Dolours,  and,  in  a  word,  the  principal  mysteries  and 
festivals — or,  again,  devotional  practices — e.  g.,  the 
Angelus,  Benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  the 
Rosary,  the  Stations  of  the  Cross — or,  again,  confra- 
ternities and  associations  identified  with  particular 
forms  of  devotion  —  e.  g.,  the  Confraternity  of  the 
Bona  Mors  or  that  of  the  Holy  Family. 

There  seems  to  be  no  authoritative  general  work  on  popular 
devotions,  but  for  the  Indulgences  and  some  historical  details 
connected  with  them  see  Mocchegiani,  Collectio  Indulgentiarum 
(Quaracchi,  1897) ;  Beringer,  Die  Abl&sse  (many  editions  and  a 
French  and  Italian  translation)  ;  L^picier,  Indulgences,  tr.  (Lon- 
don, 1906).  Several  of  the  more  familiar  popular  devotions  have 
been  treated  historically  by  the  present  writer  in  The  Month 
(1900  and  1901). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Population,  Theories  op. — Down  to  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  very  little  attention  was  given  to 
the  relation  between  increase  of  population  and  in- 
crease of  subsistence.  Plato  (De  republica,  V)  and 
Aristotle  (De  republica,  II,  vi)  maintained,  in- 
deed, that  in  a  communistic  society  marriage  and 
the  birth  of  children  ought  to  be  regulated  and  re- 
stricted by  law,  lest  the  means  of  support  should  be 
insufficient  for  all  the  citizens;  and  in  some  of  the 
city-states  of  ancient  Greece,  abortion,  unnatural 
love,  and  infanticide  were  deliberately  recommended 
and  practised  for  the  same  general  end.  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  nations  of  antiquity  as  well  as  those  of 
the  medieval  period  regarded  the  indefinite  increase 
of  the  population  as  a  public  good,  since  it  multi- 
plied the  number  of  the  country's  fighting  men.  In 
the  words  of  Frederick  the  Great,  "the  number  of  the 
population  constitutes  the  wealth  of  the  State". 
Before  his  time  over-population  had  not  occurred 
in  any  civilized  country,  or  at  least  it  had  not  been 
recognized  as  such.  It  was  prevented  or  disguised 
by  disease,  plagues,  wars,  and  various  forms  of 
economic  hardship;  by  fixed  and  simple  standards  of 
Uving;  and  by  customs  which  adjusted  the  marriage 
rate,  and  consequently  the  rate  of  reproduction,  to 
the  contemporary  planes  of  living  and  supplies  of 
food.  The  Mercantilists,  whose  opinions  on  economic 
matters  were  widely  accepted  in  the  sixteenth, 
seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries,  agreed  with  the 
military  statesmen  that  increase  of  population  was 
an  unqualified  blessing;  while  the  Physiocrats  of 
the  eighteenth  century  were  less  confident,  some  of 
them  insisting  that  shortage  of  food  was  a  possibility 
that  ought  to  be  taken  into  account  by  a  nation, 
none  of  them  conceived  the  problem  as  of  pressing 
importance,  or  dealt  with  it  in  an  extended  and  sys- 
tematic way.  Several  other  writers,  such  as  Montes- 
quieu, Hume,  Steuart,  Wallace,  Arthur  Young,  and 
Julius  Moser,  who  had  recognized  the  existence  and 
general  nature  of  the  problem,  likewise  failed  to 
discuss  it  thoroughly.  This  was  true  even  of  Adam 
Smith.  Although  he  noted  the  fact  that  increase 
of  population  among  the  poorer  classes  is  checked  by 
scarcity  of  subsistence  (Wealth  of  Nations",  Lon- 
don, 1776,  I,  viii),  he  did  not  develop  the  thought 
or  draw  any  practical  conclusions  therefrom.  Writ- 
ing when  the  great  industrial  inventions  were  just 
beginning  to  indicate  an  enlargement  of  the  means 
of  living,  when  the  new  political  and  economic  free- 
dom seemed  to  promise  the  release  and  expansion 
of  an  immense  amount  of  productive  energy,  and 
under  the  influence  of  a  philosophical  theory  which 
held  that  the  "unseen  hand"  of  Providence  would  so 
direct  the  new  powers  and  aspirations  that  all  classes 
would  have  abundant  sustenance,  Smith  was  an  un- 
qualified optimist.  He  believed  that  the  pressure  of 
population  upon  subsistence  had  become  a  thing 
of  the  past. 


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The  first  author  to  deal  systematically  with  the 
problem  was  Gianmaria  Ortes,  a  Venetian  friar,  in 
a  work  entitled,  "Reflessioni  sulla  populazione  per 
rapporto  all'  economia  nazionale."  It  appeared  in 
1790,  eight  years  before  the  first  edition  of  Malthus's 
famous  work.  According  to  Nitti:  "Some  pages  of 
Ortes  seem  quite  similar  to  those  of  Malthus;  he  com- 
prehended the  entire  question,  the  geometrical  pro- 
gression of  the  population,  the  arithmetical  pro- 
gression of  the  means  of  subsistence,  the  preventive 
action  of  man,  and  the  repressive  action  of  nature" 
(Population  and  the  Social  System,  p.  8).  However, 
his  book  lacked  the  confident  tone  and  the  statistical 
arguments  of  Malthus;  consequently  it  was  soon 
overshadowed  by  the  latter's  production,  and  the 
Anglican  divine  instead  of  the  Venetian  friar  became 
the  sponsor  of  the  world's  best-known  and  most 
pessimistic  theory  of  population. 

The  Theory  of  Malthus.— In  the  twenty-two 
years  that  had  intervened  between  the  appearance 
of  Adam  Smith's  "Wealth  of  Nations"  and  the 
"Essay  on  the  Principle  of  Population"  (London, 
1798)  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Malthus  (1766-1834), 
the  French  Revolution  had  caused  the  downfall  of 
the  old  social  system,  without  improving  the  condi- 
tion of  the  French  people;  a  succession  of  bad 
harvests  had  impoverished  the  agricultural  districts 
of  England,  while  her  credit  had  become  so  impaired 
by  the  recent  wars  as  to  render  very  difficult  the  im- 
portation of  supplies  from  abroad.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  rapid  development  of  the  textile  and  other 
industries  through  the  recent  mechanical  inventions 
had  called  new  towns  into  existence,  and  greatly 
stimulated  the  increase  of  population;  the  system 
of  public  allowances  of  money  to  all  pauper  children 
encouraged  improvident  marriages  among  the  poorer 
classes.  Although  there  had  been  a  considerable 
increase  in  the  national  wealth  as  a  whole,  the  work- 
ing classes  had  received  none  of  the  benefit.  In- 
creased production  seemed  to  mean  a  disproportionate 
increase  in  population,  and  a  decrease  in  the  sub- 
sistence of  the  poor.  The  obvious  objection,  that 
this  condition  was  attributable  to  bad  distribution 
rather  than  to  insufficient  production,  had  indeed  come 
to  the  attention  of  Malthus.  In  some  degree  his 
book  was  an  answer  to  that  very  objection.  William 
Godwin,  a  disciple  of  the  French  revolutionary 
philosophers,  chiefly  in  his  work  "Political  Justice", 
had  been  defending  the  theory  that  all  the  evils  of 
society  arose  from  defective  social  institutions,  and 
that  there  was  more  than  enough  wealth  for  all,  if 
it  were  only  distributed  equally.  Malthus  replied 
to  this  position  with  his  "Essay  on  the  Principle  of 
Population".  His  thesis  was  that  population  con- 
stantly tends  to  outrun  subsistence,  but  that  it  is 
held  in  check  by  vice — abortion,  infanticide,  prostitu- 
tion, and  by  misery  in  the  form  of  war,  plague,  famine, 
and  unnecessary  disease.  If  all  persons  were  pro- 
vided with  sufficient  sustenance,  and  these  checks  re- 
moved, the  relief  would  be  only  temporary;  for  the 
increase  of  marriages  and  births  would  soon  produce 
a,  population  far  in  excess  of  the  food  supply. 

The  first  edition  of  Malthus's  work  had,  therefore, 
a  definite  polemical  purpose,  the  refutation  of  a  com- 
munistic scheme  of  society.  Its  arguments  were 
general  and  popular  rather  than  systematic  or  scien- 
tific. They  were  based  upon  facts  easily  observed, 
and  upon  what  the  average  man  would  expect  to 
happen  if  vice  and  misery  ceased  to  operate  as  checks 
to  population.  As  a  popular  refutation  of  the  theories 
of  Godwin,  the  book  was  a  success,  but  its  author 
soon  began  a  deeper  inquiry  into  the  facts  from  which 
he  had  drawn  his  conclusions .  The  result  of  his  labours 
was  the  appearance  in  1803  of  a  second  edition  of  the 
"Essay",  which  differed  so  much  in  size  and  content 
from  the  first  as  to  constitute,  in  the  words  of  Malthus 
himself,  "a  new  work".    In  the  fiirst  chapter  of  the 


new  edition  he  declared  that  "the  constant  tendency 
of  all  animated  life  to  increase  beyond  the  nourish- 
ment prepared  for  it"  (p.  2)  had  not  hitherto  received 
sufficient  attention.  Before  attempting  to  prove  the 
existence  of  this  tendency,  he  inquired  what  would 
be  "the  natural  increase  of  population  if  left  to 
exert  itself  with  perfect  freedom  .  .  .  under  the  most 
favourable  circumstances  of  human  industry"  (p. 
4).  On  the  basis  of  the  history  of  North  America 
during  the  century  and  a  half  preceding  1800,  and 
from  the  opinions  of  some  economists,  he  concluded 
that  "population  when  unchecked  goes  on  doubling 
itself  every  25  years,  or  increases  in  a  geometrical 
ratio"  (p.  6).  A  brief  examination  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  food  increase  convinced  him  that  this 
could  never  be  "faster  than  in  an  arithmetical  ratio" 
(p.  10).  Applying  these  conclusions  to  England 
with  its  11,000,000  inhabitants  in  1800,  he  found  that 
the  natural  result  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury would  be  a  population  of  176,000,000,  and  sub- 
sistence for  only  55,000,000  (ibid.).  The  remainder 
of  the  first  volume  is  occupied  with  an  account  of  the 
positive  checks,  that  is,  vice  and  misery,  which  had 
hitherto  concealed  this  disastrous  discrepancy  _  be- 
tween population  and  subsistence  in  the  various 
countries  of  the  world.  In  the  second  volume  he 
discusses  the  means  which  have  been  proposed  to 
prevent  an  undue  increase  of  population,  and,  there- 
fore, to  render  unnecessary  the  action  of  the  positive 
checks.  Some  of  the  means  that  he  recommended 
were  abstention  from  pubhc  provision  for  the  en- 
couragement of  population  increase  and  for  the  relief 
of  the  poor,  and  abolition  of  existing  laws  of  this  kind, 
especially  the  Poor  Law  of  England.  But  his  chief 
recommendation  was  the  practice  of  what  he  called 
"moral  restraint"  That  is,  persons  who  were  un- 
able to  maintain  a  family  properly  should  live  in 
chaste  celibacy  until  such  time  as  they  had  overcome 
this  economic  disability  (bk.  IV,  passim).  In  the 
new  edition  of  his  work,  consequently,  Malthus  not 
merely  pointed  out  a  new  check  to  population,  but 
advocated  it,  in  order  to  prevent  and  forestall  the 
operation  of  the  cruel  and  immoral  checks  auto- 
matically set  in  motion  by  vice  and  misery. 

Criticism  of  the  Malthusian  Theory. — The  theory 
may  be  briefly  characterized  thus:  In  its  most  ex- 
treme and  abstract  form  it  is  false;  in  its  more 
moderate  form  it  never  has  been  and  never  can  be 
demonstrated;  even  if  true,  it  is  so  hypothetical, 
and  subject  to  so  many  disturbing  factors,  that  it  is 
of  no  practical  value  or  importance.  It  is,  of  course, 
abstractly  or  theoretically  possible  that  population 
may  exceed  subsistence,  either  temporarily  and 
locally,  or  permanently  and  universally.  This 
possibility  has  been  frequently  realized  among  savage 
peoples,  and  occasionally  among  civilized  peoples,  as 
in  the  case  of  famine.  But  the  theory  of  Malthus 
implies  something  more  than  an  abstract  possibility 
or  a  temporary  and  local  actuality.  It  asserts  that 
population  shows  a  constant  tendency  to  outrun  the 
food  supply,  a  tendency,  therefore,  that  is  always 
about  to  pass  into  a  reality  if  it  is  not  counteracted. 
In  all  the  six  editions  of  his  work  that  appeared  dur- 
ing Malthus's  lifetime,  this  tendency  is  .described 
in  the  formula  that  population  tends  to  increase  in 
geometrical  progression,  as,  2,  4,  8,  etc.,  while  the 
utmost  increase  in  subsistence  that  can  be  expected 
is  according  to  an  arithmetical  ratio,  as,  2,  3,  4,  etc. 
So  far  as  we  know,  population  has  never  increased 
in  geometrical  ratio  through  any  considerable  period; 
but  we  cannot  show  that  such  an  increase,  by  nat- 
ural means,  is  physiologically  impossible.  All  that 
it  implies  is  that  every  married  couple  should  have 
on  the  average  four  children,  who  would  themselves 
marry  and  have  the  same  number  of  children  to  each 
couple,  and  that  this  ratio  should  be  kept  up  indefi- 
nitely.    It  is  not,  however,  true  that  the  means  of 


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278 


POPULATION 


living  can  be  increased  only  in  an  arithmetical  ratio. 
During  the  nineteenth  century  this  ratio  was  con- 
siderably exceeded  in  many  countries  (cf.  Wells, 
"Recent  Economic  Changes")-  Malthus's  view 
on  this  point  was  based  upon  a  rather  limited  knowl- 
edge of  what  had  been  happening  before  his  time. 
He  did  not  foresee  the  great  improvements  in  pro- 
duction and  transportation  which,  a  few  years  later, 
so  greatly  augmented  the  means  of  subsistence  in 
every  civilized  country.  In  other  words  he  compared 
the  potential  fecundity  of  man,  the  limits  of  which 
were  fairly  well  known,  with  the  potential  fertility 
of  the  earth  and  the  potential  achievements  of  human 
invention,  neither  of  which  was  known  even  approxi- 
mately. This  was  a  bad  method,  and  its  outcome  in 
the  hands  of  Malthus  was  a  false  theory. 

Even  if  we  discard  the  mathematical  formula- 
tion of  the  theory,  and  examine  it  in  its  more  moderate 
form,  as  merely  asserting  that  population  tends  to 
outrun  subsistence,  we  find  that  the  theory  cannot 
be  proved.  The  facts  adduced  by  Malthus  in  support 
of  his  contention  related  to  the  insufficiency  of  the 
food  supply  in  many  countries  at  many  different 
times.  Now  it  is  true  that  barbarous  peoples  and 
peoples  dependent  upon  fishing  and  hunting  for  a 
living  have  frequently  lacked  subsistence,  especially 
when  they  were  unable  or  unwilling  to  emigrate; 
but  such  has  not  often  been  the  case  for  any  consider- 
able time  among  civilized  nations.  Want  of  food 
among  the  latter  has  usually  been  due  to  a  bad  in- 
dustrial organization  and  a  bad  distribution,  rather 
than  to  the  poverty  of  nature,  or  the  unproductive- 
ness of  man.  Even  to-day  a  large  proportion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  every  country  is  insufficiently  nour- 
ished, but  no  intelligent  person  attributes  this  con- 
dition to  an  absolute  excess  of  population  over  sub- 
sistence or  productiveness.  Since  Malthus  did  not 
give  sufficient  attention  to  the  evils  of  distribution, 
he  failed  to  prove  that  his  theory  was  generally  true, 
even  of  the  time  before  he  wrote;  since  he  did  not 
suspect  the  great  improvements  in  production  that 
were  soon  to  take  place,  he  was  still  less  able  to  show 
that  it  would  be  universally  valid.  While  admitting 
the  weakness  of  his  argument,  some  of  his  later 
followers  insist  that  the  theory  is  true  in  a  general 
way.  Population,  if  unchecked  by  a  prudential 
regulation  of  marriages  and  births,  can  and  in  all 
probability  often  will  outrun  subsistence,  owing  to 
the  law  of  diminishing  returns  (cf.  Hadley,  "Eco- 
nomics"). 

Although  Malthus  seems  to  have  had  some  knowl- 
edge of  this  law,  he  did  not  use  it  as  the  basis  of  his 
conclusions.  Now  the  "law  of  diminishing  returns" 
is  simply  the  phrase  by  which  economists  describe 
the  well-known  fact  that  a  man  cannot  go  on  in- 
definitely increasing  the  amount  of  capital  and  labour 
that  he  expends  upon  a  piece  of  land,  and  continue 
to  get  profitable  returns.  Sooner  or  later  a  point 
is  reached  where  the  product  of  the  latest  increment 
of  expenditure  is  less  than  the  expenditure  itself. 
This  point  has  already  been  reached  in  many  re- 
gions, whence  a  part  of  the  population  is  compelled 
to  move  to  other  land.  When  it  has  been  reached 
everywhere,  population  will  universally  exceed 
subsistence.  Stated  in  this  form,  Malthusianism 
seems  to  be  irrefutable.  Nevertheless  the  law  of 
diminishing  returns,  like  all  economic  laws,  is  true 
only  in  certain  conditions.  Change  the  condi- 
tions, in  this  case,  the  methods  of  production,  and  the 
law  is  no  longer  operative.  With  new  productive 
processes,  further  expenditures  of  labour  and  capital 
become  profitable,  and  the  point  of  diminishing  re- 
turns is  moved  farther  away.  This  fact  has  received 
frequent  illustration  in  the  history  of  agriculture  and 
mining.  While  it  is  true  that  new  methods  are  not 
always  discovered  as  soon  as  they  are  needed,  and 
that  men  often  find  it  more  profitable  to  expend  their 


additional  resources  upon  new  lands  than  upon  the 
old,  it  is  also  true  that  we  can  set  no  definite  limits 
to  the  inventive  power  of  man,  nor  to  the  potential 
fertility  of  nature.  Absolutely  speaking,  no  one  is 
warranted  in  asserting  that  these  two  forces  will  not 
be  able  to  modify  indefinitely  the  conditions  in  which 
the  law  of  diminishing  returns  operates,  so  that  sub- 
sistence will  keep  pace  with  population  as  long  as  men 
have  standing  room  upon  the  earth.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  cannot  prove  that  if  population  were  to 
increase  up  to  the  full  limit  of  its  physiological  possi- 
bilities, it  would  always  be  sufficiently  provided  for 
by  the  fertiUty  of  nature  and  the  inventiveness  of 
man.  We  are  dealing  here  with  three  unknown 
quantities.  Upon  such  a  basis  it  is  impossible  either 
to  establish  a  social  law,  or  conclusively  to  refute 
any  particular  generalization  that  may  be  set  up. 
In  the  third  place,  the  Malthusian  theory,  even  if 
true,  is  of  no  practical  use.  The  assurance  that 
population,  if  unchecked,  will  inevitably  press  upon 
subsistence  does  not  terrify  us,  when  we  realize  that 
it  always  has  been  checked,  by  celibacy,  late  marriages, 
war,  natural  calamities,  and  other  forces  which  are 
not  due  to  scarcity  of  subsistence.  The  practical 
question  for  any  people  is  whether  these  non-scarcity 
checks  are  likely  to  keep  population  within  the  limits 
of  that  people's  productive  resources.  So  far  as  the 
nations  of  the  Western  world  are  concerned,  this 
question  may  be  answered  in  the  affirmative. 

The  use  of  preventive  checks,  such  as  postpone- 
ment of  marriage,  abortion,  and  artificial  sterility 
have  become  so  common  that  the  birth-rate  has  al- 
most everywhere  decreased  within  the  last  half- 
century,  and  there  is  no  indication  of  a  reaction  in 
the  near  future.  During  the  same  period  the  rate  of 
food  production  has  considerably  increased.  More- 
over, the  decline  in  the  birth-rate  has  been  most 
pronounced  among  those  classes  whose  subsistence 
is  most  ample,  thus  suggesting  the  probability  that  it 
will  become  equally  prevalent  among  the  poorer 
classes  as  soon  as  their  plane  of  living  is  raised.  The 
contingency  that  men  may  some  day  become  so  care- 
less of  the  higher  standards  of  comfort  as  to  give 
up  the  present  methods  of  restriction  is  too  remote 
to  justify  anxiety  on  the  part  of  this  generation. 
Let  us  assume,  however,  that,  under  the  influence  of 
religion  and  moral  teaching,  all  the  immoral  preven- 
tives of  population  were  discarded.  Even  so,  we 
have  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  lawful  checks,  such 
as  virtuous  celibacy  both  temporary  and  permanent, 
and  the  decrease  of  fecundity  that  seems  to  be  a 
necessary  incident  of  modern  life,  particularly  in 
cities,  would  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  world's  inhabi- 
tants well  within  the  bounds  of  its  productive  powers. 
So  far  as  we  can  see  at  present,  the  Malthusian 
theory,  even  if  true  in  the  abstract  and  hypothetically, 
is  so  hypothetical,  assumes  the  absence  of  so  many 
factors  which  are  always  likely  to  be  present,  that  it 
is  not  deserving  of  serious  attention,  except  as  a 
means  of  intellectual  exercise.  As  a.  law  of  popula- 
tion, it  is  about  as  valuable  as  many  of  the  other  laws 
handed  down  by  the  classical  economists.  It  is 
about  as  remote  from  reality  as  the  "economic  man" 
And  yet,  this  theory  met  with  immediate  and  al- 
most universal  acceptance.  The  book  in  which  it 
was  expounded  went  through  six  editions  while 
Malthus  was  living,  and  e.xerted  a  remarkable  in- 
fluence upon  economics,  sociology,  and  legislation 
during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Aside 
from  a  section  of  the  Socialists,  the  most  important 
group  of  writers  rejecting  the  Malthusian  theory 
have  been  Catholic  economists,  such  as  Liberatore, 
Devas,  Pesch,  Antoine  (cf.  Pesch,  "Lehrbuch  der 
Nationalokonomie",  II,  598).  Being  pessimistic 
and  individualistic,  the  teaching  of  Malthus  agreed 
thoroughly  with  the  temper  and  ideas  of  his  time. 
Distress  was  deep  and  general,  and  the  political  and 


POPULATION 


279 


POPULATION 


economic  theories  of  tlie  day  favoured  the  poUcy 
of  laissez  faire.  To  him  perhaps  more  than  to  any 
other  writer  is  due  the  evil  repute  of  the  orthodox 
economists,  as  opponents  of  legislation  in  the  in- 
terests of  the  poorer  classes.  In  the  words  of  Devas, 
"  Malthusianism  in  practice  has  been  a  grave  dis- 
couragement to  all  works  of  social  reform  and  humane 
legislation,  which  appeared  as  foolish  sentiment  de- 
feating its  kind  aims  by  encouraging  population" 
(Political  Economy,  2nd  ed.,  p.  198).  Malthus  de- 
clared that  the  poor  created  their  own  poverty  by 
marrying  improvidently,  and  that  any  general  sys- 
tem of  poor  relief  only  increased  and  prolonged  the 
root  evil,  overpopulation,  from  which  they  suffered 
(Essay  bk.  IV,  passim).  Although  he  had  a  genuine 
sympathy  for  the  poor,  and  believed  that  the  prac- 
tice of  "moral  restraint"  in  postponing  or  foregoing 
marriage  was  the  one  means  of  bettering  their  condi- 
tion permanently,  his  teaching  received  the  cordial 
approbation  of  the  wealthier  classes,  because  it  tended 
to  relieve  them  of  "responsibility  for  the  condition 
of  the  working  classes,  by  showing  that  the  latter  had 
chiefly  themselves  to  blame,  and  not  either  the  negli- 
gence of  their  superiors  or  the  institutions  of  the 
country"  (Ingram,  "History  of  Political  Economy", 
p.  121).  His  more  recent  followers  among  the  econo- 
mists realize  that  an  improvement  in  the  condition  of 
the  masses  is  apt  to  encourage  a  lower  birth-rate,  con- 
sequently they  are  not  opposed  to  all  measures  for  im- 
provement by  legislation.  Many  of  them,  however, 
have  exaggerated  the  social  and  moral  benefits  of  a 
low  birth-rate,  and  have  implicitly  approved  the  im- 
moral and  destructive  practices  upon  which  it  depends. 
The  irony  of  the  situation  is  that  preventive  checks, 
moral  and  immoral,  have  been  adopted  for  the  most 
part  by  the  rich  and  comfortable  classes,  who,  in 
the  opinion  of  Malthus,  were  not  called  upon  to 
make  any  personal  contribution  to  the  limitation  of 
population. 

The  most  notable  results  of  the  work  and  teaching 
of  Malthus  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  he  con- 
tributed absolutely  nothing  of  value  to  human 
knowledge  or  human  welfare.  The  facts  which  he 
described  and  the  remedies  which  he  proposed  had 
long  been  sufficiently  obvious  and  sufficiently  known. 
While  he  emphasized  and  in  a  striking  way  drew  at- 
tention to  the  possibility  of  general  overpopulation 
he  greatly  exaggerated  it,  and  thus  misled  and  mis- 
directed public  opinion.  Had  he  been  better  in- 
formed, and  seen  the  facts  of  population  in  their 
true  relations,  he  would  have  realized  that  the  proper 
remedies  were  to  be  sought  in  better  social  and  in- 
dustrial arrangements,  a  better  distribution  of  wealth, 
and  improved  moral  and  religious  education.  As 
things  have  happened,  his  teaching  has  directly  or 
indirectly  led  to  a  vast  amount  of  social  error,  negli- 
gence, suffering,  and  immorality. 

Neo-Malthusianism. — In  a  sense  this  system  is  the 
extreme  logical  outcome  of  Malthusianism  proper. 
While  Malthus  would  have  turned  in  horror  from  the 
practices  of  the  newer  theory,  his  own  recommenda- 
tions were  much  less  effective  as  a  means  to  the  com- 
mon end  of  both  systems.  The  Neo-Malthusians 
realize  better  than  he  did,  that  if  population  is  to  be 
deliberately  restricted  to  the  desired  extent,  other 
methods  than  chaste  abstention  from  or  postpone- 
ment of  marriage  are  necessary.  Hence  they  urge 
married  couples  to  use  artificial  and  immoral  devices 
for  preventing  conception.  Some  of  the  most 
prominent  leaders  of  this  movement  were  Robert 
Dale  Owen,  John  Stuart  Mill,  Charles  Bradlaugh, 
and  Annie  Besant.  With  them  deserve  to  be  as- 
sociated many  economists  and  sociologists  who  im- 
plicitly advocate  the  same  practices,  inasmuch  as 
they  glorify  an  indefinitely  expanding  standard  of 
comfort,  and  urge  limitation  of  offspring  as  the  one 
certain  means  whereby  the  labour  of  the  poorest 


paid  workers  may  be  made  scarce  and  dear.  Some 
of  the  Neo-Malthusian  leaders  in  England  main- 
tained that  they  were  merely  recommending  to  the 
poor  what  the  rich  denounced  but  secretly  practised. 

In  common  with  the  older  theory  from  which  it 
derives  its  name,  Neo-Malthusianism  assumes  that 
population  if  unchecked  will  exceed  subsistence,  but 
by  subsistence  it  means  a  liberal,  or  even  a,  progres- 
sively rising,  standard  of  comfort.  In  all  prob- 
ability this  contention  is  correct,  at  least,  in  the  latter 
form;  for  all  the  indications  are  against  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  earth  can  furnish  an  indefinitely  rising 
standard  of  comfort  for  a  population  that  contin- 
ues to  increase  up  to  the  full  measure  of  its  physio- 
logical capacity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  practices 
and  the  consequences  of  the  system  are  far  more 
futile,  deceptive,  and  disastrous  than  those  of 
Malthusianism.  The  practices  are  intrinsically  im- 
moral, implying  as  they  do  either  foeticide,  or  the 
perversion  of  natural  faculties  and  functions,  to 
say  nothing  of  their  injurious  effect  upon  physical 
health.  The  condition  aimed  at,  namely,  the  small 
family  or  no  children  at  all,  fosters  a  degree  of  ego- 
tism and  enervating  self-indulgence  which  lessens 
very  considerably  the  capacity  for  social  service, 
altruism,  and  every  form  of  industrial  and  intellec- 
tual achievement.  Hence  the  economists,  sociolo- 
gists, and  physicians  of  France  condemn  the  low 
birth-rate  and  the  small  family  as  a  grave  national 
and  social  evil.  On  the  industrial  side,  Neo-Mal- 
thusianism soon  defeats  its  own  end;  for  increased 
selfishness  and  decreased  stimulus  to  labour  are 
naturally  followed  by  a  smaller  output  of  product. 
If  the  restriction  of  offspring  were  confined  to  the 
poorer  classes,  their  labour  would  indeed  become 
scarce  relatively  to  the  higher  kinds  of  labour,  and 
their  wages  would  rise,  provided  that  their  pro- 
ductivity were  not  diminished  through  deterioration 
of  character.  As  a  fact,  however,  the  comfortable 
classes  adopt  the  method  much  more  generally  than 
do  the  poor,  with  the  result  that  the  excessive  supply 
of  unskilled  labour  is  increased  rather  than  dimin- 
ished. Where  all  classes  are  addicted  to  the  practice, 
the  oversupply  of  unskilled  labour  remains  relatively 
unchanged.  The  wages  of  all  classes  in  France  are 
lower  than  in  Germany,  England,  or  the  United 
States  (cf.  Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Labour).  Finally,  a  constantly  rising 
standard  of  comfort  secured  by  the  practices  and 
in  the  moral  atmosphere  of  Neo-Malthusianism 
means  not  a  higher  but  a  lower  plane  of  life ;  not  more 
genuine  culture  or  loftier  morals,  but  more  abundant 
physical  enjoyments  and  a  more  refined  materialism. 

Other  Theories  of  Population. — Rodbertus,  Marx, 
Engels,  Bebel,  and  possibly  a  majority  of  the  Social- 
ists who  have  considered  the  problem,  either  deny  a 
general  tendency  to  excessive  population,  or  main- 
tain that  it  is  realized  only  in  capitalistic  society. 
Under  Socialism  there  would  be  ample  sustenance  for 
the  greatest  possible  increase  in  population,  or,  at  any 
rate,  for  whatever  increase  that  form  of  society  would 
decide  to  have.  Now  it  is  quite  unlikely  that  a 
Socialistic  organization  of  production,  with  its  les- 
sened incentives  to  inventive  and  productive  energy, 
would  be  able  to  provide  means  of  living  adequate  to 
the  full  capacity  of  human  fecundity;  and  a  univer- 
sally and  continuously  rising  standard  of  comfort 
would  be  subject  to  all  the  physical,  moral,  and  in- 
tellectual hindrances  and  consequem^es  which  beset 
the  suicidal  system  of  Neo-Malthusianism. 

A  respectable  minority  of  economists  (in  this  con- 
nection frequently  known  as  "optimists")  have  re- 
jected the  Malthusian  theory  from  the  beginning. 
Among  the  most  prominent  are,  Bastiat  in  France, 
List  (1789-1846)  in  Germany,  and  Henry  C.  Carey 
in  America.  In  a  general  way  they  all  maintained 
that  in  proper  social  and  industrial  arrangements 


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280 


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population  will  never  exceed  subsistence.  This  was 
likewise  the  position  of  Henry  George,  whose  attack 
upon  the  theory  of  Malthus  is  probably  more  familiar 
to  Americans  than  that  of  any  other  writer  (of. 
Progress  and  Poverty).  Carey,  whose  father, 
Matthew  Carey,  the  Philadelphia  publisher,  was  a 
Catholic,  based  his  view  partly  upon  his  belief  in 
Providence,  and  partly  upon  the  assumption  that  in 
every  country  the  richest  lands  and  land  powers  re- 
main undeveloped  longest;  List  pointed  out  that 
thickly-populated  lands  are  frequently  more  pros- 
perous than  those  with  relatively  few  inhabitants, 
and  that  we  have  no  good  reason  to  set  limits  to  the 
capacity  of  the  earth,  which  could  undoubtedly 
support  many  times  its  present  population;  and 
Bastiat,  who  had  already  observed  the  artificial  re- 
striction of  the  birth-rate  in  his  own  country,  seems 
to  have  concluded  that  the  same  thing  would  happen 
in  other  countries  whenever  subsistence  tended  to 
fall  below  the  existing  standards  of  living.  ^  Al- 
though there  is  some  exaggeration  and  uncertainty 
in  all  these  positions,  they  are  undoubtedly  nearer 
the  truth  than  the  assumptions  of  Malthus. 

What  may  be  called  the  evolutionist  theory  of 
population  was  originated  and  incompletely  stated 
by  Charles  Darwin,  and  developed  by  Herbert 
Spencer.  In  the  latter  form  it  has  been  adopted 
substantially  by  many  biologists  and  sociologists. 
Although  it  was  a  chance  reading  of  Malthus's  work 
that  suggested  to  Darwin  the  idea  of  the  struggle  for 
existence,  the  Spencerian  theory  of  population  is  on 
the  whole  opposed  to  the  Malthusian.  According 
to  Spencer,  the  process  of  natural  selection,  which 
involves  the  destruction  of  a  large  proportion  of  the 
lower  organisms,  increases  individuality  and  de- 
creases fecundity  in  the  more  developed  species, 
especially  in  man.  At  length,  population  becomes 
automatically  adjusted  to  subsistence  at  that  level 
which  is  consonant  with  the  highest  progress.  With 
regard  to  the  future,  this  theory  is  extremely  opti- 
mistic, but  it  is  not  more  probable  or  any  more 
capable  of  proof  than  his  prophecy  concerning  the 
future  identification  of  egoism  and  altruism. 

On  the  basis  of  painstaking  research  and  abundant 
statistics,  M.  Ars&ne  Dumont  concluded  that  Malthu- 
sianism  is  theoretically  false  and  practically  worth- 
less, and  that  the  only  valuable  generalizations  about 
the  relation  of  population  to  subsistence  are  those 
which  concern  a  particular  country,  epoch,  civiliza- 
tion, or  form  of  society  (cf.  Nitti,  op.  cit.).  In  a 
democratic  society,  he  says,  the  real  danger  is  ex- 
cessive limitation  of  the  birth-rate  by  all  classes, 
even  the  lowest.  When  privileged  classes  and  so- 
cial stratifications  have  disappeared,  the  members  of 
every  class  strive  to  raise  themselves  above  their 
present  condition  by  restricting  the  number  of  their 
offspring.  So  far  as  it  goes,  this  theory  is  a  correct 
explanation  of  certain  existing  tendencies,  but,  as 
Father  Pesch  observes  in  reply  to  P.  Leroy-Beaulieu, 
the  true  remedy  for  the  French  conditions  is  not 
monarchy  but  the  Christian  religion  and  moral 
teaching  (op.  cit.,  II,  639). 

The  theory  of  Xitti  has  a  considerable  similarity 
to  that  of  Spencer,  but  the  Italian  sociologist  expects 
the  deliberate  action  of  man,  rather  than  any  decrease 
in  human  fecundity,  to  conform  population  to  sub- 
sistence in  any  society  in  which  wealth  is  justly 
distributed,  individuality  strongly  developed,  and 
individual  activity  maintained  at  a  high  level  of 
efBcioncy  (op.  cit.).  He  repudiates,  however,  the  ego- 
tistic and  socially  demoralizing  "prudence"  which 
is  so  generally  practised  to-day  for  the  limitation 
of  the  size  of  families.  Nevertheless,  it  is  utterly 
unlikely  that  the  sane  regulation  which  he  desires 
will  be  obtained  without  the  active  anrl  universal 
influence  of  religion.  With  this  condition  added, 
his  theory  seems  to  be  the  most  reasonable  of  all 


those  considered  in  this  article,  and  does  not  greatly 
differ  from  that  of  the  Catholic  economists. 

The  latter,  as  we  have  already  noted,  reject  the 
Malthusian  theory  and  the  interpretation  of  social 
facts  upon  which  it  is  founded.  Taking  as  typical 
the  views  of  Devas  in  England,  Antoine  in  France, 
Perin  in  Belgium,  Liberatore  in  Italy,  and  Pesch 
in  Germany  (see  works  cited  below)  we  may  describe 
their  views  in  the  following  terms.  A\'here  produc- 
tion is  effectively  organized,  and  wealth  justly  dis- 
tributed; where  the  morals  of  the  people  render  them 
industrious,  frugal,  averse  to  debilitating  comforts, 
and  willing  to  refrain  from  all  immoral  practices 
in  the  conjugal  relation;  where  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  people  embrace  the  condition  of  re- 
ligious celibacy,  others  live  chastely  and  yet  defer 
marriage  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  and  many 
emigrate  whenever  the  population  of  any  region  be- 
comes congested — undue  pressure  of  population 
upon  subsistence  will  never  occur  except  locally  and 
temporarily.  Probably  this  is  as  comprehensive, 
and  at  the  same  time  as  correct  a  generalization  as 
can  be  formulated.  It  may  be  reduced  to  the  sum- 
mary statement  of  Father  Pesch:  "Where  the 
quality  of  a  people  is  safeguarded,  there  need  be  no 
fear  for  its  quantity"  (op.  cit.,  II,  624).  Take  care 
of  the  quality,  says  the  learned  Jesuit,  and  the  quan- 
tity will  take  care  of  itself.  Be  anxious  about  the 
quantity,  say  the  Malthusians  and  all  the  advocates 
of  the  small  family,  lest  the  quality  deteriorate.  It 
is  less  than  eighty  years  since  IMalthus  died,  and 
a  considerably  shorter  time  has  elapsed  since  the 
restriction  of  births  became  in  any  sense  general; 
yet  the  number  is  rapidly  increasing  everywhere  of 
thoughtful  men  who  see  that  the  ^^'estern  world  is 
confronted  by  "  a  problem  not  of  excessive  fecundity, 
but  of  race  suicide"  (Seligman,  "Principles  of 
Economics",  65). 

Malthus,  An  Essay  on  the  Principle  of  Population  (London, 
1826) ;  Nitti,  Population  and  the  Social  System  (tr.  London, 
1894):  Ingram,  A  History  of  Political  Economy  (New  York, 
1894);  Devas,  Political  Economy  (London,  1901);  Hadley, 
Economics  (New  York,  1898);  Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics 
(New  York,  1905) ;  Liberatore,  Principles  of  Political  Economy 
(tr.  London,  1891) ;  Antoine,  Cours  (V economic  sociale  (Paris, 
1899) ;  Perin,  Premiers  principes  eV economic  politique  (Paris, 
1896);  Pesch,  Lehrbuch  dcr  NationaWkanomic  (i^^reiburg,  1909); 
Fahlbeck,  Neomalthusianismus  in  Zeitschrift  fiir  Sozialwissen- 
schaft,  VI  (1903). 

John  A.  Ryan. 

Pordenone,  Giovanni  Antonio,  Italian  painter, 
b.  at  Pordenone,  1483;  d.  at  Ferrara,  January,  1539. 
He  is  occasionally  referred  to  by  his  family  name 
Licinio,  at  times  as  Regillo,  but  usually  as  Pordenone, 
from  his  birthplace,  and  by  that  name  some  of  his 
works  are  signed.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  a  pupil 
of  Pellegrino  da  San  Daniello.  Most  of  the  informa- 
tion respecting  him  is  derived  from  Carlo  Ridolfi,  who 
states  that  Pordenone's  first  commission  was  given 
him  by  a  grocer  in  his  native  town,  to  try  his  boast 
that  he  could  paint  a  picture  as  the  priest  commenced 
High  Mass,  and  complete  it  by  the  time  Mass  was 
over.  He  is  said  to  have  executed  the  given  com- 
mission in  the  required  time.  Most  of  his  early  work 
is  to  be  found  in  the  form  of  fresco  decoration  in  the 
churches  around  Pordenone,  where  he  spent  most  of 
his  time.  There  he  married  twice.  His  work  was  in 
great  demand  in  Mantua,  Cremona,  Trc\-iso,  and 
Spilimbergo,  where  his  rich  and  elaborate  fresco  work, 
as  well  as  decorations  for  the  fronts  of  organs,  and 
altar-pieces,  are  found.  About  1529  he  went  to 
Venice,  but  little  of  his  work  remains  in  that  city,  save 
the  two  panels  representing  St.  Christopher  and  St. 
Martin  in  the  church  of  Saint  Rocco.  He  then  jour- 
neyed to  Piacenza,  Genoa,  Ferrara,  and  other  places, 
doing  fresco  decoration,  and  receiving  warm  welcome 
at  each  place.  Returning  to  his  native  city,  he  re- 
ceived the  honour  of  knighthood  from  King  John  of 
Hungary,  and  from  that  time  was  frequently  styled 


PORDENONE 


281 


PORDENONE 


"Regillo"  In  1536  he  was  again  in  Venice,  carrying 
out  some  commissions  tor  the  Council  of  Ten,  and 
decorating  the  ceilings  of  three  of  their  halls.  These 
works  were  so  thoroughly  approved  that  further  com- 

missions  were 
given  him  by  the 
Senate,  but  unfor- 
tunately every- 
thing carried  out 
by  Pordenone  at 
that  time  has  per- 
ished. From  Ven- 
ice he  went  to 
Ferrara,  to  ex- 
ecute certain  com- 
missions  for 
Ercole  II,  Duke 
of  Ferrara,  but  he 
was  there  a  short 
time  when  he 
died. 

Rumours  were 
that  he  had  been 
poisoned  by  one 
of  the  Ferrarese 
artists,  who  was 
jealous  of  his  rep- 
utation,     but 

PoKDENONE  (Painting  by  himself)  other      reports 

state  that  he  caught  a  severe  chill  after  eating, 
and  a  third  statement  says  that  he  died  from  an 
epidemic  at  that  time  raging  in  the  city.  A  con- 
temporary artist,  however,  gives  his  family  name  as 
Cuticello  and  not  Licinio.  He  states  definitely  that 
the  artist  was  poisoned  by  Ferrarese  artists  at  the 
Angel  Inn,  Ferrara.  His  tomb  is  in  the  church 
of  San  Paolo  in  Ferrara.  Better  than  most  of  his 
contemporaries,  he  was  acquainted  with  the  laws 
of  perspective,  and  his  fresco  work  is  always  well 
drawn,  learned,  agreeable,  and  pleasant.  He  pos- 
sessed great  facility  and  considerable  power  of 
originality,  and  being  a  man  of  strong  and  very 
determined  religious  opinions,  devoted  himself  heart- 
ily to  church  decoration,  and  carried  it  out  with 
exceedingly  fine  results.  There  was  a  strong  com- 
petition between  him  and  Titian  in  Venice,  and 
there  are  statements  in  Venetian  MSS.  of  the  time 
which  imply  that  certain  works  of  Pordenone's  were 
intentionally  destroyed  by  persons  who  were  jealous 
of  the  honour  and  position  of  Titian.  At  the  present 
day,  to  understand  his  painting,  it  is  necessary  to 
visit  the  various  churches  round  Pordenone,  as  the 
quality  of  his  workmanship  cannot  be  appreciated 
from  the  few  frescoes  which  remain  in  Venice,  nor 
from  the  small  number  of  easel  pictures  which  can  be 
attributed  to  him  with  any  definite  authority.  He 
had  many  pupils  who  copied  his  work  cleverly,  and 
who  probably  did  most  of  the  smaller  pictures  at- 
tributed to  him.  Perhaps  his  finest  are  those  in  the 
cathedrals  of  San  Daniele,  Spilimbergo,  Treviso,  and 
Cremona;  in  Munich  there  is  a  portrait  of  himself 
with  his  pupils,  and  there  is  another  of  himself  in  a 
private  gallery  in  Rome.  He  appears  to  have  founded 
his  ideas  in  Venice  very  much  on  those  of  Giorgione 
and  Titian,  but  in  the  cathedrals  already  mentioned 
his  work  is  more  natural  and  original. 

RiDOLPi,  Le  Marimglie  dell'  Arte  (Venice,  1648),  and  the  Mot- 
tensi  MS.,  in  the  Venice  Library, 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Pordenone,  Odoric  op,  Franciscan  missionary  of 
a  Czech  family  named  Mattiussi,  b.  at  Villanova  near 
Pordenone,  Friuli,  Italy,  about  1286;  d.  at  Udine,  14 
Jan.,  1331.  About  1300  he  entered  the  Franciscan 
Order  at  Udine.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  Franciscans  were  commissioned  by  the 
Holy  See  to  undertake  missionary  work  in  the  interior 


of  Asia.  Among  the  missionaries  sent  there  were  John 
Piano  Carpini,  William  Rubruquis,  and  John  of 
Montecorvino.  Odoric  was  called  to  follow  them,  and 
in  April,  1318,  started  from  Padua,  crossed  the  Black 
Sea  to  Trebizond,  went  through  Persia  by  way  of  the 
Tauris,  Sultaniah,  where  in  1318  John  XXII  had 
erected  an  archbishopric,  Kasham,  Yezd,  and  Persepo- 
lis;  he  also  visited  Farsistan,  Khuzistan,  and  Chal- 
dea,  and  then  went  back  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  From 
Hormuz  he  went  to  Tana  on  the  Island  of  Salsette, 
north  of  Bombay.  Here  he  gathered  the  remains  of 
Thomas  of  Tolentino,  Jacopo  of  Padua,  Pietro  of 
Siena,  and  Demetrius  of  Tiflis,  Franciscans  who,  a 
short  time  before,  had  suffered  martyrdom,  and  took 
them  with  him  so  as  to  bury  them  in  China.  From 
Salsette  he  went  to  Malabar,  Fondaraina  (Flandrina) 
that  lies  north  of  Calicut,  then  to  Cranganore  that 
is  south  of  Calicut,  along  the  Coromandel  Coast, 
then  to  Meliapur  (Madras)  and  Ceylon.  He  then 
passed  the  Nioobar  Islands  on  his  way  to  Lamori,  a 
kingdom  of  Sumoltra  (Sumatra) ;  he  also  visited  Java, 
Banjarmasin  on  the  southern  coast  of  Borneo,  and 
Tsiompa  (Champa)  in  the  southern  part  of  Cochin 
China,  and  finally  reached  Canton  in  China.  From 
Canton  he  travelled  to  Zaitoum,  the  largest  Chinese 
seaport  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  Che-kiang,  and  went 
overland  by  way  of  Fu-cheu,  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Fokien,  to  Quinsay  (Hangcheufu),  cele- 
brated by  Marco  Polo.  He  remained  in  China  and 
went  to  Nanking,  Yangchufu,  and  finally  travelled  by 
the  great  canal  and  the  Hwangho  River  to  Khan-balig 
or  Peking,  the  capital  of  the  Great  Khan.  At  that 
time  the  aged  Montecorvino  was  still  archbishop  in 
Peking,  where  Odoric  remained  three  years.  On 
his  return  journey  he  went  overland  by  way  of 
Chan-si  through  Tibet,  from  there  apparently  by  way 
of  Badachsohan  to  the  Tauris  and  Armenia,  reaching 
home  in  1330. 

In  May,  1330,  at  the  request  of  his  superior,  Gui- 
dotto,  odoric  dictated  an  account  of  his  travels  to 
Brother  William  of  Solagna  while  at  the  monastery  of 
St.  Anthony  at  Padua.  According  to  another  version 
Henry  of  Glatz,  who  was  at  that  time  staying  at  the 
papal  court  at  Avignon,  made  notes  of  the  accounts 
given  by  Odoric's  travelling  companions  and  wrote 
them  out  at  Prague  in  1340.  Unfortunately  Odoric 
accepted  many  fabulous  stories  and  for  a  long  period 
it  was  doubted  whether  he  had  really  seen  all  the 
places  and  regions  he  described.  His  narrative,  though, 
is  veracious,  and  he  is  the  first  European  traveller 
from  whom  are  learned  many  peculiarities  of  the 
Chinese  people  and  country  which  Marco  Polo  did 
not  mention,  because  he  had  grown  accustomed  to 
them.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  he  does  not  give  a 
more  detailed  account  of  Tibet  and  Lhasa,  the  capital 
of  the  Dalai-Lama,  which  he  was  the  first  European 
to  enter.  The  account  of  his  travels  was  widely  spread 
by  Mandeville's  plagiarisms  from  them,  Mandeville's 
work  being  exceedingly  popular  in  the  later  Middle 
Ages  and  much  used  as  a  manual  by  geographers  of 
that  period.  Numerous  manuscripts  of  Odoric's 
travels  were  current  in  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and 
England.  They  were  first  printed  at  Pesaro.  A  Latin 
version  appeared  in  Marcellino  da  Civezza's  "Storia 
universale  delle  missioni  Francescane",  III  (Rome, 
1859) ,  739-81 ;  an  English  translation  was  made  by 
Yule  in  his  work  "Cathay  and  the  Way  Thither",  I 
(London,  1866),  1-162;  a  French  version  with  very 
good  notes  was  made  by  Henri  Cordier  "Les  voyages 
en  Asie  au  XIV®  si^ole  du  bienheureux  frere  Odoric  de 
Pordenone"  (Paris,  1891). 

Besides  the  editions  already  given  may  be  mentioned:  Abquini, 
Vita  e  naggi  del  B.  Odorico  da  Udine  (Udine,  1737) ;  Khnstmann, 
Die  Missionen  in  Indien  u.  China  in  XIV.  Jahrh.  in  Histor.-polit. 
Biawer,  XXXVIII  (Munich,  1856),  507-37;  Richthofen,  China, 
I  (Berlin,  1877),  617-8;  Domenichelli,  Sopra  la  vita  e  i  viaggi  del 
beato  Odorico  da  Pordenone  delV  ordine  de*  Minori  (Prato,  1881) : 
Gnatjck,  Odorich  von  Pordenone,  ein  Orientreisender  d.  XIV. 
Jahrh.  (Leipzig,  1895).  QttO  HaETIG, 


PORMORT 


282 


PORRECTA 


Pormort,  Thomas,  Venerable,  English  martyr, 
b.  at  Hull  about  1559;  d.  at  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  20 
Feb.,  1592.  He  was  probably  related  to  the  family  of 
Pormort  of  Great  Grimsby  and  Saltfletby,  Lincoln- 
shire. George  Pormort,  Mayor  of  Grimsby  in  1565, 
had  a  second  son  Thomas  baptized,  7  February,  1566, 
but  this  can  hardly  be  the  martyr.  After  receiving 
some  education  at  Cambridge,  he  went  to  Rheims,  15 
January,  1581,  and  thence,  20  March  following,  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1587.  He  en- 
tered the  household  of  Owen  Lewis,  Bishop  of  Cassano, 
6  March,  1587.  On  25  April,  1590,  Pormort  became 
prefect  of  studies  in  the  Swiss  college  at  Milan.  He 
was  relieved  of  this  office,  and  started  for  England,  15 
September,  without  waiting  for  his  faculties.  Cross- 
ing the  St.  Gotthard  Pass,  he  reached  Brussels  before 
29  November.  There  he  became  man-servant  to  Mrs. 
Geoffrey  Pole,  under  the  name  of  ^^'^hitgift,  the  Prot- 
estant archbishop  being  his  godfather.  With  her  he 
went  to  Antwerp,  intending  to  proceed  to  Flushing, 
and  thence  to  England.  He  was  arrested  in  London 
on  St.  James's  Day  (25  July),  1591,  but  he  managed  to 
escape.  In  August  or  September,  1591,  he  was  again 
taken,  and  committed  to  Bridewell,  whence  he  was  re- 
moved to  Topcliff  e's  house.  He  was  repeatedly  racked 
and  sustained  a  rupture  in  consequence.  On  8  Febru- 
ary following  he  was  convicted  of  high  treason  for  be- 
ing a  seminary  priest,  and  for  reconciling  John  Bar- 
wys,  or  Burrows,  haberdasher.  He  pleaded  that  he 
had  no  faculties;  but  he  was  found  guilty.  At  the  bar 
he  accused  TopclifTe  of  having  boasted  to  him  of  inde- 
cent familiarities  with  the  queen.  Hence  Topcliffe  ob- 
tained a  mandamus  to  the  sheriff  to  proceed  with  the 
execution,  though  Archbishop  Whitgif  t  endeavoured  to 
delay  it  and  make  his  godson  conform,  and  though  (it 
is  said)  Pormort  would  have  admitted  conference  with 
Protestant  ministers.  The  gibbet  was  erected  over 
against  the  haberdasher's  shop,  and  the  martyr  was 
kept  standing  two  hours  in  his  shirt  upon  the  ladder  on 
a  very  cold  day,  while  Topcliffe  vainly  urged  him  to 
withdraw  his  accusation. 

Pollen,  English  Martyrs  1BS4-W0S  (London,  1908),  187-190, 
200-2,  208-10,  292;  Ads  of  the  English  Martyrs  (London,  1891), 
118-20;  Chvlloner,  Missionary  Priests,  I,  no.  95;  GiLLOW, 
Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cnth.,  s.  v.;  Harleian  Society  Publications,  LII 
(London,   1904),   790;    Knox,  Douay  Diaries   (London,   1878), 

i^*~^-  John  B.  W.^ineweight. 

Porphyreon,  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Tyre  in 
Phoenicia  Prima.  It  is  described  in  the  "Notitia 
Episcopatuum "  of  Antioch  as  belonging  to  the  sixth 
century  (Echos  d'Orient,  X,  1907,  145),  but  does  not 
appear  in  that  of  the  tenth  century  (op.  cit.,  97). 
Lequien  (Oriens  ohrist.,  II,  829-32)  mentions  five  of 
its  bishops:  Thomas,  451;  Alexander,  at  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century;  Theodore,  518;  Christophorus,  536; 
and  Paul  (contemporary  of  Justinian  II),  565-78. 
There  were  two  Porphyreons  in  this  province,  one, 
described  by  Scylax  (civ,  ed.  MuUer)  north  of  Sidon 
and  also  by  Palerin  of  Bordeaux  (Itinera  hierosoly- 
mitana,  ed.  Gcyer,  18)  eight  miles  from  Sidon,  is  now 
the  village  of  El-Djiyeh,  in  the  midst  of  the  beautiful 
gardens  between  Saida  and  Beirut,  near  the  Khan  en- 
Nebi  Yunes;  a  second  Porphyreon,  according  to  the 
Pseudo-Antoninus  (Itinera  hierosolymitana,  161), 
may  be  located  .six  or  seven  miles  north  of  Carmel. 
Historians  of  the  Crusades  (William  of  Tyre  and 
James  of  Vitry)  confound  this  town  with  the  modern 
Caipha.  The  latter  corresponds  to  our  see.  In  fact 
Saint  Simeon  Stylite  the  Young,  contemporary  of 
Paul  Bishop  of  Porphyreon,  affirms  (Mansi,  "Con- 
ciliorum  coUectio",  XIII,  p.  160)  that  the  episcopal 
town  may  be  found  near  Castra,  a  place  inhabited  by 
the  Samaritans.  Now,  in  the  same  epoch  the  Pseudo- 
Antoninus  (op.  cit.,  160)  locates  the  "Castra  Samari- 
tanorum  a  Sucamina  (Caipha)  milhario  subtus  monte 
Carmelo"  south  of  Porphyreon.  The  identification 
is  therefore  incontestible.    The  church  of  Porphyreon 


dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  was  not  built  by 
Justinian  II  but  by  Justinian  I  (Procopius,  "De 
jEdificiis",  V,  ix;  "Historia  arcana",  xxx).  The 
ruins  of  Porphyreon  should  be  found  near  Belus,  the 
Nahr  Namein,  in  the  sands  of  which  may  still  be  seen 
the  murex  brandaris  and  the  murex  trunculus  (thorny 
shell  fish),  from  which  is  extracted  the  famous  purple 
dye  of  Tyre,  and  which  has  given  its  name  to  Porphy- 
reon. 

S.  Vailh£. 
Porphyrius.     See  Neo-Platonism. 

Porphyrius,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Gaza  in  Palestine, 
b.  at  Thessalonica  about  347;  d.  at  Gaza,  26  February, 
420.  After  five  years  in  the  Egyptian  desert  of  Scete 
he  lived  five  years  in  a  cave  near  the  Jordan.  In 
spite  of  his  impaired  health,  he  frequently  visited  the 
scene  of  the  Resurrection.  Here  he  met  the  Asiatic 
Mark,  at  a  later  date  a  deacon  of  his  church  and  his 
biographer.  To  effect  the  sale  of  the  property  still 
owned  by  Porphyrius  in  his  native  city,  Mark  set  out 
for  Thessalonica  and,  upon  his  return,  the  proceeds 
were  distributed  among  the  monasteries  of  Egypt  and 
among  the  necessitous  in  and  around  Jerusalem.  In 
392  Porphyrius  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood,  and 
the  relic  of  the  Holy  Cross  was  intrusted  to  his  care. 
In  395  he  became  Bishop  of  Gaza,  a  stronghold  of 
paganism,  with  an  insignificant  Christian  community. 
The  attitude  of  the  pagan  population  was  hostile  so 
that  the  bishop  appealed  to  the  emperor  for  protection 
and  pleaded  repeatedly  for  the  destruction  of  pagan 
temples.  He  finally  obtained  an  imperial  rescript 
ordering  the  destruction  of  pagan  sanctuaries  at  Gaza. 
A  Christian  church  was  erected  on  the  site  of  the 
temple  of  Mamas.  In  415  Porphyrius  attended  the 
Council  of  Diospolis.  The  "Vita  S.  Porphyrii"  of 
Mark  the  Deacon,  formerly  known  only  in  a  Latin 
translation,  was  published  in  1874  by  M.  Haupt  in 
its  original  Greek  text;  a  new  edition  was  issued  in 
1895  by  the  Bonn  Philological  Society. 

Acta  SS.,  Feb.,  Ill  (Paris,  1865),  649-66;  Nhth,  De  Marci 
diaconi  vita  Porphyrii  episcopi  Gazensis  qumstiones  historical  et 
grammatica  (Bonn,  1897) ;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  26  Feb. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Porrecta,  Serafino,  family  name  Capponi, 
called  a  Pokbecta  from  the  place  of  birth,  theologian, 
b.  1536;  d.  at  Bologna,  2  Jan.,  1614.  He  joined  the 
Dominican  Order  at  Bologna  in  1552.  His  life  was 
devoted  entirely  to  study,  teaching,  writing,  and 
preaching.  He  is  best  known  as  a  commentator  on 
the  "Summa"  of  St.  Thomas;  he  also  wrote  valuable 
commentaries  on  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  His  duties  as  a  professor  prepared  him 
well  for  work  of  this  kind,  for  he  taught  philosophy, 
theology  (dogmatic  and  moral),  and  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture. In  1606,  Father  Capponi  was  invited  to  teach 
theology  and  Sacred  Scripture  to  the  Carthusians  in  a 
monastery  near  Bologna.  He  accepted  the  invitation, 
but  two  years  later  he  was  recalled  to  Bologna,  where 
he  died.  Fr.  Michele  Pio,  who  wrote  his  life,  states 
that  on  the  last  day  of  his  life  Porrecta  completed  his 
explanation  of  the  last  verse  of  the  Psalms.  The 
people  of  Bologna  venerated  him  as  a  saint;  miracles, 
attested  by  the  ordinary,  are  said  to  have  been 
wrought  through  his  intercession  and  his  body  was 
taken  (1615)  from  the  community  burying-ground 
to  be  deposited  in  the  Dominican  church.  It  is  al- 
most universally  admitted  that,  until  the  Leonine 
edition  of  St.  Thomas's  works  appeared,  there  were 
no  editions  more  highly  prized  or  more  helpful  to 
students  of  the  "Summa"  than  those  which  con- 
tained the  Porrecta-Cajetan  commentaries.  The 
distinguishing  features  of  these  commentaries  are 
well  set  forth  in  the  title  of  the  Venice  edition  of 
1612.  His  principal  works  are:  "Elucidationes 
formales  in  summam  theologicam  S.  Thomae  de 
Aquino"    (Venice,    1588,    1596);     "Summa    totius 


PORTA 


283 


PORT 


theologiae  D.  Thomae  .  .  .  cum  elucidationibus  forma- 
libus  .  ."  (Venice,  1612;  Padua,  1698;  Rome, 
1773).  To  the  first  volume  were  added:  (a)  De 
altitudine  doctrinse  Thomisticac;  (b)  Regulse  ad 
lectorem;  (c)  Five  indices.  Echard  censures  the 
addition  of  Fr.  Javelli's  "Expositio  in  primam 
partem"  and  "Tractatus  de  praiscientia  et  praedes- 
tinatione";  "Veritates  aurese  supra  totam  legem 
veterem.  .''  (Venice,  1590);  "Commentaries  on 
St.  Matthew"  (Venice,  1602);  "St.  John"  (Venice, 
1604);  those  on  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  were  not 
published;  "Scholia  super  comp.  theologicae  veri- 
tatis  Alberti  Magni"  (Venice,  1.5SS,  1590).  Echard 
says  the  compendium  was  not  by  Albertus  Mag- 
nus (I,  p.  176);  "Tota  theologia  S.  Th.  Aquin.  in 
compendium  redaota"  (Venice,  1597);  "Commen- 
tarii  in  psalmos"  (one  volume  pubhshed,  Bologna, 
1692). 

Qu^TiF  AND  Echard,  Script.  Ord.  Freed.,  II  (Paris,  1721), 
392;  MicHELE  Pio,  Vila  e  morte  del  ven.  P.  M.  Fr.  Serafino  delta 
Porrecta  (Bologna,  1615). 

D.  J.  Kennedy. 

Porta,  Carlo,  poet,  b.  at  Milan  in  1775;  d.  there, 
6  January,  1821;  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at  Monza 
and  in  the  seminary  at  Milan.  Finding  uncongenial 
the  mercantile  pursuits  for  which  his  family  had 
destined  him,  he  obtained  posts  in  the  treasury  de- 
partment first  at  Venice  and  later  at  Milan.  He 
served  under  the  government  of  the  Cisalpine  Re- 
public and,  without  ceasing  to  be  an  Italian  patriot, 
welcomed  the  return  of  the  Austrian  rule,  since  it 
seemed  to  promise  peace  and  prosperity.  At  Milan 
he  enjoyed  the  companionship  of  noted  men  of  letters, 
among  them  Foscolo  and  Monti.  His  fame  is  based 
upon  his  felicitous  use  of  the  Milanese  dialect  for 
poetical  purposes.  He  was  a  Romanticist  and  argued 
in  favour  of  the  doctrines  of  his  friends  Manzoni  and 
Grossiin  the  cantica  "El  Romanticism",  the  "Dodes 
Sonittal'abaaGiavan"  (i.e.  Giordani),the  "Meneghin 
Classegh",  and  others.  Some  of  his  views  are  opposed 
to  the  French,  who  had  brought  so  much  misery  into 
Italy.  He  is  most  successful  in  humorous  composi- 
tions, in  which  he  truly  delineates  Milanese  types, 
especially  in  "Le  desgrazi  de  Giovannin  Bongee"  and 
"Le  olter  desgrazi  de  Giovannin  Bongee"  In  his 
use  of  dialect  Porta  evinces  the  greatest  skill;  his 
language  is  the  language  of  the  people  adapted  in  a 
most  masterly  way  to  the  purposes  of  literary  ex- 
pression. 

Barbiera,  Poesie  edite,  inedite  e  rare,  scelte  e  illustrate  (Flor- 
ence, 1887) ;  Poesie  rivedute  sugli  originali  (Milan,  1887,  with  a 
bibliography  by  Robecchi)  ;  Lettembrini,  It  Meli,  it  Cardone 
it  Porta  in  Morandi,  Antologia ;  D'Ovidio  and  Sailer,  Porta 
e  il  Manzoni  in  Discussioni  Manzoniane  (CittA  di  Castello,  1886). 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Porta,  GiACOMO  della,  architect  and  sculptor,  b. 
at  Porlizza  on  Lake  Lugano  1541 ;  d.  1604.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Michelangelo  and  succeeded  Vignola  as  archi- 
tect of  St.  Peter's.  Here  he  removed  the  temporary 
choir  built  by  Bramante  and  with  the  aid  of  Domenico 
Fontana  finished  the  dome  and  lantern  by  1590  or 
1592.  He  completed  the  plan  of  II  Gesil,  the  ground- 
plan  and  other  chief  architectural  features  of  which 
are  the  work  of  Vignola,  departing  somewhat  from  his 
predecessor.  Delia  Porta's  fa<;ade  was,  in  connexion 
with  Vignola's  work,  an  authoritative  model  for  large 
numbers  of  buildings  in  the  Baroque  style.  The 
fagade,  fairly  .simple  in  design,  is  built  in  two  stories, 
is  topped  by  a  gable,  and  divided  by  half-pillars  and 
pilasters,  panels  and  niches.  It  can  hardly  be  said  to 
possess  a  clearly  defined  ecclesiastical  character;  the 
windows  and  entrances  recall  rather  the  style  of  a 
palace.  In  Santa  Maria  ai  monti,  he  followed  the 
ground-plan  of  the  church  of  II  Gesii.  He  made  the 
fagade  of  San  Luigi  de'  francesi  a  piece  of  decorative 
work  entirely  independent  of  the  body  of  the  struc- 
ture, a  method  much  copied  later.    Another  architec- 


tural work  is  Santa  Catarina  de'  funari  at  Rome. 
With  Carlo  Maderna  he  built  the  church  of  San  Gio- 
vanni de'  Fiorentini  from  the  designs  of  Sansovino. 
Sometimes  the  Sapienza  at  Rome  is  ascribed  to  Michel- 
angelo; however,  della  Porta  had  charge  of  the  erec- 
tion and  work  on  the  interior  of  the  building  although 
he  did  not  complete  it.  In  constructing  an  addition 
to  Maria  Maggiore  he  altered  the  plans  of  Michel- 
angelo. He  had  something  of  the  spirit  of  this  great 
master,  although  he  had  neither  the  ability  nor  the 
desire  to  follow  him  in  everything;  yet  he  did  not  fall 
into  the  uncouth  exaggerations  of  the  later  period.  In 
the  Palazzo  Farnese  his  work  is  associated  with  that 
of  Sangallo  and  Michelangelo.  The  Villa  Aldobrandini 
with  its  superb  gardens  shows  what  beautiful  work 
della  Porta  could  construct  when  free  to  follow  his 
own  ideas.  At  Genoa  he  built  the  Annunziata,  not 
with  pilasters,  a  method  much  admired  in  the  Baroque 
style,  but  as  a  columned  basilica,  without,  however, 
infringing  on  the  spacious  width  customary  in  this 
style.  This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  churches  of 
the  period.  As  a  sculptor  della  Porta  worked  on  the 
Certosa  of  Pavia.  He  has  left  some  fine  groups  for 
fountains,  especially  the  fountains  at  the  Capitol  and 
on  the  Piazza  Mattel.  In  sculpture  his  teacher  was 
il  Gobbo. 

Becker,  Kunst  u.  Kilnstler  d.  16.,  17.  u.  18.  Jahrh.  (Leipzig, 
1863-65);  Burckhabdt,  Cicerone,  7th  ed..  Bode  (Leipzig,  1898): 
QuatremIjre  de  Qtjinct,  Hist,  des  architectes  (Paris,  1830) ;  GuR- 
LiTT,  Gesch.  d.  Barockstils  in  Italien  (Stuttgart,  1887). 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Portable  Altar.  See  Altar,  sub-title  Poet- 
ABLB  Altar. 

Portalegre,  Diocese  of,  sufl^ragan  of  Lisbon, 
Portugal,  established  by  Pope  Julius  III  in  1550. 
Its  first  bishop  was  Julian  d'  Alva,  a  Spaniard,  who 
was  transferred  to  Miranda  in  1557.  On  17  July, 
1560,  Andiz'  de  Noronha  succeeded  to  the  diocese,  but 
he  was  promoted  to  Placencia  in  1581.  Frei  Amador 
Arraes,  the  next  bishop,  was  the  author  of  a  cele- 
brated book  of  "Dialogues";  he  resigned  in  1582,  and 
retired  to  the  college  of  his  order  in  Coimbra,  where 
he  remained  till  his  death.  Lopo  Soares  de  Alber- 
garia  and  Frei  Manoel  de  Gouvea  died  before  re- 
ceiving the  Bulls  confirming  their  nomination.  Diego 
Conra,  nephew  of  the  Venerable  Bartholomew  of  the 
Martyrs  and  Bishop  of  Ceuta,  became  bishop  in 
1598,  and  died  on  9  October,  1614.  Among  the  bish- 
ops of  Portalegre  during  the  seventeenth  century 
was  Ricardo  Russell,  an  Englishman,  who  took 
possession  of  the  see  on  17  September,  1671,  and  was 
subsequently  transferred  to  Vizeu.  The  present 
bishop  is  Antonio  Mutinho,  transferred  from  Ca- 
boverde  in  1909.  The  diocese  contains  197,343 
CathoUcs,  16  Protestants,  148  parishes,  286  priests, 
447  churches  and  chapels. 

Port  Augusta,  Diocese  of  (Portaugustana), 
suffragan  of  Adelaide,  South  AustraUa,  created  in 
1887.  Its  boundaries  are:  north,  the  twenty-fifth 
degree  of  S.  latitude;  east,  the  States  of  Queensland 
and  New  South  Wales;  west,  the  State  of  West 
Australia;  south,  the  counties  Musgrave,  Jervois, 
Daly,  Stanley,  Light,  Eyre,  and  the  River  Murray. 
As  the  limits  originally  fixed  were  found  insufficient, 
the  counties  of  Victoria  and  Burra  were  added.  At 
its  inception  the  diocese  was  heavily  burdened  with 
debt  and  the  Catholic  population,  numbering  about 
11,000,  became  much  diminished  owing  to  the  period- 
ical droughts  to  which  a  large  portion  of  the  diocese 
is  subject.  The  town  of  Port  Augusta  commands  a 
splendid  position  at  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf, 
overlooking  which  is  the  cathedral,  a  fine  stone  edifice. 
Its  Catholic  population  is  still  small,  but  is  bound  to 
increase  when  the  great  overland  railways  to  West 
Australia  and  to  Port  Darwin  in  the  far  Northern 
Territory  become  linked  together. 


PORT-AU-PRINCE 


284 


PORTER 


Right  Rev.  John  O'Reily,  D.D.  (to-day  Arch- 
bishop of  Adelaide),  consecrated  by  Cardinal  Moran 
at  Sydney  1  May,  1888,  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Port 
Augusta.  His  chief  work  was  liquidating  the  dio- 
cesan debts,  especially  that  of  the  cathedral.  He 
introduced  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Samaritan  from 
Sydney  to  Port  Pirie  in  1890.  On  5  January,  1895, 
he  was  transferred  to  Adelaide  as  archbishop.  The 
second  bishop,  Right  Rev.  James  Maher,  D.D.  (d.  at 
Pekina,  20  December,  1905),  first  vicar-general,  then 
administrator  sede  vacante,  was  consecrated  at  Ade- 
laide, 26  April,  1896.  His  episcopate  was  marked  by 
a  succession  of  fully  nine  years  of  drought,  which  ex- 
tended over  the  larger  portion  of  the  diocese.  Owing 
to  this  disaster  it  was  impossible  to  make  much 
material  progress,  but  the  finances  of  the  see  were 
kept  steadily  in  view.  The  third  bishop  and  present 
occupant  of  the  see.  Right  Rev.  John  Henry  Norton, 
D.D.  (b.  at  Ballarat,  Victoria,  31  Dec,  1855),  was 
consecrated  at  Adelaide,  9  December,  1906.  He  is 
the  first  native  of  Ballarat  to  be  ordained  priest,  the 
first  Victorian,  and  the  third  Australian,  native  to  be 
raised  to  the  episcopate.  He  received  his  early  edu- 
cation in  that  city  and  afterwards  engaged  in  the 
study  and  practice  of  architecture  for  four  years. 
In  1872  he  entered  St.  Patrick's  College,  Melbourne, 
became  an  undergraduate  of  Melbourne  University, 
and,  on  10  June,  1876,  received  minor  orders  from 
Archbishop  Goold.  Early  in  1878  he  became  affili- 
ated to  the  then  Diocese  of  Adelaide  under  Right  Rev. 
C.  A.  Reynolds,  D.D.,  and  was  sent  by  him  to  Europe 
to  finish  his  studies.  After  a  year  at  St.  Kieran's 
College,  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  he  was  admitted  to 
Propaganda  College,  Rome,  and  was  ordained  by 
Cardinal  Monaco  la  Valetta  in  St.  John  Lateran's, 
8  April,  1882.  Returning  to  Adelaide,  February, 
188.3,  he  was  engaged  at  the  cathedral  until  January, 
1884,  when  he  was  appointed  first  resident  priest  of 
the  new  district  of  Petersburg,  where  he  has  resided 
ever  since.  He  was  made  diocesan  consultor  in  1894, 
vicar-general  under  Dr.  Maher,  2  May,  1896,  admin- 
istrator sede  vacnnle  on  the  latter's  death,  and  ap- 
pointed bishop,  18  August,  1906.  He  was  consecrated 
in  St.  Francis  Xavier's  Cathedral,  Adelaide,  by  Most 
Rev.  Michael  Kelly,  D.D.,  Coadjutor  Archbishop  of 
Sydney  on  9  December,  1906.  As  parish  priest  he 
erected  a  church,  presbytery,  school,  and  convent  at 
Petersburg,  also  churches  at  Dawson,  Nackara,  Lan- 
celot, Yongala,  Teetulpa,  Renmark,  Farina,  and  other 
plgices.  He  published  three  "Reports  on  the  liabili- 
ties of  the  Diocese"  He  has  recently  completed  a 
successful  campaign  for  the  final  liquidation  of  the 
cathedral  and  Kooringa  church  debts.  During  his 
episcopate  churches  have  been  erected  at  Warner- 
town,  Hammond,  and  \Vilmington,  and  convents  at 
Caltowie,  Jamestown,  and  Georgetown. 

The  diocese  is  divided  into  nine  districts  (not 
including  the  A^'est  Coast  from  Talia  to  West  Aus- 
tralia, which  is  visited  from  Port  Lincoln  in  the  arch- 
diocese), namely.  Port  Augusta,  Carrieton,  Hawker, 
Georgetown,  Jamestown,  Kooringa,  Pekina,  Peters- 
burg, and  Port  Pirie.  There  are  10  diocesan  priests,  34 
churches,  two  religious  orders  of  women — the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph,  numbering  33,  and  the  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Samaritan,  numbering  9.  The  former  have  con- 
vents and  primary  schools  in  Port  Augusta,  Gladstone, 
Jamestown,  Caltowie,  Kooringa,  Pekina,  Quorn, 
Georgetown,  and  Petersburg;  the  latter  are  estab- 
lished at  Port  Pirie  only,  where  they  manage  two  pri- 
mary schools,  including  a  boarding  and  select  school. 
The  children  in  these  thirteen  schools  number  754. 
The  Society  of  Jesus  had  resident  missionary  priests 
at  Port  Pirie,  Kooringa,  Georgetown,  and  Jamestown, 
long  before  the  formation  of  the  territory  into  a  new 
diocese.  As  circumstances  permitted,  they  relin- 
quished Port  Pirie  in  November,  1890,  Kooringa  in 
September,   1899,   and  Jamestown  and  Georgetown 


in  September,  1900.  Schools  are  maintained  in  24 
different  places,  the  aggregate  cost  of  salaries  and 
general  maintenance  being  estimated  at  £27,500  in 
the  last  twenty  years,  the  original  cost  of  the  build- 
ings at  £18,250,  or  a  total  expenditure  of  £45,750  by 
the  Catholic  population,  which,  according  to  the 
census  of  1901,  is  estimated  at  11,953. 

Australasian  Catholic  Directory;  O'Reilt,  Maher,  NoETON, 
Reports  on  the  liabilities  of  the  Diocese  of  Port  Augusta  (publiahed 
between  1889-1907). 

John  H.  Norton. 

Port-au-Prince,  Archdiocese  of  (Portus  Prin- 
ciPis),  comprises  the  western  part  of  the  Republic  of 
Haiti.  Its  population  numbers  about  668,700,  mostly 
Catholics,  the  greater  part  of  whom  have  but  a  slight 
knowledge  of  their  religion,  and  are  scattered  over  a 
surface  of  about  3080  sq.  miles.  The  archdiocese  was 
created  by  the  Bull  of  3  June,  1861,  and  has  ever  since 
had  a  clergy  almost  exclusively  French.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  the  territory  of  the  present  archdiocese 
was  served  by  the  Dominicans,  and  after  the  French 
Revolution  was  left  in  the  hands  of  unworthy  clergy, 
who  were  driven  out  after  the  Concordat  of  1860. 
The  archdiocese  has  had  five  archbishops:  Mgrs 
Testard  du  Cosquer  (1863-69);  Guilloux  (1870-85); 
Hillion  (1886-90);  Tonti  (1894-1902);  Conan  (1903). 
In  January,  1906,  Most  Rev.  Julian  Conan  held  the 
first  provincial  council  of  Haiti  whose  acts  were 
approved  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,  3 
August,  1907.  Fourteen  diocesan  synods  have  also 
been  held  and  their  acts  and  statutes  have  regularly 
been  published.  The  seminary  for  senior  students  is 
in  France  (St.  Jacques,  Finistere),  and  there  is  a 
seminary-college  at  Port-au-Prince  directed  by  the 
Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  with  500  pupils.  About 
an  equal  number  of  boys  receive  their  instruction  at 
the  Institution  St.  Louis  de  Gonzague,  kept  by  the 
Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction.  There  are  two 
secondary  establishments  for  girls :  Ste  Rose  de  Lima, 
directed  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  de  Cluny,  and 
Notre  Dame  du  Sacre-Cceur,  directed  by  the  Filles  de  la 
Sagesse.  The  province  has  a  monthly  religious  bul- 
letin pubHshed  at  Port-au-Prince.  Archbishop  Guil- 
loux has  left  a  valuable  work  for  the  history  of  the 
archdiocese  and  of  the  province,  "Le  Concordat 
d'Haiti,  ses  r^sultats",  a  pamphlet  of  twenty-eight 
pages  relating  to  the  origin  of  the  different  diocesan 
works.  The  metropohtan  church  has  honorary 
canons,  not  constituting  a  chapter,  and  named  by  the 
archbishop.  The  archdiocese  (1911)  has  24  parishes, 
140  rural  chapels;  priests,  55  secular,  42  regular;  67 
Brothers  of  Instruction;    192  sisters. 

A.  Cabor. 

Port  de  la  Paix.     See  Cap  Haitien,  Diocese  op. 

Porter,  doorkeeper  (ostiarius,  Lat.  ostium,  a  door), 
denoted  among  the  Romans  the  slave  whose  duty  it 
was  to  guard  the  entrance  of  the  house.  In  the  Roman 
period  all  houses  of  the  better  class  had  an  ostiarius, 
or  ostiarjr,  whose  duties  were  considered  very  in- 
ferior. When,  from  the  end  of  the  second  century, 
the  Christian  communities  began  to  own  houses  for 
holding  church  services  and  for  purposes  of  admin- 
istration, church  ostiaries  are  soon  mentioned,  at  least 
for  the  larger  cities.  They  are  first  referred  to  in  the 
letter  of  Pope  Cornelius  to  Bishop  Fabius  of  Antioch 
written  in  251  (Eusebius,  "H.  E.",  VI,  43),  where  it 
is  said  that  there  were  then  at  Rome  46  priests,  7 
deacons,  7  subdcac(5ns,  42  acolytes,  and  52  exorcists, 
lectors,  and  ostiaries,  or  doorkeepers.  According  to 
the  statement  of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  (ed. 
Duchesne,  I,  155)  an  ostiary  named  Romanus  suffered 
martyrdom  in  258  at  the  same  time  as  St.  Lawrence. 
In  Western  Europe  the  office  of  the  ostiary  was  the 
lowest  grade  of  the  minor  clergy.  In  a  law  of  377  of 
the  Codex  Theodosianus   (Lib.  XVI,  tit.  II,  num, 


PORTER 


285 


PORTER 


XXIV;  ed.  Gothofredi,  VI,  I,  57)  intended  for  the 
Vicariate  of  Italy,  tlie  ostiaries  are  also  mentioned 
among  the  clergy  who  have  a  right  to  personal  im- 
munity. In  his  letter  of  11  March,  494,  to  the  bishops 
of  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  Pope  Gelasius  says  that 
for  admission  into  the  clergy  it  was  necessary  that  the 
candidate  could  read  (must,  therefore,  have  a  certain 
amount  of  education) ,  for  without  tliia  prerequisite  an 
applicant  could,  at  the  most,  only  fill  the  office  of  an 
ostiary  (P.  L.,  LVI,  691).  In  Rome  itself  this  office 
attained  to  no  particular  development,  as  a  large  part 
of  these  duties,  namely  the  actual  work  necessary  in 
the  church  building,  what  is  now  probably  the  duty 
of  the  sexton,  was  at  Rome  performed  by  the  man- 
sionarii.  The  clergy  of  the  three  lower  grades  (minor 
orders)  were  united  at  Rome  into  the  Schola  canlorum 
and  as  such  took  part  in  the  church  ceremonies.  There 
are  no  special  prayers  or  ceremonies  for  the  ordination 
of  the  lower  clergy  in  the  oldest  liturgical  books  of  the 
Roman  Church.  For  the  Galilean  Rite,  short  state- 
ments concerning  the  ordination  of  the  lower  orders, 
among  them  that  of  the  ostiaries,  are  found  in  the 
"Statuta  ecclesise  antiqua",  a  collection  of  canons 
which  appeared  at  Aries  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century  (Maassen,  "Quellen  des  Kirchen- 
rechts",  1, 382).  The  " Sacramentarium  Gelasianum" 
and  the  "Missale  Francorum"  contain  the  same  rite 
with  the  prayers  used  on  this  occasion. 

According  to  these  the  ostiaries  are  first  instructed 
in  their  duties  by  the  archdeacon;  after  this  he  brings 
them  before  the  bishop,  who  takes  the  keys  of  the 
church  from  the  altar  and  hands  them  to  the  candidate 
for  ordination  with  the  words :  ' '  Fulfil  thine  office  to 
show  that  thou  knowest  that  thou  wilt  give  account  to 
God  concerning  the  things  that  are  locked  away  under 
these  keys."  Then  follows  a  prayer  for  the  candidate 
and  a  prayer  for  the  occasion  that  the  bishop  pro- 
nounces over  him.  This  ceremony  was  also  at  a  later 
date  adopted  by  the  Roman  Church  in  its  liturgy  and 
has  continued  with  slight  changes  in  the  formula 
until  now.  In  Latin  Western  Europe,  outside  of 
Rome,  in  the  late  Roman  era  and  the  one  following, 
the  ostiaries  were  still  actually  employed  as  guardians 
of  the  church  buildings  and  of  their  contents.  This  is 
shown  by  the  epitaph  of  one  Ursatius,  an  ostiary  of 
Trier  (Corpus  inscr.  latin.,  XIII,  3789).  An  ostiary 
of  the  church  of  Salona  is  also  mentioned  in  an  epitaph 
(Corpus  inscr.  latin.,  Ill,  13142).  Later,  however,  in 
the  Latin  Church  the  office  of  ostiary  universally  re- 
mained only  one  of  the  degrees  of  ordination  and  the 
actual  work  of  the  ostiary  was  transferred  to  the  laity 
(sacristans,  sextons,  etc.).  In  the  ordination  of 
ostiaries  at  the  present  day  their  duties  are  thus 
enumerated  in  the  Pontifical:  "Percutere  cymbalum 
et  campanam,  aperire  ecclesiam  et  sacrarium,  et 
librum  ei  aperire  qui  prEedicat"  (to  ring  the  bell,  to 
open  the  church  and  sacristy,  to  open  the  book  for 
the  preacher) .  The  forms  of  prayer  for  the  ordination 
are  similar  to  those  in  the  old  Galilean  Rite.  In  the 
East  there  were  also  doorkeepers  in  the  service  of  the 
Church.  They  are  enumerated  as  ecclesiastical  per- 
sons by  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (343-81).  Like  the 
acolytes  and  exorcists,  they  were  only  appointed  to 
serve  the  church,  but  received  no  actual  ordination, 
and  were  not  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical hierarchy.  According  to  the  "Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions", belonging  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  century, 
the  guarding  of  the  door  of  the  church  during  the 
service  was  the  duty  of  the  deacons  and  subdeacons. 
Thus  the  doorkeepers  exercised  their  office  only  when 
service  was  not  being  held. 

Duchesne,  Origines  du  culte  ckrHien  (5th  ed.,  Paria,  1909),  349 
eq.;  WiELAND,  D.  genetische  Entwicklung  d.  sogen.  Ordines 
minores  in  den  drei  ersten  Jahrhunderten  (Rome,  1897),  54  sqq., 
161  sqq.;  Thomassintjs,  Vetus  et  nova  ecclesice  disciplina  circa 
beneficia  et  beneficiarios,  pt.  i,  lib.  I,  cap.  xxx-xxxiii,  I  (Lyons,  ed. 
1706).  319  sqq. 

J.    P.   KiRSCH. 


Porter,  Francis,  controversialist  and  historian, 
b.  at  Kingston,  near  Navan,  Ireland,  1622;  d.  at 
Rome,  7  April,  1702.  He  was  descended  from  the 
Norman  family  of  Le  Porter,  which  had  been  settled 
in  Ireland  from  the  time  of  Henry  II,  and  were  great 
benefactors  of  the  Franciscans.  While  still  very 
young.  Porter  went  to  Rome,  entered  the  Fran- 
ciscan Order,  took  degrees  in  philosophy  and 
theology,  and  for  several  years  taught  controversial 
theology,  ecclesiastical  history  and  dogmatic  the- 
ology in  St.  Isidore's  College.  King  James  II  ap- 
pointed him  his  theologian  and  historiographer.  In 
1679  he  pubhshed  in  Rome  his  "Securis  evangelica 
ad  hffiresis  radices  posita",  an  able  controversial 
work  in  which  he  confutes  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  Protestantism  and  its  several  sects.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  at  Rome  his  "Palinodia  Re- 
hgionis  praetensae  reformatse",  in  which  he  proves 
with  solid  and  convincing  arguments  that  the 
Catholic  Church  is  the  Church  founded  by  Jesus 
Christ.  To  it  is  prefixed  a  "Prasfatio  apologetica" 
— a  noble  appeal  to  the  princes  and  state  councillors 
of  Protestant  countries  to  abolish  the  infamous  laws 
promulgated  in  their  respective  states  against  the 
Catholic  Church.  His  compendium  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical annals  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland  was  published 
in  Rome  in  1690,  and  dedicated  to  Pope  Alexander 
VIII.  After  a  brief  outline  of  the  civil  history  of 
Ireland,  the  author  gives  a  summary  account  of  the 
foundations  of  the  several  dioceses  and  religious  houses 
pointing  out  the  constancy  of  the  Irish  people  in 
preserving  the  Faith,  and  the  persecutions  they  suf- 
fered for  their  religion. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  above,  he  published 
"Systema  decretorum  dogmaticorum",  Avignon, 
1693;  "Disquisitio  theologica  de  prseservando 
foedere  inito  cum  Principe  Duriaco  haeretico  invasore 
regiae  coronae  ao  dictionum  Jacobi  II,  legitimi  et 
Catholici  principis.  Praemittitur  facti  historia", 
Rome,  1683 ;  "  De  abolitione  consuetudinis  prae- 
standi  juramentum  reis",  Rome,  1696;  "Refutatio 
Prophetiarum  false  attributarum  S.  Malachise", 
Rome,  1698. 

Joannes  a  S.  Antonio,  Bibliotheca  Universa  Franciscana 
(Madrid,  1764);  Bbenan,  Ecd.  History  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1864); 
Webb,  Compendium  of  Irish  Biography  (Dublin,  1878) ;  Cogan, 
Diocese  of  Meath,  Ancient  and  Modern  (Dublin,  1870);  da 
Civezza,  Storia  delle  Missioni  Francescane,  VII  (Prato,  1883); 
MSS.  in  Franciscan  Convent,  Dublin. 

Gregory  Cleary. 

Porter,  George,  Archbishop  of  Bombay,  b.  1825 
at  Exeter,  England;  d.  at  Bombay,  28  September, 
1889.  Of  Scotch  descent,  he  was  educated  at  Stony- 
hurst  and  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1841.  After 
making  his  novitiate  at  Hodder,  and  devoting  three 
years  to  philosophy  at  Stonyhurst,  he  was  employed 
in  teaching  at  Stonyhurst  and  at  St.  Francis  Xavier's 
College,  Liverpool,  becoming  prefect  of  studies  at  the 
former  college  in  1849.  In  1853  he  went  to  St. 
Beuno's  College,  North  Wales,  for  theology,  and  in 
1856  was  ordained  priest.  His  theological  studies 
were  completed  in  Rome  under  Passaglia  and  Schra- 
der.  After  two  years  more  spent  at  Stonyhurst  and 
a  year  at  Liesse,  near  Laon,  Father  Porter  returned 
to  St.  Beuno's,  where  for  four  years  he  occupied  the 
chair  of  dogmatic  theology.  He  was  then  appointed 
rector  at  Liverpool,  but  was  moved  to  London  in 
1871,  becoming  master  of  novices  two  years  later. 
In  1881  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Farm  Street, 
London,  but  he  was  soon  called  to  Fiesole  as  assistant 
to  the  general.  In  December,  1886,  he  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Bombay  (q.  v.).  Father  .Porter's 
collected  "Letters"  (London,  1891)  reveal  the  ver- 
satihty  of  his  mind  and  his  skill  in  direction.  He 
translated  or  wrote  prefaces  for  a  number  of  spiritual 
books  and  compiled  "The  Priest's  Manual  for  the 
Holy   Sacrifice   of   the    Mass"    (Liverpool,    1858). 


PORTIO 


286 


PORTIUNCULA 


Some  of  his  meditations  and  considerations  have  been 
printed  for  private  circulation. 

GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Die.  Eng.  Cath.,  a.  v. 

Charles  Platee. 

Portio  Congrua.    See  Congrua. 

Portiuncula  (Porzioncula  or  Porzitjncola),  a 
town  and  parish  situated  about  three-quarters  of  a 
mile  from  Assisi.  The  town,  numbering  about  2000 
inhabitants  and  officially  known  as  Santa  Maria  degli 
Angeli,  has  grown  up  around  the  church  (basilica)  of 
Our  Lady  of  the  Angels  and  the  adjoining  Franciscan 
monastery.  It  was  here  that  on  24  Feb.,  1208,  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi  recognized  his  vocation;  here  was 
for  the  most  part  his  permanent  abode,  after  the  Bene- 
dictines (of  the  Cluny  Congregation  from  about  1200) 
had  presented  him  (about  1211)  with  the  little  chapel 
Portiuncula,  i.  e.  a  little  portion  (of  land);  here  also 
he  died  on  Saturday,  3  Oct.,  1226.  According  to  a 
legend,  the  existence  of  which  can  be  traced  back  with 
certainty  only  to  1645,  the  little  chapel  of  Portiuncula 
was  erected  under  Pope  Liberius  (352-66)  by  hermits 
from  the  Valley  of  Josaphat,  who  had  brought 
thither  relics  from  the  grave  of  the  Blessed  ^'irgin. 
The  same  legend  relates  that  the  chapel  passed  into 
the  possession  of  St.  Benedict  in  516.  It  was  known 
as  Our  Lady  of  the  Valley  of  Josaphat  or  of  the  Angels 
— the  latter  title  referring,  according  to  some,  to  Our 
Lady's  ascent  into  heaven  accompanied  by  angels 
(Assumption  B.  M.  V.) ;  a  better  founded  opinion  at- 
tributes the  name  to  the  singing  of  angels  which  had 
been  frequently  heard  there.  However  this  may  be, 
here  or  in  this  neighbourhood  was  the  cradle  of  the 
Franciscan  Order,  and  on  his  death-bed  St.  Francis  rec- 
ommended the  chapel  to  the  faithful  protection  and 
care  of  his  brethren.  Concerning  the  form  and  plan  of 
the  first  monastery  built  near  the  chapel  we  have  no  in- 
formation, nor  is  the  exact  form  of  the  loggia  or  plat- 
forms built  round  the  chapel  itself,  or  of  the  choir  for 
the  brothers  built  behind  it,  known.  Shortly  after 
1290,  the  chapel,  which  measured  only  about  twenty- 
two  feet  by  thirteen  and  u,  half,  became  entirely  in- 
adequate to  accommodate  the  throngs  of  pilgrims. 
The  altar  piece,  an  Annunciation,  was  painted  by  the 
priest,  Hilarius  of  Viterbo,  in  1393.  The  monastery 
was  at  most  the  residence,  only  for  a  short  time,  of 
the  ministers-general  of  the  order  after  St.  Francis. 
In  1415  it  first  became  associated  with  the  Regular 
Observance,  in  the  care  of  which  it  remains  to  the 
present  day.  The  buildings,  which  had  been  grad- 
ually added  to,  around  the  shrine  were  taken  down  by 
order  of  Pius  V  (1566-72),  except  the  cell  in  which  St. 
Francis  had  died,  and  were  replaced  by  a  large 
basilica  in  contemporary  style.  The  new  edifice  was 
erected  over  the  cell  just  mentioned  and  over  the 
Portiuncula  chapel,  which  is  situated  immediately 
under  the  cupola.  The  basilica,  which  has  three  naves 
and  a  circle  of  chapels  extending  along  the  entire 
length  of  the  aisles,  was  completed  (1569-78)  accord- 
ing to  the  plans  of  Jacob  Barozzi,  named  Vignola 
(1507-73),  assisted  by  Alessi  Galeazzo  (1512-72).  The 
Doric  order  was  chosen.  The  basilica  forms  a  Latin 
cross  416  feet  long  by  210  feet  wide;  above  the  middle 
of  the  transept  rises  the  magnificent  cupola,  flanked 
by  a  single  side-tower,  the  second  never  having  been 
finished.  In  the  night  of  15  March,  1832,  the  arch 
of  the  three  naves  and  of  the  choir  fell  in,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  earthquake,  but  the  cupola  escaped  with 
a  big  crack.  Gregory  XVI  had  all  restored  (1836- 
40),  and  on  8  Sept.,  1840,  the  basihca  was  recon- 
secrated by  Cardinal  Lambruschini.  By  Brief  of  11 
April,  1909,  Pius  X  raised  it  to  a  "patriarchal 
basilica  and  papal  chapel".  The  high  altar  was 
therefore  immediately  rebuilt  at  the  expense  of  the 
Franciscan  province  of  the  Holy  Cross  (also  known 
as  the  Saxon  province),  and  a  papal  throne  added. 


The  new  altar  was  solemnly  consecrated  by  Car- 
dinal De  Lai  on  7  Dec,  1910.  Under  the  bay  of 
the  choir,  resting  against  the  columns  of  the  cupola, 
is  still  preserved  the  cell  in  which  St.  Francis  died, 
while,  a  little  behind  the  sacristy,  is  the  spot  where 
the  saint,  during  a  temptation,  is  said  to  have 
rolled  in  a  briar-bush,  which  was  then  changed  into 
thornless  roses.  During  this  same  night  the  saint 
received  the  Portiuncula  Indulgence.  The  representa- 
tion of  the  reception  of  this  Indulgence  on  the  fagade 
of  the  Portiuncula  chapel,  the  work  of  Fr.  Overbeck 
(1829),  enjoys  great  celebrity. 

The  Portiuncula  Indulgence  could  at  first  be  gained 
only  in  the  Portiuncula  chapel  between  the  afternoon 
of  1  Aug.  and  sunset  on  2  Aug.  On  5  Aug.,  1480  (or 
1481),  Sixtus  IV  extended  it  to  all  churches  of  the 
first  and  second  orders  of  St.  Francis  for  Franciscans; 
on  4  July,  1622,  this  privilege  was  further  extended  by 
Gregory  XV  to  all  the  faithful,  who,  after  confession 
and  the  reception  of  Holy  Communion,  visited  such 
churches  on  the  appointed  day.  On  12  Oct.,  1622, 
Gregory  granted  the  same  privilege  to  all  the  churches 
of  the  Capuchins;  Urban  \TII  granted  it  for  all 
churches  of  the  regular  Third  Order  on  13  Jan.,  1643, 
and  Clement  X  for  all  churches  of  the  Conventuals 
on  3  Oct.,  1670.  Later  popes  extended  the  privilege 
to  all  churches  pertaining  in  any  way  to  the  Franciscan 
Order,  even  to  churches  in  which  the  Third  Order 
held  its  meetings  (even  parish  churches  etc.),  pro- 
vided that  there  was  no  Franciscan  church  in  the 
district,  and  that  such  a  church  was  distant  over  an 
Italian  mile  (1000  paces,  about  1640  yards).  Some 
districts  and  countries  have  been  granted  special  priv- 
ileges. On  9  July,  1910,  Pius  X  (only,  however,  for 
that  year)  granted  the  privilege  that  bishops  could 
appoint  any  public  churches  whatsoever  for  the  gain- 
ing of  the  Portiuncula  Indulgence,  whether  on  2  Aug. 
or  the  Sunday  following  (Acta  Apostolicse  Sedis,  II, 
1910,  443  sq.;  A.cta  Ord.  Frat.  Min.,  XXIX,  1910, 
226).  This  privilege  has  been  renewed  for  an  in- 
definite time  by  a  decree  of  the  S.  Cong,  of  Indul., 
26  March,  1911  (Acta  Apostolicse  Sedis,  III,  1911, 
233-4) .  The  Indulgence  is  totics-quolies,  that  is,  it  may 
be  gained  as  of  ten  as  one  wishes  (i.e.  visits  the  church); 
it  is  also  applicable  to  the  souls  in  purgatory. 

While  the  declarations  of  the  popes  have  rendered 
the  Portiuncula  Indulgence  certain  and  indisputable 
from  the  juridico-canonistic  standpoint,  its  historical 
authenticity  (sc.  origin  from  St.  Francis)  is  still  a  sub- 
ject of  dispute.  The  controversy  arises  from  the  fact 
that  none  of  the  old  legends  of  St.  Francis  mentions 
the  Indulgence,  and  no  contemporary  document  or 
mention  of  it  has  come  down  to  us.  The  oldest  docu- 
ment dealing  with  the  Indulgence  is  a  notary's  deed 
of  31  October,  1277,  in  which  Blessed  Benedict  of 
Arezzo,  whom  St.  Francis  himseK  received  into  the 
order,  testifies  that  he  had  been  informed  by  Brother 
Masseo,  a  companion  of  St.  Francis,  of  the  granting 
of  the  Indulgence  by  Honorius  III  at  Perugia.  Then 
follow  other  testimonies,  for  example,  those  of  Jacob 
Cappoli  concerning  Brother  Leo,  of  Fr.  Oddo  of  Aqua- 
sparta,  Peter  Zalfani,  Peter  John  Olivi  (d.  1298,  who 
wrote  a  scholastic  tract  in  defence  of  this  Indulgence 
about  1279),  Blessed  John  of  Laverna  (Fermo;  d. 
1322),  Ubertinus  of  Casale  (d.  after  1335),  Blessed 
Francis  of  Fabriano  (d.  1322),  whose  testimony  goes 
back  to  the  year  1268,  etc.  In  addition  to  these 
rather  curt  and  concise  testimonies  there  are  others 
which  relate  all  details  in  connexion  with  the  grant- 
ing of  the  Indulgence,  and  were  reproduced  in  num- 
berless books:  e.  g.  the  testimony  of  Michael  Ber- 
nardi,  the  letters  of  Bishop  Theobald  of  Assisi 
(1296-1329)  and  of  his  successor  Conrad  Andreae 
(1329-37).  All  the  testimonies  were  collected  by  Fr. 
Francesco  Bartholi  della  Rossa  in  a  special  work, 
"Tractatus  de  Indulgentia  S.  Mariae  de  Portiuncula" 
(ed.  Sabatier,  Paris,   1900).     In  his  edition  of  this 


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work,  Sabatier  defends  the  Indulgence,  although  in 
his  world-famous  "Vie  de  S.  Fran5ois"  (Paris,  1894), 
he  had  denied  its  historicity  (412  sqq.);  he  explains 
the  silence  of  St.  Francis  and  his  companions  and 
biographers  as  due  to  reasons  of  discretion  etc. 
Others  seek  to  accord  more  weight  to  the  later  testi- 
monies by  accentuating  their  connexion  with  the 
first  generation  of  the  order;  others  again  find  al- 
lusions to  the  Indulgence  in  the  old  legends  of  St. 
Francis.  On  the  other  hand,  the  opponents  regard 
the  gap  between  1216  and  1277  as  unbridgable,  and 
hold  that  the  grounds  brought  forward  by  the  de- 
fenders to  explain  this  silence  had  vanished  long 
before  the  latter  date.  No  new  documents  have 
been  found  recently  in  favour  of  the  authenticity  of 
the  Indulgence. 

VlTALls,  Paradisus  seraphicus:  PortiuncuJa  sacra  (Milan,  1645) ; 
Growels,  Hist,  crit,  sacra;  indulgentiw  B.  Maria;  Angelorum  (Ant- 
werp, 1726);  Acta  SS.,  II,  Oct.,  545  sqq.:  Annibali  nE  Latera, 
Dissertationes  critico-historicx  (Rome,  1784) ;  AMEnEO  da  Solero, 
Gloria  delta  sacra  Porziuncula,  ossia  compendia  storico  di  S.  Maria 
degli  Angeli  (Perugia,  1858) ;  Barnab^  d'Alsace  (Meister- 
m,vnn),  La  Portioncule  ou  hist,  de  Ste-Marie  des  Anges  (Foligno, 
1SS4),  Ital.  tr.  (Foligno,  1884);  German  tr.  (Rixheim,  Alsace, 
1884);  new  Ital.  ed.  Sta  Maria  degli  .l/ifff/i  (1895);  Sabatier, 
Etude  critique  sur  la  concession  de  V Indulgence  de  la  Port,  in 
Re}>ue  hist.,  LXII  (Paris,  1896),  282-318  (for  the  authenticity 
of  the  origin  of  the  Indulgence) ;  Patjlus,  Die  Bewilligung  des 
Portiuncula-Ablasses  in  Die  Katholik,  I  (Mainz,  1899),  97-125 
(for);  Idem,  Ibid.,  II  (1901),  185-7  (against  the  authenticity  of 
the  origin  of  the  Indulgence):  Saturnino  (Mencherini)  da 
Caprese,  L'addio  di  S.  Francesco  alia  Verna  etc.  (Prato,  1901), 
with  documents;  d'Alencon  in  Etudes  francisc,  XI  (Paris,  1903), 
585  sqq. ;  Faloci,  Gli  storici  delta  Porziuncula  in  Misc.  francesc, 
X  (Foligno,  1906),  65  sqq.,  97  sqq.,  129  sqq.,  161  sqq.;  KiRSCH, 
Die  Portiunculu-Ablass  in  Theolog.  Quartalschr.,  LXXXVIII 
(Tubingen,  1906),  81-101;  211-91,  published  separately  (Tu- 
bingen, 1906),  against;  Idem,  Litt.  Beilaged.  KQln.  Votksztg.,  LXIX, 
n.  10  (5  March,  1908),  against;  Van  Ortrot  in  Anal,  Bolland,, 
XXI  (1902),  372-80,  doubtful;  XXVI  (1907),  140-1,  against; 
Lemmens,  Die  dttesten  Zeugnisse  fur  d.  Portiunkutjiabtass  in  Die 
Katholik,  I  (1908),  169-84,  253-07,  for;  Holzapeel,  Die  Bntste- 
hung  d.  Port,  Ablusses  in  Archiv,  francisc,  hist.,  I  (Quaracchi,  1908), 
31-45,  for;  BrHL  in  Archiv.  francisc.  hist.,  I,  653  sqq.;  Fierens, 
De  Geschiedkundige  Oorsprong  van  het  Afloat  van  PartiunkvXa 
(Ghent,  1910),  re-edifed  critically  all  desirable  documents,  for. 
See  also  bibliography,  Francis  of  Assisi,  Saint. 

MiCHAEI.   BiHL. 

Portland,  Diocese  of,  in  the  State  of  Maine, 
suffragan  of  Boston,  established  by  Pius  IX,  8  Dec, 
1854.  When  erected  it  included  the  territorial  limits 
of  the  present  States  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire. 
Previous  to  that  time  it  was  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Bishop  of  Baltimore  and  later  of  the  Bishop 
of  Boston.  In  1884  the  diocese  was  divided,  New 
Hampshire  being  made  a  separate  diocese  and  the 
episcopal  see  located  at  Manchester  (q.  v.).  The 
present  Diocese  of  Portland  includes  all  the  State  of 
Maine.  It  has  an  area  of  29,895  square  miles,  and  a 
Catholic  population  of  125,000,  or  one-sixth  of  the 
total  population.  The  diocese  is  organized  in  the 
form  of  a  corporation  sole,  the  title  of  which  is 
"Roman  Cathohc  Bishop  of  Portland". 

Eablt  History. — The  earliest  attempts  at  Cath- 
olic colonization  in  the  north  or  east  of  what  is  known 
as  the  United  States  took  place  in  Southern  Maine. 
In  1604,  sixteen  years  before  the  Pilgrims  landed  at 
Plymouth,  Henry  IV,  King  of  France,  gave  authority 
to  Pierre  du  Gaust,  Sieur  de  Monts,  to  estabhsh  colo- 
nies between  the  40th  and  46th  degrees  of  north  lati- 
tude. He  landed  at  Cape  La  Heve,  on  the  southern 
part  of  the  Nova  Scotian  coast,  and  after  making 
several  expeditions  to  the  north  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  sailed  south  and  discovered  and  named 
the  River  St.  John,  thence  south  to  an  island  which 
he  named  Ste-Croix,  or  Holy  Cross,  and  now  called 
De  Monts  Island.  The  Ste-Croix  River  derived  its 
name  from  this  island,  and  to-day  flows  by  the  east- 
ernmost part  of  the  United  States.  A  colony  was 
established  on  this  island,  and  in  their  chapel  in  July, 
1604,  Holy  Mass  was  offered  for  the  first  time  in  New 
England  by  the  Rev.  Nicholas  Aubray  of  Paris.  The 
hardships  of  the  severe  winter  were  such  that  seventy- 
nine  of  the  colonists  died  before  the  opening  of  spring. 


From  Ste-Croix  Island  on  12  September,  1605, 
Champlain  set  out  on  a  voyage  of  discovery.  He 
sailed  west  along  the  coast  as  far  as  the  Penobscot 
River,  which  he  ascended  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ken- 
duskeag  Stream,  the  present  site  of  Bangor.  The 
falls,  a  mile  above,  prevented  further  progress.  De- 
scending the  Penobscot  River,  Champlain  sailed  west 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  and  then  returned  to  the 
Island  of  Holy  Cross.  No  doubt  Holy  Mass  was 
offered  up  on  this  voyage.  This  was  the  first  foothold 
of  France  and  CathoMoism  in  the  North.  Potrincourt 
who  succeeded  De  Mont,  after  receiving  a  blessing  on 
his  labours  from  the  pope,  applied  himself  to  the  work 
of  colonization  and  Christianizing  the  natives.  Two 
Jesuits,  Fathers  Peter  Biard  and  Enemond  Mass^, 
who  were  sent  to  him  after  some  work  among  the 
Micmacs  of  Nova  Scotia,  came  to  Maine,  and  began 
their  very  successful  labours  among  the  Abenaki.  In 
a  vessel  under  the  command  of  La  Saussaye,  having 
on  board  also  Fathers  Quentin  and  Lalemant,  and  the 
lay  brother  Du  Thet,  who  had  lately  come  from 
France,  they  sailed  to  the  west  and  came  to  Mt. 
Desert  Island,  where  they  landed,  and  having  erected 
a  cross,  set  up  an  altar,  and,  after  offering  the  Holy 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  founded  a  settlement  which  they 
called  St.  Sauveur,  or  Holy  Redeemer.  This  settle- 
ment was  destroyed  by  Argall,  who  came  from  Vir- 
ginia. The  Fathers  were  taken  prisoners,  and  after 
many  hardships  were  finally  returned  to  France. 
Brother  Du  Thet  was  killed  and  buried  on  this  island. 
Some  Capuchins  were  afterwards  stationed  along 
the  coast  in  the  French  posts,  and  had  a  convent  at 
Castine,  and  some  settlements  along  the  Kennebec. 
In  1646,  Father  Gabriel  Druillettes  was  sent  to  the 
Kennebec  and  established  the  mission  of  the  Assump- 
tion among  the  Abenaki,  obtaining  wonderful  results 
from  this  docile  people.  In  1652,  he  returned  to 
Canada,  but  in  1656  and  1657,  came  again  and  con- 
tinued his  work.  Rev.  Laurent  Molin,  a  Franciscan, 
laboured  at  Pentagoet.  In  1667,  Father  Morain  was 
successful  with  the  Penobscots  and  Passamaquoddy 
Indians.  In  1667,  Father  Thury,  a  secular  priest, 
came  to  the  Penobscots  and  laboured  successfully 
among  them  to  the  close  of  his  life.  In  1668,  he  estab- 
lished the  mission  at  Panawaniski,  at  Oldtown.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Fathers  Gaudin  and  Rageot,  who 
remained  among  the  Penobscots  until  1703.  In  1668, 
Father  Bigot  erected  a  chapel  at  Narantsouac,  now 
Norridgewock,  restoring  the  mission.  The  Jesuits, 
Fathers  Joseph  de  la  Chasse,  Julian  Binn^teau, 
Joseph  Aub^ry,  Sebastian  Rasle,  Sebastian  Lauvergat 
and  Loyard,  laboured  in  turn.  Of  these  Father  Rasle 
is  the  best  known.  He  came  to  Norridgewock  in 
1695.  There  he  found  a  chapel  and  had  the  Indians 
instructed.  In  1705,  the  English  destroyed  the  chapel 
and  village.  They  were  rebuilt  in  1722,  were  once 
more  destroyed,  and  Father  Rasle's  treasures  were 
carried  off,  including  his  dictionary  of  the  Abenaki 
language,  now  in  Harvard  College.  Father  Rasle 
was  murdered  and  scalped  on  23  August,  1724,  and  his 
scalp  carried  to  Boston.  His  body  was  buried  on  the 
spot  where  the  altar  had  stood.  Father  James  de 
Sirenne  restored  the  mission  at  Norridgewock  in  1730. 
For  a  long  period  during  the  wars  the  Indians  were 
without  missionaries,  yet  they  remained  faithful. 
Numbers  of  the  Abenaki  fought  for  the  Colonies  dur- 
ing the  War  of  Independence.  After  the  war,  when 
Bishop  Carroll  was  consecrated  first  Bishop  of  the 
United  States,  the  Indians  sent  a  deputation  to  him 
for  a  priest.  Father  Ciquard,  a  priest  of  St.  Sulpice, 
was  sent  in  answer  to  this  appeal  and  remained  for 
ten  years,  until  1794.  In  1797,  the  Rev.  John  Chev- 
erus,  then  a  missionary  at  Boston,  came  to  visit  the 
Indians  and  remained  three  months,  and  while  priest 
and  first  Bishop  of  Boston,  visited  them  every  year 
until  1804,  built  them  a  church  and  gave  them  Father 
Romagne  as  their  pastor.    The  latter  devoted  him- 


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self  for  twenty  years  to  the  Penobscots  and  Passa- 
maquoddys  and  to  the  scattered  Catholic  missions. 
Bishop  Fenwick  was  consecrated  in  1825,  and  con- 
tinued the  work.  Father  Ffrench,  a  Dominican,  was 
stationed  at  Eastport,  and  from  that  place  visited  the 
Indian  missions.  In  July,  1827,  Bishop  Fenwick 
visited  them  and  at  intervals  later.  In  1833,  109 
years  after  the  destruction  of  the  mission  at  Norridge- 
wock.  Bishop  Fenwick  erected  a  monument  to  the 
memory  of  Father  Rasle.  Father  Demilier  continued 
the  work  until  his  death  23  July,  1843.  Bishop 
Fitzpatrick,  the  successor  to  Bishop  Fenwick,  gave 
over  the  Abenaki  mission  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and, 
in  1848,  Father  John  Bapst  was  sent  to  Oldtown  and 
became  a  zealous  missionary  to  both  whites  and 
Indians.  The  Indians  of  Maine  are,  as  a  result  of  the 
careful  teaching  and  self-sacrificing  labours  of  the 
missionaries.  Catholics. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  some 
immigrants  from  Ireland  came  to  Maine  and  settled 
in  the  towns  of  Newcastle,  Damariscotta,  and  Noble- 
boro.  Seven  Catholic  families  had  settled  at  Dam- 
ariscotta Bridge,  and  for  them  Father  Cheverus  said 
Mass  in  the  barn  of  Matthew  Cottrill.  Later  Mr. 
James  Kavanaugh,  a  merchant  of  the  town,  had  fitted 
up  a  neat  chapel  and  Mass  was  celebrated  there  on 
the  visitations  of  the  priest.  In  1800,  Mr.  Kavanaugh 
and  his  partner,  Mr.  Cottrill,  subscribed  $1000  each  for 
the  new  church,  which  was  dedicated  17  July,  1808, 
Father  Cheverus  officiating.  This  was  the  second 
Catholic  church  in  New  England,  and  the  first  built 
by  English-speaking  Catholics  in  Maine.  In  1822, 
Bishop  Cheverus  came  to  Portland  at  the  request  of 
some  Catholics,  and  said  the  first  Mass  in  Portland. 
Bishop  Fenwick  succeeded  Bishop  Cheverus  and  ruled 
the  New  England  province  from  1825  to  1845.  The 
work  of  Bishop  Cheverus  among  the  Indians  was  con- 
tinued by  Bishop  Fenwick,  and  he  established  in  July, 
1834,  the  Catholic  colony  at  Benedicta  in  Northern 
Maine  and  to-day  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  township 
are  Catholics.  In  1853  the  Holy  See  divided  the 
diocese  of  Boston  and  erected  a  new  see  at  Portland, 
and  named  its  first  bishop,  David  William  Bacon 
(see  Bacon,  David  William). 

James  Augustine  Healy,  second  bishop,  b.  at 
Macon,  Ga.,  6  April,  1830.  He  entered  Holy  Cross 
College,  1844,  and  graduated,  1849.  His  theological 
education  was  received  at  the  Grand  Seminary, 
Montreal,  where  he  spent  three  years,  then  two  years 
at  St-Sulpice,  Paris.  He  was  ordained  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  by  Archbishop  Sibour,  10 
June,  1854.  He  began  his  priestly  labours  in  Boston 
as  Secretary  to  Bishop  Fitzpatrick,  and  became  the 
first  chancellor  of  the  diocese.  In  March,  1866,  he 
was  named  pastor  of  St.  James'  Church  by  Bishop 
\\'illiams.  A  papal  bull  dated  12  Feb.,  1875,  desig- 
nated him  as  second  Bishop  of  Portland.  He  was 
consecrated  in  the  Cathedral  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, Portland,  2  June,  1875.  'When  he  assumed 
the  cares  of  the  diocese  he  found  the  Church  well 
established  in  the  cities  of  IMaine  and  New  Hampshire. 
In  the  small  towns,  however,  little  was  known  of 
Cathohc  doctrine.  Bishop  Healy  established  many 
missions  and  new  parishes  and  the  Cathohc  name  be- 
came known  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  He  introduced 
the  Dominicans  and  Marists  and  some  religious  orders 
of  women,  and  was  instrumental  in  establishing  the 
hos])ital  and  Healy  Asylum  in  Lewiston.  In  February, 
1877,  the  school  begun  in  Portland  by  Bishop  Bacon 
was  completed  at  a  cost  of  823,000.  It  is  named  the 
Kai'anaugh  School  in  honour  of  Miss  Kavanaugh,  a 
sister  of  Governor  Edward  Kavanaugh.  In  1881, 
Bishop  Healy  purchased  a  splendid  estate  in  Deering| 
then  a  separate  town,  but  now  a  part  of  Portland,  and 
opened  a  boarding  school  for  girls,  under  the  care  of 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  It  is  known  as  St.  Joseph's 
Academy,  and  has  an  enrollment  of  about  100  pupils. 


He  also  caused  to  be  built  on  the  same  grounds  a 
home  for  aged  women,  and  a  neat  chapel  to  serve  the 
needs  of  the  Cathohcs  in  the  vicinity.  In  1887,  St. 
Elizabeth's  Orphan  Asylum,  which  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  North  Whitefield,  shortly  after  his  acces- 
sion, was  re-estabhshed  in  Portland.  The  Sacred 
Heart  School  for  boys  was  established  by  him  in  1893. 
Bishop  Healy  died  5  August,  1900,  respected  and  be- 
loved by  priests  and  people,  as  a  scholar,  a  master  of 
oratory,  and  a  man  of  sanctity. 

The  third  Bishop  of  Portland  was  Wilham  Henry 
O'Connell  (see  Boston). 

Louis  Sebastian  Walsh,  fourth  bishop,  b.  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  22  Jan.,  1858,  son  of  Patrick  Walsh 
and  Honora  Foley.  He  was  educated  for  the  priest- 
hood at  the  Grand  Seminary,  Montreal,  and  St- 
Sulpice  Seminary,  Paris,  and  later  made  profounder 
studies  of  canon  law  and  theology  at  Rome.  Or- 
dained in  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  23  Dec,  1882,  by 
Cardinal  La  Valletta,  he  was  appointed  assistant 
pastor  at  St.  Joseph's  Church,  Boston,  and  professor 
and  director  at  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Brighton,  at 
its  opening  in  1884,  where  for  thirteen  years  he  taught 
church  history,  canon  law,  and  liturgy.  In  Sept., 
1897,  he  was  appointed  supervisor  of  Catholic  schools 
in  the  archdiocese.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
"New  England  Cathohc  Historical  Society",  also  of 
the  "Catholic  Educational  Association".  He  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Portland  in  Aug.,  1906,  and  con- 
secrated in  the  cathedral  at  Portland  on  18  Oct.,  1908, 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Matthew  Harkins  of  Providence.  New 
parishes  and  schools  were  soon  established,  and  the 
mother-house  of  the  Diocesan  Sisters  of  Mercy  was 
erected  in  the  Deering  district  of  Portland.  Bishop 
Walsh  opened  in  Sept.,  1909,  the  Catholic  Institute 
in  the  former  mother-house  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy, 
wherein  are  taught  200  boys,  also  the  Holy  Innocents 
Home  for  Infants  and  St.  Anthony's  Guild  for  Work- 
ing Girls.  At  Damariscotta  in  Aug.,  1908,  a  celebra- 
tion was  arranged  to  commemorate  the  hundredth 
anniversary  of  the  dedication  of  the  parish  church, 
and  on  this  occasion  was  formed  the  "Maine  Catholic 
Historical  Society".  At  Norridgewock  the  monu- 
ment erected  by  Bishop  Fenwick  to  the  memory  of 
Father  Rasle,  S.  J.,  was  replaced  and  re-dedicated. 
On  Mt.  Desert  Island  in  the  town  of  Bar  Harbor  the 
arrival  of  the  first  missionaries,  in  1604,  was  com- 
memorated; and  a  beautiful  church  dedicated  under 
the  name  given  to  the  island  by  them,  that  of  St- 
Sauveur  or  Holy  Redeemer,  was  erected.  The  char- 
ities of  the  diocese  have  been  arranged  on  a  permanent 
basis.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  a  splen- 
did advance  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  Church. 

Statistics. — Within  the  limits  of  the  diocese,  com- 
prising the  State  of  Maine,  there  are  (1911)  125,000 
Catholics.  They  are  cared  for  by  125  seculars  and 
22  priests  of  religious  orders.  There  are  70  churches 
with  resident  pastors  and  49  mission  churches,  36 
chapels  and  67  stations.  There  is  one  college,  St. 
Mary's,  Van  Buren,  conducted  by  the  Marist  Fathers. 
Nine  academies  have  an  enrollment  of  500  pupils. 
St.  Joseph's  Academy  of  Maine,  conducted  by  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  is  the  largest  and  best,  and  furnishes 
instruction  to  100  pupils.  There  are  two  schools  for 
Indians  caring  for  132  pupils;  three  Catholic  hospitals 
and  one  home  for  aged  women.  The  orphans  under 
Catholic  care  number  415.  Total  of  young  people 
under  Catholic  care,  12,274. 

Religious  Communities. — The  Dominican  Fathers 
are  established  in  Lewiston  and  the  Marists  at  Van 
Buren  and  Lower  Grand  Isle.  The  Diocesan  Sis- 
ters of  Mercy  have  their  mother-house  in  Portland 
and  number  185.  The  following  Sisters  and  congre- 
gations are  engaged  in  various  parts  of  the  state: 
The  Sisters  of  Charity;  Grey  Nims;  Dominican  Sis- 
ters; Little  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family;  Little  Fran- 
ciscan Sisters  of  Mary;   Sisters  of  the  Holy  Rosary; 


PORT 


289 


PORTO 


Congregation  of  Notre  Dame;  Sister  Servants  of  the 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary;  Daughters  of  Wisdom; 
Sisters  of  the  Presentation;  Ursuline  Sisters;  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph. 

Clarke,  Deceased  Bishops  (New  York,  1S72) ;  Shea,  History  of 
the  Catholic  Ch.  in  U.  S.  (New  York,  1888) ;  Young,  Diocese  of 
Portland  (Boston,  1899) ;  Wiltzius,  Official  Directory,  1910. 

John  W.  Houlihan. 

Port  Louis,  Diocese  of  (Foetus  Ludovici),  com- 
prises the  islands  of  Mauritius,  Rodriguez,  Chagos, 
and  Diego  Garcia.  The  Island  of  Mauritius  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  about  1507,  but  no  settle- 
ment was  formed.  The  Dutch  who  visited  it  in  1598 
called  it  Mauritius  in  honour  of  the  Stadtholder, 
Maurice  of  Nassau;  they  sent  a  colony  there  in  1644, 
but  abandoned  the  island  in  1710  or  1712.  When  the 
French  took  possession  in  1715  they  changed  the  name 
to  He  de  France.  It  was  long  a  French  trading  centre, 
and  in  17S9  became  the  seat  of  the  French  Govern- 
ment in  the  East.  It  was  captured  by  the  English  in 
1810,  being  formally  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  in  1S14.  The  French  language  and 
law  have  been  preserved,  but  the  ancient  name  was 
restored  by  the  British  Government.  Port  Louis,  the 
capital,  on  the  north-west  coast,  is  the  seat  of  the  Cath- 
olic and  Anglican  bishoprics,  and  also  the  residence  of 
the  colonial  governor,  at  present  (1911)  Sir  Cavendish 
Boyle,  K.  C.  M.  G.  The  census  of  1901  gave  the  total 
population  of  the  island  as  373,336,  of  whom  113,244 
were  Catholics,  and  that  of  the  town  of  Port  Louis  as 
52,740.  There  are  Government  schgols  and  denomina- 
tional schools  aided  by  the  State;  Catholics  constitute 
64.71  per  cent  of  the  pupils. 

In  1712  a  prefecture  Apostolic,  including  the  islands 
of  Madagascar,  Reunion  (then  Bourbon),  Mauritius 
etc.,  was  established  in  the  Indian  Ocean  and  confided 
to  the  Congregation  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  By  a 
Brief  of  6  October,  1740,  Benedict  XIV  made  the  mis- 
sion dependent  on  the  Archdiocese  of  Paris.  After  the 
British  occupation  of  Mauritius  a  vicariate  Apostolic 
was  established  which,  by  a  Decree  of  21  January, 
1819,  was  confided  to  Rt.  Rev.  Edward  Bede  Slater, 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the 
Island  of  Madagascar;  shortly  afterwards  the  region 
of  New  Holland  was  annexed  to  the  vicariate.  In  1829 
the  Island  of  Madagascar  was  separated  from  the 
vicariate,  and  in  1834  the  district  of  New  Holland  was 
suppressed.  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Island  of 
St.  Helena,  and  the  Seychelles  Islands  were  cut  off 
from  the  mission  of  Mauritius  in  1837,  1851,  and  1852 
respectively,  the  Diocese  of  Port  Louis  having  been 
erected  by  a  Decree  of  1  December,  1847.  The  pres- 
ent bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  James  R.  Bilsborrow,  elected  to 
the  see  on  13  Sept.,  1910,  succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Peter  Augustus  O'Neill  (b.  at  Liverpool  22  Dec,  1841; 
made  his  profession  as  a  Benedictine  at  Douai  10  Dec, 
1861;  was  ordained  6  April,  1867;  elevated  to  the 
episcopate  22  May,  1896,  consecrated  29  June  of  that 
year).  The  present  Catholic  population  of  the  dio- 
cese is  119,000;  there  are  52  priests,  27  churches, 
and  40  chapels.  Religious  orders  include  Jesuits  and 
Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Loreto  Sisters,  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  Perpetual  Help,  and  the  Daughters  of 
Mary. 

MiasiONEB  Catholics;  Annuaire  •pontif.  (1911);  Keller, 
Madagascar,  Mauritius,  and  other  East  African  Islands  (London). 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Porto.     See  Oporto,  Diocese  of. 

Porto  Alegre,  Archdiocese  of  (Portalegren- 
sis),  in  Eastern  Brazil.  Porto  Alegre,  the  capital 
and  chief  port  of  the  State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
is  built  on  the  northern  extremity  of  Lagoa  dos 
Patos  and  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  estuary  called 
Rio  Guahyba.  It  was  founded  in  1742  by  a  colony 
of  immigrants  from  the  Azores,  and  was  first  known 
as  Porto  dos  Cazaes.  In  1770  Governor  Jose  Mar- 
XII.— 19 


cellino  de  Figuereido  selected  it  as  his  official  resi- 
dence, and  in  1773  the  town  received  its  present 
name.  Raised  to  the  rank  of  a  city  in  1822,  it  was 
given  in  1841  in  recognition  of  its  loyalty  the  title 
"leal  e  valorosa".  The  city  is  the  chief  commercial 
centre  of  the  state,  and  has  a  harbour  accessible  to 
vessels  of  not  more  than  ten  feet  draught.  The 
principal  industry  of  the  state  is  stock-raising,  which 
was  first  organized  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  municipio  has  an  area 
of  931  sq.  miles;  the  latest  census  returns  assign  the 
city  (including  several  districts  not  within  the  munici- 
pal boundaries)  a  population  of  73,574  inhabitants, 
for  the  most  part  of  German  and  Italian  extraction. 
The  chmate,  while  cool  and  bracing  in  winter,  is 
intensely  hot  during  the  summer;  the  average  annual 
rainfall  exceeds  thirty  inches.  Porto  Alegre  has 
four  newspapers,  including  the  Catholic  "Deutsohes 
Volksblatt";  the  state  institutions  include  the  mu- 
nicipal palace,  the  governor's  palace,  the  school  of 
engineering,  the  military  college,  school  of  medicine, 
and  four  general  schools.  Christianity  was  first 
introduced  into  the  country  by  the  Jesuits  in  the 
early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  after  the 
Indian  slave  hunters  of  Sao  Paulo  had  forced  them  to 
abandon  their  missions  in  Upper  Parand.  In  1848 
the  state,  which  has  an  area  of  about  91,300  sq.  miles, 
was  formed  into  the  Diocese  of  Sao  Pedro  do  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul.  On  4  March,  1910,  Pius  X  divided 
the  territory  of  the  state  between  this  see  (which  he 
raised  to  metropolitan  rank  with  the  title  of  Porto 
Alegre,  now  appointed  its  seat),  and  its  newly 
created  suffragans,  Pelotas,  Santa  Maria,  Uruguayana, 
and  Florianopolis.  The  religious  statistics  at  the 
time  of  the  division  were:  1,400,000  Catholics, 
115,000  Protestants  (including  5,000  Methodists), 
134  parishes  and  parochial  charges,  245  priests  (in- 
cluding 225  regular),  68  brothers,  58  seminarians, 
nearly  400  sisters,  6  gymnasiums,  2  normal  schools, 
1  agricultural  school,  and  more  than  500  schools  and 
colleges.  The  principal  religious  orders  of  the  arch- 
diocese are  the  Jesuits  (St.  Joseph's  Church,  gym- 
nasium etc.),  the  Pallottini  Fathers,  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Francis,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Catherine,  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph,  the  Evangelical  School  Brothers,  the 
Capuchins  (who  have  charge  of  the  episcopal  semi- 
nary). Nearly  all  the  hospitals  are  managed  by 
nuns.  The  chief  churches  are  the  Cathedral  of  Our 
Lady  Madre  de  Deus,  the  church  of  Nossa  Senhora 
des  Dores,  and  the  (Jesuit)  church  of  St.  Joseph. 
The  present  archbishop  is  the  Most  Reverend  Claoudi 
Jose  Gongalves  Ponce  de  Leao  (b.  21  Feb.,  1841), 
transferred  from  the  Diocese  of  Goyaz  to  the  former 
Diocese  of  Rio  Grande  on  13  May,  1881.  On  21 
February,  1906,  Mgr  Joao  Antonio  Pimenta,  titular 
Bishop  of  Pentacomia,  was  appointed  coadjutor  with 
right  of  succession. 

See  list  of  general  works  in  bibliography  of  article  on  Brazil. 
Annuaire  pontif.  Cathol.  (Paris,  1911). 

Moira  K.  Coyle. 

Porto  Alegre,  Diocese  of  (Portalegeen.),  com- 
prises the  southern  part  of  the  State  of  Minas  Geraes, 
and  part  of  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  Republic  of  Bra- 
zil. It  was  created  a  bishopric  by  Brief  of  4  August, 
1900;  the  see  is  located  at  the  city  of  Porto  Alegre, 
State  of  Minas  Geraes.  The  first  bishop  was  Mgr 
G.  Bathista  Correa  Nery,  succeeded  by  Mgr  Antonio 
Augusto  de  Assis.  The  diocese  proper  has  62  parishes 
with  120  secular  priests  and  6  regular  priests  and  a 
total  Catholic  population  of  800,000  souls. 

For  the  education  of  young  men  in  the  ecclesiastical 
career  there  is  in  Porto  Alegre  a  theological  seminary, 
founded  in  August,  1902,  by  Mgr  Correa  Nery. 
There  is  also  an  excellent  high  school  known  as  the 
Diocesan  College  of  San  Jos(5,  and  founded  in  1899  by 
Mgr  de  Andrade.  For  the  conversion  of  infidels 
there  are  the  Diocesan  Missionaries  of  the  Heart  of 


PORTO 


290 


PORTO 


Mary,  an  order  founded  in  1902  by  Mgr.  Correa  Nery, 
and  composed  of  six  priests  under  a  superior. 

The  official  organ  of  the  diocese  is  the  "Mensageiro 
Ecclesiastico",  a  monthly  review  of  about  32  pages, 
whose  present  editor  is  Father  Octavia  Chagas  de 
Miranda.  There  is  besides  another  Catholic  publica- 
tion, "O  Estudo",  issued  by  the  College  of  San  Jos6. 

Anntuiire  Pontifical  Cutholifpif  (Paris,  1911),  s.  v.  Pouso-Alegre. 

Julian  Mokeno-Lacalle. 

Porto  and  Santa-Ruflna,  Diocese  of  (Portuen- 
sis  ET  Sanct/E  Rufin.e),  formed  from  the  union  of 
two  suburbicarian  sees.  Porto,  now  a  wretched  vil- 
lage, was  in  ancient  times  the  chief  harbour  of  Rome. 
It  owes  its  origin  to  the  port  built  by  Claudius  on  the 
right  of  the  Tiber,  opposite  Ostia;  Trajan  enlarged 
the  basin,  and  in  a  short  time  there  grew  around  it  a 
city  which  soon  became  independent  of  Ostia.  It  was 
near  Porto  that  Julius  Nepos  compelled  Emperor 
Gl_\-cerius  to  abdicate  (474).  During  the  Gothic  AVar 
the  town  served  the  Cinths  (.537  and  549)  and  the 
Byzantines  (540-52)  as  a  base  of  operations  against 
Rome.  In  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  it  was  sacked 
on  several  occasions  by  the  Saracens.  In  849  Leo  IV 
fortified  it  and  established  there  a  colony  of  Corsicans 
for  the  defence  of  the  coast  and  the  neighbouring  terri- 
tory; but  the  city  continued  to  decay.  Naturally 
Christianity  was  early  established  there.  Several 
martyrs  of  Porto  are  known,  including  Herculanus, 
Hyacinthus,  Martiahs,  Saturninus  Epictetus,  Maprilis 
and  Felix.  The  place  was  also  famous  as  the  probable 
see  of  .St.  Hippolytus  (q.  v.).  In  314  Gregorius  was 
bishop.  The  great  xenodochium,  or  hospice,  of  Pam- 
machius  was  built  about  370.  Among  the  other  bish- 
ops should  be  mentioned  Donatus  (date  uncertain), 
who  built  the  basilica  of  St.  Eutropius;  Felix,  a  con- 
temporary of  St.  Gregory  the  Great;  Joannes,  legate 
to  the  Sixth  General  Council  (680);  Gregorius,  who 
accompanied  Pope  Constantine  to  Constantinople 
(710);  Gregorius  II  (743-Gl);  Citonatus,  present  at 
the  consecration  of  the  antipope  Constantine  (767); 
Radoaldus,  who  acted  contrary  to  his  instructions  on 
the  occasion  of  the  difficulties  with  Photius  at  Con- 
stantinople (X02),  and  who  was  deposed  for  having 
prevaricated  in  connexion  with  the  divorce  of  Lothair 
II  of  Lorraine;  Formosus,  who  became  pope  (891); 
Benedictus  (9(j3),  who  consecrated  the  antipope  Leo 
VIII;  Gregorio  (c.  991),  who  built  the  irrigation  sys- 
tem of  the  territory  of  the  diocese;  Benedict  VIII  and 
Benedict  IX  were  bishops  of  Porto;  Mauritius  (1097), 
sent  by  Paschal  II  to  establish  order  in  religious  affairs 
in  the  Holy  Land;  CaUistus  II  (1119-24),  who  united 
to  the  See  of  Porto  the  other  suburbicarian  See  of 
Silva  Candida  or  Santa  Rufina. 

Santa  Rufina  grew  up  aroimd  the  basilica  of  the  Holy 
Martyrs  Sts.  Rufina  and  Secunda  on  the  Via  Aurelia, 
fourteen  miles  from  Rome ;  the  basilica  is  said  to  have 
been  begun  by  Julius  I,  and  was  finished  by  Saint  Dama- 
sus.  In  the  ninth  century  this  town  was  destroyed  by 
the  Saracens,  and  the  efforts  of  Leo  IV  and  Sergius  III 
were  unable  to  save  it  from  total  ruin :  all  that  remains 
are  the  remnants  of  the  ancient  basilica  and  a  chapel. 
The  first  notice  of  it  as  an  episcopal  see  dates  from  the 
fifth  century,  when  its  bishop  Adeodatus  was  present 
at  the  councils  held  by  Pope  Symmachus;  its  bishop 
St.  Valentinus,  Vicar  of  Rome  during  the  absence  of 
Vigilius,  had  his  hands  cut  off  by  Totila.  Among  its 
other  bishops  mention  should  be  made  of  Tiberius 
(.594),  Ursus  (6S0),  Nicetas  (710),  Hildebrand  (906), 
and  Peter  (1026),  whose  jurisdiction  over  the  Leonine 
Cit>',  the  Trastevere,  and  the  Insula  Tiberina  (island 
in  the  Tiber)  was  confirmed.  The  residence  of  the 
bishops  of  Silva  Candida  was  on  the  Insula  Tiberina 
beside  the  church  of  Sts.  Adalbert  and  Paulinus,  while 
that  of  the  bishops  of  Porto  was  on  the  same  island 
near  the  church  of  San  Giovanni.  The  bishops  of 
Silva  Candida,  moreover,  enjoyed  great  prerogatives 


in  relation  with  the  ceremonies  of  the  basilica  of  St. 
Peter.  The  most  famous  of  these  prelates  was  Car- 
dinal Humbertus,  who  accompanied  Leo  IX  from 
Burgundy  to  Rome;  he  was  appointed  Bishop  ot 
Sicily  by  that  pope,  but,  having  been  prevented  by  the 
Normans  from  landing  on  the  island,  he  received  the 
See  of  Silva  Candida,  and  later  was  sent  to  Constanti- 
nople to  settle  the  controversies  aroused  by  Michael 
Caerularius.  He  wrote  against  the  errors  of  the 
Greeks  and  against  Berengarius  (1051-63).  The  last 
Bishop  was  Mainardus.  Historically,  therefore,  the 
Bishop  of  Porto  became  the  second  cardinal,  Ostia 
being  the  first,  and  officiated  on  Mondays  in  the 
Lateran  Basilica;  he  obtained,  moreover,  the  other 
rights  of  the  Bishop  of  Santa  Rufina,  but  lost  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  Leonine  City  and  its  environs,  when  they 
were  united  to  the  city  of  Rome.  Among  its  better 
known  cardinal-bishops  are:  Peter  (1119),  a  partisan 
of  Anacletus  II;  Theodevinus  (1133),  a  German,  sent 
on  many  missions  to  Germany  and  to  the  Holy  Land; 
Bernardus  (1159),  who  exerted  himself  to  bring  about 
peace  between  Adrian  IV  and  Barbarossa;  Theodinus 
(1177),  who  examined  the  cause  of  St.  Thomas  k 
Becket;  Cencio  SaveUi  (1219);  Conrad  (1219),  a  Cis- 
tercian; Romano  Bonaventura  (1227),  who  obtained 
the  confirmation  of  all  the  rights  of  his  see;  Ottone 
Candido  (1243),  of  the  house  of  the  marchesi  di  Mon- 
f  errato,  sent  on  several  occasions  as  legate  by  Innocent 
IV  to  Frederick  II;  Robert  Kilwardly,  formerly  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  poisoned  at  Viterbo  (1280); 
Matteo  da  AcquasDarta  (1290),  a  former  general  of  the 
Franciscans  and  a  renowned  theologian;  Giovanni 
Minio  (1302),  a  general  of  the  Franciscans;  Giacomo 
Arnaldo  d'Euse  (1312),  who  became  Pope  John  XXII; 
Pietro  Corsini  (1374),  who  adhered,  later,  to  the  West- 
ern Schism;  Louis,  Duke  of  Berry,  created  in  1412  by 
John  XXIII. 

During  the  incumbency  of  Francesco  Condulmer, 
Nicholas  V  separated  the  sees  of  Porto  and  Silva  Can- 
dida, and  gave  the  latter  to  John  Kemp,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  at  whose  death  (1445)  the  sees  were 
reunited.  Then  came  Guillaume  d'Estouteville(1455) ; 
Rodrigo  Borgia  (1476),  who  became  Pope  Alexander 
VI;  Raffaele  Riario  (1508);  Gian  Pietro  Carafa 
(1553),  who  became  Pope  Paul  IV;  Giovanni  Morone 
(l565);  Cristoforo  Maclruzzi  (1570);  Alessandro  Far- 
nese  (1578);  Fulvio  Corneo  (1580);  Francesco  M. 
Brancati  (1666);  Ulderico  Carpegna  (1675),  who  left 
a  legacy  to  defray  the  expenses  of  quadrennial  mis- 
sions; Carlo  Rossetti  (IGSQ);  Alderano  Cibo  (1683); 
Pietro  Ottoboni  (1687),  who  became  Pope  Alexander 
VIII;  Flavio  Chigi  (1693),  who  enlarged  the  cathedral 
and  richly  furnished  it;  Nicol6  Acciaiuolo  (1700); 
Vicenzo  M.  Orsini  (1715),  who  became  Pope  Benedict 
XIII;  Giulio  della  Somaglia  (1818);  Bartolommeo 
Pacca  (1821).  In  1826,  Civitavecchia  was  separated 
from  the  Diocese  of  Viterbo  and  Toscanella  and  united 
with  that  of  Porto,  but  in  1854,  with  Corneto,  it  was 
made  an  independent  see.  Mention  should  be  made 
of  the  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Porto  Luigi,  Lambruschini 
(1847),  who  restored  the  cathedral  and  the  episcopal 
palace.  From  the  sixteenth  century,  the  incumbency 
of  prelates  of  this  see  was,  as  a  rule,  of  short  duration, 
because  most  of  the  cardinal-bishops  preferred  the  See 
of  Ostia  and  Velletri,  which  they  exchanged  for  their 
own  as  soon  as  possible.  The  Diocese  of  Caere,  now 
Cervetri,  has  been  united  with  that  of  Porto  since  the 
twelfth  century.  Ca;re  was  an  ancient  city,  called  at 
first  Agylla,  where  the  sanctuaries  of  Rome  and  the 
Vestals  were  hidden  during  the  invasion  of  the  Gauls; 
the  Etruscan  tombs  scattered  about  its  territory  are 
important  archaeologically.  Cervetri  had  bishops  of 
its  own  until  the  eleventh  century;  the  first  was 
Adeodatus  (499),  assuming  that  he  was  not  the  Adeo- 
datus who  signed  himself  Bishop  of  Silva-Candida  in 
the  third  synod  of  Pope  Symmachus  (501).  The  last 
known  was  Benedictus,  referred  to  in  1015  and  1029. 


PORT 


291 


PORTO 


The  Diocese  of  Porto  and  Santa  Rufina  has  18  parishes, 
with  4600  inhabitants. 

Piazza,  Gerardua  carilinaHzia;  Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese 
d'ltalia,  I;  DK  Rossi  in  Bulleitino  d'archeologia  crist,  (1866),  37; 
ToMMASSETTi  in  ArcMvio  della  Soc,  Rom.  di  Storia  Patria,  XXIII 
(1900),  143;  Battandier,  Annuaire  Pontifical  Catholique  (Paris, 
1910). 

U.  Beniqni. 

Port  of  Spain,  Archdiocese  of  (Pohtus  His- 
panic), an  archiepiscopal  and  metropohtan  see,  in- 
cluding the  Islands  of  Trinidad,  Tobago,  Grenada, 
the  Grenadines,  St.  Vincent,  and  St.  Lucia.  The 
Catholic  population  is  about  200,000.  Christianity 
was  introduced  by  the  Spanish  discoverers,  and 
missions  established  in  those  islands  where  permanent 
settlements  were  effected.  The  first  preachers  of  the 
Faith  in  Trinidad  were  Fathers  Francisco  de  Cordova 
and  Juan  Carets,  both  Dominicans,  who  died  at  the 
hands  of  the  Indians  in  1513.  The  Franciscans 
arri\'ed  in  1596,  and  maintained  their  connexion  with 
Trinidad  until  tlie  British  occupation  in  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Fathers  Esteban  de  San 
Felix,  Marco  de  Vique,  and  a  lay-brother,  Ramon  de 
Figuerola,  Francis- 
cans, were  slaugh- 
tered by  the  natives 
in  1699.  Their  bodies 
were  interred  in  the 
parish  church  of  San 
Josr  de  Oruiia,  then 
the  chief  town  of  the 
colony,  and  they 
were  venerated  as 
martyrs  of  the  Faith. 
The  Governor  of  the 
colony,  Don  Jos6  de 
Leon,  and  a  Domini- 
can, Father  Juan  de 
Mosin  Sotomayor, 
lost  their  lives  de- 
fending them.  The 
Dominicans  and 
other  religious  la- 
boured in  Grenada 
and  the  other  islands. 


Archbishop's  House,   Port  of  Spain 

but  as  these  colonies  fell  into 
British  hands  they  were  replaced  by  the  secular 
clergy.  When  in  1797  Trinidad  was  surrendered 
to  Great  Britain  the  status  of  the  Catholic  re- 
Hgion  underwent  no  change,  as  stipulated  in  the 
terms  of  capitulation  granted  by  Sir  Ralph  Aber- 
crombie.  The  new  authorities  undertook  to  con- 
tribute to  the  maintenance  of  the  clergy  and  continue 
to  do  so.  In  1820  at  the  instance  of  Governor  Sir 
Ralph  Woodford,  the  Trinidad  Catholics  were  with- 
drawn from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Guayana, 
Venezuela,  and  Mgr.  James  Buckley  was  appointed 
the  first  bishop.  The  cathedral  of  Port  of  Spain  was 
built  during  his  administration.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Mgr.  McDonnell,  whose  successor  was  Mgr. 
Richard  Smith,  the  first  archbishop.  Mgr  Vincent 
Spaccapietra,  his  successor,  is  held  in  veneration  for 
his  heroic  exertions  during  an  epidemic  of  cholera. 
On  Mgr  Spaccapietra's  transfer  to  the  See  of  Smyrna, 
Mgr.  Ferdinand  English  was  appointed  to  Port  of 
Spain.  He  was  succeeded  by  Mgr.  J.  L.  Gonin,  O.P., 
who  requested  the  Dominicans  to  resume  in  Trinidad 
the  work  begun  by  their  predecessors  in  early  Spanish 
days.  A  small  number  arrived  in  1864;  their  number 
increased  under  Mgr.  Patrick  Vincent  Flood,  O.P., 
and  their  work  extended  to  Grenada.  On  Mgr. 
Flood's  death  in  1907,  during  an  extended  vacancy 
of  the  see,  the  name  of  a  Canadian  Dominican, 
Father  Albert  Knapp,  unaccountably  appeared  as 
Archbishop  of  Port  of  Spain  in  many  newspapers  and 
a  year  book.  The  Holy  See  appointed  the  present 
archbishop,  Mgr.  Dowling,  b.  in  County  Kilkenny, 
Ireland,    in    1886,    consecrated     1909.      Before   his 


elevation  to  the  episcopate  he  held  important  offices 
in  his  order,  having  been  professor,  novice-master, 
and  previous  to  his  coming  to  Trinidad  as  vicar- 
general  of  the  archdiocese,  rector  of  the  well-known 
College  of  San  Clemente,  Rome.  Most  of  the 
clergy  are  from  France,  England,  and  Ireland, 
only  a  few  are  natives  of  the  diocese.  English  is 
taught  exclusively  in  the  schools  and  most  generally 
spoken,  though  Creole  patois  is  widely  used  by  the 
lower  classes  except  in  Tobago  and  St.  Vincent. 
Spanish  is  spoken  in  some  parishes  of  Trinidad  and 
by  Venezuelan  residents  of  Port  of  Spain.  There 
are  also  many  Portuguese.  Confessors  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  these  languages  are  provided  and  sermons 
preached  in  English,  French,  Spanish,  and  Portu- 
guese. Work  amongst  the  East  Indian  immigrants 
makes  a  knowledge  of  the  dialects  of  Hindustan 
needful.  Number  of  parishes,  48;  secular  clergy,  20; 
Order  of  Preachers,  40;  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  15;  Fathers  of  Mary  Immaculate,  20;  and  a 
few  members  of  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine.  Higher 
schools  for  boys,  2,  for  girls,  4;  1  orphanage  and  2 
alms-houses.    The  Leper  Asylum  and  the  municipal 

alms-house  are  under 
the  care  of  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Dominic,  and 
many  of  the  elemen- 
tary schools  under 
that  of  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph. 

BoRDE,  Histoire  de  Vile 
de  la  Trinidad  (Paris, 
1882);  CoTHONAT,  Tri- 
nidad (Paris,  1893); 
Fraser,  History  of  Trin- 
idad {Port  of  Spain, 
1891);  GuMiLLA,  Bl  Ori- 
noco ilu^trado  (Barce- 
lona, 1882). 

Michael  O'Byenb. 

Porto     Rico 

(Puerto  Rico),  the 
smallest    and    most 

Greater  Antilles,  rec- 
tangular in  shape,  with  an  area  of  3670  square  miles, 
and  the  most  densely  inhabited  country  in  America, 
having  a  population  of  1,118,012,  over  304  to  the 
square  mile,  according  to  the  census  of  1910;  a  growth 
of  125,769  the  last  ten  years. 

On  16  Nov.,  1493,  on  his  second  voyage,  the  moun- 
tain El  Yunque,  on  the  north-east  coast  of  the  island 
then  known  as  Boriquen,  was  seen  by  Columbus, 
whose  fleet  anchored  in  the  port  near  Aguadilla.  A 
monument  erected  in  the  fourth  century  of  the  dis- 
covery marks  the  site  between  Aguada  and  Aguadilla, 
where  presumably  the  admiral  took  possession  of  the 
newly  discovered  territory  in  the  name  of  his  sovereign . 
The  island  was  named  San  Juan  in  honour  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist. 

Among  those  who  accompanied  Columbus  was 
Vincent  Yaiiez,  the  younger  of  the  brothers  Pinzon, 
who  had  commanded  the  ill-fated  "Niiia"  on  the 
voyage  of  the  year  previous.  In  1499  a  royal  permit 
was  granted  him  to  fit  out  a  fleet  to  explore  the  region 
south  of  the  lands  discovered  by  Columbus.  After 
coasting  along  the  shores  of  Brazil  and  advancing  up 
the  River  Amazon,  then  called  Maranon,  he  returned 
by  way  of  Hispaniola,  to  be  driven  for  refuge  from 
storm  into  the  port  of  Aguada. 

From  the  natives,  who  received  him  kindly,  it  was 
learned  that  there  was  considerable  gold  in  the  island. 
On  his  return  to  Spain,  Pinzon  sought  to  obtain  cer- 
tain privileges  to  colonize  San  Juan  de  Boriquen.  It 
was  only  after  the  death  of  Isabella  that  he  obtained 
a  royal  permit  from  Ferdinand  the  Cathohc,  dated  24 
April,  1505,  authorizing  him  to  colonize  the  island  of 
San  Juan  de  Boriquen,  without  intervention  on  the 


PORTO 


292 


PORTO 


part  of  Columbus,  on  condition  that  he  would  secure 
means  of  transportation  within  one  year.  Failing  to 
do  so  his  permit  was  without  effect. 

The  colonizer  and  first  governor  of  the  island  was 
another  companion  of  Columbus,  Juan  Ponce,  sur- 
named  de  Leon  after  his  birth-place  in  Spain.  The 
eastern  portion  of  the  Island  of  Hispaniola  (Haiti), 
separated  from  Porto  Rico  by  the  Mono  Channel,  was 
at  this  time  under  his  command. 

In  1508  he  secured  permission  to  leave  his  command 
in  the  province  of  Higuey,  in  Hispaniola,  and  to  ex- 
plore San  Juan  de  Boriquen.  With  fifty  chosen 
followers,  he  crossed  the  channel,  landing  in  Porto 
Rico  12  Aug.,  1508,  and  was  received  by  a  friendly 
native  cacique,  who  informed  him  of  the  existence 
of  the  harbour  of  San  Juan  on  the  north  coast,  then 
unknown  to  Europeans,  which  de  Leon  named 
"Puerto  Rico"  on  account  of  the  strategic  and  com- 
mercial advantages  it  offered  for  the  colonization  and 
civilization  of  the  island.  Having  explored  its  in- 
terior, de  Leon  returned  to  his  command  in  Hispan- 
iola, now  the  eastern  portion  of  Santo  Domingo,  to 
arrange  with  King  Ferdinand  and  Orando  to  lead  an 
expedition  for  the  conquest  and  colonization  of  Bori- 
quen. He  made  special  request  to  have  a  body  of 
priests  assigned  for  his  assistance. 

In  March,  1509,  he  sailed  direct  to  the  north  coast 
for  the  harbour  which  he  had  named  Puerto  Rico, 
now  known  as  San  Juan.  Anchoring  about  one  mile 
from  the  entrance  he  established  the  first  European 
settlement  at  a  place  then  known  as  Caparra,  now 
Pueblo  Viejo,  which  remained  capital  of  the  island 
until  it  was  officially  transferred  to  the  present  site 
of  San  Juan  in  1519. 

Erection  of  the  First  Dioceses  in  the  New 
World.— On  15  Nov.,  1504,  Julius  II  by  Bull 
"Illius  fulciti"  erected  in  the  Island  of  Hispaniola 
the  first  ecclesiastical  province  in  the  New  World, 
comprising  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Hyaguata, 
dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  under  the  title 
of  Our  Lady  of  the  Annunciation,  with  two 
suffragans  of  Magua  and  Bayuna.  This  Bull,  how- 
ever, remained  without  effect,  on  account  of  incon- 
veniences attending  the  sites  selected,  and  of  the 
opposition  of  King  Ferdinand,  who  objected  to  the 
concession  to  the  first  prelates  of  the  New  World  the 
right  to  participate  in  the  diezmos  (tithes)  upon  gold, 
silver,  and  precious  stones  then  being  discovered 
within  the  territory.  This  rendered  the  Bull  inopera- 
tive, because  in  1501  Alexander  VI  had  granted  to  the 
Crown  of  Spain  in  perpetuity  the  right  of  collecting 
diezmos  in  her  transoceanic  colonies. 

Seven  years  later,  8  Aug.,  1511,  the  same  pope  by 
the  Bull  "Pontifex  Romanus"  declared  as  suppressed 
and  extinguished  in  perpetuity  the  aforementioned 
ecclesiastical  province,  with  the  three  sees  comprised 
therein,  and  by  the  same  Bull  erected  three  new  dio- 
ceses: two  in  Hispaniola  (Santo  Domingo  and  Con- 
cepcion  de  la  Vega) ;  the  third  was  in  the  Island  of  San 
Juan,  the  name  now  given  solely  to  the  chief  city  of 
Porto  Rico,  but  which  then  applied  to  the  whole 
island.  The  new  dioceses  were  made  suffragans  of  the 
Province  of  Seville,  Spain,  and  the  three  prelates  pre- 
viously designated  to  rule  the  extinct  sees  of  1504  were 
assigned  by  this  later  Bull  to  the  new  dioceses  without 
the  right,  however,  of  sharing  the  diezmos  upon  any 
gold,  silver,  or  precious  stones  that  might  be  discov- 
ered within  the  limits  of  their  jurisdiction. 

Father  Alonso  Manso,  canon  of  the  cathedral  of 
Salamanca,  who  had  been  elected  Bishop  of  the  See  of 
Magua,  was  transferred  by  the  Bull  of  1511  to  the 
newly-erected  See  of  San  Juan,  of  which  he  took  pos- 
session two  years  later  in  1513,  arriving  at  a  time 
when  the  island  possessed  only  two  European  settle- 
ments, some  two  hundred  white  people  and  about  five 
hundred  native  Christians.  According  to  a  letter 
which  this  prelate  addressed  later  to  the  Spanish  mon- 


arch, he  was  the  first  bishop  to  reach  the  New  World,  a 
statement,  however,  that  is  at  variance  with  the  opin- 
ion that  Father  Bartholoniew  de  las  Casas  had  been 
ordained  priest  in  1510  in  Santo  Domingo,  though  it 
may  be  that  he  only  sang  his  first  Mass  in  America,  as 
there  is  no  record  of  the  presence  of  any  bishop  there 
to  ordain  him  at  that  early  date. 

Bishop  Manso  was  the  first  Inquisitor  General  of 
the  Indies,  appointed  in  1519  by  Cardinal  Adrian  de 
Utrecht,  afterwards  Pope  Adrian  VI  (1522).  The  car- 
dinal made  this  appointment  in  the  name  of  the 
Regent  of  Castile,  whom  he  represented  while  Bishop 
of  Tortosa.  Juan  de  Quevedo,  Bishop  of  Darien,  is 
credited  with  having  planted  the  Inquisition  in  Amer- 
ica in  1515,  but  Bishop  Manso  was  the  first  to  be  en- 
titled ' '  General  Inquisitor  of  the  Indies,  Islands  and  the 
Mainland",  with  authority  to  act  outside  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  his  diocese  in  union  with  the  Vice-Provincial  of 
the  Dominicans,  Pedro  de  Cordoba,  who  resided  in 
Santo  Domingo,  until  the  establishment  in  1522  of  the 
Convent  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  first  religious 
community  in  Porto  Rico.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
this  tribunal  interfered  in  matters  appertaining  to  the 
Holy  Office  outside  the  Diocese  of  San  Juan.  At  least 
it  did  not  interfere  with  the  various  bishops  in  their 
respective  dioceses,  who  either  sui  juris  or  as  delegates 
of  the  Holy  Office  exercised  their  functions  in  this  re- 
gard. 

It  also  has  been  stated  that  to  the  bishop,  Manso, 
was  assigned  a  number  of  Indians  in  the  repartimiento 
made  by  the  Crown,  and  that  successive  bishops  had 
retained  a  number  of  natives  as  Encomiendas  to  care 
for  the  cathedral;  but  the  aborigines  in  Porto  Rico 
were  always  well  treated  by  the  early  missionaries, 
who  included  Las  Casas.  In  fact  Paul  III,  as  early  as 
1537,  declared  excommunicated  all  who  dared  to  en- 
slave the  Indians  in  the  newly-discovered  lands,  de- 
prive them  of  their  lands  or  fortunes,  or  disturb  their 
tranquillity  on  the  pretext  that  they  were  heathens. 

In  1519,  at  the  request  of  Bishop  Manso,  who  com- 
plained that  the  revenue  derived  from  San  Juan  was 
insufficient  for  his  support,  the  Crown  obtained  from 
the  Holy  See  an  extension  of  territory  for  the  diocese, 
so  as  to  include  all  the  Windward  Islands  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  from  Santa  Cruz  to  Dominica,  thus  rendering 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  coextensive  with  the 
civil  and  military  sway  of  the  first  governor  and  colon- 
izer, Juan  Ponce  de  Leon.  The  Islands  of  Margarita 
and  Cubagua  were  also  added  to  the  diocese  during 
the  episcopate  of  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas,  who  was  trans- 
ferred in  the  Consistory  of  6  July,  1541,  from  the  See 
of  Coro,  Venezuela,  to  succeed  Manso.  On  the  ap- 
pointment of  Nicolas  Ramos,  12  Feb.,  1588,  fifth 
Bishop  of  San  Juan,  the  diocese  was  further  extended 
to  embrace  the  Island  of  Trinidad,  and  that  tract  of 
mainland  in  Venezuela  which  comprises  Cumana  and 
the  region  between  the  Amazon  and  the  Upper  Ori- 
noco reaching  almost  to  the  present  city  of  Bogota. 
Gradually  the  various  islands  were  severed  from  the 
Spanish  Crown  and  were  made  independent  of  the  See 
of  San  Juan,  which,  on  the  erection  of  the  Diocese  of 
Guyana  in  Venezuela  (1791),  was  restricted  wholly  to 
the  limits  of  the  Island  of  Porto  Rico.  At  present  the 
two  small  islands  of  Vieques  and  Culebra  (the  latter 
now  a  United  States  naval  station)  remain  part  of  the 
See  of  Porto  Rico.  Over  this  ancient  diocese,  now 
within  the  territory  of  the  United  States,  fifty  prelates 
have  ruled,  several  of  whom  were  born  in  the  New 
World,  one  in  the  city  of  San  Juan  itself,  Arizmendi, 
co-founder  of  the  oonciliar  seminary,  who  died  on  one 
of  the  arduous  visitations  of  his  diocese. 

The  first  church  was  erected  in  1511  at  Caparra,  and 
by  order  of  King  Ferdinand  was  dedicated  to  St.  John 
the  Baptist.  The  edifice  was  a  temporary  structure, 
which  fell  into  ruin  on  the  transfer  of  the  capital.  In 
1512  a  like  structure  was  erected  for  the  inhabitants 
on  the  southern  coast  at  a  point  known  as  San  Ger- 


PORTO 


293 


POETO 


man,  some  distance  from  the  actual  site  of  the  town  of 
that  name.  For  many  years  the  Diocese  of  Porto  Rico 
had  only  these  two  centres  of  worship,  with  httle  in- 
crease in  population,  owing  to  the  larger  opportuni- 
ties then  found  in  Mexico  and  South  America. 

The  location  of  the  actual  cathedral  of  San  Juan 
marks  the  site  of  the  first  church  there  erected  in  1520 
or  1521  by  Bishop  Manso.  This  wooden  structure 
was  replaced  by  Bishop  Bastidas,  who  began  the  work 
in  1543,  and  in  the  year  following  informed  the  king 
that  the  building  was  still  unfinished  for  lack  of  funds; 
that  he  "was  assisted  by  the  new  dean,  by  four  bene- 
ficiaries, some  clerics,  parish  priests,  chaplains,  and  an 
able  provisor  ".  Again  in  1549  the  bishop  informed  the 
same  sovereign  that  the  cathedral,  upon  which  had  al- 
ready been  spent  more  than  six  thousand  caslellanos, 
was  still  unfinished ;  that  he  had  celebrated  a  synod, 
and  that  the  diezmos  amounted  to  six  thousand  pesos 
payable  every  four  years  on  instalments.  Successive 
structures  have  been  destroyed  by  cyclones,  earth- 
quakes, and  foreign  invaders,  to  be  replaced  by  others, 
each  surpassing  in  beauty  the  former  and  continuing 
for  four  centuries  on  this  spot  the  hallowed  sanctuary 
of  the  mother  church  of  the  diocese. 

The  present  cathedral,  which  is  comparatively  mod- 
ern in  its  principal  part,  dates  back  to  the  early  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  rear  portion,  however, 
gives  evidence  of  a  distinct  style  of  architecture  of  a 
much  more  remote  period.  On  12  August,  1908,  the 
remains  of  Don  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  were  solemnly 
conveyed  from  the  church  of  San  Jos6  to  the  ca- 
thedral, where  a  suitable  monument  now  marks  the 
resting  place  of  the  intrepid  soldier  and  Christian 
cavalier. 

Church  and  State. — On  the  withdrawal  of 
Spain  from  Porto  Rico,  and  the  assumption  by  the 
United  States  of  control  ovef  the  island,  many  prob- 
lems arose  affecting  the  welfare  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  For  four  centuries  the  civil  and  religious  au- 
thorities had  been  intimately  associated,  first  by  reason 
of  the  right  of  patronage  over  the  Church  of  the  Indies 
conferred  on  the  kings  of  Spain  by  Julius  II  in  1508, 
and  then  by  reason  of  the  existing  concordat. 

Three  distinct  concordats  or  solemn  agreements 
between  the  Holy  See  and  the  kings  of  Spain  had  been 
drawn  up  at  various  times  relative  to  the  mutual  in- 
terests of  Church  and  State  in  Porto  Rico.  The  first 
was  dated  13  May,  1418,  between  Martin  V  and  John 
II  of  Castile.  The  second,  between  Philip  V  and 
Innocent  XIII,  may  be  regarded  as  the  forerunner  of 
the  agreement  made  2  January,  1753,  by  Benedict 
XIV  and  Ferdinand  VI,  which  remained  the  basis  of 
the  union  of  Church  and  State  in  Spain  and  her  colo- 
nies until  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII  in  1833. 

That  concordat  recognized  in  a  solemn  manner  the 
right  of  patronage  as  appertaining  to  the  Crown,  the 
Church  in  consequence  reserving  to  itself  fifty-two 
benefices  for  its  own  appointment  without  any  inter- 
vention of  the  State. 

On  the  accession  of  Isabella  II  her  adherents  seemed 
to  assume  that  Rome  was  unfavourable  to  the  new 
dynasty,  and,  together  with  a  vast  portion  of  the 
Spanish  clergy,  was  leaning  towards  the  pretender 
Don  Carlos.  Eventually  there  followed  a  complete 
rupture  with  the  Holy  See.  In  the  subsequent  civil 
war  opportunity  was  afforded  the  Isabellists  to  de- 
spoil the  Church  of  her  rights  and  suspend  the  allow- 
ances guaranteed  by  the  Crown  for  the  maintenance 
of  religion. 

Porto  Rico  felt  in  a  very  special  manner  the  effects 
of  this.  In  1833  the  saintly  Bishop  Pedro  Gutierrez 
de  Cos  had  died,  leaving  the  diocese  vacant  until  the 
nomination  in  1846  of  Bishop  Francisco  de  La  Puente, 
O.S.D.  During  this  interval  the  Church  was  sub- 
jected to  violent  measures  on  the  part  of  the  governors 
of  the  island,  who,  taking  advantage  of  its  unsettled 
condition  and  of  the  Laws  of  Confiscation  (applicable 


only  to  Spain),  despoiled  the  Church  of  much  property 
and  disbanded  the  only  two  communities  of  religious 
men,  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  appropriating 
to  the  State  their  convents  and  properties. 

On  8  May,  1849,  the  Cortes  authorized  the  Govern- 
ment to  conclude  a  new  concordat  with  the  Holy  See. 
This  was  done,  17  Oct.,  1851,  and,  with  modifications 
duly  admitted  in  amendments  (1859,  1867),  was  the 
law  of  Porto  Rico  at  the  time  when  it  passed  under 
American  rule.  The  Spanish  captain-general,  besides 
being  civil  and  military  governor  of  the  island,  was 
also  vice  patron  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  question  of  the  patronage  previously  exercised 
by  the  Crown  of  Spain  seemed  to  offer  little  difficulty; 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  there  was  no  disposi- 
tion to  avail  itself  of  this  privilege,  nor  did  the  Church 
desire  to  have  the  civil  or  military  government  inter- 
vene in  matters  spiritual.  The  continuance  of  the 
concordat  as  to  the  support  of  Divine  worship  and 
its  ministers  was  not  claimed  by  the  Church  from  the 
new  government.  It  was  tacitly  admitted  by  both 
parties  that  the  nature  of  the  American  Government 
made  such  continuance  impossible.  With  this  under- 
standing the  Catholic  Church,  through  its  Apostolic 
Delegate,  Archbishop  Chapelle,  proceeded.  But  it 
was  urged  that  the  new  government,  in  extending 
its  authority  over  Porto  Rico,  should  fulfil  all  obliga- 
tions of  justice  towards  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  maintenance  of  rehgion  and  its  ministers  in 
Spain  and  her  colonies  was  not  an  act  of  mere  piety 
or  generosity  towards  the  Church,  but  a  partial  and 
meagre  compensation  to  the  Church  for  repeated 
spoliations,  particularly  during  the  last  century.  On 
the  acceptance  by  the  Spanish  Government  of  its 
obligation  to  support  rehgion  and  its  ministers,  the 
popes,  particularly  Pius  IX,  had  condoned  many  past 
acts  of  spoliation.  In  view  of  this  act  of  the  pope 
the  Church  in  Porto  Rico  could  not  reclaim  anything 
from  the  American  Government.  But  there  were  cer- 
tain church  properties,  particularly  the  former  pos- 
sessions of  the  now  suppressed  communities  of  re- 
ligious men,  which,  by  the  distinct  agreement  between 
the  Holy  See  and  the  Crown,  should  have  been  sur- 
rendered to  the  diocese;  these,  however,  still  remain 
in  possession  of  the  government.  Both  in  Cuba  and 
in  Porto  Rico  claims  were  made  for  properties  which 
in  every  sense  of  law  and  justice  belonged  to  the 
Church,  though  administered  by  the  government, 
which  was  repeatedly  pledged  by  the  terms  of  the 
concordat  to  restore  the  same  to  the  Church. 

The  support  of  religion  was  the  only  title  whereby 
in  the  past  usufruct  of  these  properties  by  the  Crown 
of  Spain  could  have  been  condoned;  the  failure  of  the 
American  Government  to  assume  this  obligation  de- 
prived it  of  all  title  or  pretext  to  these  holdings. 

Hence  the  Apostohc  Delegate,  Archbishop  Cha- 
pelle, and  the  then  Bishop  of  Porto  Rico,  Right  Rev. 
James  H.  Blenk,  made  claim  to  the  United  States 
Government  for  the  devolution  of  these  properties  or 
their  equivalent,  together  with  a  rental  of  the  edifices 
from  the  date  of  the  American  occupation  of  Porto 
Rico,  as  well  as  a  small  amount  of  censos.  The  United 
States  military  government  in  Cuba  had  speedily  ad- 
justed a  similar  claim  involving  a  much  larger  amount, 
through  the  appointment  of  ^  commission.  The 
prompt  establishment  of  civil  government  in  Porto 
Rico  obUged  Bishop  Blenk  to  appeal  to  the  civil  tri- 
bunals on  account  of  a  special  act  of  the  legislature 
(12  March,  1904)  confernng  original  jurisdiction  upon 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  island  to  determine  all  ques- 
tions at  issue  with  the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  This 
measure  immediately  led  to  a  series  of  civil  suits  which 
involved  the  claim  here  mentioned  as  well  as  the  own- 
ership of  the  properties  of  the  diocese,  the  episcopal 
residence,  the  seminary  building,  the  cathedral,  sev- 
eral parish  churches,  and  the  hospital.  By  the  people 
of  Porto  Rico  the  claims  of  the  Church  were  not  dis- 


PORTOVIEJO 


294 


PORTRAITS 


puted,  except  tlie  properties  formerly  belonging  to  the 
suppressed  communities,  which  Spain  had  held  for 
the  last  half  century,  allowing  the  suits  in  other  cases 
to  pass  by  default  in  favour  of  the  Church.  The 
Church  property  question  was  therefore  duly  brought 
before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  island,  which,  after 
a  long  delay,  handed  down  a  decision  by  a  vote  of  three 
to  two,  sustaining  in  principle  the  claims  of  the 
Church.  From  this  decision  an  appeal  was  made  to 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 

Meanwhile  the  municipality  of  Ponce,  unwilling 
to  be  guided  by  the  policy  of  the  insular  Government, 
insisted  upon  laying  claim  to  the  two  parish  churches 
of  that  city,  alleging  that  a  goodly  portion  of  the  cost 
of  the  said  edifices  had  been  paid  for  with  its  funds. 
This  suit  was  presented  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
island,  where  judgment  was  given  in  favour  of  the 
bishop,  and  then  carried  immediately  to  Washington 
for  a  final  decision.  The  importance  of  this  matter 
was  far  in  excess  of  the  value  of  the  properties  at  issue, 
for  it  involved  not  only  ownership  of  nearly  every 
church  in  the  island,  but  also  was  bound  largely  to 
determine  the  outcome  of  the  suit  still  pending  before 
the  same  court  in  reference  to  all  other  church  prop- 
erties. The  question  of  the  bearing  of  the  Concordat 
of  1851  upon  the  actual  situation  was  most  serious,  in- 
volving the  future  security  of  the  Church  in  the  island. 

In  June,  1908,  Chief  Justice  Fuller  handed  down  a 
decision  confirming  the  sentence  obtained  by  the 
Catholic  Church  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
island  against  the  municipality  of  Ponce,  which  was 
greatly  enhanced  by  the  luminous  declaration  con- 
tained in  his  opinion,  upholding  the  force  of  the  Con- 
cordat as  an  ancient  law  of  the  island  and  establishing 
beyond  doubt  the  judicial  personality  of  the  head  of 
the  Cathohc  Church  in  Porto  Rico,  without  being 
required  to  register  under  the  laws  governing  business 
corporations. 

This  decision  was  accepted  by  the  Porto  Rican 
Government  as  a  forerunner  of  a  favourable  outcome 
for  the  Church  in  its  appeal  then  pending  before  the 
same  court  in  reference  to  the  properties  in  question. 
As  the  United  States  Government,  both  at  Washing- 
ton and  in  Porto  Rico,  was  concerned  in  this  decision, 
it  was  agreed  by  all  parties  interested  to  abide  by  the 
sentence  of  a  commission  appointed  by  President 
Roosevelt,  composed  of  two  members  for  the  United 
States,  two  for  the  Church,  and  two  for  the  Porto 
Rican  Government. 

Under  the  presidency  of  Robert  Bacon,  then  as- 
sistant secretary  of  state,  an  agreement  was  speedily 
reached  by  the  commission  in  August,  1908,  by  which 
the  settlement  of  eleven  claims  at  issue  between  the 
Catholic  Church  on  one  side  and  the  United  States 
and  Porto  Rican  Government  on  the  other  was  made 
on  a  basis  of  equity,  whereby  the  Church  was  assured 
the  sum  of  about  .'$300,000  for  the  release  to  the  State 
of  the  properties  involved  in  litigation. 

More  than  one-half  this  sum  was  paid  from  insular 
funds,  for  which  the  approval  of  the  Porto  Rican 
Government  was  obtained  in  the  following  month. 
The  part  of  the  total  sum  that  was  apportioned  to  the 
Federal  Government  for  properties  utihzed  by  the 
United  States  Army  was  likewise  ratified  by  Congress 
in  the  following  session,  and  approved  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  thus  terminating  in  an 
amicable  manner  a  vexed  question  agitated  for  more 
than  ten  years  and  involving  the  only  available  in- 
come for  the  impoverished  diocese. 

The  Diocese  of  Porto  Rico  at  present  is  comprised 
of  78  parishes,  which  with  few  exceptions  have  resi- 
dent clergy,  a  large  number  of  whom  are  members  of 
the  religious  bodies.  The  Lazarists,  Augustinians, 
and  Capuchins  from  Sjjain,  the  Dominicans  from 
Holland,  the  Rodemptorists  from  Baltimore,  are  each 
doing  invaluable  service  for  the  preservation  of  the 
Faith.    The  people  are  poor  and  unaccustomed  to  con- 


tribute to  the  support  of  their  religion  and  its  minis- 
ters. The  amount  received  from  the  Government  is 
invested  so  as  to  provide  a  limited  annuity  for  aiding 
priests  in  the  poorer  missions,  and  assisting  in  the  sup- 
port of  educational  and  charitable  institutions.  Al)out 
300  women  belonging  to  the  different  religious  com- 
munities are  located  in  the  diocese,  engaged  chiefly  in 
the  schools  and  hospitals.  The  Carmelite  nuns.  Sis- 
ters of  Charity,  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and 
Servants  of  Mary  were  established  in  Spanish  times; 
since  the  American  occupation  the  Mission  Helpers  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  have  erected  an  asylum  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  and  taken  charge  of  the  chapel  of  Perpetual 
Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament;  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis,  from  Buffalo,  New  York,  have  founded  two 
parish  schools  and  a  novitiate  for  the  reception  of 
postulants.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  of  Brooklyn, 
New  York,  are  in  charge  of  the  parish  school  at  Baya- 
mon,  having  been  sent  to  the  island  by  the  Bishop  of 
Brooklyn  at  the  personal  request  of  Pius  X.  By  the 
Brief  Actum  PrsclariE  of  20  Feb.,  1903,  the  Diocese 
of  Porto  Rico  was  severed  from  the  province  of  San- 
tiago de  Cuba,  and  made  immediately  subject  to  the 
Holy  See,  the  two  islands  still  continuing  under  the 
direction  of  the  one  Apostolic  delegate. 

On  8  Aug.,  1911,  the  Diocese  of  San  Juan  will  have 
completed  the  fourth  centenary  of  its  foundation. 
Extensive  plans  are  devised  for  the  proper  celebra- 
tion of  this  event.  Apart  from  the  contemplated 
renovation  of  the  cathedral,  it  is  hoped  to  establish  a 
beneficent  institution  which  will  include  a  manual 
training  school  for  both  boys  and  girls. 

Bull  Illius  fulcili  in  Archwo  de  Indias  (Seville) ;  Bull  Pon- 
Hfex  Romanus  in  Archivo  de  Simancas;  documents  in  Episcopal 
Archives,  San  Juan  and  Porto  Rico;  BR.iu,  La  Colonizacion  de 
Puerto  Rico  (San  Juan,  1907) ;  Angulo  in  Perujo,  Diccionario  de 
Ciencias  Eclesidsticas;  America  in  Consistorial  Congregation's 
Acta,  Records  Amer.  Cath.  Hist.  Soc.  (Philadelphia,  18S9-90),  X, 
XI;  U.  S.  Census  Report  for  Porto  Rico  (1910). 

W.  A.  Jones. 

Portoviejo,  Diocese  of  (Portus  Vetebis),  a 
suffragan  see  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Quito,  Republic  of 
Ecuador.  It  was  erected  in  1871  and  its  jurisdiction 
extends  over  the  political  provinces  of  ilanabi  and  Es- 
meraldas,  with  a  Catholic  population  (1909)  of  78,000 
souls,  and  forty-six  parishes.  Besides  the  secular 
priests  of  the  diocese,  there  are  the  following  religious 
orders:  Capuchins,  in  charge  of  the  missions  in  the 
northern  section  of  the  Province  of  Esmeraldas;  Ob- 
lates  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  engaged  in  secon- 
dary instruction.  The  religious  orders  of  women  are: 
Benedictines,  Franciscans,  and  Sisters  of  Charity,  all 
devoted  to  the  education  of  girls.  The  Seminario 
Mayor  is  situated  at  Portoviejo,  the  see  of  the  diocese, 
and  was  organized  in  1888.  There  are  also  several 
schools  and  colleges,  prominent  among  which  is  the 
College  of  San  Jos6,  conducted  by  the  Oblates  of  the 
Sacred  Heart.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr  Juan 
Maria  Riesa,  a  Dominican,  whose  consecration  took 
place  19  Dec,  1907. 

Annuaire  Pontifical  Catholique  (Paris,  1911),  s.  v. 

Julian  Morbno-Lacalle. 

Portraits  of  the  Apostles. — The  eariiest  fresco 
representing  Christ  surrounded  by  the  Apostles  dates 
from  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  the  cemetery  of  Domitilla,  under  a  thick 
covering  of  stalactites.  Christ  is  seated  on  a  throne. 
His  feet  resting  on  a  footstool,  and  His  right  hand 
raised  in  the  oratorical  gesture.  Six  other  frescoes  of 
this  subject,  Christ  instructing  the  Apostles,  have  been 
found  in  the  Roman  catacombs.  Besides  these  groups, 
showing  the  entire  Apostolic  college,  portions  of  two 
other  frescoes  which  originally  represented  only  the 
two  chief  Apostles,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  on  either 
side  of  Christ,  have  been  discovered.  In  one  of  these 
frescoes  the  figure  of  St.  Peter  and  a  small  portion  of 
Christ's  are  preserved;  no  trace  of  St.  Paul  remains. 
The  second  fresco,  on  the  other  hand,  preserves  St. 


POET-ROYAL 


295 


PORT-ROYAL 


Paul's  figure  entire.  A  third  fresco  of  particular  in- 
terest, in  tlie  cemetery  of  Prisoilla,  exhibits  a  subject 
frequently  represented  on  sculptured  sarcophagi, 
namely,  Christ  giving  the  law  to  St.  Peter.  Christ  ia 
standing  on  the  globe.  His  right  hand  raised  and  ex- 
tended, while,  with  His  left,  He  is  handing  to  St. 
Peter  a  roll  which  the  Apostle  receives  with  veiled 
hands.  The  author  of  this  scene,  which  dates  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  evidently  re- 
garded the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  as  holding  an  office 
under  the  New  Law  the  counterpart  of  that  of  Moses 
under  the  Old.  A  fresco  of  the  cemetery  Ad  duas 
lauros,  dating  from  the  middle  of  the  third  century, 
appears  to  have  been  inspired  by  the  same  idea:  St. 
Peter  is  represented,  seated  on  a  low  chair,  with  an 
open  roll  which  he  is  carefviUy  studying. 

Such  are  the  earliest  painted  representations  of  the 
Apostles  still  in  existence.  With  the  exception  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul,  according  to  Wilpert,  the  Apostles 
show  no  specially  individualistic  traits,  some  are  por- 
trayed with  beard,  some  without,  but  merely  for  the 
sake  of  variety.  The  two  chief  Apostles,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  always  easily  recognized  and  are  of  marked 
individuality.  St.  Peter  appears  as  a  man  of  great 
energy,  with  a  short,  thick  beard,  and  close  cut,  curly 
hair,  which  in  the  earlier  frescoes  is  partly,  in  the  later 
wholly,  gray.  St.  Paul  is  represented  as  the  Apostle 
of  intellect,  bald,  and  with  long,  pointed  beard,  dark 
brown  in  colour.  With  slight  changes  this  type  of  the 
two  Apostles  was  always  represented  in  cemeterial 
frescoes,  mosaics  and  sculptured  sarcophagi,  and  in 
fact  persists  to  the  present  day.  Indeed  so  familiar 
were  Roman  Christians  with  the  conventional  appear- 
ances of  their  favourite  Apostles  that,  save  in  a  few 
cases,  the  artists  never  thought  it  necessary  to  in- 
scribe their  names  underneath  their  pictures,  even 
when  represented  with  other  saints  whose  names  are 
given.  From  this  persistence  of  type  Wilpert  regards 
it  as  probable  that,  if  the  Romans  did  not  actually 
possess  portraits  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  at  least  a 
tradition  existed  as  to  their  general  appearance,  and 
that  catacomb  representations  of  them  conform  to  this 
tradition.  The  historian  Eusebius  informs  us  that 
he  has  heard  of  "likenesses  of  the  Apostles  Peter  and 
Paul"  as  well  as  of  Our  Lord,  being  preserved  in 
paintings  (Hist,  eccl.,  VII,  xvi). 

The  most  perfect  of  the  ancient  representations  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  are  those  of  the  well-known 
bronze  medal,  dating  from  the  second  century,  dis- 
covered by  Boldetti  in  the  catacomb  of  Domitilla  and 
now  in  the  Christian  museum  of  the  Vatican.  The 
types  of  the  catacomb  frescoes  are  here  readily  recog- 
nized: the  close  cut,  curly  hair  and  short  beard  of  St. 
Peter,  and  the  longer  beard  and  fine  head  of  St.  Paul. 
Portraits  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  exist  also  on  a  num- 
ber of  the  gold  glasses  found  in  the  catacombs;  on 
these  the  familiar  type  is  reproduced,  but  the  work- 
manship is  of  inferior  order.  Allusions  to  the  office 
of  St.  Peter  as  head  of  the  Church,  besides  the  Iraditio 
legis  pictures  mentioned  above,  are  seen  in  those 
monuments  in  which  Peter  takes  the  place  of  Moses 
as  the  miracle-worker  striking  the  rock  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  also  in  several  parallel  scenes  on  sarcophagi 
contrasting  Moses  with  Peter.  In  catacomb  frescoes 
of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  Christ  is  frequently 
represented  performing  miracles  by  means  of  a  wand. 
Peter  is  the  only  Apostle,  in  early  Christian  monu- 
ments, who  is  shown  with  a  staff  or  wand,  apparently 
as  a  sjonbol  of  his  superior  position.  The  keys  are 
seen  for  the  first  time  on  sarcophagi  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury; from  this  date  on  these  attributes  of  St.  Peter 
appear  with  increasing  frequency  on  the  monuments, 
until,  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  they  become 
the  rule.  The  oldest  fresco  of  the  giving  of  the  keys 
to  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  is  in  the  crypt  of  Sts. 
Felix  and  Adauctus;  it  is  attributed  to  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  century. 


The  famous  bronze  statue  of  St.  Peter  in  the  basilica 
of  this  Apostle  in  Rome  is  by  some  regarded  as  a  work 
of  the  fifth  or  sixth  century,  by  others  as  pertaining 
to  the  thirteenth.  The  latter  date  is  adopted  by 
Kraus  and  Kaufmann  among  others ;  Lowrie,  however, 
maintains  that  "no  statue  of  the  Renaissance  can  be 
compared  with  this  for  genuine  understanding  of  the 
classic  dress",  and,  therefore,  this  writer  holds  for  the 
more  ancient  date.  The  marble  statue  of  St.  Peter 
taken  from  the  old  basilica,  now  in  the  crypt  of  the 
Vatican,  was  originally,  in  all  probability,  an  ancient 
consular  statue  which  was  transformed  into  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  Prince  of  Apostles .  The  now  familiar 
symbol  of  St.  Paul,  the  sword,  made  its  first  appear- 
ance in  Christian  art  in  the  tenth  century.  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  quite  naturally  appear  much  more  fre- 
quently in  Roman  and  western  monuments  than  the 
other  Apostles;  as  founders  of  the  Roman  Church,  and 
one  of  them  as  head  of  the  universal  church,  their 
memory  was  revered  in  the  centre  of  Christianity.  In 
all  representations  also  they  occupy  the  place  of 
honour,  to  the  right  and  left  of  Christ.  Curiously 
enough,  St.  Paul  is  generally,  though  not  invariably, 
on  the  right  and  St.  Peter  on  the  left.  De  Rossi, 
however,  regards  this  arrangement  as  a  matter  of  iio 
particular  moment,  and  points  out  that  in  some  classic 
representations  Juno,  the  wife  of  Jupiter  and  queen 
of  the  gods,  appears  on  the  left  of  her  spouse,  while 
Minerva  occupies  the  right. 

Wilpert,  Malereien  der  Katncomhen  Roms  (Freiburg,  1903) : 
Kkaus  in  Rcalencyklopiidie  f.  Christl.  Alterlhumer  s.  v.  Petrus  u. 
Pauius  (Freiburg,  1896) ;  Kkvi,!.,  ibid.,  a.v.  Apostd:  Kiufmann, 
Handbuch  der  christlichen  Archaologie  (Paderborn,  1905);  Loweie, 
Monuments  of  the  Early  Church  (New  Yorlc,  1901). 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 
Port-Royal,  a  celebrated  Benedictine  abbey  which 
profoundly  influenced  the  religious  and  literary  fife  of 
France  during  the  seventeenth  century.  It  was 
founded  in  1204  by  Mathilde  de  Garlande,  wife  of 
Mathieu  de  Montmorency,  in  the  valley  of  Chevreuse, 
six  leagues  (between  sixteen  and  seventeen  miles)  from 
Paris,  where  the  village  of  Magny-les-Hameaux,  in 
Seine-et-Oise,  now  stands.  Subject  first  to  the  Rule 
of  St.  Benedict  and  then  to  that  of  Clteaux,  it  suffered 
greatly  during  the  English  invasions  and  the  wars  of 
rehgion.  At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
its  discipline  was  completely  relaxed,  but  in  1608  it 
was  reformed  by  Mere  Ang^lique  Arnauld,  aided  by 
the  advice  and  encouragement  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales. 
Nuns  trained  at  Port-Royal  then  spread  all  over 
France,  working  forthe  reform  of  the  other  monasteries. 
In  1626  Port-Royal,  besides  being  very  unhealthful, 
no  longer  afforded  adequate  accommodation,  and  the 
community  migrated  to  Paris,  settling  in  the  Fau- 
bourg St-Jacques.  Renouncing  the  ancient  privileges 
granted  by  the  popes,  the  new  abbej'  placed  itself 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris;  the 
nuns,  devoted  henceforth  to  the  worship  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist,  took  the  name  of  Daughters  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament.  In  1636  the  Abb6  de  St-Cyran  became 
the  spiritual  director  of  the  monastery,  which  he  soon 
made  a  hotbed  of  Jansenism.  He  gathered  around 
him  the  Abbfi  Singlin,  the  two  brothers  of  Mere 
Ang^lique,  Arnauld  d'Andillv  and  Antoine,  the  great 
Arnauld,  their  three  nephews,  Antoine  Lemaltre, 
Lemattre  de  Lacy,  and  Lemaitre  de  Sericourt,  Nicole, 
Lancelot,  Hamon,  Le  Nain  de  Tillemont,  and  others, 
who,  urged  by  a  desire  for  solitude  and  study,  with- 
drew to  the  monastery  "of  the  fields". — There  was 
then  a  Port-Royal  of  Paris,  and  a  Port-Royal  "of  the 
fields". — In  1638  they  opened  what  they  called  the 
petites  ecoles,  in  which  Lancelot,  Nicole,  Guyot,  and 
M.  de  Selles  taught  the  nephews  of  St-Cyran  and  soine 
other  children.  They  were  transferred  to  Paris  in 
1647,  then  brought  back  to  the  country  to  Les 
Granges,  near  Port-Royal,  to  Trous,  at  the  home  of 
M.  de  Bagnols,  to  Le  Chesnay,  at  the  residence  of  M. 
de  Buniferes. 


PORTSMOUTH 


296 


PORTSMOUTH 


The  Jansenist  dispute  was  then  being  vigorously- 
waged.  In  1639  St-Cyran  had  been  arrested  by  Riche- 
lieu's order  and  cast  into  prison,  from  which  he  was 
not  set  free  till  1643,  dying  a  little  later.  In  1640  the 
"  Augustinus"  of  Jansenius  had  appeared,  and  in  1643 
Arnauld's  work,  "La  frequente  communion",  which 
gave  rise  to  violent  discussions.  Port-Royal  was  then 
the  heart  and  soul  of  the  opposition.  The  women 
there  were  as  stubborn  as  the  men,  and  all  the  parti- 
sans of  the  new  teaching  in  Paris  and  in  France  turned 
towards  the  monastery  for  light  and  support.  Solita- 
ries and  nuns  flocked  thither.  The  convent  in  Paris, 
in  its  turn,  became  too  small  to  contain  their  numbers, 
and  a  multitude  settled  once  more  in  the  country. 
Unfortunately,  in  16.53  and  16.56,  five  propositions  ex- 
tracted from  the  "Augustinus",  which,  though  not 
found  in  it  verbatim,  were,  according  to  Bossuet,  "the 
soul  of  the  book",  were  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne, 
the  bishops,  and  two  papal  Bulls.  From  that  time 
began  the  persecution  of  Port-Royal  which  the  plead- 
ing of  Arnauld,  the  famous  distinction  of  fact  and  law, 
and  the  "Provinciales"  of  Pascal  onlyincreased.  Port- 
Royal,  having  refused  to  subscribe  to  the  formulary 
drawn  up  by  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergy  in  1657,  all 
the  petites  ecoles  were  successively  closed,  the  novices 
were  driven  out  from  the  abbey,  and  the  confessors 
expelled.  But  in  vain;  the  doctors,  even  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  Hardouin  de  P^refixe,  endeavoured  by 
their  learning  and  their  patience  to  bring  the  recalci- 
trants to  reason.  "They  are  as  pure  as  angels",  said 
the  latter,  "but  proud  as  demons."  Only  a  few  con- 
sented to  sign;  the  more  obstinate  were  finally  sent  to 
the  country  or  dispersed  in  different  communities.  In 
1666  the  director,  Lemaitre  de  Laoj^,  was  imprisoned 
in  the  Bastille. 

At  length,  after  interminable  negotiations,  in  1669, 
what  was  called  "The  Peace  of  the  Church"  was 
signed;  Port-Royal  became  again  for  some  years  an 
intellectual  and  religious  centre,  shining  on  all  that  was 
most  intelligent  and  noble  in  the  city  and  at  the  Court. 
But  the  fire  was  smouldering  beneath  the  ashes.  In 
1670  Arnauld  was  obliged  to  fly  to  the  Low  Countries, 
and  Louis  XIV,  who  had  begun  to  suspect  and  hate 
the  stubborn  Port-Royal  community,  resolved  to  sub- 
due them.  In  1702  the  quarrel  broke  out  anew  on  the 
condemnation  by  the  Sorbonne  of  a  celebrated  "case  of 
conscience"  In  1704  Port-Royal  des  Champs  (Port 
Royal  of  the  Fields)  was  suppressed  by  a  Bull  of 
Clement  IX.  In  1709  the  last  twenty-five  nuns  were 
expelled  by  the  public  authorities.  Finally,  in  1710, 
to  blot  out  all  traces  of  the  centre  of  revolt,  the  build- 
ings of  Port-Royal  were  razed,  the  site  of  the  chapel 
turned  into  a  marsh,  and  even  the  ashes  of  the  dead 
were  dispersed.  Port-Royal  was  destroyed,  but  its 
spirit  lived  on,  especially  in  the  Parliament  and  the 
University,  and  during  almost  all  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury France  was  distracted  by  the  ever-recurring 
struggle  between  its  heirs  and  its  adversaries.  (See 
Jansbnics  and  .Iansenism.) 

By  the  rigour  of  its  moral  code,  which  carried  the 
Christian  ideal  to  extremes,  by  the  intense  effort 
which  it  demanded  of  the  human  will,  by  the  example 
with  which  it  illustrated  its  teaching,  by  the  writings 
which  it  issued  or  inspired  —  St-Cyran's  and  Mere 
Angelique's  "Lettres  spirituelles",  Arnauld's  "Fre- 
quente communion",  Le  Nain  de  Tillemont's  "His- 
toire  ecol&iastique",  Pascal's  "Provinciales"  and 
"Pens^es";  the  "Logique" — Port-Royal  produced  a 
great  impression  on  the  seventeenth  century.  Almost 
all  the  great  writers  felt  its  influence.  Two  were  its 
direct  product:  Racine,  its  pupil,  and  Pascal,  its  most 
distinguished  champion.  The  others  were  more  or 
less  indebted  to  it.  Boileau  remained  till  the  end  united 
in  heart  and  soul  with  it  (cf.  "Epttre  sur  I'amour  de 
Dieu").  Mme  de  S^vigne  was  passionately  fond  of 
Nicole's  "Essais".  La  Rochefoucauld's  pessimism  is 
closely  related  to  theirs,  as  is  that  of  the  gentler  La 


Bruyfere;  St-Simon  is  devoted  to  them,  and  Bossuet 
himself  is  not  altogether  a  stranger  to  their  influence. 
What  contributed  most  to  the  power  of  these 
"Messieurs"  was  the  petites  ecoles  and  their  pedagogy. 
Their  educational  principle  was:  that  human  knowl- 
edge, science  itself,  is  not  an  end,  but  a  means;  it 
should  serve  only  to  open  and  develop  the  mind,  and 
raise  it  above  the  matter  of  teaching.  In  teaching 
they  adopted  an  openly  Cartesian  and  rationalistic 
method;  they  strove  to  cultivate  the  intellect  and  the 
reasoning  faculty  much  more  than  the  memory,  and 
they  appealed  constantly  to  personal  reflection. 
Breaking  with  the  traditions  of  the  Jesuits  and  the 
University,  who  taught  in  Latin,  they  taught  in 
French.  The  child  learned  the  alphabet  in  French, 
and  was  instructed  in  the  mother  tongue  before  study- 
ing the  dead  languages.  He  wrote  in  French  before 
writing  in  Latin.  He  had  to  compose  short  dialogues, 
stories,  letters,  the  subject  of  which  he  chose  from 
among  the  things  he  had  read.  Translation,  and 
especially  verbal  translation,  took  precedence  over 
written  themes.  Finally,  Greek,  of  which  they  were 
unrivalled  teachers,  received  more  attention  and  a 
more  important  place.  Even  in  matters  of  discipline 
they  introduced  reforms:  they  endeavoured  to  com- 
bine severity  with  gentleness.  Punishment  was  re- 
duced to  a  minimum,  and  the  school  was  likened  to 
the  home  as  far  as  possible.  They  suppressed  in  the 
pupil  the  desire  to  surpass  a  fellow-pupil,  and  devel- 
oped in  him  only  that  natural  attraction  of  the  interest 
presented  by  the  subjects.  These  admirable  teachers 
and  educationists  have  left  us  several  school  books  of 
the  highest  merit,  some  of  which  have  remained  classics 
for  nearly  two  centuries — the  "Grammaire",  edited 
by  Lancelot,  but  in  reality  the  work  of  Arnauld;  the 
"Logique"  of  Arnauld  and  Nicole,  the  "Jardin  des 
racines  grecques"  of  Lancelot;  the  "M6thodes"  for 
learning  Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  Spanish,  etc.  Not 
everything  in  their  books  or  in  their  system  of  eduoa^ 
tion  is  worthy  of  admiration,  but  it  is  incontestable 
that  they  contributed  to  the  progress  of  pedagogy 
against  the  older  Scholastic  methods. 

Cli^mencet,  Histoire  generate  de  Port-Rolal  (Amsterdam,  1755); 
Racine,  Ahrege  de  Vhistoire  de  Port-Royat  (Paris,  1747);  Mi- 
moires  pour  servir  a  Vhistoire  de  Port-Royal  (Utrecht,  1742); 
Gerberon,  Histoire  du  Jansinisme  (Amsterdam,  1700) ;  Ste- 
Beuvb,  Port-Royal  (Paris,  1840-46)  (the  most  important  work 
on  the  subject) ;  Fuzet,  Les  Jansinistes  et  leur  dernier  historien 
(Paris,  1876);  Hallats,  Pelerinage  d  Port-Royal  (Paris,  1908); 
Romanes,  Story  of  Port  Royal  (London,  1907) ;  Cadet,  Port 
Royal  Education,  tr.  (New  York,  1898). 

J.  Lataste. 

Portsmouth,  Diocese  op  (Portus  Magnus,  or 
PoKTEMUTHENSis).  This  dioccsc  was  created  by  a 
Brief  of  Leo  XIII,  dated  19  May,  1882,  and  was 
formed  out  of  the  western  portion  of  the  Diocese  of 
Southwark  as  constituted  at  the  re-establishment  of 
the  English  Hierarchy  in  1850.  It  comprises  the 
Counties  of  Hampshire  and  Berkshire,  on  the  main- 
land, the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  the  Channel  Islands,  and 
is  thus  almost  coterminous  with  the  limits  of  the  old 
Catholic  See  of  Winchester.  However,  according 
to  its  consistent  policy  in  England,  the  Holy  See 
avoided  the  old  centre  of  government  and  fixed 
upon  Portsmouth — the  great  naval  port — as  the 
cathedral  city  for  the  new  diocese.  John  Virtue 
(1826-1900)  was  named  its  first  bishop,  and  upon 
him  devolved  the  task  of  organizing  the  new 
diocese.  He  had  about  seventy  priests  and  forty 
missions.  In  Portsmouth  there  was  a  portion  of  a 
large  church,  newly  built,  which  would  serve  as  a 
cathedral.  With  this  he  made  a  start,  and  the 
eighteen  years  of  his  episcopate  was  a  slow  and  steady 
growth  in  every  department  of  diocesan  life — the 
founding  of  new  missions,  the  establishment  of 
religious  communities,  and  the  gradual  increase  in 
the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  He  enlarged  the  cathedral 
and  completed  its  interior  decorations.     He  built  an 


PORTUGAL 


297 


PORTUGAL 


episcopal  residence  and  a  large  hall  adjoining,  which, 
with  the  cathedral,  form  a  group  of  buildings  artistic 
in  design,  and  architecturally,  the  most  noteworthy 
structure,  among  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  in  the  Bor- 
ough of  Portsmouth.  The  Diocesan  college  at  Wool- 
hampton  was  extended  as  regards  accommodation, 
and  the  buildings  reconstructed  through  the  generosity 
of  a  benefactress.  The  bishop's  influence  in  Ports- 
mouth was  great.  He  was  well  known  in  all  branches 
of  public  life,  and  at  his  death  the  esteem  in  which  he 
was  held  by  the  people  of  the  borough,  was  attested 
by  their  liberal  subscriptions  to  his  memorial  chapel 
in  the  cathedral.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  auxiliary 
bishop  and  vicar-general,  John  Baptist  Cahill  (1841- 
1910),  a  man  of  exceptional  administrative  ability. 

Bishop  Cahill  had  been  Rector  of  Ryde  since  1868, 
and  vicar-general  of  the  diocese  since  its  foundation, 
he  was  consecrated  coadjutor  (titular  of  Thagora) 
only  three  weeks  before  the  death  of  Bishop  Virtue. 
The  ten  years  of  his 
episcopate  were 
marked  by  the  same 
steady  progress  that 
characterized  his 
predecessor's.  He 
completed  the  cathe- 
dral by  adding  the 
west  front,  and  car- 
ried out  several  im- 
portant changes  in 
the  interior.  His 
episcopate  was  par- 
ticularly marked  by 
the  influx  of  reli- 
gious communities, 
pwing  to  the  French 
persecutions.  It  was 
thus  that  the  diocese 
was  enriched  by  the 
presence  of  such  con- 
gregations as  the 
Benedictines  of  So- 
lesmes,  both  monks 
and  nuns.  Five  Abbeys  (Douai,  Quarr,  Farn- 
borough,  Ryde,  and  East  Cowes)  have  been 
founded  in  the  diocese.  The  good  which  they  and 
the  other  exiled  religious  are  doing  should  alone 
suffice  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  Bishop  Cahill. 
He  died2  August,  1910,  and  was  succeededbyhisfriend 
and  auxiliary,  Wilham  Timothy  Cotter  (1866)  who 
was  educated  at  Maynooth  for  the  Diocese  of  Cloyne 
(Ireland),  but  afterwards  came  to  the  Enghsh  Mis- 
sion. He  was  consecrated  auxiliary  to  Bishop  Cahill, 
19  March,  1905,  as  titular  Bishop  of  Clazomenae,  and 
was  transferred  to  Portsmouth,  24  November,  1910. 
The  statistics  of  1910  were:  churches,  100;  secular 
clergy,  70;  regulars,  203;  communities  of  men,  21; 
of  women,  43.  The  estimated  Catholic  population, 
45,000. 

John  Henry  King. 

Portugal. — I.  Geoghaphy  and  Physical 
Characteristics. — Portugal  is  situated  on  the  west 
of  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  being  bounded  on  the  north 
and  east  by  Spain  and  on  the  west  and  south  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  lies  between  latitudes  37  and  42 
north,  and  longitudes  &14  and  93^2  west  of  Greenwich. 
The  form  is  approximately  rectangular,  with  a  maxi- 
mum length  of  362  miles,  a  maximum  breadth  of  140 
miles,  and  an  area  of  35,490  square  miles.  For 
purposes  of  administration  it  is  officially  divided  into 
districts,  but  the  old  division  into  provinces  (which 
originated  in  the  differences  of  soil,  climate,  and 
character  of  the  population)  has  not  lost  its  meaning 
and  is  still  employed  in  common  parlance.  The 
names  of  these  provinces  are  Entre-Douro-e-Minho, 
Traz-os-Montes,  Beira,  Estremadura,  Alemtejo,  and 


The  Ruins  op  Netlby  Abbey,  neae  SonTHAMPTON,  England 


Algarve.  The  island  groups  of  Madeira  with  Porto 
Santo  and  the  Azores  are  considered  as  part  of  Con- 
tinental Portugal,  the  other  possessions  being  colo- 
nies. Excluding  these  islands,  Portugal  has  a  sea- 
board of  nearly  500  miles  and  a  land  frontier  of  about 
620  miles,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  marked  by 
rivers  or  mountains.  But  though  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  this  frontier  is  conventional,  Portugal  and 
Spain  are  not  separated  by  a  strongly  marked  natural 
boundary  such  as  divides  some  countries;  indeed  they 
are  geographically  one. 

As  regards  the  nature  of  the  soil,  Portugal  may  be 
roughly  divided  into  three  zones:  (1)  the  northern, 
which  is  mountainous  and  rises  from  1800  to  5000 
feet,  including  the  Serra  do  Gerez,  notable  for  its 
vegetation  and  thermal  springs;  (2)  the  central,  a 
zone  of  extensive  plains  divided  by  mountain  ranges, 
among  the  latter  being  the  Serra  da  Estrella  (6540 
feet),  the  highest  and  largest  in  the  country;    (3) 

the  southern,  the 
most  extensive  of  the 
three,  almost  entire- 
ly composed  of  low- 
lying  plains  and 
plateaus  of  small 
altitude.  In  all  these 
regions  the  moun- 
tains are  usually  pro- 
longations of  Span- 
ish systems.  The 
only  independent 
range  of  importance 
is  the  Serra  de  Mon- 
chique.  Briefly,  in 
the  north,  Portugal 
has  many  chains  of 
mountains,  plateaus 
of  considerable 
height,  and  deep 
narrow  valleys ;  in 
the  centre,  together 
with  high  and  ex- 
tensive mountains, 
we  find  broad  valleys  and  large  plains.  Lastly,  south 
of  the  Tagus,  the  country  is  one  of  plains  throughout 
the  Alemtejo,  but  in  the  Algarve  it  again  becomes  hilly, 
though  the  altitudes  are  rarely  considerable.  The  chief 
rivers  are:  (a)  the  Minho,  which  forms  the  northern 
frontier;  (b)  the  Douro,  which  rises  in  Spain  and  enters 
the  sea  near  Oporto,  about  one-third  of  its  course 
being  in  Portugal;  (c)  the  Mondego,  the  largest  river 
rising  in  Portugal,  which  enters  the  sea  at  Figueira 
after  a  course  of  140  miles;  (d)  the  Tagus,  which 
rises  in  Spain,  forms  above  Lisbon  a  gulf  more  than 
eight  miles  wide,  and  enters  the  sea  below  that  city, 
after  a  total  course  of  nearly  500  miles,  about  one- 
third  in  Portugal;  (e)  the  Sado,  which  flows  out  in 
a  large  estuary  at  Setubal;  (f)  the  Guadiana,  which 
serves  in  part  as  frontier  between  the  two  countries. 
The  Tagus  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  as  far  as 
Santarem;  the  Guadiana,  as  far  as  Mertola.  There 
are  no  lakes  worthy  of  mention,  the  ria  at  Aveiro 
connecting  with  the  sea. 

Portugal  has  few  good  natural  harbours.  That  of 
Lisbon  is  the  best,  and  indeed  one  of  the  largest  in 
Europe,  and  is  of  easy  access  at  all  times.  The  bar 
of  the  Douro  is  shallow  and  difficult;  a  fine  artificial 
port  has  therefore  been  built  at  Leixoes  to  serve 
Oporto.  Setubal  is  a  fair  harbour,  as  is  Villa  Realde 
S.  Antonio,  in  the  Algarve,  while  Lagos  Bay,  in  the 
same  province,  affords  a  secure  anchorage  for  a  nu- 
merous fleet.  The  other  ports  are  only  suitable  for 
small  craft  and  are  continually  being  blocked  by  sand. 
Portugal  is  rich  in  metalliferous  deposits,  including 
antimony,  copper,  manganese,  uranium,  lead,  tin, 
and  iron.  Coal  is  scarce  and  of  poor  quality.  The 
country  has  more  than  a  hundred  mineral  springs, 


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of  which  the  most  important  are  Gerez  and  Vizella 
(Minho),  Vidago,  Pedras  Salgadas,  and  Moledo 
(Traz-os-Montes),  S.  Pedro  do  Sul  and  Felgueira 
(BeiraAlta),CaldasdaRainha  (Estremadura),Moura 
(Alemtejo),  and  Monchique  (Algarve).  A  branch  of 
the  Gulf  Stream  runs  down  the  West  Coast  and  the 
cUmate  is  temperate,  but  it  differs  from  province  to 
province  according  to  soil,  distance  from  the  sea,  etc. ; 
while  equable  on  the  coasts,  it  is  subject  to  sudden 
changes  inland.  The  plateaux  of  Traz-os-Montes 
and  Beira  are  cold  and  harsh,  while  the  Algarve 
littoral  is  hot,  but  even  where  the  temperature  is 
most  extreme,  the  thermometer  rarely  rises  to 
3  Fahrenheit  or  descends  to  2  below  freezing.  Snow 
only  falls  in  winter  in  the  high  mountains  and  in 
the  north.  The  rainfall  is  more  abundant  in  the 
North  than  the  South,  and  on  the  littoral  than  in- 
land. The  humidity  produces  fogs  which  render  the 
coasts  dangerous  to  shipping.  The  most  usual  winds 
are  north-west,  north,  and  north-east,  but  in  winter 
south-west  winds  prevail,  accompanied  by  storms. 
The  norlada  and  the  east  wind  are  dry  and  disagree- 
able. Generally  speaking,  the  climate  is  healthy, 
the  mean  temperature  being  61  Fahrenheit.  In  the 
eighteenth  century 
Lisbon  was  much 
recommended  by 
English  physicians 
as  a  health  resort, 
and  J\Iont'  Estoril, 
on  the  sea  outside 
the  estuary  of  the 
Tagus,  is  now  in- 
creasing in  favour  as 
a  winter  residence. 

The  vegetation  is 
rich,  including  near- 
ly all  the  vegetable 
species  of  temperate 
climates  and  a  large 
number  of  those 
found  in  hot  coun- 
tries. Among  trees 
the  pine  is  the  most 
characteristic,  but  it 
does  not  grow  south 
of  the  Sado.  The 
pinhal  of  L  e  i  r  i  a 
planted  by  King 
Denis  is  the  largest 
forest  and  the  malo  of  Busaco  is  famous  for  the  size 
and  variety  of  its  trees.  Fruit  trees  abound,  especially 
on  the  Upper  Douro,  and  in  Beira.  Olives  and  oranges 
are  everywhere,  the  Algarve  produces  figs,  and  Traz- 
os-Montes  almonds.  The  vine  is  universal  and  forms 
Portugal's  principal  wealth.  The  chief  wines  are 
port,  which  comes  from  the  Douro  region,  and  the 
wines  of  Beira  and  the  Peninsula  of  Lisbon  (Collares 
and  Carcavellos),  but  the  largest  vineyard  is  found 
just  south  of  the  Tagus  and  is  a  recent  creation.  The 
cereals  most  grown  are  wheat,  maize  (Indian  com), 
and  rye,  but  Portugal  still  has  to  depend  on  foreign 
countries  for  a  portion  of  its  bread  supply.  Wine, 
oil,  fruit,  vegetables,  cattle,  and  cork  are  exported 
in  large  quantities,  and  the  chief  manufactures  are 
cotton,  wool,  gold  and  silver  work,  lace,  and  pottery. 
The  fisheries  are  the  main  occupation  of  the  coast 
population,  and  the  sardine  industry  at  Setubal  is  a 
flourishing  one. 

II.  History. — The  lifework  of  Alfonso  Henriques 
first  King  of  Portugal  (112S-85)  consisted  in  his  asser- 
tion, by  fighting  and  diplomacy,  of  the  political 
independence  of  the  country,  and  in  his  enlargement 
of  its  boundaries  by  conquests  from  the  Moors  who 
occupied  more  than  half  the  present  kingdom  when  he 
began  to  rule.  Though  he  had  assumed  the  govern- 
ment in  1128,  it  was  only  after  a  period  of  fifteen 


The  Castle  of  the  Penha   (Rook) 
Cintra,  Portugal 


years,  during  which  he  suffered  a  series  of  reverses, 
that  he  was  able  to  obtain  recognition  of  his  king- 
ship from  Alfonso  VII  of  Leon,  to  which  kingdom 
the  territory  of  Portugal  had  formerly  belonged. 
Alfonso  Henriques  early  resolved  to  protect  himself 
against  the  claims  of  his  powerful  neighbour  and  over- 
lord, and  in  1142  he  offered  his  kingdom  to  the 
Church,  declared  himself  the  pope's  vassal,  and 
promised,  for  himself  and  his  successors,  to  pay  an 
annual  feudal  tribute  of  four  ounces  of  gold.  Lucius 
II  ratified  the  agreement,  taking  Portugal  under  his 
protection  and  recognizing  its  independence,  and  in 
1179  another  pope,  Alexander  III,  confirmed  Alfonso 
Henriques  in  his  royal  dignity.  'The  latter  now  gave 
up  aU  idea  of  extending  his  dominions,  beyond  the 
Minho  and  the  Douro,  which  rivers  formed  its  boun- 
daries to  the  north  and  east,  and  endeavoured  to  in- 
crease them  to  the  south.  He  carried  on  a  persistent 
warfare  against  the  infidel  by  sudden  incursions  into 
Moorish  territory  and  by  midnight  assaults  on 
Moorish  towns,  and  on  the  whole  he  was  successful. 
In  1147  he  took  the  almost  impregnable  city  of 
Santarem.  In  the  same  year,  after  a  four  months' 
siege,  the  great  city  of  Lisbon,  containing  "154,000 

men,  besides  women 
and  children",  fell 
to  his  arms  assisted 
by  a  Northern  fleet 
of  164  ships  which 
was  on  its  way  to  the 
Second  Crusade. 
The  king  thereupon 
moved  his  capital 
to  the  Tagus,  ap- 
pointed Gilbert,  an 
Englishman,  its  bish- 
op, transported  the 
body  of  St.  Vincent 
to  the  cathedral,  and 
perpetuated  the 
saint's  memory  in 
the  arms  he  gave  to 
Lisbon,  viz.,  a  ship 
and  two  crows,  in 
allusion  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  the 
relics  were  trans- 
ported from  Cape 
St.  Vincent  and  to 
the  birds  which  were 
said  to  have  accompanied  them  during  the  whole 
journey. 

The  reduction  of  the  neighbouring  strongholds 
followed,  but  the  king  had  to  wait  for  the  arrival 
of  another  crusading  fleet  before  he  could  take  Alcaoer 
do  Sol,  in  1168.  The  cities  of  Evora  and  Beja  fell 
into  his  hands  soon  afterwards,  but  he  could  not  hold 
so  extensive  a  territory,  and  the  country  south  of  the 
Tagus  was  taken  and  retaken  more  than  once.  At  the 
end  of  his  life  an  unwarrantable  attack  on  Badajoz 
placed  him  in  the  power  of  King  Ferdinand  of  Leon, 
and  his  last  years  were  full  of  defeats  and  humilia- 
tions. Nevertheless,  when  he  died  the  independence 
of  Portugal  had  been  secured,  its  area  doubled,  and 
the  name  of  the  little  realm  was  famous  throughout 
Europe  for  its  persistent  struggle  against  the  enemies 
of  the  Cross.  A  rough  warrior,  an  astute  politician, 
and  a  loose  liver,  Alfonso  Henriques  was  yet  a  man  of 
strong  faith.  He  corresponded  with  St.  Bernard  and 
put  his  country  under  the  protection  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  decreeing  that  an  annual  tribute  should  be 
paid  to  the  abbey  of  Clairvaux.  For  the  Cistercian 
Order,  to  whose  prayers  he  attributed  the  capture  of 
Santarem,  he  founded  the  great  monastery  of  Alco- 
ba5a,  the  most  famous  in  Portugal,  and  endowed  it 
handsomely,  so  that  its  lands  stretched  to  the  ocean 
and  contained  thirteen  towns  in  which  the  monks 


«« 


O 
O 

PL, 


s  o  < 
H   z  3 


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exercised  authority  and  levied  taxes.  They  corre- 
sponded to  such  generosity  by  reducing  that  great 
territory  to  cultivation,  and  Alcobaga  became  the 
mother  of  numerous  daughter  monasteries,  while 
its  chartulary  served  in  early  times  as  that  of  the 
kingdom.  The  Abbot  of  Alooba9a  had  the  post  of 
chief  almoner  and  sat  in  the  Royal  Council  and  the 
Cortes  with  the  honours  of  a  bishop.  Furthermore, 
Alfonso  Henriques,  in  1132,  established  for  the  Augus- 
tinian  Canons  the  monastery  of  Santa  Cruz  at 
Coimbra,  which  rivalled  Aloobaga  in  its  wealth  and 
social  mission,  and  for  the  same  order  he  built  S. 
Vicente  in  Lisbon,  which  is  now  the  residence  of  the 
Patriarch. 

Sancho  I  (1185-1211)  continued  the  work  of  recon- 
quest,  and  a  large  part  of  the  Algarve  fell  into  his 
hands,  but  a  fresh  invading  wave  of  Moors  from 
Africa  ultimately  pushed  the  Christian  frontier  back 
to  the  Tagus.  In  the  intervals  of  peace  allowed  him, 
the  king  was  active  in  building  towns  and  settling 
his  territory,  thus  deserving  his  name  of  "The  Peo- 
pler",  and,  being  a  thrifty  man,  he  amassed  a  large 
treasure.  On  his  accession,  he  asked  and  obtained 
the  papal  confirmation  of  his  title,  which  protected 
him  against  his  Christian  neighbours,  and  after  some 
delay  paid  the  tribute  to  the  Holy  See.  This  was 
continued  by  his  immediate  successors,  but  after- 
wards fell  into  abeyance.  Sancho  imitated  his 
father's  liberality  to  the  Church  and  gave  further 
endowments  to  bishoprics  and  abbeys;  he  likewise 
favoured  the  military  Orders  of  the  Temple  of  Hos- 
pitallers of  Aviz,  and  of  S.  Thiago,  which,  besides 
their  pious  works,  supplied  the  best  disciplined 
soldiers  for  the  war  against  the  Moors  and  garrisoned 
the  frontier  towns  and  castles.  But  he  was  a  man 
of  irascible  temperament,  and  his  superstition  led 
him  to  keep  a  "wise  woman"  in  his  company  whom 
he  used  to  consult  on  his  enterprises.  His  disputes 
with  the  clergy  and  the  violent  measures  he  dealt 
out  to  them  are  explained  partly  by  his  character  and 
partly  by  the  influence  of  his  chancellor  Julian,  who 
had  studied  Roman  Law  at  Bologna  and  aimed  at 
increasing  the  royal  authority.  Sancho  inter\-ened 
in  a  question  between  the  Bishop  of  Oporto  and 
the  citizens  and  ignored  the  interdict  with  which 
Innocent  III  punished  his  high-handed  proceedings. 
He  also  came  in  conflict  with  the  Bishop  of  Coim- 
bra, whom  he  imprisoned  and  treated  with  great 
cruelty. 

Sancho  persisted  in  invading  the  rights  of  the  Church 
and  in  particular  refused  to  recognize  the  ecclesiastical 
forum  and  clerical  immunity  from  military  service. 
Though  he  made  some  concessions  before  his  death, 
the  conflict  he  had  opened  lasted  through  the  next 
two  reigns,  and  for  nearly  a  century  the  clergy  and  the 
Crown  were  involved  in  a  struggle  over  the  limits  of 
their  respective  powers.  All  the  early  kings  were 
wont  to  reward  services  by  extensive  grants  of  lands, 
and  in  these  lands  they  gave  up  the  royal  jurisdiction. 
In  time,  so  large  a  part  of  the  country  was  held  in 
mortmain,  or  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  nobles, 
that  the  rest  did  not  produce  enough  revenue  to  meet 
the  increasing  expenses  of  government.  The  mon- 
archs  then  tried  to  overcome  the  difficulty  by  a 
revocation  of  grants,  which  naturally  met  with  re- 
sistance from  the  nobility  and  clergy.  Denis,  though 
so  generally  favourable  to  the  Church,  employed  a 
more  equitable  remedy  by  prohibiting,  in  1286,  the 
purchase  of  real  estate  by  clerics,  but  this  and  a 
stricter  law  of  1291  were  found  too  severe  and  had 
to  be  modified.  The  evil  was  a  great  and  growing 
one  and,  had  there  been  no  other  cause  of  discord, 
would  have  sufficed  to  set  the  Crown  and  landowning 
classes  at  issue.  Alfonso  II  (1211-23)  took  care  to 
obtain  the  confirmation  of  his  title  from  the  Holy 
See,  and  at  the  Cortes  of  Coimbra  he  sanctioned  the 
concessions  made  by  his  father  to  the  Church,  whose 


help  he  hoped  to  have  when  he  came  to  annul  the 
large  bequests  of  land  which  Sancho  had  made  to  his 
children.  In  this  he  was  disappointed,  for  the  pope 
intervened  as  arbiter,  and  Alfonso's  sisters  got  their 
legacies,  but  they  all  took  the  veil,  and  his  brothers 
never  obtained  the  estates  which  had  been  left  to 
them. 

This  was  a  victory  for  the  king,  who  now,  on  the 
advice  of  his  chancellor,  sent  a  commission  of  enquiry 
through  the  kingdom  to  ascertain  the  titles  to  land 
and  either  confirm  or  revoke  them,  as  seemed  to  him 
just.  So  far  he  had  kept  on  good  terms  with  the 
clergy,  but  Alfonso's  determination  to  increase  the 
power  of  the  Crown  and  fill  his  treasury  affected  their 
immunities,  and  his  action  in  a  dispute  between  the 
Bishop  of  Lisbon  and  his  dean  showed  that  the  king's 
attitude  towards  the  Church  had  changed.  By  1221 
the  old  differences  had  appeared  again,  and  in  an 
acute  form:  Alfonso  had  seized  church  property, 
compelled  ecclesiastics  to  plead  before  secular  jus- 
tices and  to  serve  in  the  wars.  The  learned  and  holy 
Archbishop  of  Braga  convoked  an  assembly  of  prel- 
ates in  which  he  accused  the  king  of  his  breaches  of 
faith  and  scandalous  life.  The  latter  met  this  by 
confiscating  the  goods  of  the  prelate,  who  fled  to 
Rome.  Honorius  dispatched  three  Spanish  bishops 
to  remonstrate  with  Alfonso,  and,  as  this  had  no  effect, 
they  excommunicated  him  a  year  later.  The  pope 
then  threatened  to  absolve  the  king's  subjects  from 
their  allegiance  and  hand  over  the  realm  to  any 
prince  who  cared  to  take  it.  A  further  papal  Brief, 
in  1222,  insisting  on  reparation,  together  with  an  at- 
tack of  leprosy  induced  Alfonso  to  enter  into  negotia- 
tions for  peace,  and  these  were  in  progress  when  he 
died. 

The  reign  of  this  excommunicated  king  witnessed 
a  religious  revival  which  was  rendered  necessary  by 
the  general  laxity  of  both  clergy  and  laity.  The 
Franciscans  were  introduced  by  the  king's  sister  and, 
although  they  soon  won  the  affection  of  the  people, 
they  were  received  with  little  cordiality  on  the  part 
of  the  secular  clergy  and  the  other  orders,  who  saw 
their  pecuniary  interests  damaged.  In  a  Bull  of 
Gregory  IX  (1233)  the  pope  complains  of  the  hos- 
tility shown  to  the  friars  by  bishops  and  clergy. 
At  Oporto  the  bishop  ordered  them  out  of  the  citj', 
sacked  their  convent,  and  burned  it,  but  the  citizens 
sided  with  them,  and  in  the  end  they  were  able  to 
return.  The  order  soon  spread  over  the  country, 
convents  were  built  for  them,  members  of  the  royal 
family  chose  their  churches  as  burial  places,  and  the 
popes  bestowed  bishoprics  on  friars  and  charged 
them  with  delicate  missions.  It  was  the  custom  for 
testators  to  leave  a  part  of  their  property  to  the 
Church,  and  Bishop  Sueiro  of  Lisbon  promulgated  a 
statute  that  one-third  should  be  so  bequeathed  under 
pain  of  refusal  of  the  sacraments  and  canonical  burial. 
The  citizens  appealed  to  the  pope  against  this  vio- 
lence, and  Honorius  condemned  it,  and  charged  the 
superiors  of  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  to  see 
that  the  practice  was  discontinued.  The  Dominicans 
had  entered  Portugal  between  1217  and  1222,  and, 
by  virtue  of  their  austere  morals,  poverty,  and 
humility,  they  obtained  a  welcome  second  only  to 
that  given  the  Franciscans.  Sancho  II  (1223-48) 
was  still  only  a  boy  when  he  succeeded  his  father. 
His  ministers  bound  him  to  make  satisfaction  for 
the  material  losses  inflicted  on  the  Church  by  Alfonso 
II,  and  to  punish  the  guilty  parties.  They  also 
promised  that  ecclesiastical  privileges  should  be 
respected,  but  those  responsible  for  the  outrages  of 
the  last  reign  remained  in  power,  and  the  king  had 
small  control  over  them. 

The  bishops  showed  as  little  desire  for  peace  as  the 
nobles,  and  vied  with  them  in  vexing  the  monasteries 
by  their  monetary  exactions.  With  each  succeeding 
year  a  state  of  anarchy  increased  over  the  kingdom. 


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The  bellicose  Bishop  of  Oporto,  Martinho  Rodrigues, 
presented  to  the  pope  a  long  hst  of  accusations  against 
the  monarch,  in  reply  to  which  Cardinal  John  de 
Abavila  was  dispatched  to  Portugal  on  a  reforming 
mission,  but  though  he  did  much  good  he  was  unable 
to  end  the  discords.  Bishop  Sueiro  then  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  malcontents  and  painted  in  dark 
colours  the  condition  of  the  Church.  The  clergy 
were  blackmailed  and  deprived  of  their  property, 
the  king  and  nobles  despised  ecclesiastical  censures, 
public  offices  were  given  to  Jews,  and  so  on.  Pope 
Gregory  thereupon  sent  a  commission  to  require 
the  king  to  correct  abuses  under  threat  of  penalties, 
but  at  first  there  were  some  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
reform.  The  bishops  too  often  abused  their  immuni- 
ties,- they  admitted  men  to  orders  who  were  only 
anxious  to  evade  military  service,  and  sometimes  to 
avoid  answering  to  the  secular  courts  for  their  crimes. 
The  pope  remedied  these  evils,  but  the  Government 
failed  to  repress  those  which  were  charged  against 
it.  Yet  the  Holy  See  was  averse  to  extreme  measures, 
because  it  appreciated  Sancho's  crusading  energy — 
for,  though  a  bad 
man  and  an  indo- 
lent administrator, 
he  was  a  bold  sol- 
dier. An  ancient 
dispute  between 
bishop  and  citizens 
as  to  jurisdiction 
over  the  City  of 
Oporto  revived 
again,  and  bishop 
and  king  were  soon 
at  issue.  Further- 
more, the  latter 
roused  strong  oppo- 
sition by  refusing  to 
allow  ecclesiastical 
bodies  or  individ- 
uals to  accept  gifts 
of  land,  or  to  pur- 
chase it,  and,  not 
content  with  rob- 
bing and  profaning 
churches,  he  slew 
some  priests.  He 
brought  matters  to  a  climax  when  he  intervened  in  a 
disputed  succession  to  the  bishopric  of  Lisbon  and 
used  the  most  brutal  methods  to  enforce  his  will  and 
Gregory  IX,  who  had  previously  threatened,  now 
confirmed  a,  sentence  of  interdict. 

Sanfho  gave  way  for  the  moment,  and  peace  was 
made,  the  king  turning  his  arms  against  the  Moors, 
but  in  an  interval  between  his  successful  campaigns 
he  became  enamoured  of  a  widow,  Dona  Mecia 
Lopes  de  Haro,  whom  he  met  during  a  visit  to  the 
Court  of  Castile,  and  under  her  influence  his  charac- 
ter deteriorated.  The  bishops  renewed  their  com- 
plaints of  the  disorders  in  Portugal,  and  in  1245,  by 
the  Bull  "Grandi  non  immerito",  Innocent  IV  com- 
mitted the  government  to  Sancho's  brother  Alfonso 
who  was  living  in  France.  The  latter  undertook 
to  remedy  the  ills  of  the  kingdom  and  grievances  of 
the  Church,  and  on  his  arrival  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  accepted  him  for  regent  in  accordance  with 
the  papal  directions.  Sancho,  finding  resistance  hope- 
less, passed  into  Spain,  where  he  died  a  year  later.  In 
the  reign  of  Alfonso  III  (1248-79)  Portugal  attained 
its  farthest  European  limits  by  the  conquest  of  the 
Algarve  from  the  Moors,  but  Alfonso  X  of  Castile 
claimed  the  kingdom,  and  the  Portuguese  king  was 
forced  to  recognize  Castilian  suzerainty  and,  though 
already  married,  to  further  purchase  his  possessions 
by  agreeing  to  wed  Beatrice,  his  brother  monarch's 
illegitimate  daughter.  Fortunately,  the  first  wife 
of  Alfonso  III  died  shortly  afterwards,  and  the  king's 


bigamous  union  with  Beatrice  and  their  issue  were 
legitimated  by  Urban  IV  at  the  request  of  the 
bishops. 

So  far  there  had  been  peace  between  king  and 
clergy,  but  the  former  did  not  intend  to  keep  the  prom- 
ises on  the  strength  of  which  he  had  ascended  the 
throne,  and  the  latter  would  not  abate  their  claims. 
In  1258  Alfonso  sent  a  commission  of  inquiry  through 
the  kingdom  to  determine  the  royal  rights  and  the 
fiscal  obligations  of  his  subjects,  and  as  a  result  he 
revoked,  in  1265,  many  of  the  crown  grants  of  land. 
Seven  of  the  bishops  took  up  the  challenge,  and  in 
12(37  appealed  to  Clement  IV.  They  alleged  that  the 
king,  besides  seizing  their  possessions,  deprived  them 
of  their  liberty  of  action,  refused  to  pay  tithes, 
exacted  forced  loans,  compelled  ladies  to  marry  men 
of  no  birth,  and  men  of  family  to  wed  low  women, 
or  those  of  Moorish  or  Jewish  race.  The  abuses 
of  civil  administration  were  dealt  with  in  five  articles, 
ecclesiastical  grievances  occupied  forty-three.  The 
charges  were  true  in  the  main,  but  the  king  met  them 
by  presenting  to  the  pope  a  petition  signed  by  all 
the  concelhos  in  fa- 
vour of  his  rule,  and, 
to  defeat  the  bishops 
by  a  policy  of  delay, 
he  took  the  Cross  for 
a  crusade  led  by  St. 
Louis,  but  never 
went.  Moreover, 
the  pope  and  some 
of  the  protesting 
bishops  died,  while 
certain  abuses  were 
remedied.  Relying 
on  his  good  fortune 
he  became  more  op- 
pressive than  ever, 
usurping  the  reve- 
nues of  four  sees,  and 
in  1273  Gregory  X 
ordered  the  heads 
of  the  Franciscan  and 
Dominican  Orders  in 
Lisbon  to  remon- 
strate with  the  king. 
It  was  long  before 
Alfonso  would  see  them  and  then  he  assembled  the 
Cortes  at  Santarem  and  had  a  committee  appointed 
to  correct  everything  done  "without  reason".  This 
committee  was  composed  of  his  friends  so  that  the 
concession  was  illusory.  On  hearing  of  the  king's 
duplicity,  the  pope  sent  him  a  strongly-worded  Bull, 
dated  4  Sept.,  1275,  reminding  him  of  what  he  owed 
the  Church  and  requiring  him  to  keep  the  agree- 
ment made  in  Paris  under  pain  of  censure  and,  in  the 
last  resort,  of  losing  the  realm. 

Again,  however,  time  favoured  the  king,  for 
Gregory  and  his  two  successors  all  died  in  1276,  and, 
though  the  Portuguese  John  XXI  took  the  matter 
up,  the  king  would  do  nothing  until  the  terms  of 
Gregory's  Bull,  which  he  called  ordinatio  diabolica, 
were  softened.  An  interdict  was  therefore  pronounced 
on  the  realm,  and  Alfonso's  subjects  were  absolved 
from  their  allegiance,  but  without  effect,  for  the  king 
had  a  stronger  position  than  Sancho  II.  However, 
he  relented  when  death  approached;  he  promised 
restitution  to  the  Church  and  made  his  heir  swear 
to  perform  what  he  himself  had  promised.  His 
understanding  with  the  municipalities  enabled  Al- 
fonso III  to  consolidate  the  power  of  the  Crown  by 
limiting  that  of  the  nobility,  both  lay  and  clerical, 
and  even  to  brave  the  censures  of  the  Church,  which 
by  constant  repetition  had  lost  some  of  their  effect. 
Denis  (1279-1325),  a  cultured  man,  abstained  from 
foreign  wars  and  devoted  himself  to  developing  the 
resources  of  the  country,  his  care  of  agriculture  win- 


The  Convent  Church  op  Thomab,  Portugal 


PORTUGAL 


301 


PORTUGAL 


ning  him  the  title  of  "the  Cultivator".  He  favoured 
commerce,  founded  the  royal  navy,  and  above  all 
gave  peace  to  the  Church.  After  long  negotiations  a 
concordat  of  forty  articles  was  signed  in  1289,  and 
this  was  followed  by  two  others.  The  beneplacilum 
rajium  was  abandoned,  the  property  seized  by 
Alfonso  III  was  restored,  and  the  king  bound  himself 
to  respect  ecclesiastical  privileges  and  immunities, 
and  to  observe  the  old  laws  and  customs  of  the  realm. 
The  free  election  of  bishops  was  secured,  and  the 
extortions  practised  by  lay  patrons  of  churches  and 
monasteries  were  prohibited. 

The  long  struggle  between  Church  and  Crown 
terminated;  but  if  the  first  gained  most  of  the 
points  contended  for,  its  commanding  position  ceased. 
The  times  were  different.  With  the  increasing  weak- 
ness of  the  papacy,  the  clergy  became  more  dependent 
on  the  monarch.  Moreover,  the  complete  na- 
tionaUzation  of  the  military  orders  effected  by 
Denis  also  tended  to  increase  the  central  power,  and 
it  was  said  of  him  "that  he  did  all  he  wished"  On 
the  initiative  and  at  the  exjiense  of  the  Priors  of 
Santa  Cruz  at  Coimbra,  S.  Vicente  at  Lisbon,  and 
Santa  Maria  at  Guimaraens  and  the  Abbot  of  Al- 
coba(;a,  a  university  was  established  at  Lisbon  and 
confirmed,  in  1290,  by  papal  Bull,  with  faculties  of 
arts,  canon  and  civil  law,  and  medicine,  but  not 
theology,  which  was  studied  in  the  monasteries. 
The  king  showed  great  liberality  to  the  new  founda- 
tion, which  was  subsequently,  by  papal  permission, 
moved  to  Coimbra.  When  the  Templars  were  sup- 
pressed, John  XXII  allowed  their  property  to  go  to 
the  new  Order  of  Christ  established  in  1319. 

If  Denis  proved  a  wise  and  just  ruler,  some  of  the 
credit  is  due  to  his  wife,  St.  Isabel.  She  intervened 
successfully  more  than  once  to  end  the  rebellions  of 
his  son.  Alfonso  IV,  (132.5-.57)  continued  his  father's 
policy.  He  hved  on  good  terms  with  the  other 
peninsular  sovereigns,  but  when  his  daughter  was 
illtreated  by  her  husband,  Alfonso  XI,  he  invaded 
Castile.  Once  more  St.  Isabel  intervened.  Leaving 
her  convent  of  Poor  Clares  at  Coimbra,  she  came  be- 
tween the  opposing  armies  at  Estremoz  and  settled 
the  dispute  so  effectually  that  when,  in  1340,  the  King 
of  ^lorocco  crossed  into  Spain  to  aid  the  King  of 
Granada  against  the  Christians,  Alfonso  IV  obeyed 
the  papal  summons  and  led  a  contingent  which  helped 
Alfonso  XI  to  win  the  great  battle  of  the  Salado. 
His  later  years  were  clouded  by  the  Black  Death  and 
by  the  rebellion  of  his  son  Pedro,  who,  though  mar- 
ried, had  become  enamoured  of  the  beautiful  Dona 
Ines  de  Castro.  To  end  this  infatuation,  Alfonso 
was  unfortunately  persuaded  to  consent  _  to  her 
assassination,  whereupon  the  prince  rose  in  arms 
against  his  father  and  devastated  the  country. 
Benedict  XII  exacted  the  payment  of  the  tribute 
promised  by  Alfonso  Henriques  and  took  measures 
against  the  incontinency  of  the  clergy  (a  recurring 
evil  in  Portuguese  history),  while  Clement  VI  an- 
swered the  complaints  of  the  Kings  of  Portugal  and 
Castile  as  to  the  appointment  of  foreigners  to  ec- 
clesiastical benefices.  The  chief  characteristic  of 
Pedro  I  (13.57-67),  was  the  pleasure  he  took  in  seek- 
ing out  and  punishing  lawbreakers,  whether  laymen 
or  clerics;  hence  his  title,  "the  Doer  of  Justice" 
Allying  himself  with  Pedro  the  Cruel  of  Castile,  he 
took  summary  vengeance  on  the  murderers  of  his 
mistress.  He  repressed  the  violence  of  the  nobles 
and  the  usury  of  the  Jews,  and  this  with  his  generosity 
earned  him  the  respect  of  the  people,  savage  despot 
though  he  was.  It  is  noteworthy  that  though  an 
especial  avenger  of  adulteries,  as  well  as  of  witch- 
craft, he  himself  lived  an  immoral  life  and  had  several 
bastards,  one  of  whom  became  King  John  I. 

The  chief  ecclesiastical  interest  of  this  uneventful 
reign  is  centred  in  the  Cortes  of  Elvas,  in  which  the 
clergy  submitted  a  list  of  thirty-three  grievances, 


some  of  which  received  attention.  As  regards  the 
admission  of  papal  letters,  the  king  promised  to  see 
them  and  order  their  publication  in  so  far  as  was 
right.  It  was  a  shuffling  reaffirmation  of  the  bene- 
placilum regium.  Ferdinand  (1367-83)  had  his 
father's  generosity  without  his  strength,  and,  though 
he  deserves  the  credit  for  wise  laws  encouraging 
navigation  and  agriculture,  and  for  the  fortification 
of  Lisbon,  he  fell  a  victim  to  animal  passion  and 
foolish  ambition.  His  first  attempt  to  win  the 
Throne  of  Castile  against  Henry  of  Trastamara 
failed,  and  in  1371  the  Peace  of  Alcoutim  was  made 
under  the  auspices  of  Gregory  XI,  Ferdinand  agree- 
ing to  marry  Henry's  daughter.  But  he  could  never 
keep  a  treaty,  and,  having  fallen  in  love  with  Doha 
Leonor  Telles,  the  wife  of  one  of  his  nobles,  he 
married  her,  notwithstanding  the  angry  protest  of 
the  citizens  of  Lisbon.  Moreover,  he  entered  into 
an  agreement  to  assist  John  of  Gaunt,  who  claimed 
the  crown  of  Castile.  Henry  thereupon  invaded 
Portugal,  in  1373,  and  would  have  captured  Lisbon, 
had  not  Cardinal  Guy  de  Bologne,  the  papal  legate, 
forced  him  to  retire  and  make  peace  with  Ferdinand 
at  Vallada.  Leonor  now  entirely  dominated  her 
vacillating  and  indolent  husband,  and  by  obtaining 
honours  and  lands  for  her  kinsfolk  and  friends  pro- 
vided against  the  time  when  he  should  die.  Losing 
all  scruples,  she  engineered  the  murder  of  her  own 
sister,  and  betrayed  the  king  by  an  intrigue  with 
the  Galician  noble,  Andeiro,  whom  she  persuaded 
him  to  create  Count  of  Ourem.  A  few  years  later 
Lisbon  was  again  besieged  unsuccessfully  by  a  Castil- 
ian  army,  and  in  1381  Ferdinand  undertook  a  war  of 
revenge  with  the  help  of  an  English  force  under  the 
Duke  of  Cambridge.  He  invaded  Castile,  but  when 
in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  took  fright  and  made 
peace  with  King  John,  one  of  the  terms  being  that 
the  latter  should  wed  Ferdinand's  heiress  Beatrice, 
which  would  have  led  to  the  union  of  Portugal  and 
Castile. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Great  Schism  it  was  only 
the  firmness  of  the  bishops  that  kept  Portugal  true 
to  Urban  VI  and  prevented  the  king  from  offering 
his  obedience  to  the  anti-pope,  Clement  VII.  The 
resistance  of  Lisbon  to  two  Castilian  sieges  had  saved 
Portuguese  independence,  and  by  a  Bull  of  Boniface 
IX  its  see 'was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank.  The 
people  would  not  submit  to  a  foreign  king,  and 
shortly  after  Ferdinand's  death  the  citizens  of  Lisbon 
rose  against  Leonor;  Andeiro  and  the  archbishop  were 
slain,  and  John,  Grand  Master  of  Aviz,  illegitimate 
son  of  Pedro  I,  became  defender  of  the  realm.  The 
King  of  Castile  laid  seige  to  Lisbon,  but  a  pestilence 
compelled  him  to  retire,  and  in  April,  1385,  thanks 
to  the  eloquence  of  the  great  lawyer  John  das  Regras, 
the  Grand  Master  of  Aviz  was  elected  king  (1385- 
1433)  at  the  Cortes  of  Coimbra.  On  14  August 
he  totally  defeated  the  Castilians  at  Aljubarrota, 
and  this,  together  with  the  victories  gained  by  Nuno 
Alvares  Pereira,  "the  Holy  Constable",  secured 
Portuguese  independence.  The  king  erected  on  the 
field  of  battle  the  great  monastery  of  Batalha  and 
there  he  and  his  sons  were  buried.  On  9  May, 
1388,  he  made  the  Treaty  of  Windsor  with  England 
and,  though  a  cleric,  sealed  the  alliance  by  wedding 
Philippa,  daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt.  In  1391 
Boniface  IX  legitimated  the  marriage. 

Portugal  now  turned  her  face  to  the  ocean  and  pre- 
pared to  become  a  great  maritime  power.  The  over- 
sea conquest  began  with  the  capture  of  Ceuta,  in 
1415,  and  under  the  auspices  of  Prince  Henry  the 
Navigator  the  voyages  were  organized  which  ulti- 
mately led  to  the  discovery  of  the  road  to  India 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  pope  encouraged 
these  efforts,  which  had  for  their  object  the  spread 
of  Christianity  as  well  as  of  commerce,  and,  by  a  Bull 
of  4  April,  1418,  confirmed  to  the  king  all  the  lands 


PORTUGAL 


302 


PORTUGAL 


he  should  take  from  the  Moors.  In  the  previous 
year  Ceuta  had  been  created  a  diocese,  and  it  was  the 
first  of  the  many  sees  erected  in  non-Christian  coun- 
tries where  the  Portuguese  carried  their  faith  and 
flag.  John  made  two  concordats  with  the  Church, 
the  first  at  the  Cortes  of  Elvas,  the  second,  in  1427, 
at  the  Cortes  of  Santarem,  but  he  did  not  abandon 
the  beni-pUiciluin  reijiuin.  He  had  been  compelled 
to  make  large  grants  of  lands  to  the  nobles  as  the 


The  Nun's  Window,  Tho.mar 

price  of  their  support  in  the  War  of  Independence. 
One  of  the  first  acts  of  his  son  Edward  (in  Portuguese 
Duarte — 1433-38)  was  to  promulgate  the  "Lei 
Mental"  which  enacted  that  these  properties  should 
only  descend  in  the  direct  male  line  of  the  grantee, 
on  the  failure  of  which  they  reverted  to  the  Crown. 
The  ill  result  of  the  expedition  against  Tangier,  which 
was  undertaken  against  the  advice  of  Eugenius  IV 
and  ended  in  the  captivity  of  the  Infanta  Ferdinand, 
hastened  the  end  of  the  crowned  philosopher,  and 
Alfonso  V  (1438-81)  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  child- 
hood. The  people  would  not  accept  his  mother. 
Queen  Leonor,  as  regent,  and  that  office  was  con- 
ferred on  the  Infanta  Pedro,  Edward's  brother.  The 
queen  and  her  party  never  forgave  this  act;  they 
stirred  up  Alfonso  against  his  uncle,  who  was  defeated 
and  slain  at  the  battle  of  Alfarroeira.  The  authors 
of  this  tragedy  were  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  and 
relations  between  Portugal  and  Rome  ceased,  but 
were  reestablished  in  1451,  and  from  1452  onwards 
became  very  close. 

Alfonso,  a  typical  medieval  knight,  full  of  the 
crusading  spirit,  was  bent  on  fighting  the  Moors,  and 
he  received  every  encouragement.  Nicholas  V, 
by  a  Bull  of  8  January,  1454,  conceded  to  him  all 
conquests  in  Africa  from  Cape  Non  to  Guinea,  with 
power  to  build  churches  the  patronage  of  which  should 
be  his,  and  prohibited  any  vessels  from  sailing  to 
those  parts  without  leave  from  the  King  of  Portugal. 
By  another  Bull  of  the  same  date  the  pope  extended 
Portuguese  dominion  over  all  the  seas  from  Africa  to 
India.  A  subsequent  Bull  granted  to  the  Order  of 
Christ  authorit.y  in  spirituals  over  the  peoples  sub- 
dued by  the  Portuguese  as  far  as  India,  and  provided 


that  no  one  but  the  King  of  Portugal  should  be  en- 
titled to  send  expeditions  of  discovery  to  those  parts. 
Finally,  in  1481,  Sixtus  IV  confirmed  to  the  kings 
of  Portugal  aU  islands  and  territories  discovered  now 
or  in  the  future  from  Cape  Non  to  India.  The 
voyages  continued  during  Alfonso's  reign,  and  the 
equator  was  passed  in  1471.  But  the  king  thought 
more  of  land  conquests  in  North  Africa,  where  he 
made  three  successful  expeditions,  and  continued  to 
covet  the  throne  of  the  neighbouring  country  until 
he  was  defeated,  in  1476,  at  the  battle  of  Toro.  His 
reign  was  rendered  notable  by  the  publication,  in 
1446,  of  the  Alfonsine  Code. 

John  II  (1481-95)  showed  great  energy  in  the  work 
of  discovery,  which  had  been  somewhat  neglected 
since  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  and  under  his  aus- 
pices Bartholomew  Diaz  passed  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  in  1486,  and  in  1498  Vasco  da  Gama  reached 
India.  A  firm  believer  in  absolute  government  and 
a  man  of  inflexible  will,  John  broke  the  power  of  the 
nobility,  which  had  become  enormous  through  the 
unwise  liberality  of  his  father,  following  on  the  dona- 
tions of  John  I.  He  deprived  them  of  their  right  to 
administer  justice  on  their  estates,  and  when  they 
resisted,  led  by  the  Duke  of  Braganza,  the  king  had 
him  arrested  and  beheaded,  and  completed  his  work 
by  himself  stabbing  the  Duke  of  Viseu  and  ordering 
the  execution  of  the  Bishop  of  Evora  and  others.  A 
great  confiscation  of  estates  followed  and  enriched 
the  Crown,  which  now  became  the  one  power  of  the 
realm.  John  maintained  good  relations  with  Castile 
and,  in  1494,  made  the  Treaty  of  Tordesillas,  con- 
firmed by  the  Bull  of  Alexander  VI,  by  which  the 
limits  of  the  possessions  of  SiJain  and  Portugal  in 
the  regions  discovered  by  their  seamen  were  fixed 
by  an  imaginary  line  drawn  at  360  leagues  west  of 
Cape  Verde,  the  Spaniards  acquiring  the  right  to  all 
lands  lying  to  the  west  and  the  Portuguese  getting 
those  to  the  east.  Under  this  division  of  the  world 
most  of  the  coastline  of  Brazil  found  in  1500  fell  to 
Portugal,  and  the  rest  of  America  and  the  West 
Indies  to  Spain. 

Provincial  and  diocesan  synods  had  become  less 
frequent  with  each  succeeding  century  (in  the 
fifteenth  century  not  one  provincial  synod  was  held) 
with  the  result  that  ecclesiastical  discipline  declined. 
The  bishops  of  the  best-endowed  sees  were  almost 
invariably  chosen  from  noble  families  and  some  of 
them  lived  away  from  their  diocese.  This  was  the 
case  with  those  of  Ceuta  and  Tangier.  By  a  Brief 
of  13  October,  1501,  issued  at  the  instance  of  King 
Emanuel,  the  bishops  were  ordered  to  fulfil  their 
duty  of  visitation,  which  they  seem  to  have  generally 
neglected.  From  the  beginning,  the  monastic  orders 
and  the  chapters  had  attracted  the  best  talents,  and 
the  parochial  clergy  were  usually  as  ignorant  as  they 
were  poor.  Innocent  VIII  had  to  issue  a  Bull  in 
1485,  providing  that  no  one  unable  to  construe  Latin 
well  should  be  ordained.  The  prevailing  laxity  had 
affected  the  monasteries,  but  the  orders  themselves 
responded  to  the  desires  of  the  king  and  the  Holy 
See.  A  reform  of  the  Dominican  monasteries  began 
at  Bemfica  and  spread  to  the  other  houses.  The 
zeal  of  the  Franciscans  was  equally  marked,  no  less 
than  twenty-three  convents  of  Observants  were 
founded  within  a  century,  and  these,  despite  the  op- 
position of  the  Conventuals,  restored  the  order  to  its 
pristine  purity. 

King  Emanuel  (1495-1521)  reaped  the  harvest 
sown  by  his  predecessors,  and  every  year  of  his  reign 
witnessed  some  new  discovery,  some  great  deed.  The 
genius  of  Albuquerque  gave  him  the  maritime  keys 
of  Asia,  and  the  monopoly  of  the  Eastern  trade  made 
him  the  richest  king  in  Christendom.  In  1514  the 
monarch  sent  his  splendid  embassy  to  Rome  to  offer 
the  tribute  of  India  at  the  feet  of  Leo  X,  to  urge  the 
pope  to  proceed  with  the  reform  of  the  Church,  and 


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to  secure  a  league  of  Christian  princes  against  the 
Turks.  Though  these  objects  failed,  the  king  ob- 
tained many  personal  favours,  including  the  amplifica- 
tion of  the  Padroado,  or  right  of  patronage  over 
churches  in  non-Christian  countries.  The  pope 
received  the  submission  of  the  Abyssinian  Church 
through  Emanuel  and,  recognizing  the  king  as  the 
chief  protector  and  propagator  of  the  Faith,  twice 
sent  him  the  Golden  Rose.  Emanuel  was  especially 
anxious  to  add  Castile  to  his  world-wide  dominions, 
and  he  made  three  marriages  to  that  end,  but  all 
in  vain.  It  was  a  condition  of  his  first  marriage 
(to  the  eldest  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella) 
that  he  should  expel  the  Jews  and  unconverted 
Moors.  The  Jews  had  enjoyed  the  protection  of 
previous  kings  and  had  supplied  them  with  trusted 
servants,  but,  as  both  the  clergy  and  people  hated 
them  for  their  usury,  and  envied  their  talents  and 
wealth,  Emanuel  sacrificed  them,  against  the  pro- 
tests of  some  of  his  best  councillors.  They  were 
given  the  choice  of  conversion  or  exile,  and  naturally, 
from  worldly  motives,  the  greater  part  accepted  the 
former  alternative  and  became  known  as  "new 
Christians",  intermarrying  with  old  Christians. 
Many  of  these  converts  went  back  to  Judaism  and  be- 
came the  victims  of  bitter  and  continual  persecution, 
when  the  Inquisition  was  established. 

King  Emanuel  and  his  son,  John  III,  were  great 
builders;  the  former  erected  the  Hieronymite  church 
and  monastery  at  Belem,  to  commemorate  Vasco 
da  Gama's  discovery,  and  the  latter  made  great  addi- 
tions to  the  superb  convent  of  Christ  at  Thomar. 
Though  the  Golden  Age  apparently  continued,  Por- 
tugal began  to  decline  in  the  reign  of  John  III  (1521- 
57).  Emigration  drained  the  best  blood  of  the  coun- 
try; the  East  corrupted,  while  it  enriched,  its  con- 
querors; the  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  left  to  slaves; 
commerce  was  blighted  by  the  Inquisition,  which 
drove  capital  abroad.  The  Government  could  not 
make  both  ends  meet,  and  the  wealth  of  the  Hebrews 
in\'ited  their  spoliation.  The  king,  a  serious,  con- 
scientious man,  but  of  small  education,  satisfied  the 
complaints  of  the  people  against  that  race  by  petition- 
ing the  Holy  See  in  1531  to  establish  the  Inquisition. 
After  a  twenty  years'  struggle  at  Rome  with  the 
Hebrews,  marked  by  disgraceful  bribery  on  both 
sides,  John  forced  the  pope's  consent  in  1547,  and  the 
bigoted  Infanta  Henry,  afterwards  king,  became  chief 
inquisitor.  The  tribunal  was  popular  and  prac- 
tically destroyed  Judaism,  but  its  methods  divided 
the  nation  into  spies  and  victims,  encouraged  black- 
mail and  false  denunciations,  and  contributed  to 
undermine  the  national  character.  It  put  a  new 
weapon  into  the  hands  of  the  monarch,  who  now  had 
no  check  on  his  rule,  for  the  Cortes  had  lost  their 
power  by  the  end  of  the  preceding  century.  In  1540 
the  first  Jesuits  came,  and  the  king  became  n  warm 
patron  of  their  early  missionary  labours  in  the  East. 
In  addition  to  the  ministry  of  the  confessional  and 
the  pulpit,  the  Society  devoted  itself  to  teaching  and 
opened  colleges  which  were  crowded  by  youths  of 
the  better  classes.  The  university,  which  since  its 
foundation  had  moved  to  and  fro  between  Lisbon  and 
Coimbra,  was  fixed  at  the  latter  place  in  1537,  and 
distinguished  professors,  Portuguese  and  foreign, 
raised  its  intellectual  level.  Experience  proved  how- 
ever that  their  learning  was  superior  to  their  ortho- 
doxy and  morals,  and  they  were  replaced  by  the 
Jesuits,  who  by  degrees  obtained  that  control  of 
higher  education  which  they  held  for  two  centuries. 

John  deserves  credit  for  his  policy  of  peace  abroad 
and  for  the  colonization  of  Brazil,  in  which  he  had  the 
assistance  of  the  Jesuits,  who  civilized  the  natives 
and  protected  them  from  the  European  settlers.  A 
number  of  new  colonial  dioceses  were  founded  in  this 
reign,  and  Portuguese  theologians,  among  them  Ven. 
Bartholomew  of  the  Martyrs,  took  a  prominent  part 


in  the  Council  of  Trent.  On  John's  death,  his  widow 
became  regent  for  her  grandson  Sebastian  (1557-78), 
who  was  a  minor.  The  latter  grew  up  an  exalted 
mystic  and  knight  errant  of  the  Cross,  without  in- 
terest in  the  work  of  government.  Though  pressed 
by  St.  Pius  V,  he  refiised  to  marry  and  obstinately 
insisted  on  attempting  to  conquer  North  Africa 
without  sufficient  men  or  money.  His  rout  and  death 
at  the  battle  of  Alcacer  decided  the  fate  of  Portugal, 
for  Cardinal  Henry   (1578-80)   lived  less  than  two 


South  Duor  or  thl  HiluOiNYmiil  Chuhph,  Bei  pm 

years,  and  in  1580  Philip  II  of  Spain  claimed  the 
throne  as  next  heir.  Partly  by  force  and  partly 
by  bribery,  he  secured  election  as  Philip  I  of  Portugal 
(1580-98)  at  the  Cortes  of  Thomar  in  1581,  and  for 
sixty  years  the  Crowns  of  Portugal  and  Spain  were 
united,  If  Philip  I  and  II  (1598-1621)  ruled  well, 
the  period  was  none  the  less  a  disastrous  one  from  a 
religious,  as  from  a  political  point  of  view,  and 
Portugal  suffered  heavily  in  the  duel  between  the 
Protestant  Powers  and  Spain.  Her  Eastern  posses- 
sions fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  and  Dutch, 
and  the  latter  seized  a  large  part  of  the  coastline  of 
Brazil.  The  monetary  exactions  of  Philip  HI 
(1621-40)  and  the  determination  of  his  minister, 
Olivares,  to  destroy  the  liberties  of  Portugal,  aroused 
in  all  classes  a  fierce  hostility  to  foreign  rule.  The 
lower  clergy  and  religious  orders  embraced  the  popu- 
lar cause.  The  tolerance  shown  to  the  Jews,  who 
were  permitted  to  return,  and  the  expulsion  of  the 
papal  nuncio,  Castracani,  outraged  their  feelings, 
and  the  increasing  burden  of  taxation  pressed  them 
hard,  so  that  they  encouraged  their  flocks  to  look  for 
a  deliverer  in  the  Duke  of  Braganza  and  greatly  con- 
tributed to  the  issue. 

The  revolution  of  1640  raised  John  IV  (1540-56) 
to  the  throne,  and  liberated  Portugal  and  her  re- 
maining possessions  from  a  foreign  yoke,  but  it  led 
to  an  exhausting  war  with  Spain  which  lasted  twenty- 
eight  years.  Moreover,  owing  to  Spanish  pressure, 
the  popes  refused  to  recognize  the  new  monarch;  see 
after  see  fell  vacant  and  remained  so,  and  ecclesias- 
tical  discipline   became   relaxed.     These   evils   eon- 


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tinued  during  the  reign  of  Alfonso  VI  (1656-83), 
an  imbecile  youth  of  criminal  tastes,  who  was  de- 
posed in  lGt)7,  his  brother  Pedro  becoming  regent  and, 
on  Alfonso's  death,  ascending  the  throne.  The 
reign  of  Pedro  (1683-170G)  i^  marked  by  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  Brazil,  by' the  signature  of  the 
Methuen  Treaty  with  England,  and  by  the  par- 
ticipation of  Portugal  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  when  an  Anslo-Portuguese  army  entered 
Madrid.  Though  the  Portuguese  had  lost  most  of 
their  possessions  in  the  East,  their  missionaries  con- 
tinued to  spread  the  Faith  in  pagan  countries  and 
actually  defended  remote  possessions  like  Timor 
against  the  Dutch.  In  1690  the  Bishoprics  of  Pekin 
and  Nankin  were  established  by  Alexander  VIII, 
and,  after  a  conflict  with  the  Propaganda,  the  claim 
of  Portugal  to  nominate  prelates  for  all  sees  in  the 
East  was  allowed. 

In  1691  the  Cortes  met  for  the  last  time  previous 
to  the  Revolution  of  1S20.  The  leading  ecclesiastical 
figure  of  the  age  was  Father  Antonio  Vieira,  preacher, 
protector  of  the  Indians  of  Brazil,  and  confidential 
agent  of  John  IV.  The  relations  between  the  Jesuits 
and  the  Inquisition  had  never  been  cordial,  and  the 
tribunal,  aware  of  Vieira's  sympathy  for  the  converted 
Jews,  and  anxious  to  humble  the  Society,  condemned 
certain  propositions  taken  from  his  writings,  sen- 
tenced him  to  seclusion  in  a  college,  and  deprived  him 
of  the  right  to  preach.  Thereupon  Vieira  went  to 
Rome  and  presented  a  memorial  to  the  pope,  who 
ordered  an  inquiry  into  the  methods  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion and  suspended  it  until  reforms  should  be  intro- 
duced. It  submitted  after  a  struggle,  and,  when 
Innocent  XI  revoked  the  suspension  in  1681,  the 
tribunal  had  to  adopt  a  milder  procedure.  The  gold 
and  diamonds  of  Brazil  enabled  John  V  (1706-50) 
to  imitate  Louis  XIV  in  magnificence.  To  licentious 
habits  he  united  a  taste  for  ecclesiastical  pomp. 
He  displayed  his  piety  by  building  an  enormous  pile, 
church,  monastery,  and  palace  in  one,  at  Mafra,  by 
providing  the  large  sums  required  in  connexion  with 
the  canonization  of  various  saints,  and  by  obtaining 
from  the  pope  the  elevation  of  the  Archbishopric  of 
Lisbon  to  the  dignity  of  a  patriarchate,  together  with 
the  title,  for  himself  and  his  successors,  of  "Most 
Faithful  Majesty"  Except  in  the  case  of  the  Lis- 
bon aqueduct,  the  country  reaped  small  benefit  from 
the  vast  sums  expended  by  the  artistic,  pleasure- 
loving  monarch;  and  if  rehgion  was  outwardly 
honoured,  the  bad  example  set  by  John  helped  to 
lower  the  already  impaired  national  standard  of 
morals.  The  nobility  had  by  this  time  ceased  to 
visit  their  estates  and  degenerated  into  a  race  of  mere 
courtiers.  The  interests  of  the  common  people  were 
neglected  by  the  Government,  almost  their  only 
friend.s  being  the  religious  orders.  At  the  pope's 
bidding,  John  sent  a  fleet  against  the  Turks  which 
helped  to  win  the  battle  of  Matapan  in  1717. 

The  reign  of  Joseph  (1750-77)  is  made  famous  by 
the  administration  of  the  Marquess  of  Pombal,  the 
real  ruler  of  Portugal  for  over  twenty  years.  The 
energy  he  displayed  at  the  time  of  the  great  earth- 
quake of  1755  confirmed  his  hold  over  the  king,  and 
with  royal  support  he  was  able  to  use  the  alleged 
"Tavora  Conspiracy"  to  humble  the  nobility  and  to 
continue  the  campaign  he  was  directing  against  the 
Jesuits,  whom  he  was  determined  to  master.  His 
accusations  against  them  of  seditious  conduct  in  the 
missions  and  of  illicit  trading  were  merely  pretexts. 
He  had  already  dismissed  them  from  Court,  delated 
them  to  Rome  and  secured  the  appointment  of  a 
friend  of  his.  Cardinal  Saldanha,  as  their  reformer, 
and  when  an  attempt  was  made  on  the  king's  life 
he  attributed  it  to  Jesuit  machinations,  confiscated 
the  property  of  the  company  in  the  Portuguese 
dominions  and  expelled  the  Portuguese  Jesuits,  re- 
taining the  foreigners  in  prison.     The  pope  had  re- 


fused to  incriminate  the  whole  company  for  the  faults 
of  individuals,  and  Pombal's  reply  was  to  dismiss  the 
nuncio  and  break  off  relations  with  Rome.  Hence- 
forth the  real  head  of  the  Church  in  Portugal  was  the 
Minister.  He  heaped  ignominy  on  the  Jesuits  by 
securing  the  burning  of  Father  Malagrida  by  the 
Inquisition,  and  his  work  was  completed  when,  under 
pressure  from  the  Catholic  Powers,  Clement  XIV  sup- 
pressed the  Society  in  1773.  Pombal's  ruin  of  the 
Foreign  Alissions  was  perhaps  his  greatest  crime  and 
was  by  no  means  compensated  for  by  his  abolition 
of  slavery  and  of  the  distinction  between  old  and  new 
Christians.  He  undoubtedly  made  great  and  neces- 
sary reforms  in  internal  administration  and  freed 
Portugal  for  the  time  from  its  subservience  to  England, 
but  his  commercial  policy  was  a  failure,  and  the  harm 
he  did  far  outweighed  the  good.  Above  all  he  forged 
those  fetters  for  the  Church  which  still  paralyse  her 
action. 

The  death  of  Joseph  brought  about  the  fall  of  the 
minister,  but  the  new  sovereigns  Pedro  and  Maria 
(1777-1816),  while  opening  the  prisons  which  Pombal 
had  filled  with  his  opponents,  left  much  of  his  work 
untouched.  The  king  died  early,  the  queen  lost  her 
reason,  and  their  son  John,  a  sympathetic  but  weak 
man,  was  named  regent.  French  ideas — those  of  the 
Encyclopedists  and  of  the  Revolution — were  kept 
out  of  the  country  as  long  as  possible,  but  the  am- 
bition of  Napoleon  gave  little  hope  of  security  to  a 
small  kingdom  which  was  regarded  as  the  dependent 
of  England.  The  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  divided 
the  country  between  France  and  Spain;  the  famous 
proclamation  was  issued,  stating  that  the  House  of 
Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign,  and  Junot  with  a 
French  army  occupied  Lisbon  in  1807.  The  royal 
family  fled  to  Brazil,  and  Portugal  was  governed  from 
there  until  1820.  Queen  Maria  died  at  the  close  of 
the  Peninsular  War,  which  led  to  the  overthrow  of 
the  Napoleonic  power,  and  John  VI  (1816-26)  came 
to  the  throne.  The  Revolution  of  1820  forced  him 
to  return  home,  and  he  had  to  accept  a  constitution 
of  a  most  radical  character,  for  which  the  country  was 
entirely  unfitted.  One  calamity  succeeded  another. 
The  opening  of  the  ports  of  Brazil  to  foreign  ships 
ruined  Portuguese  commerce,  the  separation  of  the 
colony  diminished  the  prestige  of  the  mother  coun- 
try, which  was  reduced  to  a  miserable  plight  by  the 
long  war,  and  internal  feuds  were  added  to  external 
troubles.  On  the  death  of  John,  his  son  Pedro  IV 
gave  a  new  constitution,  called  "the  Charter",  and 
then  resigned  the  throne  in  favour  of  his  infant 
daughter  Maria  II,  naming  his  brother  Miguel  re- 
gent. The  Conservatives,  or  Absolutist  Party,  how- 
ever, who  hated  the  Charter  as  the  work  of  Liberals 
and  Freemasons,  desired  him  as  king,  and  he  sum- 
moned a  Cortes  of  the  old  type  which  placed  him  on 
the  throne  in  1828.  The  Radicals  and  Chartists 
at  once  organized  resistance  to  what  they  called  the 
usurpation  and,  after  a  long  ci-\al  war,  were  successful. 
By  the  Convention  of  Evora  Monte,  Miguel  had  to 
abandon  his  claims  and  leave  the  country.  The 
victorious  Liberals  initiated  an  era  of  persecution 
and  robbery  of  the  Church,  the  effects  of  which  are 
still  felt.  The  religious  orders  were  the  first  to  go. 
The  orders  of  men  were  suppressed,  and  their  prop- 
erty confiscated,  nominally  to  enrich  the  treasury, 
but  private  individuals  reaped  the  benefit.  The 
orders  of  women  were  allowed  to  die  out,  further 
professions  being  prohibited.  The  people,  deprived 
of  the  monks  and  friars,  who  were  their  teachers, 
preachers,  and  confessors,  gradually  lost  their  knowl- 
edge of  religious  truths,  because  the  secular  clergy 
were  unprepared  to  take  the  place  of  the  orders; 
besides  which,  the  bishops  and  clergy  were  bound 
hand  and  foot  to  the  State. 

The  last  half-century  of  the  Portuguese  Monarchy, 
embracing  the  reigns  of  Pedro  V  (1853-61),  Louis 


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I  (1861-89),  and  Charles  I  (1889-1908),  was  one  of 
internal  peace  and  increasing  material  prosperity. 
But  only  in  the  last  iv.w  years  have  Portuguese 
Catholics  begun  to  emerge  from  a  state  of  lethargy. 
Modern  Portuguese  statesmen,  usually  Catholic  only 
in  name,  have  interestc^l  themselves  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs  to  preserve  old  privileges,  such  as  the  Pudniiulo 
in  the  East,  but  hardly  {'\-er  to  assisi-  the  Church  in 
the  performance  of  her  Divine  mission.  The  Con- 
cordat of  1S,S()  reguUUed  many  of  the  questions  in 
dispute  with  the  State  and  Hintze  Ribeiro's  decree 
of  1896  authorized  the  existence  of  religious  orders 
under  certain  conditions.  The  prospect  of  better 
conditions  for  the  Church  vanished,  however,  with 
the  coming  of  the  Revolution  in  1910,  which  drove 
the  Braganza  dynasty  from  the  throne,  and  delivered 
Portugal  into  the  hands  of  the  Radicals,  whose 
hostility  to  the  Catholic  religion  was  made  evident 
by  the  ad\'erse  course  of  the  Provisional  Government 
set  up  by  the  Revolutionists.  On  1  February,  1908, 
King  Charles  and  the  Crown  Prince  were  assassinated 
in  the  streets  of  Lisbon.  The  murder  was  perpe- 
trated by  a  man  named  Buica  and  several  associates, 
and  was  applauded  by  the  Republican  press.  The 
succession  devolved  on  the  second  son,  who  ascended 
the  throne  as  Emanuel  II.  His  reign  was,  however, 
brief.  On  3  October,  1910,  a  revolution,  which  had 
been  arranged  for  10  October,  broke  out  prematurely, 
and  Emanuel  fled  from  the  capital  to  Gibraltar,  where 
he  shortly  afterwards  embarked  for  England.  A 
provisional  government,  republican  in  form,  was  pro- 
claimed, ■s\'ith  Theophilus  Braga,  a  native  of  the 
Azores,  as  President.  He  immediately  set  to  work 
to  carry  out  the  radical  measures  of  the  republican 
programme,  the  first  of  which  was  the  summary  and 
violent  expulsion  of  the  religious  congregations,  the 
seizure  of  their  property  by  the  State,  the  abolition 
of  the  Senate  and  all  hereditary  privileges  and  titles. 
The  separation  of  Church  and  State  was  also  arbi- 
trarily decreed  by  the  provisional  government. 

On  20  April,  1911,  a  second  decree,  in  196  articles, 
was  promulgated,  regulating  in  detail  the  previously 
sweeping  enactments.  Article  38  of  this  decree  pro- 
hibits any  minister  of  religion,  under  the  penalties 
of  article  137  of  the  Criminal  Code  and  the  loss  of  the 
material  benefits  (pensions)  of  the  State,  from  criti- 
cizing "in  the  exercise  of  his  ministry  and  on  the 
occasion  of  any  act  of  worship,  in  sermons  or  in 
public  writings,  the  public  authority  or  any  of  its 
acts,  or  the  form  of  the  government  or  the  laws  of  the 
Republic,  or  denying  or  calling  into  question  the  rights 
of  the  State  embodied  in  this  decree  or  in  other 
legislation  relative  to  the  Churches"  Chapter  iv 
devotes  twenty-seven  articles  to  the  ownership  and 
administration  of  church  buildings  and  property. 
Churches,  chapels,  lands,  and  chattels,  hitherto  ap- 
plied to  the  pubUc  worship  of  the  CathoUo  religion 
are  declared  property  of  the  State,  unless  bona  fide 
ownership  by  some  private  individual  or  corpora- 
tion can  be  proved.  Chapter  v,  in  twenty-four 
articles,  provides  for  boards  of  laymen  (after  the  man- 
ner of  the  French  Law  of  Associations)  to  take  charge 
of  and  administer  the  temporalities  needed  for  Catho- 
lic worship.  This  arrangement  is,  however,  revo- 
cable at  the  pleasure  of  the  grantor  (the  State). 
Buildings  intended  for  religious  purposes,  but  not 
yet  utilized,  whether  in  course  of  construction  or 
completed;  buildings  which  for  a  year  have  not  been 
used  for  religious  purposes  and  such  as  by  31  Decem- 
ber, 1912,  shall  have  no  board  of  laymen  to  adminis- 
ter them,  shall  be  taken  by  the  State  for  some  social 
purpose.  Only  Portuguese  citizens  who  have  inade 
their  theological  studies  in  Portugal  may  officiate. 
Chapter  vi  deals  with  the  question  of  pensions  for 
the  ministers  of  the  Cathohc  religion,  and  permits 
them  to  marry.  Article  175,  chapter  vii,  stipulates 
that  "ministers  of  religion  enjoy  no  privileges  and 
XII.— 20 


are  authorized  to  correspond  officially  by  mail 
with  the  public  authorities  only,  and  not  with  one 
another" 

A  Constituent  Assembly,  elected  early  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1911,  on  19  June  of  that  year  formally  decreed 
the  abolition  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy. 

III.  Actual  Conditions. — A.  Ecclesiastical  Or- 
ganization.— By  the  Constitutional  Charter  Catholi- 
cism was,  prior  to  the  Republic,  the  religion  of  the 
State,  but  all  other  religions  were  tolerated,  so  long 
as  they  were  not  practised  in  a  building  having  the 
exterior  form  of  a  church.  Continental  Portugal 
is  divided  ecclesiastically  into  three  metropolitan 
provinces,  containing  twelve  dioceses  (nine  suffragan). 
The  Patriarchate  of  Lisbon  has  for  suffragan  sees 
Guarda  and  Portalegre;  the  Archbishopric  of  Braga 
has  those  of  Braganca,  Lamego,  Coimbra,  Oporto, 
and  Vizeu;  the  Archbishopric  of  Evora,  those  of 
Beja  and  Faro.  The  Patriarch  of  Lisbon  is  con- 
sidered to  be  entitled  to  a  cardinal's  hat,  and  the 
archbishop  of  Braga  bears  the  title  of  "Primate  of 
the  Spains",  an  honour  which,  however,  is  dis- 
puted by  Toledo.  The  Azores  and  Madeira  each 
contain  an  episcopal  see  and  the  colonial  sees  include 
those  of  Cape  Verde,  Angola,  Goa  (a  patriarchate), 
Damao,  Cochin,  Mylapur,  Macao,  Mozambique,  and 
St.  Thomas  (S.  Thom^). 

According  to  the  Concordat  of  1886,  bishops  were 
nominated  by  the  Government,  appointed  by  the 
pope,  and  paid  by  the  State.  Parish  priests  were 
appointed  by  the  minister  of  justice,  after  informa- 
tion as  to  their  fitness  supplied  by  the  bishops,  so 
that  they  were  State  functionaries,  and  often  owed 
their  positions  to  political  influence.  To  qualify 
for  any  ecclesiastical  post,  they  had  to  obtain  a  govern- 
ment license  before  taking  orders.  In  the  Islands  the 
parish  priests  were  paid  by  the  State,  but  on  the  Con- 
tinent their  income  was  derived  partly  from  a  fund 
called  Congrua,  which  consisted  of  contributions 
levied  on  the  parishioners,  and  partly  from  stole  fees. 
There  were  twelve  seminaries  for  the  education  of 
the  clergy  on  the  Continent,  two  in  the  Islands,  and 
four  in  other  colonies.  There  is  also  a  Portu- 
guese College  in  Rome  and  one  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sionaries in  Portugal.  The  seminaries  were  sup- 
ported partly  by  their  own  funds  and  partly  by  the 
Junta  Geral  da  Bulla  da  Cruzada,  an  ancient  in- 
stitution which  derived  its  income  from  offerings 
made  for  dispensations,  etc.  The  clergy  were  exempt 
from  military  and  jury  service,  and  were  ineligible 
for  any  administrative  position,  except  the  Parish 
Council  (Junta  da  Parochia),  of  which  the  parish 
priest  is  the  president.  These  councils  administered 
the  property  of  the  parish  church  and  taxed  the 
parishioners  for  the  construction  and  repair  of  church 
and  presbytery,  the  expenses  of  worship,  church  orna- 
ments and  vestments,  etc.  The  confrarias  and 
irmandades,  which  numbered  about  9000,  were  in- 
dependent bodies,  ruled  by  their  own  statutes. 

B.  Religious  Orders. — How  the  Jesuits  were  ex- 
pelled by  Pombal,  and  how,  in  1834,  the  religious 
orders  of  men  were  suppressed  and  their  property 
seized  by  the  State,  has  been  told  above.  At  the 
same  time  the  orders  of  women  were  prohibited  from 
taking  novices  and  were  allowed  to  die  out,  after 
which  their  convents  also  passed  to  the  State,  but 
by  the  Decree  of  18  April,  1901,  religious  congrega- 
tions were  permitted  to  exist  when  they  were  dedi- 
cated exclusively  to  instruction  or  good  works,  or  to 
spreading  Christianity  and  civilization  in  the  colonies. 
Long  before  this  decree,  the  Jesuits  had  returned  and 
opened  colleges  for  the  education  of  youth,  and  a, 
number  of  orders  and  religious  institutes  were  even- 
tually established  in  Portugal.  These  included 
Missionaries  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Benedictines, 
Franciscans,  Irish  Dominicans,  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Poor,  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.   Dominic, 


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Franciscan  Sisters,  Servite  Sisters,  Dorotheans, 
Sisters  of  the  Missions,  Salesians,  Sisters  of  St. 
John  of  God,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  Marist 
Sisters,  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  Por- 
tuguese Sisters  of  Charity  (Trinas). 

C  Statistics  of  Population. — The  population  of 
Portugal,  according  to  the  census  of  1900,  was 
6,42.3,132,  the  greater  portion  ((is  per  cent)  being 
rural.     The  North  is  more  thickly  populated  than 


Cloister  of  the  Hieronymite  Monvstery,  Belem 

the  South,  the  maximum  of  density  being  reached 
between  the  rivers  Douro  and  Ave.  Emigration  is 
increasing.  In  1907,  4.5,000  individuals  left  their 
homes,  24,000  of  these  for  Brazil  and  6000  for  North 
America. 

D.  Education. — The  first  modern  law  providing 
for  the  general  instruction  of  the  people  was  that  of 
the  Marquess  of  Pombal,  dated  6  November,  1772. 
But  this  law  remained  a  dead  letter,  and,  though  the 
Constitutional  Charter  guaranteed  free  primary 
instruction  to  all  citizens,  and  a  multitude  of  statutes 
dealing  with  the  question  have  been  subsequently 
passed,  at  least  70  per  cent  of  the  population  can 
neither  read  nor  write.  The  direction  of  primary 
education  was  formerly  exercised  by  the  University 
of  Coimbra,  but  it  now  belongs  to  the  Home  Office, 
the  cost  being  borne  partly  by  the  Concelhos,  partly 
by  the  State.  At  the  end  of  1904  there  were  4968 
primary  schools  on  the  Continent  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  295.3  being  for  boys,  1549  for  girls  and  466 
mi.xed,  but  some  of  these  only  exist  on  paper,  and 
some  hundreds  of  parishes  have  no  school.  More- 
over, the  conditions  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  schools 
are  not  good,  while  the  teachers  are  ill-prepared  and 
ill-paid.  The  backward  condition  of  Portugal  is 
largely  attributable  to  its  lack  of  instruction,  and  in 
view  of  the  want  of  interest  shown  by  the  Govern- 
ment in  non-political  questions,  private  societies 
are  endeavouring  to  apply  the  remedy.    Among  these 


are  the  Moveable  Schools  which  teach  according  to 
the  methods  of  the  poet  Joao  de  Deus,  the  recently 
formed  National  League  of  Instruction  and  other 
bodies,  most  of  which  are  Freethinking  in  character. 
Before  the  Revolution  the  RepubUcans  had  identified 
themselves  with  a  movement  for  lay-teaching,  and 
their  various  centres  had  free  schools  attached,  for 
the  instruction  of  the  children  of  their  members. 

Secondary  instruction  is  given  in  the  lyceos,  which 
are  found  in  all  the  principal  towns,  and  in  technical 
schools;  but  the  boys  of  the  better  classes,  prior  to  the 
Republic,  were  largely  confided  to  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  the  girls  to  one  of  the  many  educational 
convents  which  then  existed.  There  are  also  many 
private  schools,  some  conducted  by  foreigners,  where 
an  ordinary  business  education  can  be  had.  The 
religious  instruction  of  the  people  was  far  from  satis- 
factory, and  since  the  advent  of  the  Republic  is  less 
so.  Catechism  used  to  be  included  in  the  curriculum 
of  the  government  primary  schools,  but  under  the 
Republican  regime  is  altogether  excluded.  There  is 
no  religious  teaching  in  the  lyceos,  which  are  day 
schools,  without  proper  discipUne  or  any  attempt  at 
the  formation  of  character.  Higher  education  is 
given  in  the  University  of  Coimbra  (with  about  1450 
students)  and  in  various  establishments  of  a  special 
character,  such  as  the  Curso  Superior  das  Letras, 
the  Medical,  Army,  Navy,  and  Polytechnic  Schools, 
in  Lisbon  and  Oporto.  The  university  has  a.  theo- 
logical faculty,  with  but  very  few  students,  owing  to 
its  unorthodox  character.  Ignorance  of  religion 
and  of  church  history,  and  the  reading  of  bad  litera- 
ture go  far  to  explain  the  anti-clerical  feeling  which 
prevails  among  the  people  generally  in  the  towns, 
and  especially  in  the  capital.  The  Press  is  intel- 
lectually of  little  account,  and  its  moral  tone  is  low, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  Republican  organs, 
some  of  the  most  circulated  of  which  are  not  fit  for 
perusal  by  women.  The  Catholic  organs,  "Portu- 
gal" of  Lisbon  and  "Palavra"  of  Oporto,  before 
they  were  suppressed  by  the  Republic,  enjoyed  an 
increasing  circulation,  but  an  avowedly  religious 
paper  is  suspected  by  the  great  majority  of  educated 
Catholics,  who  fear  to  be  dubbed  reactionary.  It  is 
the  commonest  ambition  to  be  considered  Liberal, 
though  the  word  is  a  misnomer  in  Portugal,  where 
it  stands  for  many  ideas  and  aspirations  essentially 
illiberal.  The  Republicans,  though  many  of  them 
profess  Catholicism,  have  always  been  an  anti- 
clerical party.  They  claim  to  defend  the  native 
secular  clergy  against  religious  orders  who  are  mostly 
composed  of  foreigners,  and  especially  against  the 
Jesuits.  They  generally  favour  civil  marriage,  a 
divorce  law,  the  abolition  of  religious  processions  in 
the  streets  etc.  The  Socialists  go  further  and  are 
frankly  godless. 

D.  Laws  Affecting  Religion. — Previous  to  the  Revo- 
lution of  1910,  a  testator  might  only  dispose  freely 
of  a  third  part  of  his  property  by  will;  this  is 
called  the  terfa.  The  remaining  two-thirds  go  to 
form  the  legitima  of  his  heirs  in  the  ascending  and 
descending  line.  A  testator  may  not  bequeath  more 
than  a  third  of  his  terga  to  be  spent  in  prayers  and 
masses  for  his  soul,  and  ecclesiastical  corporations 
may  not  benefit  under  his  will  to  an  amount  ex- 
ceeding the  third  of  his  ieria.  The  testamentary  dis- 
positions of  a  sick  person  in  favour  of  his  confessor, 
except  such  as  are  merely  remunerative,  are  void  if 
he  dies  of  the  illness  during  which  he  has  made  them. 
Professed  religious  women  cannot  make  wills  until 
they  become  secularized  or  their  communities  are 
suppressed,  nor  can  they  acquire  anything  by  will, 
except  by  way  of  aliment,  or  money  legacy,  or  other 
moveables.  The  Civil  Code  makes  no  mention  of 
men  bound  by  religious  vows,  because  the  law  does 
not  know  them. 

There  was,  under  the  Monarchy,  no  divorce  law 


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in  Portugal,  but  a  marriage  could  be  declared  null  for 
reasons  allowed  by  the  Church.  The  canonical  im- 
pediments were  recognized  by  the  Code.  Civil  mar- 
riage and  interment  were  permitted,  but  made  small 
headway,  and  the  parish  registers  continued  to  be 
almost  universally  used,  though  there  was  a  civil 
register  of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths.  The  courts 
could  decree  separation  of  persons  and  goods  (1) 
in  case  of  adultery  by  the  wife,  (2)  in  case  of  adultery 
and  desertion  by  the  husband,  or  public  scandal; 
(3)  when  one  of  the  parties  was  condemned  to  a  life 
penalty,  or  (4)  when  one  of  the  parties  had  been 
guilty  of  outrageous  cruelty  to  the  other.  Children 
born  out  of  wedlock  were  legitimated  by  the  subse- 
quent marriage  of  their  parents,  when  the  latter 
formally  recognized  them,  or  when  the  children  them- 
selves obtained  a  judicial  sentence  in  their  favour. 

Cemeteries  were  pro\'ided  and  controlled  by  the 
municipahties  in  the  chief  places  of  each  district. 
Outside  of  these,  they  were  established  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  parishioners  by  the  parish  council,  to 
which  they  belonged.  The  death  penalty  has  long 
been  abolished  in  Portugal,  which  may  account  in 
part  for  the  large  number  of  murders.  Criminals 
sentenced  to  long  terms  of  imprisonment  were  sent 
to  the  Penitenciaria  in  Lisbon  and  there  are  casas 
de  correcgao,  or  reformatories,  for  small  boys  and 
girls.  Good  Shepherd  homes  for  fallen  women  ex- 
isted at  Lisbon  and  Oporto,  but  were  suppressed  by 
the  Provisional  Government  at  the  time  of  the  Revo- 
lution. Charitable  institutions  abounded,  and  Por- 
tugal had,  under  the  Monarchy,  some  370  Miseri- 
cordias  and  hospitals.  In  the  various  districts  of  Lis- 
bon, the  cozinhas  economicas,  an  institution  founded 
and  largely  supported  by  the  late  Duchess  of  Pal- 
mella,  provided  cheap  meala  for  the  poor,  and  Queen 
Amelia's  crusade  against  tuberculosis  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  free  consulting  hospitals  and  sanatoria 
in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

As  a  result  of  the  encyclicals  of  Leo  XIII  on  Chris- 
tian democracy,  the  movement  for  the  establishment 
of  Catholic  circles  for  workingmen  was  inaugurated 
in  Portugal,  and  these  mutual-aid  societies  existed 
in  the  principal  centres  of  population,  furnished 
education  to  the  workmen  and  their  children,  and 
kept  them  together  by  conferences,  concerts,  and 
excursions.  The  associations  of  Catholic  youth  in 
Lisbon  and  Oporto  also  deserve  mention.  But  the 
sweeping  measures  inaugurated  by  the  Republican 
Government  effected  a  complete  rupture  of  the 
former  relations  between  Church  and  State,  and  the 
status  of  the  various  Catholic  organizations,  aside 
from  the  religious  congregations  (which  were  im- 
mediately dissolved),  has  become  very  uncertain. 

Crawftjrd,  Portugal,  Old  and  New  (London,  18S0);  Idem, 
Round  the  ■  Calendar  in  Portugal  (London,  1890) ;  Stephens, 
Portugal  (London,  1908);  Oliveiea  Martins,  Historia  de 
Portugal,  4th  ed.  (Lisbon,  1894) ;  Idem,  Portugal  Contemporaneo 
(Lisbon,  1881) ;  Hehculano,  Historia  de  Portugal  (Lisbon) ;  De 
SouzA,  Historia  Genealorjicn  da  Casa  Real  Portugueza  (Lisbon, 
1735-48);  De  Almeida,  Hixloria  da  Iqreja  em  Portugal  I  (Coim- 
bra,  1910) ;  De  Andrade,  Portugal  Economico  (Lisbon,  1902) ; 
Da  Co.sta  and  De  Castro,  Le  Portugal  au  point  de  vue  apricole 
(Lisbon,  1900);  Notas  sobre  Portugal  (published  by  the  Rio  de 
Janeiro  National  Exposition  of  1908,  Lisbon,  1908);  Codigo 
Cioil;  Codigo  Administrativo. 

Edgar  Phestage. 

Portuguese  Literature. — The  Portuguese  lan- 
guage was  developed  gradually  _  from  the  lingua 
riistica  spoken  in  the  countries  which  formed  part  of 
the  Roman  Empire  and,  both  in  morphology  and 
syntax,  it  represents  an  organic  transformation _  of 
Latin  without  the  direct  intervention  of  any  foreign 
tongue.  The  sounds,  grammatical  forms,  and  syn- 
tactical t3rpes,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  derived 
from  Latin,  but  the  vocabulary  has  absorbed  a  num- 
ber of  Germanic  and  Arabic  words,  and  a  few  have 
Celtic  or  Iberian  origin.  Before  the  close  of  the  mid- 
dle ages  the  language  threatened  to  become  almost  as 


abbreviated  as  French,  but  learned  writers,  in  their 
passion  for  antiquity,  re-approximated  the  vocabulary 
to  Latin.  The  Renaissance  commenced  a  separation 
between  literary  men  and  the  people,  between  the 
written  and  spoken  tongue,  which  with  some  excep- 
tions lasted  until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Then  the  Romanticists  went  back  to  tradi- 
tion and  drew  on  the  poetry  and  every  day  speech  of 
the  people,  and,  thanks  to  the  writings  of  such  men  as 
Almeida-Garrett  and  Camillo  Castello  Branco,  the 
literary  language  became  national  once  again. 

I.  Early  Verse. — An  indigenous  popular  poetry 
existed  at  the  beginning  of  Portuguese  history,  but  the 
first  literary  activity  came  from  Provence.  It  was 
quickened  by  the  accession  of  King  Alfonso  III,  who 
had  been  educated  in  France,  and  the  productions  of 
his  time  are  preserved  in  the  "Cancioneiro  de  Ajuda", 
the  oldest  collection  of  peninsular  verse.  But  the  most 
brilliant  period  of  Court  poetry,  represented  in  the 
"Cancioneiro  da  Vaticana",  coincided  with  the  reign 
of  King  Denis,  a.  cultivated  man,  who  welcomed 
singers  from  all  parts  and  himself  wrote  a  large  num- 
ber of  erotic  songs,  charming  ballads,  and  pastorals. 
This  thirteenth  century  Court  poetry,  which  deals 
mainly  with  love  and  satire,  is  usually  copied  from 
ProvenQal  models  and  conventional,  but,  where  it  has 
a  popular  form  and  origin,  it  gains  in  sincerity  what  it 
loses  in  culture.  By  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury troubadour  verse  was  practically  dead,  but  the 
names  of  some  few  bards  have  survived,  among  them 
Vasco  Peres  de  Camoens,  ancestor  of  the  great  epic 
poet,  and  Macias  "the  enamoured"  Meanwhile  the 
people  were  elaborating  a  ballad  poetry  of  their  own, 
the  body  of  which  is  known  as  the  Romanceiro.  It 
consists  of  lyrico-narrative  poems  treating  of  war, 
chivalry,  adventure,  religious  legends,  and  the  sea, 
many  of  which  have  great  beauty  and  contain  traces 
of  the  varied  civilizations  which  have  existed  in  the 
peninsula.  When  the  Court  poets  had  exhausted  the 
artifices  of  Provencal  lyricism,  they  imitated  the 
poetry  of  the  people,  giving  it  a  certain  vogue  which 
lastedl  until  the  Classical  Renaissance.  It  was  then 
thrust  into  the  background,  and  though  cultivated  by 
a  few,  it  remained  unknown  to  men  of  letters  until  the 
nineteenth  century,  when  Almeida-Garrett  began  his 
literary  revival  and  collected  folk  poems  from  the 
mouths  of  the  peasantry. 

II.  Early  Prose. — Prose  developed  later  than 
verse  and  first  appeared  in  the  fourteenth  century  in 
the  shape  of  short  chronicles,  lives  of  saints,  and  gen- 
ealogical treatises  called  "Livros  de  Linhagens" 
Portugal  did  not  elaborate  her  own  chansones  de  gestes, 
but  gave  prose  form  to  foreign  medieval  poems  of 
romantic  adventure;  for  example,  the  "History  of  the 
Holy  Grail"  and  "Amadis  of  Gaul"  The  first  three 
books  of  the  latter  probably  received  their  present 
shape  from  Joao  Lobeira,  a  troubadour  of  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  though  this  original  has  been 
lost  and  only  the  Spanish  version  remains.  The 
"  Book  of  jEsop"  also  belongs  to  this  period.  Though 
the  cultivated  taste  of  the  Renaissance  affected  to 
despise  the  medieval  stories,  it  adopted  them  with 
alterations  as  a  homage  to  classical  antiquity.  Hence 
came  the  cycle  of  the  "Palmerins"  and  the  "Chronica 
do  Emperador  Clarimundo  "  of  Joao  de  Barros.  The 
medieval  romance  of  chivalry  gave  place  to  the  pas- 
toral novel,  the  first  example  of  which  is  the  "Sau- 
dades"  of  Bernardim  Ribeiro,  followed  by  the 
"Diana"  of  Jorge  de  Montemor,  which  had  a  nu- 
merous progeny.  Later  in  the  sixteenth  century 
Gongalo  Fernandes  Trancoso,  a  fascinating  story- 
teller, produced  his  "Historias  de  Proveito  e 
Exemplo". 

III.  Fifteenth  Century. — A.  Prose. — A  new 
epoch  in  literature  dates  from  the  Revolution  of 
1383-5.  King  John  wrote  a  book  of  the  chase,  his 
sons.  King  Duarte  and  D.  Pedro,  composed  moral 


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treatises,  and  an  anonymous  scribe  told  with  charming 
naiuele  the  story  of  the  heroic  Xuno  Alvares  Pereira 
in  the  "Chronica  do  Condestavel".  The  line  of 
chroniclers  which  is  one  of  the  boasts  of  Portuguese 
literature  began  with  Fernao  Lopes,  who  compiled  the 
chronicles  of  the  reigns  of  Kings  Pedro,  Fernando,  and 
John  I.  He  combined  a  passion  for  accurate  state- 
ment with  an  especial  talent  for  descriptive  writing 
and  portraiture,  and  with  him  a  new  epoch  dawns. 
Azurara,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  post  of  official 
chronicler,  and  wrote  the  "Chronicle  of  Guinea"  and 
chronicles  of  the  African  wars,  is  an  equally  reliable 
historian,  whose  style  is  marred  by  pedantry  and 
moralizing.  His  successor,  Ruy  de  Pina,  avoids  these 
defects  and,  though  not  an  artist  like  Lopes,  gives  ause- 
f ul  record  of  the  reigns  of  Kings  Duarte,  Alfonso  V,  and 
John  II.  His  history  of  the  latter  monarch  was  appro- 
priated by  the  poet  Garcia  da  Resende,  who  adorned 
it,  adding  many  anecdotes  he  had  learned  during  his 
intimacy  with  John,  and  issued  it  under  his  own  name. 

B.  Poetry. — The  introduction  of  Italian  poetry, 
especially  that  of  Petrarch,  into  the  peninsula  led  to 
a  revival  of  Spanish  verse  which,  owing  to  the  superi- 
ority of  its  cultivators,  dominated  Portugal  throughout 
the  fifteenth  century.  Constable  Dom  Pedro,  friend  of 
Marquis  de  Santillana,  wrote  almost  entirely  in  Cas- 
tilian  and  is  the  first  representative  of  the  Spanish 
influence  which  imported  from  Italy  the  love  of 
allegory  and  reverence  for  classical  antiquity.  The 
court  poetry  of  some  three  hundred  knights  and  gen- 
tlemen of  the  time  of  Alfonso  V  and  John  II  is  con- 
tained in  the  "Cancioneiro  Geral",  compiled  by 
Resende  and  inspired  by  Juan  de  Mena,  Jorge 
Manrique,  and  other  Spaniards.  The  subjects  of 
these  mostly  artificial  verses  are  love  and  satire. 
Among  the  few  that  reveal  special  talent  and  genuine 
poetical  feeling  are  Resende's  lines  on  the  death  of 
D.  Ignez  de  Castro,  the  "Fingimento  de  Amores"  of 
Diogo  Brandao,  and  the  "Coplas"  of  D.  Pedro.  Three 
names  appear  in  the  "Cancioneiro"  which  were  des- 
tined to  create  a  literary  revolution,  those  of  Bernar- 
din  Ribeiro,  Gil  Vicente,  and  Sii  de  Miranda. 

IV.  Early  Sixteenth  Century. — A.  Pastoral 
Poetry. — Portuguese  pastoral  poetry  is  more  natural 
and  sincere  than  that  of  other  nations  because  Ribeiro, 
the  founder  of  the  bucolic  school,  sought  inspiration 
in  the  national  serranilhas,  but  his  eclogues,  despite 
their  feeling  and  rhythmic  harmony,  are  surpassed  by 
the  "Crisfal"  of  Christovao  Falcao.  These  and  the 
eclogues  and  sententious  "Cartas"  of  Sd  de  Miranda 
are  written  in  versos  de  arte  mayor,  and  the  popular 
medida  velha  (as  the  national  metre  was  afterwards 
called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Italian  endecasyllable), 
continued  to  be  used  by  Camoens  in  his  so-called 
minor  works,  by  Bandarra  for  his  prophecies,  and  by 
Gil  Vicente. 

B.  Drama. — Though  Gil  Vicente  did  not  originate 
dramatic  representations,  he  is  the  father  of  the  Por- 
tuguese stage.  Of  his  forty-four  pieces,  fourteen  are 
in  Portuguese,  eleven  in  Castilian,  the  remainder  bi- 
lingual, and  they  consist  of  aulas,  or  devotional  works, 
tragicomedies,  and  farces.  Beginning  in  1502  with 
religious  pieces,  conspicuous  among  them  being  "Auto 
da  Alma"  and  the  famous  trilogy  of  the  "Barcas",  he 
soon  introduces  the  comic  and  satirical  element  by 
way  of  relief  and  for  moral  ends,  and,  before  the  close 
of  his  career  in  1536,  has  arrived  at  pure  comedy,  as  in 
"Ignez  Pereira"  and  the  "Floresta  de  Enganos",  and 
developed  the  study  of  character.  The  plots  are  sim- 
ple, the  dialogue  spirited,  the  lyrics  often  of  finished 
beauty,  and  while  Gil  Vicente  appeared  too  early  to  be 
a  great  dramatist,  his  plays  mirror  to  perfection  the 
types,  customs,  language,  and  daily  hfe  of  all  classes. 
The  playwrights  who  followed  him  had  neither  su- 
perior talents  nor  court  patronage  and,  attacked  by 
the  classical  school  for  their  lack  of  culture  and  by  the 
Inquisition  for  their  grossness,  they  were  reduced  to 


entertaining  the  lower  class  at  country  fairs  and  fes- 
tivals. 

V.  The  Renaissance  produced  a  pleiad  of  dis- 
tinguished poets,  historians,  critics,  antiquaries,  theo- 
logians, and  moralists  which  made  the  sixteenth 
century  a  golden  age. 

A.  Lyric  and  epic  poetry. — Sa  de  Miranda  intro- 
duced Italian  forms  of  verse  and  raised  the  tone  of 
poetry.  He  was  followed  by  Antonio  Ferreira,  a 
superior  stylist,  by  Diogo  Bernardes,  and  Andrade 
Caminha,  but  the  Quinheniisias  tended  to  lose  spon- 
taneity in  their  imitation  of  classical  models,  though 
the  verse  of  Frei  Agostinho  da  Cruz  is  an  exception. 
The  genius  of  Camoens  (q.  v.)  led  him  to  fuse  the  best 
elements  of  the  Italian  and  popular  muse,  thus  creat- 
ing a  new  poetry.  Imitators  arose  in  the  following 
centuries,  but  most  of  their  epics  are  little  more  than 
chronicles  in 
verse.  They  in- 
clude three  by 
Jeronymo  Corte 
Real,  and  one 
each  by  Pereira 
Brandao,  Fran- 
cisco deAJidrade, 
Rodriguez  Lobo, 
Pereira  de  Cas- 
tro, Sii  de  Men- 
ezes,  and  Garcia 
de  Mascarenhas. 

B.  The  classi- 
cal plays. — Sd 
de  Miranda  en- 
deavoured also 
to  reform  the 
drama  and,  shap- 
ing himself  on 
Italian  models, 
wrote  the  "Es- 
trangeiros  ' '. 
Jorge  Ferreira  de 
Vasconcelloshad 
produced  in  "Eu- 
frosina"  the  first 
prose  play,  but 
the  comedies  of 
Sii  and  Antonio  Ferreira  are  artificial  and  stillborn 
productions,  though  the  latter's  tragedy,  "Ignez  de 
Castro",  if  dramatically  weak,  has  something  of 
Sophocles  in  the  spirit  and  form  of  the  verse. 

C.  Prose. — The  best  prose  work  of  the  sixteenth 
century  is  devoted  to  history  and  travel.  Joao  de 
Barros  in  his  "Decadas",  continued  by  Diogo  do 
Couto,  described  with  mastery  the  deeds  achieved  by 
the  Portuguese  in  the  discovery  and  conquest  of  the 
lands  and  seas  of  the  Orient.  Damiao  de  Goes, 
humanist  and  friend  of  Erasmus,  wrote  with  rare  in- 
dependence on  the  reign  of  King  Manuel  the  Fortu- 
nate. Bishop  Osorio  treated  of  the  same  subject  in 
Latin,  but  his  interesting  "Cartas"  are  in  the  vulgar 
tongue.  Among  others  who  dealt  with  the  East  are 
Castanheda,  Antonio  Galvao,  Caspar  Correia,  Bras 
de  Albuquerque,  Frei  Gaspar  da  Cruz,  and  Frei  Joao 
dos  Santos.  The  chronicles  of  the  kingdom  were  con- 
tinued by  Francisco  de  Andrade  and  Frei  Bernardo  da 
Cruz,  and  Miguel  Leitao  de  Andrade  compiled  an 
interesting  volume  of  "Miscellanea"  The  travel 
literature  of  the  period  is  too  large  for  detailed  men- 
tion: Persia,  Syria,  Abyssinia,  Florida,  and  Brazil 
were  visited  and  described  and  Father  Lucena  com- 
piled a  classic  life  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  but  the 
"Peregrination"  of  Mendes  Pinto,  a  typical  Conquis- 
tador, is  worth  all  the  story  books  put  together  for 
its  extraordinary  adventures  told  in  a  vigorous  style, 
full  of  colour  and  life,  while  the  "Historia  Tragico- 
Maritima",  a  record  of  notable  shipwrecks  between 
1552  and  1604,  has  good  specimens  of  simple  anony- 


JoAO  DE  Barros,  called  the 
Portuguese  Livy 


PORTUGAL 


309 


PORTUGAL 


mous  narrative.  The  dialogues  of  Samuel  Usque,  a 
Lisbon  Jew,  also  deserve  mention.  Religious  sub- 
jects were  usually  treated  in  Latin,  but  among  moral- 
ists who  used  the  vernacular  were  Frei  Heitor  Pinto, 
Bishop  Arraez,  and  Frei  Thome  de  Jesus,  whose 
"Trabalhos  de  Jesus"  has  appeared  in  many  lan- 
guages. 

VL  Seventeenth  Century. — The  general  inferi- 
ority of  seventeenth-century  literature  to  that  of  the 
preceding  age  has  been  charged  to  the  new  royal 
absolutism,  the  Inquisition,  the  Index,  and  the  exag- 
gerated humanism  of  the  Jesuits  who  directed  higher 
education ;  nevertheless,  had  a  man  of  genius  appeared 
he  would  have  overcome  all  obstacles.  In  fact  letters 
shared  in  the  national  tlccline.  The  taint  of  Gon- 
gorism  and  Marinism  attacked  all  the  Seiscentislas,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  "Fenix  Renascida",  and  rhetoric 
conquered  style.  The  Revolution  of  1640  liberated 
Portugal,  but  could  not  undo  the  effects  of  the  sixty 
years'  union  with  Spain.  The  use  of  Spanish  con- 
tinued among  the  upper  class  and  was  preferred  by 
many  authors  who  desired  a  larger  audience.  Spain 
had  given  birth  to  great  writers  for  whom  the  Por- 
tuguese forgot  the 
earlier  ones  of 
their  own  land. 
The  foreign  influ- 
ence was  strong- 
est in  the  drama. 
The  leading  Por- 
tuguese  play- 
wrights wrote  in 
Spanish,  and  in  the 
national  tongue 
only  poor  re- 
ligious pieces  and 
a  witty  comedy 
by  D.  Francisco 
Manuel  de  Mello, 
"Autodo  Fidalgo 
Aprendiz ",  were 
produced.  The 
numerous  Acade- 
mies which  arose 
with  exotic  names  aimed  at  raising  the  level  of  letters, 
but  they  spent  themselves  in  discussing  ridiculous 
theses  and  determined  the  triumph  of  pedantry 
and  bad  taste.  Yet  though  cuUeranismo  and  con- 
ceptismo  infected  nearly  everyone,  the  century  did  not 
lack  its  big  names. 

A.  Lyric  Poetry. — Melodious  verses  relieve  the  dull- 
ness of  the  pastoral  romances  of  Rodriguez  Lobo,  while 
his  "Corte  na  Aldea"  is  a  book  of  varied  interest  in 
elegant  prose.  The  versatile  D.  Francisco  Manuel  de 
Mello,  in  addition  to  his  sonnets  on  moral  subjects, 
wrote  pleasing  imitations  of  popular  romances,  but 
is  at  his  best  in  a  reasoned  but  vehement  "Me- 
morial to  John  IV",  in  the  witty  "  Apologos  Dialogues", 
and  in  the  homely  philosophy  of  the  "Carta  de  Guia 
de  Casados",  prose  classics.  Other  poets  of  the 
period  are  Soror  Violante  do  Ceo,  and  Frei  Jeronymo 
Vahia,  convinced  Gongorists,  Frei  Bernardo  de  Brito 
with  the  "Sylvia  de  Lizardo",  and  the  satirists,  D. 
Thomas  de  Noronha  and  Antonio  Serrao  de  Castro. 

B.  Prose. — The  century  had  a  richer  output  in 
prose  than  in  verse,  and  history,  biography,  sermons, 
and  epistolary  correspondence  all  flourished.  Writers 
on  historical  subjects  were  usually  friars  who  worked 
in  their  cells  and  not,  as  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
travelled  men  and  eye-witnesses  of  the  events  they 
describe.  They  occupied  themselves  largely  with 
questions  of  form  and  are  better  stylists  than  his- 
torians. Among  the  five  contributors  to  the  ponder- 
ous "Monarchia  Lusitana",  only  the  conscientious 
Frei  Antonio  Brandao  fully  realized  the  importance 
of  documentary  evidence.  Frei  Bernardo  de  Brito 
begins  his  work  with  the  creation  and  ends  it  where 


Luiz  DE  Camoens 


he  should  have  begun;  he  constantly  mistakes  legend 
for  fact,  but  was  a  patient  investigator  and  a  vigorous 
narrator.  Frei  Luiz  de  Sousa,  a  famous  stylist, 
worked  up  existing  materials  into  the  classical  hagiog- 
raphy  "Vida  de  D.  Frei  Bertholameu  dos  Martyres" 
and  "Annaes  d'el  Rei  D.  Joao  III".  Manoel  de 
Faria  y  Sousa,  historian  and  arch-commentator  of 
Camoens,  by  a  strange  irony  of  fate  chose  Spanish  as 
his  vehicle,  as  did  Mello  for  his  classic  account  of  the 
Catalonian  War,  while  Jacintho  Freire  de  Andrade 
told  in  grandiloquent  language  the  story  of  the  justice- 
loving  viceroy,  D.  Joao  de  Castro. 

Ecclesiastical  eloquence  was  at  its  best  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  the  pulpit  filled  the  place  of  the 
press  of  to-day.  The  originality  and  imaginative 
power  of  his  sermons  are  said  to  have  won  for  Father 
Antonio  Vieira  in  Rome  the  title  of  "Prince  of  Cath- 
olic Orators"  and  though  they  and  his  letters  exhibit 
some  of  the  prevailing  faults  of  taste,  he  is  none  the 
less  great  both  in  ideas  and  expression.  The  dis- 
courses and  devotional  treatises  of  the  Oratorian 
Manuel  Bernardes,  who  was  a  recluse,  have  a  calm 
and  sweetness  that  we  miss  in  the  writings  of  a  man 
of  action  like  Vieira  and,  while  equally  rich,  are  purer 
models  of  classic  Portuguese  prose.  He  is  at  his  best 
in  "Luz  e  Calor"  and  the  "Nova  Floresta".  Letter 
writing  is  represented  by  such  master  hands  as  D. 
Francisco  Manuel  de  Mello  in  familiar  epistles,  Frei 
Antonio  das  Chargas  in  spiritual,  and  by  five  short 
but  eloquent  documents  of  human  affection,  the 
"Cartas  de  Marianna  Alcoforada". 

VIII.  Eighteenth  Century. — Affectation  contin- 
ued to  mark  the  literature  of  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  but  signs  of  a  change  gradually 
appeared  and  ended  in  that  complete  literary  refor- 
mation known  as  the  Romantic  Movement.  Distin- 
guished men  who  fled  abroad  to  escape  the  prevailing 
despotism  did  much  for  intellectual  progress  by  en- 
couragement and  example.  Verney  criticized  the 
obsolete  educational  methods  and  exposed  the  literary 
and  scientific  decadence  in  the  "Verdadeiro  Methodo 
de  Estudar",  while  the  various  Academies  and 
Arcadias,  wiser  than  their  predecessors,  worked  for 
purity  of  style  and  diction,  and  translated  the  best 
foreign  classics. 

A.  The  Academies. — The  Academy  of  History, 
established  by  John  V  in  1720  in  imitation  of  the 
French  Academy,  published  fifteen  volumes  of  learned 
"Memoirs"  and  laid  the  foundations  for  a  critical 
study  of  the  annals  of  Portugal,  among  its  members 
being  Caetano  de  Sousa,  author  of  the  voluminous 
"Historia  da  Casa  Real",  and  the  bibliographer 
Barbosa  Machado.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences, 
founded  in  1780,  continued  the  work  and  placed 
literary  criticism  on  a  sounder  basis,  but  the  principal 
exponents  of  belles-lettres  belonged  to  the  Arcadias. 

B.  The  Arcadias. — Of  these  the  most  important 
was  the  Arcadia  Ulisiponense  established  in  1756 
by  the  poet  Cruz  e  Silva — "to  form  a  school  of  good 
example  in  eloquence  and  poetry" — and  it  included 
the  most  considered  writers  of  the  time.  Gargao 
composed  the  "Cantata  de  Dido",  a  classic  gem,  and 
many  excellent  sonnets,  odes,  and  epistles.  The 
bucolic  verse  of  Quita  has  the  tenderness  and  sim- 
plicity of  that  of  Bernardin  Ribeiro,  while  in  the 
mock-heroic  poem,  "Hyssope",  Cruz  e  Silva  satirizes 
ecclesiastical  jealousies,  local  types,  and  the  prevailing 
gallomania  with  real  humour.  Intestine  disputes  led 
to  the  dissolution  of  the  Arcadia  in  1774,  but  it  had 
done  good  service  by  raising  the  standard  of  taste  and 
introducing  new  poetical  forms.  Unfortunately  its 
adherents  were  too  apt  to  content  themselves  with 
imitating  the  ancient  classics  and  the  Quinhentistas 
and  they  adopted  a  cold,  reasoned  style  of  expression, 
without  emotion  or  colouring.  Their  whole  outlook 
was  painfully  academic.  Many  of  the  Arcadians  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  a  latter-day  Maecenas,  the  Conde 


PORTUGAL 


310 


PORTUGAL 


de  Ericeira,  and  endeavoured  to  nationalize  the 
pseudo-olassioism  which  obtained  in  France.  In  1790 
the  "New  Arcadia"  came  into  being  and  had  in 
Bocage  a  man  who,  under  other  conditions,  might 
have  been  a  great  poet.  His  talent  led  him  to  react 
against  the  general  mediocrity  and  though  he  achieved 
no  sustained  flights,  his  sonnets  vie  with  those  of 
Camoens.  He  was  a  master  of  short  improvised 
lyrics  as  of  satire,  which  he  used  to  effect  in  the  "Pena 
de  Taliao"  against  Agostinho  de  Macedo. 

This  turbulent  priest  constituted  himself  a  literary 
dictator  and  in  "Os  Burros"  surpassed  all  other  bards 
in  invective,  moreover  he  sought  to  supplant  the 
Lusiads  by  a  tasteless  epic,  "Oriente"  He,  how- 
ever, introduced  the  didactic  poem,  his  odes  reach  a 
high  level,  and  his  letters  and  political  pamphlets 
display  learning  and  versatility,  but  his  influence  on 
letters  was  hurtful.  The  only  other  Arcadian  worthy 
of  mention  is  Curvo  Semedo,  but  the  "Dissidents", 
a  name  given  to  those  poets  who  remained  outside 
the  Arcadias,  include  three  men  who  show  indepen- 
dence and  a  sense  of  reality,  Jos6  Anastacio  da  Cunha, 
Nicolao  Tolentino,  and  Francisco  Manoel  de  Nas- 
cimento,  better  known  as  Filinto  Elysio.  The  first 
versified  in  a  philosophic  and  tender  strain,  the  second 
sketched  the  custom  and  follies  of  the  time  in  qiiin- 
tilhas  of  abundant  wit  and  realism,  the  third  spent  a 
long  life  of  exile  in  Paris  in  reviving  the  cult  of  the 
sixteenth- century  poets,  purified  the  language  of 
Gallicisms  and  enriched  it  by  numerous  works, 
original  and  translated.  Though  lacking  imagina- 
tion, his  contos,  or  scenes  of  Portuguese  life,  strike  a 
new  note  of  reahty,  and  his  blank  verse  translation  of 
the  "Martyrs"  of  Chateaubriand  is  a  high  perform- 
ance. Shortly  before  his  death  he  became  a  convert 
to  the  Romantic  Movement,  for  whose  triumph  in  the 
person  of  Almeida-Garrett  he  had  prepared  the  way. 

C.  Brazilian  Poetry. — During  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  colony  of  Brazil  began  to  contribute  to 
Portuguese  letters.  Manoel  da  Costa  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  Petrarchian  sonnets,  Manoel  Ignacio  da  Silva 
Alvarenga  showed  himself  an  ardent  lyricist  and 
cultivator  of  form,  Thomds  Antonio  Gonzaga  became 
famous  by  the  harmonious  verses  of  his  love  poem 
"Marilia  do  Dirceu",  while  the  "Poesias  saoras"  of 
Sousa  Caldas  have  a  certain  mystical  charm  though 
metrically  hard.  In  epic  poetry  the  chief  name  is  that 
of  Basilio  da  Gama,  whose  "Uruguay"  deals  with  the 
struggle  between  the  Portuguese  and  the  Paraguay 
Indians.  It  is  written  in  blank  verse  and  has  some 
notable  episodes.  The  "Caramuru"  of  Santa  Rita 
Durao  begins  with  the  discovery  of  Bahia  and  con- 
tains, in  a  succession  of  pictures,  the  history  of  Brazil. 
The  passages  descriptive  of  native  customs  are  well 
written  and  these  poems  are  superior  to  anything  of 
the  kind  produced  contemporaneously  by  the  mother 
country. 

D.  Prose. — The  prose  writing  of  the  century  is 
mainly  dedicated  to  scientific  subjects,  but  the  letters 
of  Antonio  da  Costa,  Antonio  Ribeiro  Sanohes,  and 
Alexandre  de  Gusmao  have  literary  value  and  those 
of  the  celebrated  Cavalheiro  d'Oliveira,  if  not  so  cor- 
rect, are  even  more  informing. 

E.  Drama. — Though  a  Court  returned  to  Lisbon 
in  1640,  it  preferred,  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  years, 
Italian  opera  and  French  plays  to  vernacular  repre- 
sentations. Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  several 
authors  sprung  from  the  people  vainly  attempted  to 
found  a  national  drama.  Their  pieces  mostly  belong 
to  low  comedy.  The  "Operas  Portuguezas"  of 
Antonio  Jos6  da  Silva,  produced  between  1733  and 
1741,  have  a  real  comic  strength  and  a  certain  original- 
ity, and,  like  those  of  Nicolau  Luiz,  exploit  with  wit 
the  faults  and  foibles  of  the  age.  The  latter  divided 
his  attention  between  heroic  comedies  and  comedies 
de  capa  y  espada  and,  though  wanting  in  ideas  and 
taste,  they  enjoyed  a  long  popularity.     At  the  same 


time  the  Arcadia  endeavoured  to  raise  the  standard 
of  the  stage,  drawing  inspiration  from  the  contem- 
porary French  drama,  but  its  members  lacked 
dramatic  talent  and  achieved  little.  Gargao  wrote 
two  bright  comedies,  Quita  some  stillborn  tragedies, 
and  Manuel  de  Figueredo  compiled  plays  in  prose  and 
verse  on  national  subjects,  which  fill  thirteen  volumes, 
but  he  could  not  create  characters. 

IX.  The  Nineteenth  Century. — A.  Poetry. — 
The  early  nineteenth  century  witnessed  a  literary 
reformation  which  was  commenced  by  Almeida-Gar- 
rett who  had  become  acquainted  with  English  and 
French  Romanticism  in  exile  and  based  his  work  on 
the  national  traditions.  In  the  narrative  poem 
"Camoes"  (1825)  he  broke  with  the  established  rules 
of  composition  and  followed  it  with  "Flores  sem 
Fructo  "  and  a  collection  of  ardent  love  poems  "  Folhas 
Cahidas",  while  the  clear  elegant  prose  of  this  true 
artist  is  seen  in  a  miscellany  of  romance  and  criticism, 
"Viagens  na  minha  terra".  The  poetry  of  the 
austere  Herculano  has  a  religious  or  patriotic  motive 
and  is  reminiscent  of  Lamennais.  The  movement 
initiated  by  Garrett  and  Herculano  became  ultra- 
Romantic  with  Castilho,  a  master  of  metre,  who 
lacked  ideas,  and  the  verses  of  Joao  de  Lemos  and  the 
melancholy  Scares  de  Passos  record  a  limited  range  of 
personal  emotions,  while  their  imitators  voice  senti- 
ments which  they  have  not  felt  deeply  or  at  all. 
Thomas  Ribeiro,  author  of  the  patriotic  poem  "D. 
Jayme",  is  sincere,  but  belongs  to  this  same  school 
which  thought  too  much  of  form  and  melody.  In 
1865  some  young  poets  led  by  Anthero  de  Quental  and 
Theophilo  Braga  rebelled  against  the  domination  over 
letters  which  Castilho  had  assumed,  and,  under  foreign 
influences,  proclaimed  the  alliance  of  philosophy  with 
poetry.  A  fierce  pamphlet  war  heralded  the  down- 
fall of  Castilho  and  poetry  gained  in  breadth  and 
reality,  though  in  many  instances  it  became  non- 
Christian  and  revolutionary.  Quental  produced 
finely  wrought,  pessimistic  sonnets  inspired  by  neo- 
Buddhistic  and  German  agnostic  ideas,  while  Braga, 
a  Positivist,  compiled  an  epic  of  humanity,  the  "  Visao 
dos  Tempos"  Guerra  Junqueiro  is  mainly  ironical 
in  the  "Morte  de  D.  Joao",  in  "Patria"  he  evokes 
and  scourges  the  Braganza  kings  in  some  powerful 
scenes,  and  in  "Os  Simples"  interprets  nature  and 
rural  life  by  the  light  of  a  pantheistic  imagination. 
Gomes  Leal  is  merely  anti-Christian  with  touches  of 
Baudelaire.  Joao  de  Deus  belonged  to  no  school;  an 
idealist,  he  drew  inspiration  from  religion  and  women, 
and  the  earlier  verses  of  the  "Campo  de  Flores"  are 
marked,  now  by  tender  feeling,  now  by  sensuous 
mysticism,  all  very  Portuguese.  Other  true  poets 
are  the  sonneteer  Joao  Penha,  the  Parnassian  Gon- 
galves  Crespo,  and  the  symbolist  Eugenio  de  Castro. 
The  reaction  against  the  use  of  verse  for  the  propa- 
ganda of  radicalism  in  religion  and  politics  has  suc- 
ceeded and  the  most  considered  poets  of  to-day, 
Correa  de  Oliveira  and  Lopes  Vieira,  are  natural 
singers  with  no  extraneous  purpose  to  serve.  They 
owe  much  to  the  "S6"  of  Antonio  Nobre,  a  book  of 
true  race  poetry. 

B.  Drama. — After  producing  some  classical  trag- 
edies, the  best  of  which  is  "Cato",  Garrett  undertook 
the  reform  of  the  stage  on  independent  lines,  though 
he  learnt  something  from  the  Anglo-German  school. 
Anxious  to  found  a  national  drama,  he  chose  subjects 
from  Portuguese  history  and,  beginning  with  "An 
Auto  of  Gil  Vicente",  produced  a  series  of  prose  plays 
which  culminated  in  "Brother  Luiz  de  Sousa",  a 
masterpiece.  His  imitators,  Mendes  Leal  and  Pi- 
nheiro  Chagas,  fell  victims  to  ultra-Romanticism,  but 
Fernando  Caldeira  and  Gervasio  Lobato  wrote  life- 
like and  witty  comedies  and  recently  the  regional 
pieces  of  D.  Joao  da  Camara  have  won  success,  even 
outside  Portugal.  At  the  present  time,  with  the 
historical  and  social  plays  of  Lopes  de  Mendonga, 


PORTUGUESE 


311 


PORTUGUESE 


Julio  Dantas,  Marcellino  Mesquita,  and  Eduardo 
Schwalbach,  drama  is  more  flourishing  than  ever  be- 
fore and  Garrett's  work  has  fructified  fifty  years  after 
his  death. 

C.  The  Novel  is  really  a  creation  of  the  nineteenth 
century  and  it  began  with  historical  romances  in  the 
style  of  Walter  Scott  by  Heroulano,  to  whom  suc- 
ceeded Rebello  da  Silva  with  "A  Mocidade  de  D. 
Joao  V",  Andrade  Corvo,  and  others.  The  romance 
of  manners  is  due  to  the  versatile  Camillo  Castello 
Branco,  a  rich  impressionist  who  describes  to  per- 
fection the  life  of  the  early  part  of  the  century  in 
"Amor  de  Perdi^ao",  "Novellas  do  Minho",  and 
other  books.  Gomes  Coelho  {Julio  Diniz),  a  roman- 
tic ideahst  and  subjective  writer,  is  known  best  by 
"As  Pupillas  do  Snr  Reitor",  but  the  great  creative 
artist  was  E(;a  de  Queiroz,  founder  of  the  Naturalist 
School,  and  author  of  "Primo  Basilio",  "Correspon- 
dencia  de  Fradique  Mendes",  "A  Cidade  e  as  Serras". 
His  characters  live  and  many  of  his  descriptive  and 
satiric  passages  have  become  classical.  Among  the 
lesser  novelists  are  Pinheiro  Chagas,  Amaldo  Gama, 
Luiz  de  Magalhaes,  Teixeirade  Queiroz,  and  Malheiro 
Dias. 

D.  Other  prose. — History  became  a  science  with 
Herculano  whose  "Historia  de  Portugal"  is  also  valu- 
able for  its  sculptural  style  and  Oliveira  Martins 
ranks  high  as  a  painter  of  scenes  and  characters  in 
"Os  Filhos  de  D.  Joao"  and  "Vida  de  Nun'  Alvares". 
A  strong  gift  of  humour  distinguishes  the  "Farpas" 
of  Ramalho  Ortigao,  as  well  as  the  work  of  Fialho 
d'Almeida  and  Juho  Cesar  Machado,  and  literary 
criticism  had  able  exponents  in  Luciano  Cordeiro  and 
Moniz  Barreto.  The  "Panorama"  under  the  editor- 
ship of  Herculano  exercised  a  sound  and  wide  influence 
over  letters,  but  since  that  time  the  press  has  become 
less  and  less  Mterary  and  now  treats  of  little  save 
politics. 

X.  Brazilian  Literature. — The  literature  of  in- 
dependent Brazil  really  began  with  the  Romantic 
Movement,  which  was  introduced  in  1836  by  Domingos 
de  Magalhaes,  whose  "Suspiros  Poeticos"  reveal  the 
influence  of  Lamartine.  This  religious  phase  was 
immediately  followed  by  that  of  Indianism  suggested 
by  Chateaubriand  and  Fenimore  Cooper,  which  had 
its  chief  exponent  in  Gon5alves  Dias,  a  melodious 
lyricist.  Byron  and  Musset  were  the  fathers  of  the 
next  phase  of  Romanticism  and  its  interpreters  in- 
cluded Alvares  de  Azevedo,  the  introducer  of  humour, 
and  Casimiro  de  Abreu,  two  poets  whose  popularity 
has  endured.  Lucindo  Rebello  belongs  to  the  same 
epoch,  but  shows  a  more  spontaneous  inspiration,  and 
the  verse  of  Fagundes  Varella  forms  a  link  with  a  new 
school  in  which  the  ardour  and  humanitarianism  of 
Hugo  inspired  the  patriotic  muse  of  Tobias  Barreto, 
an  objective  poet  of  wide  sympathies,  imagination, 
and  feeling,  and  of  Castro  Alves,  who  sang  the  horrors 
of  slavery  while,  later  still,  Parnassianism  overran 
the  whole  of  poetry. 

Brazil  has  yet  to  produce  drama,  but  in  the  romance 
she  has  acknowledged  masters  in  Jos6  de  Alencar 
whose  "  Guarany  "  and  "  Ira^ema"  are  standard  books, 
and  in  the  psychologist,  Machado  de  Assis.  The  Ro- 
manticists mostly  addressed  themselves  to  the  emo- 
tions rather  than  to  the  intelligence,  but  Machado  de 
Assis  rises  to  a  more  general  conception  of  life,  both  in 
prose  and  verse.  In  "Bras  Cubas"  he  has  the  irony 
of  Sterne,  and  the  pure,  simple  diction  and  distin- 
guished style  of  Garrett,  together  with  a  reserve  rarely 
found  in  a  modem  Latin  writer.  Brazil  has  now 
emancipated  herself  from  mere  imitation  of  foreign 
models  and  her  novelists  and  critics  of  to-day  show 
an  originality  and  strength  which  promises  much  for 
the  future  of  a  literature  still  in  its  youth. 

Prestage,  Portuguese  Literature  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury (London,  1909) ;  Idem,  Portuguese  Literature  in  the  nineteenth 
century  in  Saintsbuby,  Periods  of  European  Literature;  Idem,  The 


Later  Nineteenth  Century  (London,  1907) ;  Silva  and  Aranha, 
Diccionario  Bibliographico  Portuguez  (19  vols.,  Lisbon,  1858- 
1909) ;  Bhaga,  Historia  da  Litteratura  Portugueza  (32  vols., 
Oporto) ;  Rbmedios,  Historia  da  Litteratura  Portugueza  (3rd  ed., 
Coimbra,  1908);  Vasconcellos,  Gesch.  der  Portugieaischen  Lit- 
teratur  in  Gr6beb,  Grundriss  der  Rom.  Philologie  (1893-4) ; 
RoMEHO,  Historia  da  Litteratura  Brasileira  (2  vols.,  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro, 1903). 

Edgar  Prestage. 

Portuguese  East  Africa  consists  of  the  Province 
of  Mozambique.  Portuguese  activity  on  that  coast 
began  in  1505  with  the  foundation  of  the  Captaincy 
of  Sofala,  and  in  1658  a  fortress  was  built  at  Mozam- 
bique, the  port  of  call  for  ships  bound  to  and  from 
India,  and  the  centre  from  which  the  discoverers 
penetrated  into  the  interior,  over-running  the  native 
empire  of  Monomotapa  in  quest  of  gold.  For  cen- 
turies these  territories  were  ruled  from  Goa,  but  in 
1752  they  became  an  independent  government, 
though,  until  recently,  Portuguese  authority  was  al- 
most limited  to  the  coast  lino.  While  much  dimin- 
ished in  size  by  virtue  of  the  Anglo-Portuguese  Treaty 
(11  June,  1891),  which  settled  a  serious  boundary 
quarrel  with  England,  the  province  comprises  1428 
miles  of  coast  line  from  Cape  Delgado  to  the  southern 
limit  of  the  district  of  Louren^o  Marques,  with  a 
superficial  area  of  292,631  square  miles.  The  greater 
part  of  the  sea  coast  is  low  lying,  with  coral  reefs,  sand 
dunes  and  swamps,  and  the  climate  is  hot  and  un- 
healthful,  but  the  hinterland  has  mountainous  dis- 
tricts and  elevated  table  lands  which  are  suitable  for 
European  colonization.  The  mean  annual  temper- 
ature is  high.  The  rainy  season  lasts  from  November 
to  March,  the  cool,  from  April  to  August.  The  prov- 
ince is  served  by  a  number  of  fine  harbours,  including 
Lourengo  Marques,  the  best  in  south-east  Africa, 
which  is  connected  with  the  Transvaal  by  a  railway, 
Beira,  the  outlet  for  the  produce  of  the  Mashona  gold 
fields  and  joined  to  them  by  rail,  Inhambane,  Chinde, 
Quilimane,  Ibo,  and  Mozambique.  Besides  the  river 
Zambesi  and  its  tributaries,  other  large  rivers  give 
communication  to  the  interior,  such  as  the  Incomati 
and  the  Limpopo,  and  Lake  Nyassa,  with  an  area  of 
11,551  square  miles,  is  on  the  frontier  between  Por- 
tuguese and  British  territory.  Mozambique  is  con- 
nected with  Europe  by  several  lines  of  steamers, 
English,  German,  and  Portuguese. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  province  is  divided 
into  the  following  districts,  Mozambique,  Zambezia, 
Tete,  Inhambane,  Lourengo  Marques  and  the  military 
district  of  Gaza,  each  having  a  governor,  while  there 
is  also  a  governor-general  for  the  province  who  resides 
in  Lourengo  Marques.  Major  Freire  de  Andrade, 
the  late  governor-general,  did  much  for  the  progress 
of  the  colony  which  of  late  has  been  rapid.  Its 
commercial  movement  in  1892  was  valued  at  4951 
conlos  de  reis,  but  in  1901  it  had  reached  21,542  cantos, 
and  that  of  the  Port  of  Lourengo  Marques  increased 
tenfold  between  1892  and  1899.  Since  then  the  rate 
of  progress  has  been  well  maintained.  Inland  trade 
is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Indians  (Banyans),  while 
that  of  the  coast  is  done  by  English  houses.  The 
system  of  government  by  chartered  companies,  which 
succeeded  in  neighbouring  British  colonies,  has  been 
tried  here  and  the  Mozambique  and  Nyassa  Com- 
panies have  jurisdiction  over  large  territories,  unde- 
veloped for  lack  of  funds.  It  is  only  recently  that  the 
Portuguese  Government  has  completed  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  province.  Mozambique  is  rich  in  minerals, 
and  among  vegetable  products  sugar  is  raised  in  in- 
creasing quantities,  while  the  extensive  forests  have 
valuable  timber  trees.  The  native  population  is  of 
Bantu  race  and  numbers  about  three  milUons.  The 
whites_  number  only  a  few  thousand.  For  purposes 
of  justice  the  province  is  divided  into  seven  comarcas 
and  the  town  of  Mozambique  has  a  Tribunal  of 
Second  Instance  composed  of  three  judges;  for  eccle- 
siastical purposes  it  has  a  prelacy  with  jurisdiction 


PORTUGUESE 


312 


POSITIVISM 


over  the  city  but  subordinate  to  the  Patriarch  of  the 
East  Indies  at  Goa.  A  force  of  2730  men  of  the  first 
line  form  the  colonial  army  and  the  policing  of  the 
rivers  and  harbours  is  done  by  flotillas  of  gunboats. 
The  custom  houses  are  subordinate  to  that  of  Lou- 
rengo  Marques.  Primary  schools  exist  in  the  principal 
centres,  but  very  little  has  been  done  for  education. 

Maugham,  Portuguese  East  Africa  and  Zambesia  (London, 
1910) ;  Vasconcellos,  As  Colonias  Portuguezas  (2nd  ed.,  Lisbon, 
1903). 

Edgah  Prestagb. 

Portuguese  West  Africa,  the  name  usually  given 
to  the  Province  of  Angola.  It  has  a  coast  line  of 
1015  miles  from  the  Congo  to  the  Cunene  Rivers  and  an 
area  of  490,525  sq.  miles,  including  the  territories  of 
Cabinda,  Molendo,  and  Alassabi,  on  the  coast  north  of 
the  Congo.  These  are  surrounded  by  the  French 
Congo,  while  the  rest  of  the  province  is  bounded  by 
Belgian,  British,  and  German  territory.  The  Congo 
was  first  entered  by  Diego  Cam  in  1484,  who  erected 
a  pillar  in  token  of  occupation,  and  with  him  was 
Martin  Behaim  the  cosmographer.  Ever  since  it  has 
belonged  to  Portugal,  except  for  a  period  of  Dutch 
domination  (1640-48),  the  Hollanders  being  expelled 
by  Admiral  Correa  de  Sd  e  Benevides.  Only  in  recent 
years  has  this  great  territory  been  explored,  and  even 
now  the  whole  of  it  is  not  effectively  occupied,  though 
military  expeditions  from  the  mother-country  have 
conquered  the  most  warhke  tribes,  and  a  chain  of 
fortified  posts  keeps  them  in  subjection.  The  coast  is 
low,  and  a  sandy,  barren  plain  stretches  some  way 
inland;  beyond  this  the  province  is  mountainous  and 
very  fertile.  St.  Paul  de  Loanda,  the  capital,  has  an 
anchorage  ground  of  1700  acres;  Benguella,  Mossa- 
medes,  and  Porto  Alexandre  are  good  ports;  while  the 
only  drawback  to  Lobito,  the  terminus  of  the  new  rail- 
way, is  that  it  lacks  potable  water,  as  does  the  Bahia 
dos  Tigres,  which  could  otherwise  shelter  5000  vessels 
in  its  63,000  acres  of  water,  as  deep  as  117  feet.  The 
province  is  irrigated  by  the  Rivers  Chiloango,  Congo, 
and  Cuanza,  while  the  Zambesi  skirts  its  south-east 
frontier.  The  coast  abounds  in  fish,  and  the  territory 
in  minerals,  such  as  malachite,  iron,  petroleum,  salt, 
lead,  and  sulphur,  but  its  principal  wealth  lies  in  coffee 
(of  which  Loanda  exported  4112  tons  in  1894),  india- 
rubber,  gum,  wax,  and  ivory,  which  are  sent  to  Portu- 
gal and  exchanged  for  cotton  and  woollen  goods  and 
wine.  Formerly  Angola  depended  for  its  prosperity 
almost  entirely  on  the  slave  trade,  and  during  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  many  thousands 
of  natives  were  transported  annually  to  Brazil.  The 
native  population  is  reckoned  at  four  millions;  their 
rehgion  is  Fetichism,  and  they  include  a  great  variety 
of  races.     There  is  only  a  small  proportion  of  whites. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  province  is  divided 
into  six  districts,  and  then  into  concelhos.  Their  names 
are  Congo,  Loanda,  Benguella,  Mossamedes,  Huilla, 
and  Lunda.  The  governor-general  possesses  civil  and 
military  attributes  and  resides  at  Loanda,  whUe  each 
district  has  a  subordinate  governor.  For  purposes  of 
justice  there  are  five  cnmarcas,  each  with  a  judge;  and 
a  tribunal  of  second  instance,  composed  of  five  judges, 
sits  at  Loanda.  Each  comarca  has  a  commercial  tri- 
bunal of  first  instance,  and  each  parish  a  judge  of  the 
people,  appointed  annually.  The  military  establish- 
ment consists  of  an  army  of  3200  men,  partly  Euro- 
pean, partly  native.  For  ecclesiastical  purposes  the 
province  is  subject  to  the  Bishop  of  Loanda,  and  be- 
longs to  the  Lisbon  Province. 

The  Province  of  Guinea,  another  West  African 
possession  of  Portugal,  comprising  4450  sq.  miles,  is 
surrounded  by  French  possessions,  and  its  coast  is  cut 
up  by  innumerable  inlets.  It  is  a  low-lying  and  well- 
watered  territory,  the  chief  rivers  being  the  Cacheo, 
Mansoa,  and  Geba.  The  climate  is  unhealthful  for 
Europeans.  The  soil  is  generally  of  great  fertility,  and 
the  province  is  fit  for  plantations  on  a  large  scale.    Its 


products  are  tobacco,  sugar,  india-rubber,  wax,  and 
leather,  which  are  exported  through  the  commercial 
centres  of  Geba,  Bissau,  Farin,  and  Bolama. 

The  population  numbers  about  67,000  and  belongs 
to  ten  races,  subdivided  into  many  tribes.  There  are 
very  few  whites  resident.  The  country  has  one  con- 
celho,  that  of  Bolama,  the  seat  of  government,  and  is 
divided  otherwise  into  four  military  commands.  It  is 
generally  in  a  state  of  war,  the  natives  being  turbulent. 
A  vicar-general  and  six  missionary  rectors  form  the 
religious  staff  of  the  province,  and  these  latter  are  also 
professors  of  primary  instruction. 

De  Vasconcellos,  As  Colonias  Portuguezas  (2nd  ed.,  Liabon, 
1903);  CoucEiRO,  Angola  (Lisbon,  1910). 

Edgar  Phestage. 

Port  Victoria  (ArsTRAUA).  See  Northern  Ter- 
ritory, Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 

Port  Victoria,  Diocese  of  (Pohtus  Victoria 
Seychellartju),  comprises  the  Seychelles  Islands 
in  the  Indian  Ocean.  With  their  dependencies, 
these  eighty-nine  islands,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Mah6,  Praslin,  Silhouette,  Curieuse,  and  La  Digue, 
cover  an  area  of  1483^  sq.  miles.  The  French  oc- 
cupied the  islands  about  1742,  but  they  were  captured 
by  the  British  in  1794,  and  were  formally  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  in  1848.  Port  Victoria,  the  capital  of 
Mah6  and  situated  on  the  north-eastern  side  of  the 
island,  is  the  seat  of  the  colonial  government,  the 
present  governor  being  Walter  Edward  Davidson, 
C.M.G.  In  December,  1909,  the  estimated  popula- 
tion of  the  islands  was  22,409.  Both  Catholic  and 
Church  of  England  primary  schools  are  aided  by  the 
State.  The  principal  exports  are  vanilla,  cocoa- 
nuts,  cocoa-nut  oil,  tortoise-shell,  soap,  and  guano. 
The  double  cocoa-nut  known  as  Coco  de  Mer  is  grown 
in  Mahe  and  Praslin,  while  Aldabra,  a  dependency 
about  680  miles  from  Mahd,  is  famous  for  enormous 
land  tortoises.  By  a  Papal  Decree  of  26  November, 
1852,  the  Seychelles  were  separated  from  the  Diocese 
of  Port  Louis  and  made  a  prefecture  Apostolic,  to 
which  a  Decree  of  6  December,  1854,  joined  the 
Amirantes  and  Agalega  Islands,  likewise  separated 
from  Port  Louis.  The  first  prefect  Apostolic  was  the 
Right  Reverend  Jeremias  Paglietti,  who  as  a  mission- 
ary had  laboured  successfully  in  the  region  for  many 
years.  In  1863  the  mission  was  confided  to  the 
Capuchins,  and  was  made  a  vicariate  Apostolic  on 
31  Aug.,  1880.  As  the  Diocese  of  Port  Victoria 
(erected  14  July,  1892),  it  was  a  suffragan  of  Colombo, 
Ceylon,  but  by  a  Decree  of  3  June,  1899,  it  became 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  present  bishop 
is  the  Right  Reverend  Bernard  Thomas  Clarke, 
O.M.Cap.  (b.  at  London,  12  November,  1856; 
made  titular  Bishop  of  Tingis,  19  March,  1902,  and 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Arabia).  On  10  June,  1910,  he 
was  transferred  tq  Port  Victoria,  where  he  succeeded 
Bishop  Marc  Hudrisier  (b.  at  Faverges,  France,  27 
July,  1848;  became  Bishop  of  Port  Victoria,  21 
July,  1892;  d.  Feb.,  1910).  Besides  Capuchins 
there  are  in  the  diocese  Marist  Brothers  and  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny.  There  are  18  ecclesiastical 
residences,  18  churches  or  chapels,  1  infirmary,  24 
schools  with  2170  pupils,  2  colleges  with  215  students, 
2  orphanages  with  67  orphans. 

Missiones  Catholicce  (Rome,  1907) ;  Statesman's  Year  Book 
(1911):  Battandier,  Ann.  pant  (Paris,  1911). 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Posen.     See  Gnesen-Posen,  Archdiocese  op. 

Positivism,  a  system  of  philosophical  and  re- 
ligious doctrines  elaborated  by  Auguste  Comte.  As 
a  philosophical  system  or  method.  Positivism  denies 
the  validity  of  metaphysical  speculations,  and  main- 
tains that  the  data  of  sense  experience  are  the  only 
object  and  the  supreme  criterion  of  human  knowl- 
edge; as  a  rehgious  system,  it  denies  the  existence 
of  a  personal  God  and  takes  humanity,  "the  great 


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313 


POSITIVISM 


being",  as  the  object  of  its  veneration  and  cult. 
We  shall  give  a  brief  historical  sketch  of  Positivism, 
an  exposition  of  its  fundamental  principles,  and 
a  criticism  of  them. 

I.  HiSTOEY  OF  Positivism. — The  founder  of  Posi- 
tivism was  Auguste  Comte  (b.  at  Montpellier,  19 
Jan.,  1798;  d.  at  Paris,  5  Sept.,  1857).  He  entered 
the  Ecole  polytechnique  at  Paris  in  1814,  was  i  dis- 
ciple of  Saint-Simon  until  1824,  and  began  to  pubhsh 
his  course  of  philosophy  in  1826.  About  this  period 
he  became  temporarily  deranged  (1826-27).  After 
recovering,  he  was  appointed  instructor  (1832-52) 
and  examiner  in  mathematics  (1S37-44)  at  the 
Ecole  polytechnique,  giving  meanwhile  a  course  of 
pubhc  lectures  on  astronomy.  The  unhappiness  of 
his  married  life  and  his  strange  infatuation  for 
Mme  Clotilde  de  Vaux  (1845-46)  greatly  influenced 
his  naturally  sentimental  character.  He  realized 
that  mere  intellectual  development  is  insufficient  for 
Ufe,  and,  having  presented  Postivism  as  the  scien- 
tific doctrine  and  method,  he  aimed  at  making  it  a 
religion,  the  religion  of  humanity.  Comte's  chief 
works  are  his  "Cours  de  philosophic  positive" 
[6  vols.:  Philosophie  math^matique  (1830),  astrono- 
mique  et  physique  (1835),  chimique  et  biologique 
(1838),  partie  dogmatique  de  la  philosophie  sociale 
(1839),  partie  historique  (1840),  complement  de  la 
philosophie  sociale  et  conclusions  (1842);  translated 
by  Harriet  Martineau  (London,  1853)  ]  and  his 
"Cours  de  politique  positive"  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1815- 
54).  Various  influences  concurred  to  form  Comte's 
system  of  thought:  the  Empiricism  of  Locke  and  the 
Scepticism  of  Hume,  the  Sensism  of  the  eighteenth 
century  and  the  Criticism  of  Kant,  the  Mysticism  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  the  Traditionalism  of  De  Maistre 
and  de  Bonald,  and  the  Philanthropy  of  Saint- 
Simon.  He  maintains  as  a  law  manifested  by  his- 
torj-  that  every  science  passes  through  three  suc- 
cessive stages,  the  theological,  the  metaphysical, 
and  the  positive;  that  the  positive  stage,  which  re- 
jects the  vahdity  of  metaphysical  speculation,  the 
existence  of  final  causes,  and  the  knowableness  of  the 
absolute,  and  confines  itself  to  the  study  of  experi- 
mental facts  and  their  relations,  represents  the  per- 
fection of  human  knowledge.  Classifying  the 
sciences  according  to  their  degree  of  increasing  com- 
plexity, he  reduces  them  to  six  in  the  following  order: 
mathematics,  astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  biology, 
and  sociology.  Religion  has  for  its  object  the  "great 
being"  (humanity),  the  "great  medium"  (world- 
space),  and  the  "great  fetich"  (the  earth),  which 
form  the  positivist  trinity.  This  religion  has  its 
hierarchical  priesthood,  its  positive  dogmas,  its 
organized  cult,  and  even  its  calendar  on  the  model 
of  Catholicism  (cf.  Comte,  "Cat^chisme  positiviste"). 

At  the  death  of  Comte,  a  division  arose  among  the 
Positivists,  the  dissident  group  being  formed  with 
Littre  as  its  leader,  and  the  orthodox  group  under  the 
direction  of  Pierre  Laffitte.  Emile  Littr6  (q.  y.) 
accepted  Positivism  in  its  scientific  aspect:  for  him 
Positivism  was  essentially  a  method,  viz.  that  method 
which  Umits  human  knowledge  to  the  study  of  ex- 
perimental facts  and  neither  affirms  nor  denies  any- 
thing concerning  what  may  exist  outside  of  experience. 
He  rejected  as  unreal  the  religious  organization  and 
cult  of  Positivism.  He  considered  all  religions  from 
the  philosophical  point  of  view,  to  be  equally  vain, 
while  he  confessed  that,  from  the  historical  point  of 
view,  Catholicism  was  superior  to  all  other  religions. 
The  true  end  of  man,  he  maintained,  was  to  work  for 
the  progress  of  humanity  by  studying  it  (science  and 
education),  loving  it  (religion),  beautifying  it  (fine 
arts),  and  enriching  it  (industry).  The  official  suc- 
cessor of  Comte  and  leader  of  the  orthodox  group  of 
Postivists  was  Pierre  Laffitte,  who  became  professor 
of  the  general  history  of  sciences  in  the  College  de 
France  in  1892.     He  maintained  both  the  scientific 


and  the  religious  teaching  of  Positivism  with  its  cult, 
sacraments,  and  ceremonies.  Other  orthodox  groups 
were  formed  in  England  with  Harrison  as  its  leader 
and  Congreve,  Elliot,  Hutton,  Morrison  etc.  as  its 
chief  adherents;  in  Sweden  with  A.  Nystrom.  An 
active  and  influential  group  was  also  founded  in 
Brazil  and  Chile  with  Benjamin  Constant  and  Miguel 
Lemos  as  leaders,  and  a  temple  of  humanity  was  built 
at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1891.  The  principles  of  Positivism 
as  a  philosophical  system  were  accepted  and  applied 
in  England  by  J.  Stuart  Mill,  who  had  been  in  cor- 
respondence with  Comte  (of.  "Lettres  d'Aug.  Comte 
£1  John  Stuart  Mill,  1S41-1844",  Paris,  1877), 
Spencer,  Bain,  Lewes,  Maudsley,  Sully,  Romanes, 
Huxley,  Tyndall  etc.;  in  France  by  Taine,  Ribot, 
de  Roberty  etc.;  in  Germany  by  Diihring,  Avenarius 
etc.  Thus,  the  principles  and  spirit  of  Positivism 
pervaded  the  scientific  and  philosophical  thought  of 
the  nineteenth  century  and  exercised  a  pernicious 
influence  in  every  sphere.  They  had  their  practical 
consequences  in  the  systems  of  positive  or  so-called 
scientific  morality  and  utilitarianism  in  ethics,  of 
neutrality  and  naturalism  in  religion. 

Phinciples  of  Positivism. — The  fundamental 
principle  of  Positivism  is,  as  already  said,  that  sense 
experience  is  the  only  object  of  human  knowledge  as 
well  as  its  sole  and  supreme  criterion.  Hence  ab- 
stract notions  or  general  ideas  are  nothing  more  than 
collective  notions;  judgments  are  mere  empirical 
colligations  of  facts.  Reasoning  includes  induction 
and  the  syllogism:  induction  has  for  its  conclusion 
a  proposition  which  contains  nothing  more  than  the 
collection  of  a  certain  number  of  sense  experiences, 
and  the  syllogism,  taking  this  conclusion  as  its  major 
proposition,  is  necessarily  sterile  or  even  results  in  a 
vicious  circle.  Thus,  according  to  Positivism,  science 
cannot  be,  as  Aristotle  conceived  it,  the  knowledge 
of  things  through  their  ultimate  causes,  since  mate- 
rial and  formal  causes  are  unknowable,  final  causes 
illusions,  and  efficient  causes  simply  invariable  ante- 
cedents, while  metaphysics,  under  any  form,  is  ille- 
gitimate. Positivism  is  thus  a  continuation  of  crude 
Empiricism,  Associationism,  and  Nominalism.  The 
arguments  advanced  by  Positivism,  besides  the  as- 
sertion that  sense  experiences  are  the  only  object 
of  human  knowledge,  are  chiefly  two :  the  first  is  that 
psychological  analysis  shows  that  all  human  knowl- 
edge can  be  ultimately  reduced  to  sense  experiences 
and  empirical  associations;  the  second,  insisted  upon 
by  Comte,  is  historical,  and  is  based  on  his  famous 
"law  of  the  three  stages",  according  to  which  the 
human  mind  in  its  progress  is  supposed  to  have  been 
successively  influenced  by  theological  preoccupations 
and  metaphysical  speculation,  and  to  have  finally 
reached  at  the  present  time  the  positive  stage,  which 
marks,  according  to  Comte,  its  full  and  perfect  de- 
velopment (cf .  "Cours  de  philosophie  positive",  II,  15 
sqq.). 

Criticism.  —  Positivism  asserts  that  sense  expe- 
riences are  the  only  object  of  human  knowledge,  but 
does  not.  prove  its  assertion.  It  is  true  that  all  our 
knowledge  has  its  starting  point  in  sense  experience, 
but  it  is  not  proved  that  knowledge  stops  there. 
Positivism  fails  to  demonstrate  that,  above  particular 
facts  and  contingent  relations,  there  are  not  abstract 
notions,  general  laws,  universal  and  necessary  prin- 
ciples, or  that  we  cannot  know  them.  Nor  does  it 
prove  that  material  and  corporeal  things  constitute 
the  whole  order  of  existing  beings,  and  that  our  knowl- 
edge is  limited  to  them.  Concrete  beings  and  in- 
dividual relations  are  not  only  perceptible  by  our 
senses,  but  they  have  also  their  causes  and  laws  of 
existence  and  constitution;  they  are  intelligible. 
These  causes  and  laws  pass  beyond  the  partioularness 
and  contingency  of  individual  facts,  and  are  elements 
as  fundamentally  real  as  the  individual  facts  which 
they  produce  and  control.     They   cannot  be   per- 


POSITIVISM 


314 


POSITIVISM 


ceived  by  our  senses,  but  why  can  they  not  be  ex- 
plained by  our  inteUigence?  Again,  immaterial 
beings  cannot  be  perceived  by  sense  experience,  it  is 
true,  but  their  existence  is  not  contradictory  to  our 
intelligence,  and,  if  their  existence  is  required  as  a 
cause  and  a  condition  of  the  actual  existence  of  ma- 
terial things,  they  certainly  exist.  We  can  infer  their 
existence  and  know  something  of  their  nature.  They 
cannot  indeed  be  known  in  the  same  way  as  material 
things,  but  this  is  no  reason  for  declaring  them 
unknowable  to  our  intelhgence  (see  Agnosticism; 
Analogy).  According  to  Positivism,  our  abstract 
concepts  or  general  ideas  are  mere  collective  rep- 
resentations of  the  experimental  order — for  example, 
the  idea  of  "man"  is  a  kind  of  blended  image  of  all 
the  men  observed  in  our  experience.  This  is  a  funda- 
mental error.  Every  image  bears  individual  charac- 
ters; an  image  of  man  is  always  an  image  of  a  par- 
ticular man  and  can  represent  only  that  one  man. 
What  is  called  a  collective  image  is  nothing  more 
than  a  collection  of  divers  images  succeeding  one 
another,  each  representing  an  individual  and  concrete 
object,  as  may  be  seen  by  attentive  observation. 
An  idea,  on  the  contrary,  abstracts  from  any  concrete 
determination,  and  may  be  applied  identically  to 
an  indefinite  number  of  objects  of  the  same  class. 
Collective  images  are  more  or  less  confused,  and  are 
the  more  so  as  the  collection  represented  is  larger; 
an  idea  remains  always  clear.  There  are  objects 
which  we  cannot  imagine  (e.  g.  a  myriagon,  a  sub- 
stance, a  principle),  and  which  we  can  nevertheless 
distinctly  conceive.  Nor  is  the  general  idea  a  name 
substituted  as  a  sign  for  all  the  individual  objects  of 
the  same  class,  as  stated  by  Taine  (De  1' Intelligence, 
I,  26).  If  a  certain  perception,  says  Taine,  always 
coincides  with  or  follows  another  perception  (e.  g. 
the  perception  of  smoke  and  that  of  fire,  the  smell 
of  a  sweet  odour  and  the  sight  of  a  rose),  then  the  one 
becomes  the  sign  of  the  other  in  such  a  way  that, 
when  we  perceive  one,  we  instinctively  anticipate  the 
presence  of  the  other.  So  it  is,  Taine  adds,  with 
our  general  ideas.  When  we  have  perceived  a  num- 
ber of  different  trees,  there  remains  in  our  memory 
a  certain  image  made  up  of  the  characters  common  to 
all  trees,  namely  the  image  of  a  trunk  with  branches. 
We  call  it  "tree",  and  this  word  becomes  the  ex- 
clusive sign  of  the  class  "tree";  it  evokes  the  image 
of  the  individual  objects  of  that  class  as  the  percep- 
tion of  every  one  of  these  evokes  the  image  of  the  sign 
substituted  for  the  whole  class. 

Cardinal  Mercier  rightly  remarks  that  this  theory 
rests  upon  a  confusion  between  experimental  analogy 
and  abstraction  (Crit^riologie  gln^rale,  1,  III,  c. 
iii,  §  2,  pp.  237  sqq.).  Experimental  analogy  plays 
indeed  a  large  part  in  our  practical  life,  and  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  education  of  our  senses 
(cf.St.  Thomas,  "Anal,  post.",  II,  xv).  But  it  should 
be  remarked  that  experimental  analogy  is  Hmited 
to  the  individual  objects  observed,  to  particular  and 
similar  objects;  its  generality  is  essentially  relative. 
Again,  the  words  which  designate  the  objects  cor- 
respond to  the  characters  of  these  objects,  and  we 
cannot  speak  of  "abstract  names"  when  only  in- 
dividual objects  are  given.  Such  is  not  the  case  with 
our  general  ideas.  They  are  the  result  of  an  abstrac- 
tion, not  of  a  mere  perception  of  individual  objects, 
however  numerous;  they  are  the  conception  of  a  type 
applicable  in  its  unity  and  identity  to  an  indefinite 
number  of  the  objects  of  which  it  is  the  type.  They 
thus  have  a  generality  without  limit  and  independent 
of  any  concrete  determination.  If  the  words  which 
signify  them  can  be  the  sign  of  all  the  individual  ob- 
jects of  the  same  class,  it  is  because  that  same  class 
has  first  been  conceived  in  its  type;  these  names  are 
abstract  because  they  signify  an  abstract  concept. 
Hence  mere  experience  is  insufficient  to  account  for 
our  general  ideas.     A  careful  study  of  Taine's  theory 


and  the  illustrations  given  shows  that  the  ap- 
parent plausibility  of  this  theory  comes  precisely 
from  the  fact  that  Taine  unconsciously  introduces 
and  employs  abstraction.  Again,  Positivism,  and 
this  is  the  point  especially  developed  by  John  Stuart 
Mill  (following  Hume),  maintains  that  what  we  call 
"necessary  truths"  (even  mathematical  truths, 
axioms,  principles)  are  merely  the  result  of  experience, 
a  generalization  of  our  experiences.  We  are  con- 
scious, e.  g.  that  we  cannot  at  the  same  time  affirm 
and  deny  a  certain  proposition,  that  one  state  of  mind 
excludes  the  other;  then  we  generalize  our  observa- 
tion and  express  as  a  general  principle  that  a  proposi- 
tion cannot  be  true  and  false  at  the  same  time. 
Such  a  principle  is  simply  the  result  of  a  subjective 
necessity  based  on  experience.  Now,  it  is  true  that 
experience  furnishes  us  with  the  matter  out  of  which 
our  judgments  are  formed,  and  with  the  occasion  to 
formulate  them.  But  mere  experience  does  not  af- 
ford either  the  proof  or  the  confirmation  of  our  certi- 
tude concerning  their  truth.  If  it  were  so,  our  cer- 
titude should  increase  with  every  new  experience, 
and  such  is  not  the  case,  and  we  could  not  account  for 
the  absolute  character  of  this  certitude  in  all  men, 
nor  for  the  identical  application  of  this  certitude  to 
the  same  propositions  by  all  men.  In  reality  we 
affirm  the  truth  and  necessity  of  a  proposition,  not 
because  we  cannot  subjectively  deny  it  or  conceive 
its  contradictory,  but  because  of  its  objective  evi- 
dence, which  is  the  manifestation  of  the  absolute, 
universal,  and  objective  truth  of  the  proposition, 
the  source  of  our  certitude,  and  the  reason  of  the 
subjective  necessity  in  us. 

As  to  the  so-called  "law  of  the  three  stages",  it 
is  not  borne  out  by  a  careful  study  of  history.  It  is 
true  that  we  meet  with  certain  epochs  more  par- 
ticularly characterized  by  the  influence  of  faith,  or 
metaphysical  tendencies,  or  enthusiasm  for  natural 
science.  But  even  then  we  do  not  see  that  these 
characteristics  realize  the  order  expressed  in  Comte's 
law.  Aristotle  was  a  close  student  of  natural  science, 
whUe  after  him  the  neo-Platonic  School  was  almost 
exclusively  given  to  metaphysical  speculation.  In 
the  sixteenth  century  there  was  a  great  revival  of  ex- 
perimental sciences;  yet  it  was  followed  by  the  meta- 
physical speculation  of  the  German  idealistic  school. 
The  ni  leteenth  century  beheld  a  wonderful  develop- 
ment of  the  natural  sciences,  but  we  are  now  witness- 
ing a  revival  of  the  study  of  metaphysics.  Nor  is  it 
true  that  these  divers  tendencies  cannot  exist  during 
the  same  epoch.  Aristotle  was  a  metaphysician  as 
well  as  a  scientist.  Even  in  the  Middle  Ages,  which 
are  so  generally  considered  as  exclusively  given  to  a 
priori  metaphysics,  observation  and  experiment  had 
a  large  place,  as  is  shown  by  the  works  of  Roger 
Bacon  and  Albertus  Magnus.  St.  Thomas  himself 
manifests  a  remarkably  keen  spirit  of  psychological 
observation  in  his  "Commentaries"  and  in  his 
"Summa  theologica",  especially  in  his  admirable 
treatise  on  the  passions.  Finally,  we  see  a  harmo- 
nious combination  of  faith,  metaphysical  reasoning, 
and  experimental  observation  in  such  men  as  Kepler, 
Descartes,  Leibniz,  Paschal  etc.  The  so-called  "law 
of  the  three  stages"  is  a  gratuitous  assumption,  not 
a  law  of  history. 

The  positivist  rehgion  is  a  logical  consequence  of  the 
principles  of  Positivism.  In  realitjf  human  reason 
can  prove  the  existence  of  a  personal  God  and  of 
His  providence,  and  the  moral  necessity  of  revelation, 
while  history  proves  the  existence  of  such  a  revelation. 
The  establishment  of  a  religion  by  Positivism  simply 
shows  that  for  man  religion  is  a  necessity. 

RoBlNET,  Notice  sur  Vceuvre  et  la  vie  d'A.  Comte  (Paris,  1860); 
Testament  d' A.  Comte  (Pans,  ISSi);  MiLL.A.  Comte  and  Positivism 
(London,  1867,  1882) ;  Care,  Littre  et  le  positivisme  (Paris,  1883) ; 
Cairo,  The  Social  Philosophy  and  Religion  of  Comte  (Glasgow, 
188S);  T-j/lv^ent,  La  philos.  de  Stuart  Mill  (Va.Ti3, 18S6) ;  Gruber, 
AComte,  der  Begrunder  d.   Positivismus   (Freiburg,  1889);    Idem, 


POSSESSION 


315 


POSSESSION 


Der  Positivismus  vom  Tode  A.  Comte*s  bis  auf  unsere  Tage  (Frei- 
burg, 1891);  Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach,  supplements  xlv  and 
lii;  RA.VA.isaON,  La  philos.  en  France,  au  X tX^  Si^cie  (Paris,  1894) ; 
Mbrcier,  Psychologie  (6tli  ed.,  Louvain,  1894);  Idem, 
Criteriologie  ghi^ale  (4th  ed.,  Louvain,  1900) ;  Peillaube,  La 
thSorie  des  concepts  (Paris,  1895) ;  Piat,  Vid^e  (Paris,  1901) ; 
Maher,  Psychology  (5th  ed.,  London,  1903) ;  Balfour,  Defense 
of  Philosophic  Doubt  (London,  1895) ;  Turner,  Hist,  of  Philos, 
(Boston,  1903);   Deherme,  A,  Comte  et  son  ceuwe  (Paris,  1909). 

George  M.  Sauyage. 

Possession,  Demoniacal. — Man  is  in  various  ways 
subject  to  the  influence  of  evil  spirits.  By  original  sin 
he  brought  himself  into  ' '  captivity  under  the  power  of 
him  who  thence  [from  the  timeof  Adam's  transgression] 
had  the  empire  of  deatli,  that  is  to  say,  the  Devil" 
(Council  of  Trent,  Scss.  V,  de  peoc.  orig.,  1),  and  was 
through  the  fearof  death  all  his  lifetimesubject to  servi- 
tude (Heb.,  ii,  15) .  Even  though  redeemed  by  Christ,  he 
is  subject  to  violent  temptation:  "for  our  wrestling  is 
not  against  flesh  and  blood ;  but  against  principalities 
and  powers,  against  the  rulers  of  the  world  of  this  dark- 
ness, against  the  spirits  of  wickedness  in  the  highplaces  " 
(Eph.,  vi,  12).  But  the  influence  of  the  demon,  as  we 
know  from  Scripture  and  the  history  of  the  Church, 
goes  further  still.  He  may  attack  man's  body  from 
without  (obsession),  or  assume  control  of  it  from  within 
(possession).  As  we  gather  from  the  Fathers  and  the 
theologians,  the  soul  itself  can  never  be  "possessed" 
nor  deprived  of  liberty,  though  its  ordinary  control 
over  the  members  of  the  body  may  be  hindered  by  the 
obsessing  spirit  (cf.  St.  Aug.,  "De  sp.  etan.",  27;  St. 
Thomas,  "In  II  Sent.",  d.  VIII,  Q.  i;  Ribet,  "La 
mystique  divine",  Paris,  1883,  pp.  190  sqq.). 

Cases  op  Possession.— Among  the  ancient  pagan 
nations  diabolical  possession  was  frequent  (Maspero, 
"Hist.  anc.  des  peuples  de  I'Orient",  41  j  Lenor- 
mant,  "La  magie  chez  les  Chaldeens"),  as  it  is  still 
among  their  successors  (Ward,  "History  of  the 
Hindoos",  v.,  I,  2;  Roberts,  "Oriental  Illustrations 
of  the  Scriptures";  Doohttle,  "Social  Life  of  the 
Chinese").  In  the  Old  Testament  we  have  only  one 
instance,  and  even  that  is  not  very  certain.  We  are 
told  that  "an  evil  spirit  from  the  Lord  troubled"  Saul 
(I  Kings,  xvi,  14) .  The  Hebrew  word  rikih  need  not 
imply  a  personal  influence,  though,  if  we  may  judge 
from  Josephus  (Ant.  Jud.,  VI,  viii,  2;  ii,  2),  the  Jews 
were  inclined  to  give  the  word  that  meaning  in  this 
very  case.  In  New-Testament  times,  however,  the 
phenomenon  had  become  very  common.  The  victims 
were  sometimes  deprived  of  sight  and  speech  (Matt., 
xii,  22),  sometimes  of  speech  alone  (Matt.,  ix,  32; 
Luke,  xi,  14),  sometimes  afflicted  in  ways  not  clearly 
specified  (Luke,  viii,  2),  while,  in  the  greater  number 
of  cases,  there  is  no  mention  of  any  bodily  affliction 
beyond  the  possession  itself  (Matt.,  iv,  24;  viii,  16; 
XV,  22;  Mark,  i,  32,  34,  39;  iii,  11;  vii,  25;  Luke, 
iv,  41;  vi,  18;  vii,  21;  viii,  2).  The  effects  are 
described  in  various  passages.  A  young  man  is 
possessed  of  a  spirit  "who,  wheresoever  he  taketh  him, 
dasheth  him,  and  he  foameth,  and  gnasheth  with  his 
teeth,  and  pineth  away,  .  and  oftentimes  hath  he 
[the  spirit]  cast  him  into  the  fire  and  into  waters  to 
destroy  him"  (Mark,  ix,  17,  21).  The  possessed  are 
sometimes  gifted  with  superhuman  powers:  "a  man 
with  an  unclean  spirit,  who  had  his  dwelling  in  the 
tombs,  and  no  man  now  could  bind  him,  not  even 
with  chains.  For  having  been  often  bound  with  fetters 
and  chains,  he  had  burst  the  chains,  and  broken  the  fet- 
ters in  pieces,  and  no  one  could  tame  him"  (Mark,  v, 
2-4).  Some  of  the  unfortunate  victims  were  con- 
trolled by  several  demons  (Matt.,  xii,  43,  45;  Mark, 
xvi,  9;  Luke,  xi,  24-26) ;  in  one  case  by  so  many  that 
their  name  was  Legion  (Mark,  v,  9;  Luke,  viii,  30). 
Yet,  evil  as  the  possessing  spirits  were,  they  could  not 
help  testifying  to  Christ's  Divine  mission  (Matt., 
viii,  29;  Mark,  i,  24,  34;  iii,  12;  v,  7;  Luke,  iv,  34,41; 
viii,  28).  And  they  continued  to  do  so  after  His 
Ascension  (Acts,  xvi,  16-18). 


The  history  of  the  early  Church  is  filled  with  in- 
stances of  similar  diabolical  agency.  A  quotation 
from  TertuUian  will  suffice  to  bring  before  us  the 
prevalent  conviction.  Treating  of  true  and  false 
divinity,  he  addresses  the  pagans  of  his  time:  "Let  a 
person  iDe  brought  before  your  tribunals  who  is 
plainly  under  demoniacal  possession.  The  wicked 
spirit,  bidden  speak  by  the  followers  of  Christ,  will  as 
readily  make  the  truthful  confession  that  he  is  a 
demon  as  elsewhere  he  has  falsely  asserted  that  he  is 
a  god"  (Apolog.,  tr.  Edinburgh,  p.  23).  The  facts  asso- 
ciated with  possession  prove,  he  says,  beyond  question 
the  diabolical  source  of  the  influence — "What  clearer 
proof  than  a  work  hke  that?  What  more  trustworthy 
than  such  a  proof?  The  simplicity  of  truth  is  thus 
set  forth:  its  own  worth  sustains  it;  no  ground  remains 
for  the  least  suspicion.  Do  you  say  that  it  is  done 
by  magic  or  by  some  trick  of  the  sort?  You  will  not 
say  anything  of  the  sort  if  you  have  been  allowed  the 
use  of  your  ears  and  eyes.  For  what  argument  can 
you  bring  against  a  thing  that  is  exhibited  to  the  eye 
in  its  naked  reality?"  And  the  Christians  expel  by 
a  word:  "All  the  authority  and  power  we  have  over 
them  is  from  our  naming  of  the  name  of  Christ  and 
recalling  to  their  memories  the  woes  with  which  God 
threatens  them  at  the  hands  of  Christ  as  Judge  and 
which  they  expect  one  day  to  overtake  them.  Fear- 
ing Christ  in  God  and  God  in  Christ,  they  become  sub- 
ject to  the  servants  of  God  and  Christ.  So  at  our 
touch  and  breathing,  overwhelmed  by  the  thought 
and  realization  of  those  judgment  fires,  they  leave  at 
our  command  the  bodies  they  have  entered." 
Statements  of  this  kind  embody  the  views  of  the 
Church  as  a  whole,  as  is  evident  from  the  facts,  that 
various  councils  legislated  on  the  proper  treatment 
of  the  possessed,  that  parallel  with  the  public  penance 
for  catechumens  and  fallen  Christians  there  was  a 
course  of  discipline  for  the  energumens  also,  and, 
finally,  that  the  Church  estabhshed  a  special  order  of 
exorcists  (cf.  Martigny,  "Diet,  des  antiq.  chr6t.", 
Paris,  1877,  p.  312). 

All  through  the  Middle  Ages  councils  continued  to 
discuss  the  matter:  laws  were  passed,  and  penalties 
decreed,  against  all  who  invited  the  influence  of  the 
Devil  or  utilized  it  to  inflict  injury  on  their  fellowmen 
(cf.  the  Bulls  of  Innocent  VIII,  1484;  Julius  II,  1504; 
and  Adrian  VI,  1523) ;  and  powers  of  exorcism  were 
conferred  on  every  priest  of  the  Church.  The  phe- 
nomenon was  accepted  as  real  by  all  Christians.  The 
records  of  criminal  investigations  alone  in  which 
charges  of  witchcraft  or  diabohcal  possession  formed 
a  prominent  part  would  fill  volumes.  The  curious 
may  consult  such  works  as  Des  Mousseaux,  "Pra- 
tiques des  demons"  (Paris,  1854),  or  Thiers,  "Super- 
stitions", I,  or,  from  the  Rationalistic  point  of  view, 
Lecky,  "Rise  and  Influence  of  Rationalism  in  Eu- 
rope", I,  1-138,  and,  for  later  instances,  Constans, 
"Relation  sur  une  Epidemic  d'hyst6ro-d6monopathie " 
(Paris,  1863).  And  though  at  the  present  day  among 
civilized  races  the  cases  of  diabolical  possession  are 
few,  the  phenomena  of  Spiritism,  which  offer  many 
striking  points  of  resemblance,  have  come  to  take 
their  place  (cf.  Pauvert,  "La  vie  de  N.  S.  J6sus- 
Christ",  I,  p.  226;  Raupert,  "The  Dangersof  Spiritual- 
ism", London,  1906;  Lepicier,  "The  IJnseen  World", 
London,  1906;  Miller,  "Sermons  on  Modern  Spiritual- 
ism", London,  1908).  And  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
accounts  furnished  by  the  pioneers  of  the  Faith  in 
missionary  countries,  the  evidences  of  diabolical  agency 
there  are  almost  as  clear  and  defined  as  they  were  in 
Galilee  in  the  time  of  Christ  (of.  Wilson,  "Western 
Africa",  217;  WafTelaert  in  the  "Diet.  apol.  de  la  foi 
cath.",  Paris,  1889,  s.  v.  Possession  diabol.). 

II.  Reality  op  the  Phenomenon. — The  infidel 
policy  on  the  question  is  to  deny  the  possibility  of 
possession  in  any  circumstances,  either  on  the  sup- 
position, that  there  are  no  evil  spirits  in  existence, 


POSSESSION 


316 


POSSESSION 


or  that  they  are  powerless  to  influence  the  human 
body  in  the  manner  described.  It  was  on  this  prin- 
ciple that,  according  to  Leoky,  the  world  came  to  dis- 
beheve  in  witchcraft:  men  did  not  trouble  to  analyse 
the  e-vadence  that  could  be  produced  in  its  favour; 
they  simply  decided  that  the  testimony  must  be  mis- 
taken because  "they  came  gradually  to  look  upon  it 
as  absurd"  (op.  oit.",  p.  12).  And  it  is  by  this  same 
a  priori  principle,  we  believe,  that  Christians  who  try 
to  explain  away  the  facts  of  possession  are  uncon- 
sciously influenced.  Though  put  forward  once  as  a 
commonplace  by  leaders  of  materialistic  thought, 
there  is  a  noticeable  tendency  of  late  years  not  to 
insist  upon  it  so  strongly  in  view  of  the  admission 
made  by  competent  scientific  inquirers  that  many  of 
the  manifestations  of  Spiritism  cannot  be  explained 
by  human  agency  (cf.  Miller,  op.  cit.,  7-9).  But 
whatever  view  Rationalists  may  ultimately  adopt, 
for  a  sincere  behever  in  the  Scriptures  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  possession 
possible.  And  if  he  is  optimistic  enough  to  hold  that 
in  the  present  order  of  things  God  would  not  allow 
the  evil  spirits  to  exercise  the  powers  they  naturally 
possess,  he  might  open  his  eyes  to  the  presence  of  sin 
and  sorrow  in  the  world,  and  recognize  that  God 
causes  the  sun  to  shine  on  the  just  and  the  unjust  and 
uses  the  powers  of  evil  to  promote  His  own  wise  and 
mysterious  purposes  (cf.  Job,  passim;  Mark  v,  19). 

That  mistakes  were  often  made  in  the  diagnosis  of 
cases,  and  results  attributed  to  diabolical  agency  that 
were  really  due  to  natural  causes,  we  need  have  no 
hesitation  in  admitting.  But  it  would  be  illogical  to 
conclude  that  the  whole  theory  of  possession  rests  on 
imposture  or  ignorance.  The  abuse  of  a  .system  gives 
us  no  warrant  to  denounce  the  system  itself.  Strange 
phenomena  of  nature  have  been  wrongly  regarded  as 
miraculous,  but  the  detection  of  the  error  has  left 
our  belief  in  real  miracles  intact.  Men  have  been 
wrongly  convicted  of  murder,  but  that  does  not  prove 
that  our  reliance  on  evidence  is  essentially  unreason- 
able or  that  no  murder  has  ever  been  committed.  A 
Catholic  is  not  asked  to  accept  all  the  cases  of  diabol- 
ical possession  recorded  in  the  history  of  the  Church, 
nor  even  to  form  any  definite  opinion  on  the  historical 
evidence  in  favour  of  any  particular  case.  That  is 
primarily  a  matter  for  historical  and  medical  science 
(cf.  Delrio,  "Disq.  mag.  libri  sex",  1747;  Alexander, 
"  Demon.  Possession  in  the  N.  T.",  Edinburgh,  1902). 
As  far  as  theory  goes,  the  real  question  is  whether 
possession  has  ever  occurred  in  the  past,  and  whether 
it  is  not,  therefore,  possible  that  it  may  occur  again. 
And  while  the  cumulative  force  of  centuries  of  experi- 
ence is  not  to  be  lightly  disregarded,  the  main  evidence 
will  be  found  in  the  action  and  teaching  of  Christ 
Himself  as  revealed  in  the  inspired  pages  of  the  New 
Testament,  from  which  it  is  clear  that  any  attempt 
to  identify  possession  with  natural  disease  is  doomed 
to  failure. 

In  classical  Greek  daifwvg.v,  it  is  true,  means  "to  be 
mad"  (cf.  Eurip.,  "Phoen.",  .SSS;  Xenophon,  "Me- 
mor.",  I,  i,  ix;  Plutarch,  "Marc",  xxiii),  and  a  sim- 
ilar meaning  is  conveyed  by  the  Gospel  phrase 
ScuiibvLov  fxei",  when  the  Pharisees  use  it  of  Christ 
(Matt.,  xi,  18;  John,  vii,  20;  viii,  48),  especially  in 
John,  X,  20,  where  they  say  "He  hath  a  devil,  and  is 
mad"  {Sat^SvLOV  e^ei,  Kal  fxalveTai)^  daLfiovq.Vj  however, 
is  not  the  word  used  by  the  sacred  writers.  Their 
word  is  daLixofl^ea-eiu,  and  the  meanings  given  to  it 
previously  by  profane  writers  ("to  be  subject  to  an  aji- 
pointed  fate";  Philemon,  "Incert.",  981;  "to  be  dei- 
fied"; Sophocles,  "Fr.",  180)  are  manifestly  excluded 
by  the  context  and  the  facts.  The  demoniacs  were 
often  afflicted  with  other  maladies  as  well,  but  there 
is  surely  nothing  improbable  in  the  view  of  Catholic 
theologians  that  the  demons  often  afflicted  those  who 
were  already  diseased,  or  that  the  very  fact  of  ob- 
session or  possession  produced  these  diseases  as  a 


natural  consequence  (cf.  Job,  ii,  7;  Gorres,  "Die 
Christ,  mystik",  iv;  Lesetre  in  "Diet,  de  la  Bible", 
s.  V.  D^moniaques).  Natural  disease  and  possession 
are  in  fact  clearly  distinguished  by  the  Evangelists: 
"He  cast  out  the  spirits  with  his  word:  and  all  that 
were  sick  he  healed"  (Matt.,  viii,  16).  "They  brought 
to  him  all  that  were  ill  and  that  were  possessed  with 
devils  .  .  and  he  healed  many  that  were  troubled 
with  divers  diseases;  and  he  cast  out  many  devils" 
(Mark  i,  32,  34) ;  and  the  distinction  is  shown  more 
clearly  in  the  Greek:  irivras  rois  Ka/cus  exo''Tos  Kal  toi)s 
SaLfj.ovt^ofi4vous. 

A  favourite  assertion  of  the  Rationalists  is  that 
lunacy  and  paralysis  were  often  mistaken  for  posses- 
sion. St.  Matthew  did  not  think  so,  for  he  tells  us 
that  "they  presented  to  him  all  sick  people  that  were 
taken  with  divers  diseases  [TroixiXais  y6crots]  and  tor- 
ments [^aadpocs],  and  such  as  were  possessed  by  devils 
[Sai/iovi^ofiifovs],  and  lunatics  [(rcXTjwafo/x^i'ous],  and 
those  who  had  the  palsy  [TrapaXun/coi^s],  and  he  cured 
them"  (iv,  24).  And  the  circumstances  that  attended 
the  cures  point  in  the  same  direction.  In  the  case  of 
ordinary  diseases  they  were  effected  quietly  and  with- 
out violence.  Not  so  always  with  the  possessed.  The 
evil  spirits  passed  into  lower  animals  with  dire  results 
(Matt.,  viii,  32),  or  cast  their  victim  on  the  ground 
(Luke,  iv,  35)  or,  "crying  out,  and  greatly  tearing 
him,  went  out  of  him,  and  he  became  as  dead,  so  that 
many  said:  He  is  dead"  (Mark,  ix,  2.5;  cf.  Vigouroux, 
"Lcs  livres  saints  ct  la  crit.  rationaliste",  Paris,  1891). 

Abstracting  altogether  from  the  fact  that  these 
passages  are  themselves  inspired,  they  prove  that  the 
Jews  of  the  time  regarded  these  particular  manifesta- 
tions as  due  to  a  diabolical  source.  This  was  surely 
a  matter  too  closely  connected  with  Christ's  own 
Divine  mission  to  be  lightly  passed  over  as  one  on 
which  men  might,  without  much  inconvenience  from 
the  religious  point  of  view,  be  allowed  to  hold  erro- 
neous opinions.  If,  therefore,  possession  were  merely 
a  natural  disease  and  the  general  opinion  of  the  time 
based  on  a  delusion,  we  might  expect  that  Christ 
would  have  proclaimed  the  correct  doctrine  as  He  did 
when  His  followers  spoke  of  the  sin  of  the  man  born 
blind  (.lohn,  ix,  2,  3),  or  when  Nicodemus  misunder- 
stood His  teaching  on  the  necessity  of  being  born 
again  in  Baptism  (ibid.,  iii,  3,  4).  So  far  from  correct- 
ing the  prevalent  conviction.  He  approved  and  en- 
couraged it  by  word  and  action.  He  addressed  the 
evil  spirits,  not  their  victims;  told  His  disciples  how 
the  evil  spirit  acted  when  cast  out  (Matt.,  xii,  44,  45; 
Luke,  xi,  24-26),  taught  them  why  they  had  failed  to 
exorcize  (Matt.,  xvii,  19);  warned  the  seventy-two 
disciples  against  glorying  in  the  fact  that  the  demons 
were  subject  to  them  (Luke,  x,  17-20).  He  even  con- 
ferred express  powers  on  the  Apostles  "over  unclean 
spirits,  to  cast  them  out,  and  to  heal  all  manner  of 
diseases,  and  all  manner  of  infirmities"  (Matt.,  x,  1; 
Mark,  vi,  7;  Luke,  ix,  1),  and,  immediately  before  His 
Ascension,  enumerated  the  signs  that  would  proclaim 
the  truth  of  the  revelation  His  followers  were  to 
preach  to  the  world:  "In  my  name  they  shall  oast  out 
devils :  they  shall  speak  with  new  tongues.  They  shall 
take  up  serpents;  and  if  they  shall  drink  any  deadly 
thing  it  shall  not  hurt  them:  they  shall  lay  hands  on 
the  sick  and  they  shall  recover"  (Mark,  xvi,  17-18). 
Thus  does  the  expulsion  of  demons  become  so  closely 
bound  up  with  other  miracles  of  the  Christian  dispen- 
sation as  to  hardly  permit  of  separation. 

The  problem,  therefore,  that  confronts  us  is  this: 
If  a  belief  so  intimately  connected  in  Christ's  own 
mind  with  the  mission  He  came  to  accomplish  was 
based  on  a  delusion,  why  did  He  not  correct  it?  ^^'hy 
rath(;r  encourage  it?  Only  two  answers  appear  possi- 
ble. Either  He  was  ignorant  of  a  religious  truth,  or 
He  deliberately  gave  instructions  that  He  knew  to  be 
false — instructions  that  misled  His  foUowers,  and  that 
were  eminently  calculated,  as  indeed  the  issue  proved, 


POSSE  VINUS 


317 


POSSE  VINUS 


to  have  very  serious  consequences,  often  of  a  most 
painful  and  deplorable  kind,  in  the  whole  subsequent 
history  of  the  Church  He  founded.  No  Catholic  can 
dream  of  admitting  either  of  the  explanations.  The 
theory  of  accommodation  formulated  by  Winer  ("Bi- 
blisches  Realworterbuch",  Leipzig,  1833)  may  at  once 
be  dismissed  (see  Demoniacs).  Accommodation  un- 
derstood as  the  toleration  of  harmless  illusions  having 
little  or  no  connexion  with  religion  might  perhaps  be 
allowed;  in  the  sense  of  dehberate  inculcation  of  reli- 
gious error,  we  find  it  very  hard  to  associate  it  with 
high  moral  principle,  and  entirely  impossible  to  rec- 
oncile it  with  the  sanctity  of  Christ. 

Why  possession  should  manifest  itself  in  one  coun- 
try rather  than  another,  why  it  should  have  been  so 
common  in  the  time  of  Christ  and  so  comparatively 
rare  in  our  own,  why  even  in  Palestine  it  should  have 
been  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  province  of  Gali- 
lee, are  questions  on  which  theologians  have  specula- 
ted but  on  which  no  sure  conclusion  can  ever  be 
reached  (cf.  Delitzch,  "Sys.  der  biblis.  Psychol.", 
Leipzig,  1861 ;  Lesfitre,  op.  cit. ;  Jeiler  in  "Kirchenlexi- 
kon",  II,  s.  v.  "Besessene";  St.  Aug.,  X,  xxii,  De  civ. 
Dei,  10,  22).  The  phenomenon  itself  is  preternatural; 
a  humanly  scientific  explanation  is,  therefore,  impos- 
sible. But  it  might  fairly  be  expected,  we  think,  that 
since  Christ  came  to  overthrow  the  empire  of  Satan, 
the  efforts  of  the  powers  of  darkness  should  have  been 
concentrated  at  the  period  of  His  earthly  life,  and 
should  have  been  felt  especially  in  the  province  where, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  brief  visits  to  neighbouring 
lands.  His  private  and  pubhc  life  was  passed.  (See 
Exorcism,  Exorcist.) 

In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  above,  see  Perhone,  De  deo 
creatore,  p.  I,  c.  v,  prop,  i,  ii;  Binteeim,  Denkvmrdigkeiten,  VII 
(Mainz,  1841);  Maury,  La  magie  et  Va&trologie  (Paris,  0000),  p. 
II,  c.  ii;  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture  (London,  1891),  cc.  xiv,  xv: 
Spencer,  Principles  of  Sociology,  I. 

M.    J.    O'DONNELL. 

Fossevinus,  Antonius,  theologian  and  papal  en- 
voy, b.  at  Mantua  in  1533  or  1534;  d.  at  Ferrara,  26 
Feb.,  1611.  At  sixteen  years  of  age  he  went  to  Rome 
to  study,  famOiarized  himself  with  many  languages, 
and  became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Ercole  Gonzaga. 
In  1559  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  in  1560 
was  sent  to  preach  against  heresy  in  Savoy.  Passing 
on  to  France,  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1561,  and 
preached  at  Paris,  Bayonne,  Rouen,  and  elsewhere, 
converting  many  Calvinists.  He  became  rector  of  the 
colleges  of  Avignon  and  of  Lyons,  and  in  1573  was  sec- 
retary to  the  general  of  the  Society,  Everardo  Mer- 
curiano.  Gregory  XIII  himself  was  among  those  who 
learned  to  appreciate  his  merit  while  he  occupied  the 
last-named  position.  When  John  III  of  Sweden  ex- 
pressed his  desire  to  become  a  Catholic,  the  pope,  in 
1577,  made  Possevinus  his  special  legate  to  that 
Court,  and  Possevinus  also  had  to  negotiate  with  the 
Courts  of  Bavaria  and  Bohemia  to  secure  support  for 
John  in  the  event  of  political  complications.  The 
Jesuit  envoy,  attired  as  a  secular,  was  received  with 
great  honour  in  Sweden,  and  the  king  made  his  pro- 
fession of  the  Catholic  Faith. 

Many  difficulties  arose  when  measures  for  the  con- 
version of  Sweden  were  debated.  Possevinus  returned 
to  Rome  with  proposals,  some  of  which  were  judged 
inadmissible.  Through  his  constant  efforts  several 
colleges  (the  German  College  at  Rome,  those  of  Brauns- 
berg,  Fulda,  Olmiltz,  Prague,  and  others)  received 
Swedish  youths,  with  the  object  of  forming  a  national 
Cathoho  clergy.  At  the  close  of  1578  he  returned  to 
Sweden  as  nuncio  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Scandinavia. 
On  his  way,  he  again  visited  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  the 
King  of  Poland,  and  the  emperor.  Disconcerted  by 
the  refusal  of  Rome  to  accept  the  King's  terms,  and 
thwarted  by  the  sectarians,  who  had  the  advantage  in 
numbers  and  influence,  Possevinus  could  do  nothing 
but  comfort  and  encourage  the  few  Catholics  remain- 


ing in  Sweden.  He  displayed  the  greatest  devotion  on 
the  occasion  of  an  epidemic,  when  the  sick  were  left 
helpless  by  the  Protestant  ministers. 

In  1580  he  returned  to  Rome.  In  the  meantime  the 
Tsar  Ivan  IV  sought  the  pope's  mediation  with 
Stephen  BAthori,  King  of  Poland,  in  the  cause  of 
peace.  Possevinus  was  sent  as  papal  legate  (1581)  to 
negotiate  the  re-union  of  the  Russian  Church  with 
Rome.  The  negotiations  made  with  the  Russian  en- 
voys in  Poland  proved  nugatory,  as  the  King  of 
Poland  insisted  upon  profiting  by  his  successes  in  war, 
and  Possevinus  went  to  Russia  to  treat  with  the  Tsar. 
He  wisely  laid  down  as  preliminary  conditions  of  peace 
with  Poland  the  liberty  of  Catholic  worship  for  for- 
eigners in  Russia  and  free  passage  for  pontifical 
legates.  These  were  granted  pro  forma.  His  over- 
tures of  reconciliation  with  Rome  were  met  only  with 
reassuring  words.  In  1582  the  Tsar  signed  a  treaty  of 
peace,  compelled  by  Polish  victories.  Possevinus  left 
Moscow  laden  with  honours,  but  not  deceived  as  to 
the  success  of  his  efforts:  Ivan  the  Terrible  had  nego- 
tiated with  the  pope  only  to  mislead  both  Rome  and 
Poland.  Having  returned  to  Rome,  Possevinus  was 
immediately  sent  back  to  Poland  as  nuncio,  to  induce 
the  king  to  combat  heresy  in  Livonia  and  Transyl- 
vania. He  himself  visited  these  countries,  preaching 
and  arguing  with  the  heretics. 

At  the  Diet  of  Warsaw,  in  1583,  he  obtained  the 
passage  of  resolutions  favourable  to  Catholicism.  His 
efforts  were  ineffectual  in  the  treaties  between  Poland 
and  the  emperor,  on  which  business  he  went  twice  to 
the  Court  of  Rudolph  II.  He  still  stayed  in  the  North, 
preaching  in  Livonia,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  Transyl- 
vania, writing  treatises  against  the  innovators  and 
distributing  books  on  Catholic  doctrine.  He  did  much 
towards  the  reconciliation  of  the  Ruthenians,  and  had 
a  large  share  in  founding  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  at 
Vilna.  He  also  wrote  treatises  against  the  adversaries 
of  the  re-union.  Through  his  exertions  the  Collegium 
Hosianum  of  Braunsberg  was  enlarged  for  the  recep- 
tion of  Swedes  and  Ruthenians;  at  Olmtitz  and 
Claudiopolis,  in  Transylvania,  colleges  were  estab- 
lished for  similar  purposes.  In  1587  he  was  invited 
to  teach  theology  at  Padua,  where  he  remained  for 
four  years.  Among  his  disciples  there  was  St.  Francis 
of  Sales.  Returning  to  Rome,  he  devoted  his  time 
to  theological,  historical,  and  philosophical  studies. 
Having  played  an  important  role  in  the  recognition 
of  Henry  IV  of  France,  he  was  expelled  from  Rome  by 
the  Spanish  party.  He  then  made  extended  tours  to 
visit  the  libraries  of  Italy  in  quest  of  books,  as  on 
former  occasions,  in  which  task  he  was  generously 
aided  by  Paul  V. 

Antonius  Possevinus  represented  the  literary,  scien- 
tific, and  diplomatic  type  of  Jesuit,  performing  im- 
portant political  missions,  establishing  schools  of 
science  and  letters,  and  applying  himself  to  diplo- 
matic protocols  and  classical  authors  with  equal 
assiduity.  Had  he  not  met  with  insurmountable 
difficulties  in  Sweden  and  Russia,  and  in  negotiating 
the  treaties  between  Poland  and  the  empire,  he  would 
have  left  a  still  deeper  trace  on  the  pohtical  history  of 
the  Church  and  of  Europe.  His  writings  include 
"Moscovia"  (Vilna,  1586),  an  important  authority  on 
Russian  history;  "Del  sacrificio  della  Messa",  fol- 
lowed by  an  appendix,  "  Risposta  a  P.  Vireto  "  (Lyons, 
1.563);  "II  soldato  cristiano"  (Rome,  1569);  "Notae 
Verbi  Dei  et  Apostolicae  Ecclesiae"  (Posen,  1586).  His 
most  celebrated  works  are  the  "Apparatus  sacer  ad 
Scripturam  Veteris  et  Novi  Test."  (Venice,  1603-06), 
where  he  records  and  analyzes  more  than  8000  books 
treating  of  Sacred  Scripture;  and  the  "Bibliotheca 
Selecta"  (Rome,  1593),  treating  of  the  method  of 
study,  teaching,  and  practical  use  of  various  sciences; 
the  second  part  contains  a  critical  bibliography  of 
various  sciences.  (Several  chapters  of  this  book  have 
been  pubhshed  separately.)    Part  of  his  letters  were 


POSSIDIUS 


318 


POSTCOMMUNION 


published  by  A.  M.  Gratianua  Borgo  in  "De  scriptis 
ab  Ant.  Possevino  ad  Aloysnium  fratrem  litteris" 
(Florence,  1645-46). 

Theiner,  Schwt^den  u.  s.  Stellungzum  h!.  Stuhl  (Augsburg,  1838) ; 
PiERhiNG,  Posseviiri  missio  moscovitica  (Paris,  1882);  Idem,  Un 
nonce  du  pape  en  Moscovie  (Paris,  1886);  Idem,  Bathory  et  Possevin 
(Paris,  1887) ;  La  Russie  el  le  S.  Siege  (Paris,  1897) ;  Biaudet,  La 
SuMe  et  le  S.  SUge  (Paris,  1907).  See  also  biographies  of  Posse- 
vinus  by  d'Origny  (Paris,  1712);  CJhezzi  (Rome,  1759);  Kaht- 
TUNEN  (Rome,  1908) ;  Sommervogel,  Bibliothkque  des  ecrivains  de 
la  C.  de  J.,  VI,  1061-93;  IX,  781. — For  the  relations  of  Posse- 
vinus  with  Bdthori  and  the  Tsar  Ivan,  see  histories  of  Poland. 

U.  Benigni. 

Possidius,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Calama  in  Numidia, 
author  of  a  short  life  of  St.  Augvistine  and  of  an 
indiculus  or  list  of  St.  Augustine's  writings.  The  dates 
of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown;  he  was  alive  and 
in  exile  in  4.37  according  to  Prosper,  who,  in  hia 
"Chronicle",  records  that  Possidius  and  two  other 
bishops  were  persecuted  and  expelled  from  their  sees 
by  the  Vandal  king,  Genseric,  who  was  an  Arian. 
Possidius  (Vita  S.  Augustini,  xxxi),  after  describing 
the  death  of  St.  Augustine,  speaks  of  his  unbroken 
friendship  with  him  for  forty  years.  He  also,  speak- 
ing of  himself  in  the  third  person,  lets  it  be  known 
that  he  was  one  of  the  clergy  of  St.  Augustine's  monas- 
tery (ibid.,  xii) .  The  date  of  his  promotion  to  the  epis- 
copate was,  according  to  Tillemont,  about  397.  He 
followed  St.  Augustine's  example  and  established  a 
monastery  at  Calama.  At  a  council ,  held  at  Carthage, 
Possidius  challenged  Crispinus,  the  Donatist  Bishop  of 
Calama,  to  a  public  discussion  which  the  latter  declined. 
Shortly  afterwards  one  of  Crispinus's  clergy,  bearing 
the  same  name  as  his  bishop,  attempted  to  assassinate 
Possidius.  Legal  proceedings  were  instituted  against 
Crispinus,  the  bishop,  who  refused  to  punish  his  pres- 
byter. He  was  proved  to  be  a  heretic  and  was  heavily 
fined,  but  at  the  intercession  of  Possidius  the  fine  was 
not  exacted  ("Vita",  xii;  St.  Augustine,  "Ep.",  cv, 
4;  "Contra  Crescon.",  Ill,  xlvi).  In  407,  Possidius 
served,  with  St.  Augustine  and  five  other  bishops,  on  a 
committee  appointed  to  adjudicate  upon  some  eccle- 
siastical matter,  the  particulars  of  which  are  not 
known.  In  408  he  nearly  lost  his  life  in  a  riot  stirred 
up  by  the  pagans  at  Calama  (St.  Augustine,  "Epp.", 
xc,  xci,  xciii).  In  409  he  was  one  of  four  bishops 
deputed  to  go  to  Italy  to  obtain  the  protection  of  the 
emperor  against  the  Donatists.  He  was  one  of  the 
seven  bishops  chosen  to  represent  the  Catholic  party 
at  the  "Collatio"  of  411  (see  Don.\tists:  The 
"Collatio"  of  411)-  In  416  he  assisted  at  the  Council 
of  Milevum,  where  fifty-nine  Xumidian  bishops  ad- 
dressed a  synodal  letter  to  Innocent  I,  asking  him  to 
take  action  against  Pelagianism.  He  joined  with  St. 
Augustine  and  three  other  bishops  in  a  further  letter 
to  Innocent  on  the  same  subject,  and  was  at  the 
conference  between  St.  Augustine  and  the  Donatist 
Emeritus.  When  the  Vandals  invaded  Africa,  he 
fled  to  Hippo  and  was  present  at  the  death  of  St. 
Augustine  (430).  His  "Vita  S.  Augustini",  composed 
before  the  capture  of  Carthage  (439),  is  included  in  all 
editions  of  the  works  of  St.  Augustine,  and  also 
printed  in  Hurter's  ' '  Opusc .  SS .  Patr. " .  His  indiculus 
will  be  found  in  the  last  volume  of  Migne's  edition  of 
the  works  of  St.  Augustine  and  in  the  tenth  volume  of 
the  Benedictine  edition. 

Ceillieb,  Hist,  des  auteurs  cedes.,  XII:  Tillemont,  Me-moires, 
XIII. 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 

Postcommunion. — The  Communion  act  finishes 
the  essential  Eucharistic  service.  Justin  Martyr  (I 
ApoL,  Ixy-lxvi)  adds  nothing  after  describing  the 
Communion.  However,  it  was  natural  that  the  people 
should  not  be  dismissed  without  a  final  prayer  of 
thanksgiving  and  of  petition,  so  every  rite  ends  its 
liturgy  with  a  short  prayer  or  two  and  a  blessing  before 
the  dismissal.  The  earliest  complete  liturgy  extant, 
that  of  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions",  VIII,  contains 


two  such  prayers, — a  thanksgiving  (XV,  ii-vi),  and  a 
blessing  (XV,  vii-ix).    A  significant  resemblance  be- 
tween the  Roman  Rite  and  that  of  the  "Apostolic 
Constitutions"  is  that  at  Rome,  too,  there  were  for- 
merly at  every  Mass  two  prayers  of  the  same  nature. 
In  the  "Leonine  Sacramentary"  they  have  no  title; 
but  their  character  is  obvious.    As  examples,  those  for 
the  summer  ember  days  may  serve  (ed.  Feltoe,  p.  51, 
"In  jejunio"),  the  first  Gratias  tibi  referimus,  the  sec- 
ond Oculis  tu(E  miserationis  intende.     The  Gelasian 
Sacramentary  calls  the  first  postcommunio,  the  second 
ad  populum.    In  both  sacramentaries  these  two  prayers 
form  part  of  the  normal  Mass  said  throughout  the 
year,  though  not  every  Mass  has  both;  the  prayers  "ad 
populum "  in  the  later  book  are  comparatively  rare. 
They  also  begin  to  change  their  character.    The  for- 
merly constant  terms  tuere,   protege  etc.   are  rarer; 
many  are  ordinary  collects  with  no  pronounced  idea  of 
prayers  for  blessing  and  protection.     In  the  "Grego- 
rian Sacramentary"  the  second  prayer,  now  called 
Super  populum,  occurs  almost  only  from  Septuagesima 
to    Easter;     the    first.    Ad    complenduiti ,    continues 
throughout  the  year,  but  both  have  lost  much  of  their 
original  character.    The  Ad  complendum  prayer  (Post- 
communion)  has  become  a  collect  formed  on  the  model 
of  the  collect  at  the  beginning  of  Mass,  though  gener- 
ally it  keeps  some  allusion  to  the  Communion  just 
received.    That  is  still  the  state  of  these  prayers  after 
the  Communion.    The  second,   Oralio  super  populum, 
is  said  only  in  ferial  Masses  in  Lent.    This  restriction 
apparently  results  from  the  shortening  of  the  Mass 
(which  explains  many  omissions  and  abbreviations)  and 
the  tendency  of  Lent  to  keep  longer  forms.    The  Mass 
was  shortened  for  practical  purposes  except  (in  many 
cases)  during  Lent,  which  keeps  the  long  preces  in  the 
Office  omitted  at  other  times,  sometimes  more  than  two 
lessons  at  Mass,  and  so  on.  Themedieval  commentators 
(Amalarius,  "Dedivimsofficiis",III,xxvii;  Durandus, 
"Rationale",  VI, xxviii;  Honorius of  Autun,  "Gemma 
animae",  lix)  explain  this  mystically;  Honorius  thinks 
the  prayer  to  be  a  substitute  for  the  Eastern  blessed 
bread  {avTiSapov).     The  Oralio  super  populum  is  now 
always  the  prayer  at  vespers  on  the  same  day.    It  has 
been  suggested  that  its  use  at  Mass  in  Lent  may  be  a 
remnant  of  a  custom,  now  kept  only  on  Holy  Saturday, 
of  singing  vespers  at  the  end  of  M  ass  (Gihr ,  op .  cit . ,  7 1 1 ) . 
There  remains  the  first  prayer,  called  Ad  complendum  in 
the ' '  Gregorian  Sacramentary  " .     Its  name  was  uncer- 
tain through  the  Middle  Ages.    Durandus  (op.  cit.,  IV, 
Ivii)  calls  it  merely  Oralio  novissima,  using  the  name 
Postcommunio  for  the  Communion  antiphon.     The 
first  "Roman  Ordo"  calls  the  prayer  Oralio  ad  com- 
plendum (xxi);   Rupert  of  Deutz  calls  it  Ad  complen- 
dum (De  divinis  officiis,  II,  xix).    But  others  give  it 
the  name  it  had  already  in  the  Gelasian  book,  Post- 
communio   (Sicardus,    "Mitrale",   III,  viii);    so  also 
many  medieval  missals  (e.  g.,  the  Sarum).  This  is  now 
its  official  name  in  the  Roman  Rite.     The  Postcom- 
munion has  lost  much  of  its  original  character  as  a 
thanksgiving-prayer  and  has  absorbed  the  idea  of  the 
old  Oralio  ad  populum.    It  is  now  always  a  petition, 
though  the  note  of  thanksgiving  is  often  included  (e.  g. 
in  the  Mass  Statuit,  for  a  confessor  pontiff).     It  has 
been  affected  by  the  Collect  on  which  it  is  modelled, 
though  there  is  generally  an  allusion  to  the  Com- 
munion. 

Every  Postcommunion  (and  secret)  corresponds  to 
a  collect.  These  are  the  three  fundamental  prayers 
of  any  given  Proper  Mass.  The  Postcommunion  is 
said  or  chanted  exactly  like  the  Collect.  First  comes 
that  of  the  Mass  celebrated;  then,  if  other  Masses  are 
commemorated,  their  Postcommunions  follow  in  the 
same  order  and  with  the  same  final  conclusion  as  the 
collects.  After  the  Communion,  when  the  celebrant  ■ 
has  arranged  the  chalice,  he  goes  to  the  epistle  side  ' 
and  reads  the  Communion  antiphon.  He  tlien  comes 
to  the  middle  and  says  or  sings  Doniinus  Vobiscum 


POSTGATE 


319 


POSTULATION 


(in  the  early  Middle  Ages  he  did  not  turn  to  the 
people  this  time — "Ordo  Rom.",  I,  n.  21),  goes  back 
to  the  Epistle  side,  and  says  or  sings  one  or  more 
Posteommunions,  exactly  as  the  collects.  At  ferial 
Masses  in  Lent  the  Oratio  super  populum  follows  the 
last  Postcommunion.  The  celebrant  sings  Oremus; 
the  deacon  turning  towards  the  people  chants: 
Humiliate  capita  vestra  Deo,  on  do  with  the  cadence 
la,  do,  si,  si,  do  for  the  last  five  syllables.  Meanwhile, 
everyone,  including  the  celebrant,  bows  the  head. 
The  deacon  turns  towards  the  altar  and  the  celebrant 
chants  the  prayer  appointed  in  the  Mass.  At  low 
Mass  the  celebrant  himself  sa,ys:  humiliate  capitaveslra 
Deo  and  does  not  turn  towards  the  people.  The 
deacon's  exclamation  apparently  was  introduced 
when  this  prayer  became  a  specialty  of  Lent.  Du- 
randus  mentions  it  (VL  xxviii). 

GlHB,  D.  keilige  Messopfer  (Freiburg,  1S97),  708-13;  Riet- 
Bcn^lu,  Lehrhuch  d,  Liturgik  (Berlin,  1900),  393-4;  Le  Vav.\bseur, 
Manuel  de  Lilurgie  (Paris,  1910),  I,  313,  473-1;  II,  41,  4SS;  Rock, 
HieruTgia,  I  (London,  1900) ;  (3ihr,  The  Hol/j  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass 
(St.  Louis,  100,S1. 

Adman  Foetescue. 

Postgate,  Nicholas,  Venerable,  English  martyr, 
b.  at  Kirkdale  House,  Egton,  Yorkshire,  in  1.596  or 
1597;  d.  at  York,  7  August,  1679.  He  entered  Douay 
College,  11  July,  1621,  took  the  college  oath,  12 
March,  1623,  received  minor  orders,  25  December, 
1624,  the  subdiaconate,  IS  December,  1627,  the  di- 
aconate,  18  March,  1628,  and  the  priesthood  two  days 
later.  He  was  sent  to  the  mission,  29  June,  1630,  and 
laboured  in  his  native  country  with  great  benefit  to 
hundreds  of  souls.  Thomas  Ward,  who  later  wrote 
about  him,  knew  him  well.  He  was  apprehended  by 
the  exciseman  Reeves,  at  the  house  of  Matthew  Lyth, 
of  Sleights,  Little  Beck,  near  Whitby,  and  was  con- 
demned under  27  Elizabeth,  c.  2  for  being  a  priest. 
His  quarters  were  given  to  his  friends  and  interred. 
One  of  the  hands  was  sent  to  Douay  College.  His 
portable  altar-stone  is  now  venerated  at  Dodding 
Green,  Westmoreland. 

Ward,  EnglaTuVs  Reformation  (London,  1747),  200;  Chal- 
LONER,  Missionary  Priests,  II,  no.  204;  GiLLOW,  Bihl.  Diet.  Eng. 
Cath.,  s.  V. 

John  B.  Wainewbight. 

Postulant. — Postulancy  is  a  preliminary  stage  to 
the  novitiate  existing  from  the  institution  of  monasti- 
cism. 

(1)  In  the  East,  the  would-be  monk  had  to  submit 
to  many  rebuffs,  and,  while  he  continued  to  pray  for 
admission,  he  was  discouraged  in  various  ways,  the 
hardships  of  religious  life  being  exaggerated  to  test 
the  sincerity  of  his  intentions  and  the  reality  of  his 
vocation.  From  the  East  this  custom  passed  into  the 
West.  Cassian  recommends  it  in  his  "institutions" 
(IV,  iii),  and  St.  Benedict  introduced  it  into  his  rule: 
"Let  not  the  newly  arrived  candidate  be  admitted  too 
easily,  but  let  care  be  taken,  as  the  Apostle  St.  John 
ad\'ises,  to  try  the  spirits  if  they  be  of  God:  therefore 
after  the  aspirant  has  repeated  his  request  for  admis- 
sion, if  for  four  or  five  days  he  seems  to  bear  patiently 
the  rebuffs  given  him,  and  the  difficulties  put  in  the  way 
of  his  entrance,  and  still  persists  in  his  attempt,  let  the 
door  be  opened  to  him"  (c..58).  This  period  of  trial  used 
to  last  in  the  different  orders  from  three  to  ten  days. 
After  this,  in  the  older  orders,  followed  the  novitiate 
of  one,  two,  or  three  years,  which  was  formerly  con- 
sidered rather  as  a  preparation  for,  than  a  first  period 
of  the  religious  life.  Thus,  after  his  reception,  the 
candidate  returned  to  the  world  with  unlimited  leave 
of  absence  and  liberty  to  re-enter  when  he  thought  fit. 
In  the  Customs  of  St.  Victor,  xxiv  (see  Martene,  "De 
antiquis  ecclesiae  ritibus",  Appendix,  p.  265),  this  prac- 
tice is  mentioned  as  common  to  many  monasteries; 
and,  although  it  is  not  altogether  condemned,  it  is 
shown  to  have  had  many  disadvantages,  for  in  this 
way  it  was  made  easy  for  undesirable  persons  to  place 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  Church. 


(2)  This  system  of  outside  probation  has  long  been 
abolished.  In  most  orders,  however,  the  candidate, 
when  admitted  to  the  rehgious  life,  is  not  allowed  at 
once  to  mingle  with  the  other  novices,  but  receives 
separately  a  preliminary  initiation,  more  or  less  pro- 
longed as  custom  may  require.  The  time  occupied  in 
this  initiation  is  sometimes,  but  not  always,  reckoned 
as  part  of  the  novitiate. 

(3)  According  to  existing  law,  persons  who  aspire  to 
the  religious  life,  but  have  not  yet  been  admitted  into 
any  particular  order,  may  be  called  postulants  in  the 
wide  sense  of  the  word;  such  are  pupils  of  an  apostolic 
school,  or  persons  who,  having  decided  to  enter  the 
religious  state,  remain  as  guests  in  the  monastery, 
while  waiting  for  their  admission.  Postulants,  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  word,  are  those  who  are  taking  their 
first  steps  in  the  religious  hfe,  without  having  yet 
received  the  habit.  Common  law  forbade  regulars  to 
receive  as  postulants  in  the  wider  sense  of  the  word 
young  persons  under  twenty  years  of  age  (see  the  de- 
cree of  Clement  X  dated  16  May,  1675),  and  postu- 
lant lay-brothers  could  not  be  received  before  the  age 
of  nineteen  full  years  (see  Clement  VIII,  "Cum  ad 
regularem",  19  March,  1603;  this  constitution  has 
not  been  everywhere  carried  into  effect).  No  general 
law  compelled  religious  to  observe  a  period  of  candi- 
dature. However,  by  the  recent  decree  of  1  Jan., 
1911,  in  orders  where  lay  brothers  make  solemn  pro- 
fession, the  general  may,  in  individual  cases,  allow 
provincials  to  receive  candidates  for  the  grade  of  lay 
brother,  after  they  have  completed  their  seventeenth 
year;  moreover,  for  valid  profession,  lay  brothers  must 
have  made  a  postulature  of  two  years  (or  longer,  if 
the  Constitutions  so  require).  The  same  Decree  pre- 
scribes that  postulants  shall  be  placed  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  virtuous  and  experienced  father.  Nuns  under 
solemn  vows  (at  least  in  Italy)  are  ordered  by  the  de- 
cree of  the  Sacred  Congregation  to  make  a  retreat 
of  ten  days  before  receiving  the  habit.  The  Regula- 
tions (Normse)  of  1901  require  that  sisters  shall  remain 
as  postulants  for  a  period  varying  from  six  months  to  a 
year.  The  superior-general  may  extend  the  time  fixed 
by  the  Congregation  for  not  more  than  three  months. 
The  time  of  the  postulant's  probation  is  most  con- 
veniently passed  in  the  novitiate  house,  but  may  be 
spent  elsewhere. 

For  bibliography  3ee  Novice. 

A.  Vermeersch. 

Postulation  (Lat.  poslulare,  to  request),  a  petition 
presented  to  a  competent  ecclesiastical  superior,  that 
he  may  promote  to  a  certain  dignity  a  person  who  is 
not  strictly  efigible  on  account  of  some  canonical 
impediment  which  is  usually  dispensable.  Such  im- 
pediments are,  for  example,  illegitimate  birth,  defect 
of  requisite  age,  or  the  condition  of  a  person,  such  as 
a  bishop,  even  a  titular  one,  or  a  regular,  who  cannot 
accept  a  new  dignity  without  leave  of  their  ecclesias- 
tical superior.  When  a  postulation  is  simultaneous 
with  an  election,  it  is  required  that  the  votes  be  twice 
the  number  sufficient  if  the  person  were  canonically 
eligible.  Occasionally,  the  Holy  See  dispenses  with 
the  necessity  of  postulation  by  granting  an  indult 
of  eligibihty  to  the  person  in  question,  or  by  empower- 
ing the  electors  to  proceed  to  a  choice  without  having 
recourse  to  a  formal  postulation.  Postulation  is  called 
solemn,  when  it  is  addressed  to  the  superior  who  can 
dispense  with  the  defect  in  the  candidate.  It  is  called 
simple,  when  the  superior  in  question  can  not  dis- 
pense in  the  canonical  impediment  yet  his  consent  is 
required  for  the  candidate's  promotion,  such  as  is  the 
case  with  regulars  promoted  to  the  episcopal  dignity, 
who  need  the  hcence  of  their  religious  superior  to 
accept  the  charge.  Postulation  is  employed  only  for 
those  who  have  a  dispensable  defect,  and  in  the  peti- 
tionary document  all  impediments  must  be  expressed 
under  pain  of  nullity.    After  a  postulation  has  been 


POTAWATOMl 


320 


POTAWATOMl 


signed  and  sealed,  presented  to,  and  accepted  by,  the 
proper  superior,  those  making  it  can  not  recede  from, 
nor  change,  it.  The  person  in  whose  favour  the  pos- 
tulation  has  been  made  must  signify  within  a  month 
his  willingness  to  accept  the  dignity  offered. 

Laurbntius,  Institutiones  Juris  Canonici  (Freiburg,  1903); 
Ferraris,  Bihliotheca  Canonica,  VI  (Rome,  1890) ,  s.  v.  Postulatio. 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Potawatomi  Indians,  an  important  tribe  of  Al- 
gonquin linguistic  stock,  closely  related  dialectioally 
to  the  Ojibwa  and  Ottawa,  and  living  when  first 
known  to  the  French  (about  1640)  on  and  about  the 
islands  at  the  mouth  of  Green  Bay,  Lake  Michigan, 
having  recently  been  driven  from  their  homes  in  the 
lower  peninsula  by  the  Iroquoian  tribes  living  toward 
the  east.  At  a  later  period  and  until  their  removal 
to  the  west  (about  18.35^0)  they  held  both  shores  of 
Lake  Michigan  from  about  Manitowoc  (44°)  on  the 
west  around  to  about  Grand  River  (43°)  on  the  east, 
and  southward  to  the  Wabash,  comprising  territory 
in  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Michigan,  with 
some  fifty  villages,  including  those  on  the  sites  of 
Milwaukee,  Chicago,  South  Bend  (St.  Joseph),  and 
Grand  Rapids.  Much  of  this  territory  had  been 
held  earlier  by  the  Illinois  and  Miami.  According 
to  tradition,  which  seems  corroborated  by  linguistic 
evidence,  the  Potawatomi  were  originally  one  people 
with  the  Ojibwa  and  Ottawa,  and  derived  their 
name,  properly  in  plural  form  Potewatmik,  "people 
of  the  fire  place"  or  "fire-makers",  from  having 
moved  off  to  the  southward  and  kindled  a  new  fire, 
i.  e.  formed  a  separate  government  for  themselves. 
The  three  tribes  have  always  been  known  as  close 
confederates.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  "Prairie 
Band"  of  Potawatomi,  the  Muskodensug  of  northern 
Illinois,  are  identical  with  the  ancient  Masooutens, 
the  so-called  "Fire  Nation". 

The  Potawatomi  were  first  met  by  the  adventurous 
French  explorer  Jean  Nicolet,  the  first  white  man  in 
Wisconsin  (1634-5).  In  1641  they  appear  to  have 
been  present  at  the  "feast  of  the  dead"  attended  by 
the  Jesuits  Raymbaut  and  Jogues  in  the  Huron  coun- 
try. In  1658-9  the  explorers  Radisson  and  Groseil- 
hers,  on  their  own  invitation,  spent  the  winter  among 
them  on  Green  Bay.  They  were  occasional  visitors 
at  the  mission  of  Saint-Esprit  at  La  Pointe  Che- 
goimegon  (now  Bayfield,  Wis.)  on  Lake  Superior, 
founded  by  AUouez  in  1665,  and  in  December,  1669, 
the  same  devoted  Jesuit  pioneer  estabhshed  the 
mission  of  Saint  Francis  Xavier  near  the  head  of 
Green  Bay,  Wisconsin,  for  the  neighbouring  Potawa- 
tomi, Sank,  Foxes,  and  Winnebago,  with  visiting 
stations  in  their  various  villages.  The  war  between 
the  French  and  Iroquois,  beginning  about  ten  years 
later,  gave  temporary  check  to  all  the  missions,  and 
in  1687  the  Green  Bay  mission  was  burned  by  the 
pagan  Indians  while  the  resident  priest,  Fr.  Jean 
Enjahan,  was  absent  with  Denonville's  troops. 
On  his  return  the  next  year  it  was  restored,  and  a 
second  mission,  St.  Joseph,  was  established  by 
Allouez  for  the  same  tribe,  on  the  river  of  that  name, 
near  the  present  South  Bend,  Ind.  This  mission  con- 
tinued with  one  long  interruption  until  the  removal 
of  the  tribe  to  the  West,  when  the  missionaries  ac- 
companied the  Indians  and  re-established  work  in 
the  new  field.  Political  changes  of  administration, 
the  rising  struggle  with  England  for  control  of  the 
West,  and  a  long  war  with  the  Foxes  (1712^8)  con- 
spired to  discourage  the  mission  work.  In  1721 
Charlevoix  found  the  mission  at  Green  Bay,  then 
under  Fr.  J,  B.  Chardon,  devoted  chiefly  to  the  Sank 
and  Winnebago,  while  that  on  St.  Joseph  River  was 
occupied  jointly  by  Potawatomi  and  Miami.  The 
suppression  of  the  .Jesuits  in  the  French  colonies  in 
1762  closed  all  their  missions  and  for  thirty  years 
there  was  no  priest  west  of  Detroit,  while  the  almost 


continuous  wars  for  forty  years — French  and  Indian, 
Pontiac's,  the  Revolution,  and  later  to  the  Greenville 
treaty  in  1795 — almost  wiped  out  all  recollection 
of  Christian  teaching.  "Deprived  of  pastors,  con- 
stantly in  motion,  mingling  with  war  parties  of  pagan 
tribes  and  sharing  in  their  superstitious  rites,  they  soon 
relapsed  into  many  of  the  old  customs  of  their  race" 
(Shea).  The  Potawatomi  were  a  fighting  race  and 
in  the  Fox  war  and  the  French  and  Indian  war  sided 
actively  with  the  French,  continuing  the  struggle 
under  Pontiac  against  the  English  until  1765.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  in  1775  they  took 
up  arms  for  England  against  the  Americans  and 
continued  the  war  under  Little  Turtle  and  other 
Indian  leaders  until  compelled  to  join  in  the  treaty 
of  Greenville  in  1795  consequent  upon  Wayne's 
decisive  victory  over  the  confederated  tribes  in  the 
preceding  year.  A  part  of  them  under  Winamac 
joined  the  English  again  under  Teoumseh's  leader- 
ship in  1812,  and  made  final  treaty  of  peace  in  1815. 
The  Prairie  Band,  under  their  chief  Gomo,  held  to 
the  American  interest.  By  these  wars  they  suffered 
heavily  and  the  close  of  the  War  of  1812  found  them 
prostrated,  while  the  immediate  influx  of  whisky 
traders  worked  a  wholesale  demoralization,  aggravated 
by  constant  fear  of  final  removal  as  their  territories 
were  curtailed  by  repeated  cessions  under  pressure. 

In  1822  the  first  Protestant  work  in  the  tribe  was 
begun  by  the  Baptists  at  Carey  mission  near  South 
Bend  and  continued  until  1830  when  it  was  dis- 
continued, in  consequence  of  the  inauguration  of  the 
removal  policy,  to  be  renewed  shortly  afterward 
among  the  immigrant  Indians  in  Kansas.  In  the 
meantime,  on  formal  request  of  the  Ottawa  chiefs  to 
Congress  (1823)  for  Jesuit  missionaries,  the  old  mis- 
sions had  been  re-established  through  the  efforts  of 
Bishop  Rez6  of  Detroit,  that  of  St.  Joseph  being  con- 
fided to  the  secular,  Fr.  Stephen  Badin.  The  main 
pillar  of  this  mission  was  the  distinguished  chief 
Pokagan,  baptized  by  Rez6,  and  father  of  the  still 
more  noted  Catholic  chief  and  author,  Simon  Poka- 
gan (1830-99),  to  whose  memory  a  monument  has 
been  erected  in  Jackson  Park,  Chicago.  Fr.  Badin 
was  shortly  succeeded  by  Fr.  Desseille,  who  remained 
until  his  death  in  1837  and  was  succeeded  by  Fr. 
Benjamin  Petit.  In  the  meantime,  by  successive 
treaties  the  Potawatomi  territory  had  been  steadily 
curtailed  in  the  various  states  originally  occupied  by 
them  and  band  after  band,  much  against  their  will, 
transported  to  new  homes  in  Iowa  and  Kansas,  be- 
yond the  Mississippi.  Before  the  end  of  1836  over 
sixteen  hundred  had  been  thus  removed  and  others 
were  on  the  road.  Some  eight  hundred  in  Indiana, 
led  by  a  chief  who  had  steadily  refused  to  sign  away 
his  lands,  refused  to  go,  and  in  September,  1838,  were 
surrounded  by  the  troops,  while  assembled  at  church, 
and  driven  out  upon  the  long  and  weary  foot  journey 
to  the  West.  On  special  request  of  the  officer  in 
charge,  who  dreaded  an  attempt  to  escape  or  re- 
sistance. Father  Petit,  who  had  already  offered  his 
services,  was  appointed  to  accompany  them,  which 
he  did,  traversing  on  foot  with  them  the  long  way 
across  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri,  until  in  Kansas 
he  confided  his  suffering  and  diminished  flock  to  the 
Jesuit  Fr.  J.  Hoecken,  and  returned  to  St.  Louis. 
A  few  refugees  escaped  to  Canada  and  settled  on 
Walpole  Island  in  Lake  St.  Clair.  Other  bands 
were  removed  to  the  West  as  late  as  1841,  a  few 
hundred  still  continuing  to  remain  in  their  old  coun- 
try. As  early  as  1836  Father  Hoecken  had  re- 
established work  among  the  immigrant  tribes  in 
Kansas,  and  before  the  end  of  that  year  the  mission 
of  Saint  Mary,  destined  to  become  so  well  known,  was 
founded  by  Frs.  De  Smet  and  Verreydt,  assisted  by 
Brother  MazelU,  among  the  still  heathen  and  obdurate 
prairie  Potawatomi.  It  was  soon  afterward  placed 
in  charge  of  Fr.  Hoecken,  under  whom  the  mission 


POTHIER 


321 


POTHIER 


claimed  twelve  hundred  Catholic  Indians,  principal 
among  whom  were  the  chiefs  Pokagan  and  Bourassa, 
with  two  flourishing  schools,  conducted  jointly  by  the 
Jesuits  and  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

The  official  Indian  report  for  1855  contains  an 
interesting  account  of  this  mission  by  Fr.  J.  B. 
Duerinck,  then  in  charge.  It  was  tlien  the  only  mis- 
sion existing  in  the  tribe,  the  Baptist  work  having 
been  abandoned.  Concerning  Saint  Mary's  the 
agent  in  charge  says  (Ind.  Kept,  for  1855):  "The 
missionary  labors  at  Saint  Mary's  are  divided  into 
two  estabhshments.  The  boys  are  under  the  charge 
of  the  'fathers'  of  the  institution,  whilst  the  girls 
are  under  the  kind  care  of  the  'Ladies  of  the  Sacred 
Heart'.  I  cannot  speak  in  terms  too  highly  of  the 
condition  of  these  establishments.  Besides  the  or- 
ditiary  literary  course  the  girls  are  taught  sewing, 
knitting,  embroidery,  and  the  various  other  branches 
of  housekeeping.  In  connexion  with  the  institution 
is  a  manual  labor  school,  where  the  boys  are  taught 
the  practical  and  useful  departments  of  farming, 
gardening,  etc.  INIr.  Duerinck  is  a  man  of  great  energy 
and  business  habits,  united  with  a  devotion  to  the 
welfare  of  the  Potawatomi  Indians,  to  whom  he  has 
proved  a  father  and  friend,  and  by  whom  he  is 
highly  esteemed.  I  have  no  hesitancy  in  expressing 
my  conviction  that  this  institution  is  of  great  service 
to  these  Indians.  This  influence  is  seen  in  the  neat 
cottages  and  httle  fields  of  the  'Mission  Indians' 
and  the  air  of  comfort  and  good  order  apparent 
throughout  the  neighborhood." 

Owing  to  friction  between  the  progressive  ele- 
ment and  the  conservative  Prairie  Band,  the  former 
were  segregated  in  1861  and  took  lands  in  severalty 
under  the  name  of  "Citizen  Potawatomi".  In  1868 
they  removed  to  Oklahoma,  where  they  now  reside. 
About  three  hundred  are  rated  as  Catholic,  with  two 
prosperous  mission  schools  at  Sacred  Heart,  St. 
Mary's  (girls)  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  and 
St.  Benedict's  (boys)  in  charge  of  the  Benedictines. 
The  rest  of  the  tribe,  for  whom  no  religious  statistics 
are  given,  is  still  in  Kansas  or  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  whole  tribe  originally  may  have  numbered  5000 
souls.  In  1855  they  were  officially  estimated  at  about 
4000,  of  whom  about  3700  were  in  Kansas.  They 
number  now  in  round  numbers  about  3500;  Okla^ 
homa  (Citizen),  1660;  Kansas  (Prairie),  725;  Wis- 
consin (no  agent),  440;  Michigan  (including  "Hu- 
ron" band),  450;  Walpole  Island,  Ontario,  Canada 
(Methodist),  225.  The  linguistic  material  of  Pota- 
watomi is  meager,  consisting  chiefly  of  a  few  printed 
or  manuscript  vocabularies,  the  latter  with  the  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology,  together  with  one  or  two 
small  publications  by  the  Baptist  mission  board,  at 
Shawnee  Mission,  Kansas  (about  1837).  The  Pota- 
watomi were  organized  upon  the  clan  system,  having, 
according  to  Morgan,  15  gcntes:  Wolf,  Bear,  Beaver, 
Elk,  Loon,  Eagle,  Sturgeon,  Carp,  Bald  Eagle, 
Thunder,  Rabbit,  Crow,  Fox,  Turkey,  Black  Hawk. 
Like  most  of  the  Algonquin  tribes  of  the  central  area 
they  were  semi-sedentary  and  semi-agricultural, 
but  subsisted  also  largely  by  hunting  and  fishing, 
as  well  as  by  the  gathering  of  wild  rice  and  the  pre- 
paration of  maple  sugar.  They  built  communal 
bark-covered  lodges,  and  buried  in  the  ground  or  in 
hollow  logs,  excepting  the  Rabbit  gens,  which  prac- 
ticed cremation.  They  sacrificed  chiefly  to  the  sun, 
and  each  man  had  also  his  personal  tutelary,  which 
was  chosen  at  their  great  "dream  feast".  'Their  or- 
dinary dress  was  of  buck.skin,  but  the  men  frequently 
went  almost  naked  excepting  for  the  breechcloth. 
Their  primitive  weapons  were  the  bow,  tomahawk, 
and  knife;  they  fought  generally  on  foot.  Polygamy 
was  common,  but  the  women  were  noted  for  their 
reserve,  as  were  the  men  for  their  humane  and  re- 
fined disposition  as  compared  with  other  tribes. 
They  were  also  experts  in  the  athletic  game  of  la- 
XII.— 21 


crosse.     The  majority  of  the  tribe  are  now  fairly  pros- 
perous farmers. 

Jesuit  Relations,  ed.  Thwaitbs  (73  vols.,  Cleveland,  1896- 
1901);  Catholic  Ind.  Missions  in  Annual  Repts.  of  Director 
(Washington) ;  Comsner.  of  Ind.  Affairs  in  Annual  Repts.  (Wash- 
ington); Dept.  of  Ind.  Affairs  (Canada)  in  Annual  Repts.  (Ot- 
tawa) ;  Duerinck  Letters  in  Repts.  Secretary  of  Interior  (Wash- 
ington, 1852-7);  Dunn,  True  Indian  Stories  (Indianapolis, 
1908) ;  Shee,  Catholic  Indian  Missions  (New  York,  1854) ; 
DeSmet,  Western  Missions  and  Missionaries  (New  York,  1863) ; 
Wisconsin  State  Hist.  Soc,  coils.  XI  (Madison,  1888);  Filling, 
Bibliography  of  Algonquin  Langs,  in  Bull.  Bur.  Am.  Ethnology 
(Washington,  1891) ;  Boyce  and  Thomas,  Indian  Land  Cessions 
in  18lh  Rept.  Bur.  Am.  Ethnology,  II  (Washington,  1899);  New 
York  Colonial  Documents  (15  vols.,  Albany,  1853-87);  American 
State  Papers:  Ind.  Affairs,  I  (Washington,  1832);  Mebgky, 
DScouvertes  et  itablissements  des  Frangais  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1875-86). 

James  Moonet. 

Pothier,  Robert  Joseph,  a  celebrated  French 
lawyer,  b.  at  Orleans,  9  January,  1699;  d.  there,  2 
March,  1772.  His  father  was  a  judge  of  the  petty 
court,  a  position  later  filled  by  the  son  (1750),  who 
at  the  same  time  was  professor  of  French  law  at  the 
University  of  Orleans  (1750).  His  life,  devoted  to 
teaching  and  the  administration  of  justice,  was  not 
marked  by  any  important  events;  his  considerable 
influence  was  exercised  in  his  lectures  and  his  works. 
Of  an  austere  life,  modest,  disinterested,  and  pro- 
foundly religious,  he  was  a  characteristic  representa- 
tive of  the  legal  profession  under  the  old  regime.  His 
principal  work  was  rather  an  arrangement  of  the  texts 
of  the  Roman  Law:  "Pandectae  Justinianese  in 
novum  ordinem  digestae",  3  vols.  (Paris,  1748-52) 
several  times  re-edited,  and  pubhshed  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Chancellor  d'Aguesseau,  who  offered 
him  a  professorship  after  the  appearance  of  the  first 
volume.  Having  written  in  collaboration  with  Pro- 
vost de  la  Jann^s  and  Jousse,  a  remarkable  "Intro- 
duction k  la  coutume  d'Orl^ans  (Orleans,  1740),  he 
pubhshed  "Les  Coutumes  d'Orl^ans"  (1760).  He  is 
especially  known  for  a  series  of  treatises  on  duties, 
sales,  constitution  of  rents,  exchange,  hiring,  leases, 
leasing  of  cattle,  contracts  of  beneficence,  contracts 
aleatory,  contracts  of  marriage,  the  community, 
dowry,  law  of  habitation,  tenure  of  the  estate,  pos- 
session, and  title;  they  were  pubhshed  between  1761 
and  1772;  all  collected  in  his  "Trait^s  sur  diff^rentes 
mati^resdu  droit  civil"  (Orlfens,  1781).  Otheressays 
left  in  manuscript,  principally  on  fiefs,  successions, 
donations,  civil  and  criminal  procedure,  were  pub- 
lished between  1776  and  1778.  All  these  works,  in 
plain  clear  compilation,  perfectly  planned,  were  in 
the  hands  of  the  jurists  who  edited  the  new  French 
Civil  Code  (Code  Napoleon).  As  the  editors  took 
into  account  both  the  Roman  and  the  common  law, 
Pothier's  writings  were  exceedingly  useful  for  the 
purposes  of  the  new  codification  which  owed  consid- 
erable to  them,  especially  as  regards  questions  of 
duties  and  contracts.  See  Th^zard,  "De  I'influence 
des  travaux  de  Pothier  et  du  Chancelier  d'Aguesseau 
sur  le  droit  civil  moderne"  (Paris,  1866).  Pothier's 
most  interesting  work,  from  a  religious  point  of  view, 
is  his  "Traits  du  contrat  de  mariage",  in  which  he 
exposes  in  all  their  fullness  the  current  Galilean  doc- 
trines. According  to  French  lawyers,  not  only  is  the 
marriage  contract  distinct  from  the  sacrament,  and 
becomes  such  only  through  the  nuptial  benediction,  but 
it  is  subject  to  the  authority  of  princes,  who  can  legis- 
late on  the  marriages  of  their  subjects,  remove  obstacles, 
and  regulate  the  formalities ;  thus  marriages  of  minors 
contracted  without  the  consent  of  their  parents  are 
declared  null  and  void.  Further,  marriage  matters, 
not  alone  of  separation  or  divorce,  but  of  nullification, 
pertain  to  the  secular  tribunals.  In  this  way  he  was 
a  forerunner  of  the  secularization  of  marriage,  and 
the  establishment  of  civil  marriage  (Esmein,  "Le 
mariage  en  droit  canonique"  Paris,  1891,  I,  33  sq.). 

DupiN,  Dissertation  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages  de  Pothier  (Paris, 
1825);   Fremont,  Vie  de  Rob.-Joa.  Pothier  (Orleans,  1850). 

A.    BOUDINHON. 


POTHINUS 


322 


POUSSIN 


Pothinus,  Saint.     See  Gaul,  Christian. 

Pouget,  Jean-Fran(;ois-Albert  du,  Marquis 
DE  Nadaillac,  b.  in  1S17;  d.  at  Rougemont,  Cloyes, 
1  October,  1904;  the  scion  of  an  old  French  family, 
and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  among  modern 
men  of  anthropologic  science.  He  devoted  his  earlier 
years  to  public  affairs,  and  served  in  1871  and  1877 
respectively  as  prefect  of  the  Departments  of  Basses- 
Pyrenees  and  Indre-et-Loire,  proving  himself  an  able 
and  sympathetic  administrator.  On  completing  his 
term  of  office  he  retired  into  private  life  and  devoted 
himself  to  scientific  research,  chiefly  in  the  lines  of 
palaeontology  and  anthropology,  giving  particular  at- 
tention to  American  questions,  upon  which  he  was  a 
leading  authority.  He  had  much  to  do  with  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  caves  of  southern  France,  being  es- 
pecially interested  in  the  evidence  of  artistic  develop- 
ment in  the  primitive  occupants.  He  was  probably 
the  foremost  authority  on  cave  drawings.  He  studied 
deeply  the  relation  of  science  to  faith,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  to  warn  the  French  nation  of  the  impend- 
ing danger  of  race  suicide.  To  a  dignified  presence 
he  united  an  exquisite  politeness  which  sprang  from 
a  kind  heart.  Of  a  spiritual  temperament,  he  was  an 
earnest  Catholic.  He  died  at  his  ancestral  chateau  of 
Rougemont,  near  Cloyes,  Department  of  Eure-et-Loir, 
in  his  87th  year,  and,  as  officially  announced,  "fortified 
by  the  sacraments  of  the  Church",  combining  in 
himself  the  highest  type  of  Christian  gentleman  and 
profound  scientist.  He  was  a  member  of  learned 
societies  in  evrry  part  of  the  world,  including  several 
in  the  United  Stutes,  and  he  held  decorations  from 
half  a  dozen  Governments,  besides  being  i  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  was  also  a  correspond- 
ent of  the  Institute  of  France. 

His  published  volumes  and  shorter  papers  cover  a 
remarkably  wide  range  of  interest.  In  this  country 
he  is  probably  best  known  for  his  great  work  on 
Prehistoric  America  (in  French),  published  in  Paris 
in  1883,  and  in  English  at  New  York  in  1884. 
Among  other  important  papers  may  be  noted 
those  on  "Tertiary  Man"  (1885);  "Decline  of 
the  Birthrate  in  France"  (1886);  "The  Glacial 
Epoch"  (1886);  "Manners  and  Monuments  of 
Prehistoric  Peoples"  (Paris,  1888);  "Origin  and  De- 
velopment of  Life  upon  the  Globe"  (1888);  "Pre- 
historic Discoveries  and  Christian  Beliefs"  (1889); 
"Most  Ancient  Traces  of  Man  in  America"  (1890); 
"The  Fust  Population  of  Europe"  (1890);  "The 
National  Peril"  (1890);  "The  Progress  of  Anthro- 
pology" (1891);  "Intelligence  and  Instinct"  (1892); 
"The  Depopulation  of  France"  (1892);  "The 
Lacustrine  Population  of  Europe"  (1894);  "Faith 
and  Science"  (1895);  "Evolution  and  Dogma" 
(1896);  "Unity  of  the  Human  Species"  (1897); 
"Man  and  the  Ape"  (1898);  "Painted  or  Incised 
Figures  .  .  of  Prehistoric  Caverns"  (1904).  Most 
of  these  appeared  first,  either  in  the  journal  of  the 
Institute  or  in  the  Revue  des  Questions  Scientifiques 
of  Louvain  and  Brussels. 

GAnoRY,  in  VAnihropuloaie,  XV,  No.  5  (Paris,  Sept.,  1904); 
McGniHE,  in  Am.  Anlhropologisl,  N.  S.,  VII,  No.  I  (Lancaster, 
Jan.,  1905). 

J.UIES   MOONEY. 

Pounde,  Thojias,  lay  brother,  b.  at  Beaumond  (or 
Belmont),  Farlington,  Hampshire,  29  May,  1538  or 
1539;  d.  there,  26  Feb.,  1612-13;  eldest  son  of  Wil- 
liam Pounde  and  Helen,  .sister  or  half-sister  to  Thomas 
Wriothesley,  Earl  of  Southampton.  He  is  reported  to 
have  been  educated  at  Winchester  College.  He  was 
admitted  to  Lincoln's  Inn  16  Feb.,  1559-60,  and  his 
father  dying  in  the  same  month,  he  then  succeeded  to 
Beaumond,  and  soon  after  was  appointed  esquire  of 
the  body  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  acted  the  part  of 
Mercury  in  Gasfoipne's  Masque,  performed  before  the 
queen  at  Kenilwortli  in  1565.    During  the  revelries  of 


Christmastide,  1569,  after  dancing  before  the  queen, 
he  received  a  public  affront  from  her,  which  induced 
him  to  retire  from  the  court. 

Shortly  afterwards  he  was  reconciled  to  the  Church, 
probably  by  Father  Henry  Alway,  and  after  some 
time  of  seclusion  at  Beaumond,  began  an  active  career 
as  proselytizer.  He  was  in  the  Marshalsea  for  six 
months  in  1574;  in  Winchester  Gaol  for  some  months 
in  1575-6;  and  in  the  Marshalsea  again  from  9 
March,  1575-76,  to  18  Sept.,  1580,  being  made  a 
Jesuit  lay-brother  by  a  letter  dated  1  Dec,  1578,  from 
the  Father-General  Mercurian,  sent  at  the  instance  of 
Father  Thomas  Stevens,  S..I.,  the  first  Englishman  to 
go  to  India.  From  the  Marshalsea  Pounde  was  re- 
moved to  Bishop's  Stortford  Castle,  and  thence  to 
AMsbech.  Then  he  was  in  the  Tower  of  London  13 
Aug.,  1581,  to  7  Dec,  1585.  He  was  in  the  White 
Lion,  Southwark,  from  1  Sept.,  1586,  till  he  was  sent 
back  to  Wisbech  in  1587,  where  he  remained  nearly 
ten  years.  He  was  again  in  the  Tower  of  London  from 
Feb.,  1596-7,  to  the  autumn  of  1598,  when  he  was 
again  committed  to  Wisbech.  From  Wisbech  he  was 
relegated  to  the  Wood  Street  Counter,  where  he  re- 
mained for  six  weeks  from  19  Doc,  1598.  After  that 
he  was  in  the  Tower  again  until  7  July,  1601.  He 
was  then  in  Framlingham  Castle  for  a  year.  In  1602 
he  was  in  Newgate,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was 
indicted  at  York.  Afterwards  he  was  in  the  Gate- 
house, Westminster,  for  some  time,  then  in  the  Tower 
(for  the  fourth  time)  for  four  months,  and  lastly  in  the 
Fleet  for  three  months.  He  was  finally  liberated  late 
in  1604  or  early  in  1605,  having  spent  nearly  thirty 
years  in  prison.  These  facts  are  but  the  dry  bones  of 
the  career  of  an  heroic  man,  whose  real  biography  has 
yet  to  be  written.  The  "life"  by  Father  Matthias 
Tanner,  S.J.,  is  full  of  inaccuracies. 

Tanner,  Societas  Jesu  Apostolorum  Imitatrix  (Prague,  1694), 
450;  Foley,  Records  English  Province  S.J.  (London,  1877-S.3); 
Notes  and  Queries,  10th  series,  IV  and  V  (London,  1905-06) ;  Cal- 
endars of  Domestic  State  Papers;  Dasent,  Act.^  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil; Catholic  Record  Society's  Publications;  Morris,  Troubles  of  our 
Catholic  Forefathers  (London,  1872-77)  ;  Simpson  in  The  Rambler, 
VIIL  25-38,  94-106. 

John  B.  Wainbwright. 

Poussin,  Nicolas,  French  painter,  b.  at  Les 
Andelys  near  Rouen  in  1594;  d.  at  Rome,  19  Novem- 
ber, 1666.  His  early  history  is  obscure;  his  father 
had  been  a  soldier,  his  mother  was  a  peasant.  In 
1612,  Varin,  a  wandering  painter,  brought  him  to 
Paris,  where  he  experienced  great  distress.  In  despair 
he  tried  his  fortune  in  the  provinces  but  nothing  re- 
mains of  what  he  did  at  that  time  in  Poitou  and  later 
with  the  Capuchins  at  Blois,  as  well  as  the  six  pictures 
he  painted  in  eight  days  for  the  Jesuit  college  at  Paris. 
He  studied  under  Varin,  Lallemand,  and  Ferdinand 
Elle,  but  they  had  no  share  in  his  development.  The 
French  school  was  then  in  a  languid  condition.  The 
religious  wars  of  the  time  rendered  abortive  the  at- 
tempt of  Francis  I  to  inaugurate  the  Renaissance,  and 
Henry  IV  had  other  things  to  engross  his  attention 
besides  the  arts.  His  successor  sought  rather  such 
foreign  artists  as  John  of  Bologna,  Pourbus,  and 
Rubens.  At  this  juncture  Poussin  learned  of  some 
engravings  by  Marc  Antonio  after  Giulio  Romano  and 
Raphael.  This  was  his  road  to  Damascus.  Antique 
beauty  was  revealed  to  him  through  the  works  of 
these  sons  of  Italy  and  thenceforth  he  lived  in  the 
past.  All  modern  civilization  seemed  barbarous  to  him. 
His  experience  was  an  illumination,  a  veritable  con- 
version. Henceforth  he  had  no  rest  until  he  found 
the  fatherland  of  his  heart  and  his  ideas.  Three  at- 
tempts he  made  to  reach  Rome.  Compelled  to  return 
to  Paris  he  there  encountered  Marini,  the  famous 
author  of  the  "Adonis",  who  contracted  a  warm 
friendship  for  the  enthusiastic  boy:  "Che  ha",  said 
he,  "una  furia  di  diavolo".  With  him  he  finally 
reached  Rome  in  1624;  but  Marini  died  within  a  few 
months  and  Poussin  was  alone  in  a  strange  city,  help- 


POUSSIN 


323 


POUSSIN 


less,  ill,  without  means,  and  reduced  to  doing  hack 
work.  The  poor  artist  then  naet  a  countryman,  the 
cook  Dughet,  who  took  pity  on  him,  sheltered  and 
cured  him,  and  whose  daughter  he  married  (1629). 

At  the  time  of  his  arrival  at  Rome  the  school  was 
divided  into  two  parties,  that  of  the  mannerists  who 
followed  Guido,  and  that  of  the 
brutal  naturalists  who  followed 
Caravaggio,  both  in  Poussin's 
opinion  quackery,  equally  dis- 
honest and  remote  from  reality. 
He  detested  the  affected  airs  of 
the  fashionable  painters,  their 
sentimentality,  their  insipidity, 
their  ecstasy.  Nor  was  he  less 
hard  on  the  affectation  of  the 
"naturalists  and  their  partiality 
for  ugliness  and  vulgarity".  He 
called  Caravaggio's  art  "paint- 
ing for  lackeys",  and  added: 
"This  man  is  come  to  destroy 
painting"  Both  schools  sought 
to  execute  more  beautifully  or 
more  basely  than  nature;  Art  was 
endangered  for  lack  of  rule,  con- 
science, and  discipline.  It  was 
time  to  escape  from  caprice  and 
anarchy,  from  the  despotism  of 
tastes  and  temperaments.  And 
this  was  what  Poussin  sought 
to   achieve  by   his  doctrine   of 

"imitation"     To  imitate  the  an-  ,.,    Nicolas  Pousbin 

tique  was  to  approach  nature,  to  '^"^"^ "  P'"'""'^  ^^  '^™^^"> 

learn  conformity  with  reality,  to  recover  life  in  its  most 
lasting,  noble,  and  human  forms.  Such  at  least  was  the 
doctrine  and  faith  which  he  practised  unceasingly  in 
his  works  and  letters.  For  this  he  became  an  archae- 
ologist, a  numismatist,  a  scholar.  He  used  scientific 
methods,  measuring 


antiquity.  Among  these  to  mention  only  dated  works 
are:"'The  Rape  of  the  Sabines",  and  "The  Plague  of 
the  Phihstines"  (1630,  Louvre);  "The  Testament  oi 
Eudamidas"    (Copenhagen);    "Hebrews    Gathering 


Manna"  (1639);  "Moses  Rescued  from  the  Waters" 


statues,  consulting 
bas-rehefs,  studying 
painted  vases,  sar- 
cophagi, and  mo- 
saics. Every  point 
was  based  on  an  au- 
thentic document. 
In  this  he  was  doubt- 
less influenced  by  a, 
certain  narrowness 
and  misunderstand- 
ing of  the  claims  of 
realism.  To  a  cer- 
tain extent  his  art 
is  for  the  initiated, 
the  taste  for  it  re- 
quires culture.  More, 
this  pure  ideal  im- 
plies a  singular  an- 
achronism. Poussin 
presents  the  strange 
case  of  a  man  isolated 
in  the  past  and  who 


never  descended  in  history  lower  than  the  Antonines. 
By  his  turn  of  mind  this  man  of  austere  virtue  was 
scarcely  Christian.  He  rarely  painted  scenes  from  the 
Gospel .  His  Christ  is  certainly  one  of  his  weakest  types. 
Let  me  dare  to  say  it :  as  an  artist  Poussin  thinks  some- 
what like  a  Leconte  de  Lisle  or  like  the  Renan  of  the 
"  PriSre  sur  I'Acropole  "  Poussin  had  no  desire  to  see 
the  modem  world.  He  left  but  a  single  portrait,  his 
own.  He  is  wholly  expressed  in  Bernini's  words: 
"Veramente  quest'  uomo  e  stato  grande  istoriatore  e 
grande  favoleggiatore  "  He  was  a  great  historian,  a 
great  teller  of  fables,  an  epic  poet,  in  a  word  the  fore- 
most of  his  time  and  one  of  the  foremost  of  all  time. 
His  works  are  very  numerous.  The  first  group  con- 
tains subjects  borrowed  from  sacred  and  profane 


(1647);  "Ehezer  and  Rebecca"  (1648);  "The  Judg- 
ment of  Solomon"  (1649);  "The 
Blind  Men  of  Jericho"  (1650); 
"The  Adulteress"  (1653);  all 
these  last-named  pictures  are  at 
the  Louvre.  To  these  must  be 
added  the  important  double 
series  of  pictures  known  as  the 
"Seven  Sacraments".  The  first, 
painted  (1644-8)  for  Cavaliere 
del  Pozzo,  is  now  at  the  Bridge- 
water  Gallery,  London.  The 
second  is  a  very  different  varia- 
tion of  the  former  and  was  painted 
for  M.  de  Chantelou,  his  cor- 
respondent and  active  protector. 
It  is  now  in  the  collection  of  the 
Duke  of  Rutland  at  Belvoir 
Castle.  This  historical  portion 
of  his  work  seems  to  have  been 
most  in  favour  with  his  contem- 
poraries. It  immediately  became 
classic  and  it  is  certainly  filled 
with  the  highest  beauty.  Despite 
their  high  and  strong  qualities, 
however,  these  works  no  longer  at- 
tract us,  for  we  often  find  therein 
an  intellectual  aifront,  a  some- 
thing too  literary  or  too  rationalistic  which  seems  to 
us  foreign  to  the  genius  of  painting.  But  that  this  was 
relished  by  the  French  of  the  seventeenth  century  is 
shown  by  their  commentaries  on  these  works.  The 
description  of  the  two  pictures,   "Eliezer"  and  the 

"Manna",  fills  forty 
quarto  pages  in  F^li- 
bien.  Apart  from 
these  historical 
scenes  which  "re- 
late" and  "prove" 
there  is  a  purely 
lyric  side.  In  it  are 
evident  the  wonder- 
ful skill  of  the  de- 
signer and  the  poet, 
detached  from  any 
attempt  at  anecdote 
or  "illustration" 
Such  were  the  "  Bac- 
chanalia", the  "Tri- 
umph of  Flora'',  the 
"Childhood  of  Jupi- 
ter", which  do  little 
more  than  repeat  the 
theme  of  the  joy  and 
beauty  of  living. 
Here  Poussin's  ge- 
nius freed  of  all  re- 
straint can  only  be  compared  to  that  of  great  musicians 
such  as  Rameau  or  Gluck.  Properly  speaking  it  is  the 
genius  of  rhythm.  This  is  his  true  sphere,  as  original  as 
that  of  any  master,  and  the  inexhaustible  source  of  his 
emotion  and  poetry.  In  a  sense  his  work  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  ballet.  This  was  his  idea  in  his  famous 
letter  on  the  modes  of  the  ancients,  who  distinguished 
as  many  as  seven,  the  Dorian,  Phrygian,  Lydian,  Hy- 
polydian  etc.  "Idesire",  he  added,  "before  another 
year  to  compose  a  picture  in  the  Phrygian  manner". 
This  phrase  would  have  aroused  less  amusement  if 
Whistler's  works,  with  his  "symphonies",  "harmo- 
nies", "nocturns",  and  "sonatas",  had  been  known. 
But  this  music  of  painting  which  Whistler  made  chiefly 
a  matter  of  colour  seemed  to  Poussin  a  question  of 


Moses  taken  from  the  River 
N.  Poussin — The  Louvre 


POVERTY 


324 


POVERTY 


movement.     For  him  it  meant  life  understood  as  a 
dance  which  the  Greeks  made  a  science. 

Finally  the  landscape  becomes  more  and  more  im- 
portant in  this  lyrical  or  poetical  side  of  his  work. 
Nature  accompanies  with  its  profound  harmony  the 
human  sentiments  which  transpire  on  its  surface,  the 
persons  are  merely  a  melodious  figure  outlined  against 
the  chorus  of  things.  As  a  landscape  artist  he  is  with- 
out a  peer,  unless  it  be  Titian.  Constable  finds  some- 
thing religious  in  his  landscapes;  in  fact  when  con- 
templating his  "Polyphemus"  or  his  "Cacus"  (St. 
Petersburg),  it  is  easy  to  understand  (what  no  one 
since  Virgil  has  felt)  the  naturalistic  and  mysterious 
origin  of  myths.  Beyond  doubt  this  is  something  far 
removed  from  the  pious  Franciscan  tenderness  as  it 
finds  expression  in  the  "Canticle  of  creatures";  it  is 
rather  the  religion  of  Epicurus  or  Lucretius,  which 
teaches  conformity  with  the  ends  of  the  universe  and 
as  supreme  wisdom  counsels  harmony  with  the  rhythm 
of  nature.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  Poussin  seems 
to  have  renounced  the  personal  or  dramatic  element. 
His  last  works,  the  "Four  Seasons"  of  the  Louvre 
(1664-65),  are  simply  four  landscapes  which  please  by 
variety  of  sense.  Like  the  ancient  sage  the  master 
leaves  history  and  psychology,  and  devotes  himself 
simply  to  music.  Between  1624  and  his  death  he 
was  absent  from  Rome  only  once  (1641-2)  at  the 
command  of  Richelieu,  who  summoned  him  to  Paris 
to  superintend  the  work  at  the  Louvre  with  the  title  of 
painter  to  the  king.  This  journey  was  otherwise  un- 
fortunate. The  artist  was  misunderstood  by  the 
painters,  who  soon  succeeded  in  driving  him  away. 
All  that  remains  of  this  period  are  two  large  pic- 
tures, a  "Last  Supper",  very  mediocre,  painted  for 
St.  Germain  en  Laye,  a  "Miracle  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier",  painted  for  the  Jesuit  novitiate,  and  a  ceil- 
ing, the  "Triumph  of  Truth",  painted  for  Richelieu's 
chateau  at  Rueil.  These  three  canvases  are  at  the 
Louvre.  On  his  return  to  Rome  Poussin  found  his 
authority  much  increased  by  his  official  title.  He 
lived  not  far  from  the  Trinita  de  Monti  in  a  little  side 
street  where  he  had  as  neighbours  Claude  Lorrain  and 
Salvator.  Among  artists  he  exercised  a  singular  in- 
fluence. Nearly  all  the  Frenchmen  who  came  to  Rome 
to  study,  from  Mignard  to  Le  Brun  and  Sebastien 
Bourdon,  not  to  mention  his  brother-in-law  Gaspard 
Dughet  (called  ' '  Guaspre  " ) ,  imitated  him  and  claimed 
him  as  master ;  but  as  usual  none  of  them  understood 
him.  In  his  century  he  was  an  isolated  genius,  but  his 
glory  has  not  been  useless  to  us;  it  shone  more  bril- 
liantly in  the  decadence  of  the  Italian  school  and  it 
gave  to  the  French  school  what  it  had  hitherto  lacked 
— titles  and  an  ancestor. 

I.  Poussin's  coireapondence  in  Bottari,  RaccoUa  di  Lettere 
(Rome,  1764),  and  in  Quatremebe  de  Quincy,  Collection  des 
Leitres  du  Poussin  (Paris,  1824),  defective  edition,  a  critical  one 
is  in  pres3.  II.  Biographies:  Bellori,  Vite  de'  pittori  (Rome, 
1672);  F^LIBIEN,  Enlreliens  sur  la  vie  des  plus  excellents  peintres 
(2nd  ed.,  Paris,  IGSS) ;  Archii'es  de  V Art  JranQais  (Paris,  1854  sq.), 
1,1-11,140-50;  11,224-31;  111,1-18;  VI,  241-54.  III.  Studies 
on  Poussin:  de  Saint  Germain,  Vie  de  N.  Poussin  (Paris,  1806); 
Graham,  Memoirs  of  the  life  of  N.  Poussin  (London,  1820) ; 
BoucHiTT^,  Le  Poussin,  sa  vie  et  son  teuvre  (Paris,  1858);  Dela- 
croix, Le  Poussin  in  PiRON,  Eug.  Delacroix,  sa  vie  et  ses  CBUvres 
(Paris,  181)5);  Jouin,  Conferences  de  VAcadSmie  de  peinture  et  de 
sculpture  (Paris,  18.^3);  Denio,  Nicolas  Poussin  (Leipzig,  1898); 
Advielle,  Rechercli's  sur  Nicolas  Poussin  (Paris,  1902);  Des- 
JARDINS,  Poussin  (Paris,  s.  d.). 

Louis  Gillet. 

Poverty.  I.  The  Moral  Doctrine  of  Poverty. 
— Jesus  Christ  did  not  condemn  the  possession  of 
worldly  goods,  or  even  of  great  wealth;  for  He  himself 
had  rich  friends.  Patristic  tradition  condemns  the 
opponents  of  private  property;  the  texts  on  which 
such  persons  rely,  when  taken  in  connexion  with  their 
context  and  the  historical  circumstances,  are  capable 
of  a  natural  explanation  which  does  not  at  all  support 
their  contention  (cf.  Vermeersch,  "Qua;st.  de  jus- 
titia",  n.  210).  Nevertheless  it  is  true  that  Christ 
constantly  pointed  out  the  danger  of  riches,  which, 


He  says,  are  the  thorns  that  choke  up  the  good  seed 
of  the  word  (Matt.,  xiii,  22).  Because  of  His  poverty 
as  well  as  of  His  constant  journeying,  necessitated  by 
persecution.  He  could  say:  "The  foxes  have  holes,  and 
the  birds  of  the  air  nests :  but  the  son  of  man  hath  not 
where  to  lay  his  head"  (Matt.,  viii,  20),  and  to  the 
young  man  who  came  to  ask  Him  what  he  should  do 
that  he  might  have  life  everlasting,  He  gave  the  coun- 
sel, "  If  thou  wilt  be  perfect,  go  sell  what  thou  hast, 
and  give  to  the  poor"  (Matt.,  xix,  16-21).  The  re- 
nunciation of  worldly  possessions  has  long  been  a 
part  of  the  practice  of  Christian  asceticism ;  the  Chris- 
tian community  of  Jerusalem  in  their  first  fervour  sold 
their  goods  "and  divided  them  to  all,  according  as 
every  one  had  need"  (Acts,  ii,  45),  and  those  who  em- 
braced the  state  of  perfection  understood  from  the 
first  that  they  must  choose  poverty. 

Does  this  mean  that  poverty  is  the  object  of  a 
special  virtue?  Gury  (Theolog.  moralis  II,  n.  155) 
answers  the  question  in  the  affirmative,  and  many 
religious  writers  favour  the  same  opinion,  which  is 
supported  by  the  ordinary  conventual  and  ascetical 
literature;  what  is  prescribed  by  the  vow  of  poverty 
is  compared  therein  with  the  virtue  of  poverty,  just 
as  we  compare  the  vows  of  obedience  and  chastity 
with  the  corresponding  virtues.  But  this  is  erroneous ; 
for  the  object  of  a  virtue  must  be  something  honour- 
able or  praiseworthy  in  itself:  now  poverty  has  no  in- 
trinsic goodness,  but  is  good  only  because  it  is  useful 
to  remove  the  obstacles  which  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
pursuit  of  spiritual  perfection  (St.  Thomas,  "Contra 
Gentiles",  III,  cxxxiii;  Suarez,  "Dereligione",  tr.  VII, 
1.  VIII,  c.  ii,n.6;  Bucoeroni,  "Inst,  theol.mor.",  II,  75, 
n.  31).  The  practice  of  poverty  derives  its  merit 
from  the  virtuous  motive  ennobling  it,  and  from  the 
virtues  which  we  exercise  in  regard  to  the  privations 
and  sacrifices  accompanying  it.  As  every  vow  has 
for  its  object  the  worship  of  God,  poverty  practised 
under  a  vow  has  the  merit  of  the  virtue  of  religion,  and 
its  public  profession,  as  enjoined  by  the  Church,  forms 
a  part  of  the  ritual  of  the  Catholic  religion. 

The  ancients  understood  the  nobility  of  making 
themselves  independent  of  the  fleeting  things  of  earth, 
and  certain  Greek  philosophers  lived  in  voluntary 
penury;  but  they  prided  themselves  on  being  superior 
to  the  vulgar  crowd.  There  is  no  virtue  in  such  pov- 
erty as  this,  and  when  Diogenes  trampled  Plato's 
carpet,  saying  as  he  did  so:  "Thus  do  I  trample  on 
Plato's  pride",  "Yes",  answered  Plato,  "but  only 
through  your  own  pride."  Buddhism  also  teaches  the 
contempt  of  riches;  in  China  the  tenth  precept  of  the 
novices  forbids  them  to  touch  gold  or  silver,  and  the 
second  precept  of  female  novices  forbids  them  to  pos- 
sess anything  of  their  own;  but  their  ignorance  of  a 
personal  God  prevents  the  Buddhist  monks  from 
having  any  higher  motive  for  their  renunciation  than 
the  natural  advantage  of  restraining  their  desires  (cf. 
Wieger,  "Bouddhisme  chinois",  pp.  153,  155,  183, 
185) .  If  voluntary  poverty  is  ennobled  by  the  motive 
which  inspires  it,  the  poverty  which  puts  aside  tem- 
poral possessions  for  the  service  of  God  and  the  salva- 
tion of  souls  is  the  most  noble  of  all.  It  is  the 
apostolic  poverty  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  is 
practised  in  the  highest  degree  by  missionaries  in 
pagan  countries,  and  to  a  certain  degree  by  all  priests : 
all  these  voluntarily  give  up  certain  possessions  and  ad- 
vantages in  order  to  devote  themselves  entirely  to  the 
service  of  God. 

Voluntary  poverty  is  the  object  of  one  of  the  evan- 
gelical counsels.  The  question  then  arises,  what 
poverty  is  required  by  the  practice  of  this  counsel  or, 
in  other  words,  what  poverty  suffices  for  the  state  of 
perfection?  The  renunciation  which  is  essential  and 
strictly  required  is  the  abandonment  of  all  that  is 
superfluous,  not  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  give 
up  the  ownership  of  all  property,  but  a  man  must  be 
contented  with  what  is  necessary  for  his  own  use.  Then 


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POVERTY 


only  is  there  a  real  detachment  which  sufficiently 
mortifies  the  love  of  riches,  cuts  off  luxury  and  vain 
glory,  and  frees  from  the  care  for  worldly  goods. 
Cupidity,  vain  glory,  and  excessive  solicitude  are, 
according  to  St.  Thomas,  the  three  obstacles  which 
riches  put  in  the  way  of  acquiring  perfection  (Summa, 
II-II,  Q.  clxxxviii,  a.  7).  This  abandonment  of 
superfluities  was  the  only  way  in  which  voluntary 
poverty  could  be  understood  before  the  introduction 
of  the  common  life.  The  state  of  perfection,  under- 
stood in  its  proper  sense,  requires  also  that  the  renun- 
ciation should  be  of  a  permanent  character;  and  in 
practice  this  stability  follows  as  the  result  of  a  per- 
petual vow  of  poverty.  The  warnings  and  counsels 
of  Jesus  Christ  are  valuable  even  to  those  who  arc  not 
vowed  to  a  state  of  perfection.  They  teach  men  to 
moderate  their  desire  for  riches,  and  accept  cheerfully 
the  loss  or  deprivation  of  them;  and  they  inculcate 
that  detachment  from  the  things  of  this  world  which 
our  Lord  taught  when  He  said,  "  Every  one  of  you  that 
doth  not  renounce  all  that  he  possesseth,  cannot  be 
my  disciple"  (Luke,  xiv,  33). 

II.  The  Canonical  Discipline  of  Poveety. — 
Among  the  followers  of  perfection,  the  spirit  of 
poverty  was  manifested  from  the  first  by  giving  up 
temporal  possessions ;  and  among  those  living  in  com- 
munity, the  use  of  goods  as  private  property  was 
strictl}'  forbidden,  being  contrary  to  that  common  life 
which  the  patriarchs  of  monasticism,  St.  Pachomius 
and  his  disciple  Sch(5noudi,  St.  Basil,  and  St.  Benedict, 
imposed  upon  their  followers.  But  there  was  at  that 
time  no  express  vow  of  poverty,  and  no  legal  disabil- 
ity; the  monastic  profession  required  nothing  but  the 
rigorous  avoidance  of  all  that  was  unnecessary  (cf .  De 
Buck,  "De  sollemnitate  votorum,  preecipue  pauper- 
tatis  religiosae  epistola",  x).  Justinian  ordained 
that  the  goods  of  religious  should  belong  to  the  mon- 
astery (Xovel.  5,  iv  sqq.;  123,  xxxviii  and  xUi).  This 
law  gradually  came  into  force,  and  in  time  created  a 
disabihty  to  acquire  property,  although  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  even  later,  there  were  religious  in  pos- 
session of  property.  The  rule  of  French  law,  under 
which  a  religious  was  considered  as  civilly  dead,  con- 
tributed to  establish  a  necessary  connexion  between 
the  vow  of  poverty  and  the  idea  of  disability. 

The  express  vow  of  renunciation  of  all  private  prop- 
erty was  introduced  into  the  profession  of  the  Friars 
Minor  in  1260.  About  the  same  time  another  change 
took  place;  hitherto  no  limit  had  been  placed  on  the 
common  possessions  of  rehgious,  but  the  mendicant 
orders  in  the  thirteenth  century  forbade  the  posses- 
sion, even  in  common,  of  all  immovable  property  dis- 
tinct from  the  convent,  and  of  all  revenues;  and  the 
Friars  Minor  of  the  strict  observance,  desiring  to  go 
one  step  further,  assigned  to  the  Holy  See  the  owner- 
ship of  all  their  property,  even  the  most  indispensable. 
Following  the  example  of  St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominic, 
many  founders  established  their  orders  on  a  basis  of 
common  poverty,  and  the  Church  saw  a  large  increase 
in  the  number  of  the  mendicant  orders  until  the  foun- 
dation of  the  clerks  regular  in  the  sixteenth  century; 
even  then,  many  orders  united  common  poverty  with 
the  regular  clericaUife:  such  were  theTheatines  (1524), 
whose  rule  was  to  live  on  alms  and  contributions 
spontaneously  given;  and  the  Society  of  Jesus  (1540). 
It  soon  became  evident  that  this  profession  of  poverty 
which  had  so  greatly  edified  the  thirteenth  century 
was  exposed  to  grave  abuses,  that  a  certain  state  of 
destitution  created  more  cares  than  it  removed,  and 
was  not  conducive  either  to  intellectual  activity  or  to 
strict  observance;  and  that  mendicity  might  become 
an  occasion  of  scandal.  Consequently  the  Council 
of  Trent  (Sess.  XXV,  c.  iii,  de  reg.)  permitted  all 
monasteries,  except  those  of  the  Friars  Mmor  Ob- 
servantines  and  the  Capuchins,  to  possess  immovable 
property,  and  consequently  the  income  derived  there- 
from; but  the  Carmehteg  and  the  Society  of  Jesus,  in 


its  professed  houses,  continue  to  practise  the  common 
poverty  which  forbids  the  possession  of  assured  in- 
comes. 

Congregations  with  simple  vows  were  not  bound  by 
the  canonical  law  forbidding  the  private  possession  or 
acquisition  of  property  by  members  of  approved  or- 
ders: the  disability,  of  private  possession  was  thus 
considered  as  an  effect  of  the  solemn  vow  of  poverty; 
but  this  bond  between  the  incapacity  to  possess  and 
the  solemn  vow  is  neither  essential  nor  indissoluble. 
So  far  as  the  effect  of  the  vow  on  private  possession  is 
concerned,  the  vow  of  poverty  taken  by  the  formed 
coadjutors  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  has  the  same  effect 
as  the  solemn  vow  of  the  professed  fathers.  St. 
Ignatius  instituted  in  his  order  a  simple  profession 
preparatory  to  the  final  one  with  an  interval  between 
them  during  which  the  religious  retains  his  capacity 
to  possess  property.  A  similar  rule  has  been  extended 
to  all  orders  of  men  by  Pius  IX  and  to  orders  of  women 
by  Leo  XIII  (see  Profession,  Religious).  On  the 
other  hand,  since  the  Rescript  of  the  Penitentiary  of 
1  Dec,  1820,  confirmed  by  the  declaration  to  the 
bishops  of  Belgium  dated  31  July,  1878,  the  solemn 
profession  of  religious  in  Belgium  (and  Holland  ap- 
pears to  enjoy  the  same  privilege)  does  not  prevent 
them  from  acquiring  property,  or  keeping  and  admin- 
istering it,  or  disposing  of  it:  they  are  bound,  however, 
in  the  exercise  of  their  rights,  to  observe  the  submis- 
sion they  owe  to  their  legitimate  superiors. 

The  Vow  of  Poverty  in  General. — The  vow  of  pov- 
erty may  generally  be  defined  as  the  promise  made 
to  God  of  a  certain  constant  renunciation  of  temporal 
goods,  in  order  to  follow  Christ.  The  object  of  the 
vow  of  poverty  is  anything  visible,  material,  appre- 
ciable at  a  money  value.  Reputation,  personal  ser- 
vices, and  the  application  of  the  mass,  do  not  fall 
under  this  vow;  relics  are  included  only  on  account  of 
the  reliquary  which  contains  them,  and  (at  least  in 
practice)  manuscripts,  as  such,  remain  the  property 
of  the  religious.  The  vow  of  poverty  entirely  forbids 
the  independent  use,  and  sometimes  the  acquisition 
or  possession  of  such  property  as  falls  within  its  scope. 
A  person  who  has  made  this  vow  gives  up  the  right  to 
acquire,  possess,  use,  or  dispose  of  property  except  in 
accordance  with  the  will  of  his  superior.  Neverthe- 
less certain  acts  of  abdication  are  sometimes  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  religious  himself,  such  as  the  ar- 
rangements for  the  administration  and  application  of 
income  which  professed  religious  under  simple  vows 
are  required  to  make;  and  the  drawing  up  of  a  will,  by 
which  the  religious  makes  a  disposition  of  his  property 
to  take  effect  after  his  death,  may  be  permitted  with- 
out any  restriction.  This  license  with  regard  to  wills 
is  of  great  antiquity.  The  simple  fact  of  refusing  to 
accept,  for  example,  a  personal  legacy,  may  be  con- 
trary to  charity,  but  cannot  be  an  offence  against 
the  vow  of  poverty.  The  vow  of  poverty  does  not 
debar  a  religious  from  administering  an  ecclesiastical 
benefice  which  is  conferred  upon  him,  accepting  sums 
of  money  to  distribute  for  pious  works,  or  assuming 
the  administration  of  property  for  the  benefit  of  an- 
other person  (when  this  is  consistent  with  his  religious 
state),  nor  does  it  in  any  way  forbid  the  fulfilment  of 
obligations  of  justice,  whether  they  are  the  result  of 
a  voluntary  promise — for  the  religious  may  properly 
engage  to  offer  a  Mass  or  render  any  personal  service 
— or  arise  from  a  fault,  since  he  is  bound  in  justice  to 
repair  any  wrong  done  to  the  reputation  of  another 
person. 

Submission  to  a  superior  (as  we  call  the  person 
whose  permission,  by  the  terms  of  the  vow,  is  required 
for  all  acts  disposing  of  temporal  goods)  does  not 
necessarily  call  for  an  express  or  formal  permission. 
A  tacit  permission,  which  may  be  inferred  from  some 
act  or  attitude  and  the  expression  of  some  other  wish, 
or  even  a  reasonable  presumption  of  permission,  will 
be  sufficient.    There  is  no  violation  of  the  vow,  when 


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POVERTY 


the  religious  can  say  to  himself,  "the  superior,  who  is 
acquainted  with  the  facts,  will  approve  of  my  acting 
in  this  way  without  being  informed  of  my  intention". 
The  case  is  more  difficult,  when  he  knows  that  the 
superior  would  expect  to  be  informed,  and  asked  for 
permission,  even  though  he  would  wUlingly  have 
given  his  consent :  if  it  seems  probable  that  he  regards 
the  request  for  permission  as  a  condition  of  his  ap- 
proval, the  inferior  offends  against  the  vow  of  poverty, 
if  he  acts  without  asking  leave;  but  there  is  no  offence 
if  he  knows  that  the  superior  and  himself  are  agreed 
as  to  the  essential  nature  of  the  act ;  and  the  question 
whether  the  presumption  is  reasonable  or  otherwise 
may  depend  on  the  customs  of  different  orders,  the 
importance  of  the  object,  the  frequent  necessity  of  the 
act,  the  age  and  prudence  of  the  inferior,  his  relations 
with  his  superior,  the  facility  of  obtaining  access  to 
him,  and  other  similar  considerations.  Any  admission 
of  luxury  or  superfluity  in  daily  life  is  derogatory  to 
the  reUgious  state  and  the  first  conception  of  voluntary 
poverty;  but  it  is  not  clear  that  this  want  of  strictness 
is  necessarily  contrary  to  the  vow.  To  decide  this, 
regard  must  be  had  to  the  manner  in  which  each  par- 
ticular vow,  with  all  its  circumstances,  is  generally 
understood. 

A  sin  against  the  vow  of  poverty  is  necessarily  an 
offence  against  the  virtue  of  religion,  and  when  com- 
mitted in  connexion  with  religious  profession  it  is  even 
a  sacrilege.  It  may  be  a  grave  or  a  slight  offence.  The 
question,  what  matter  is  grave,  causes  great  difficulty 
to  moral  theologians;  and  while  some  regard  the  ap- 
propriation of  one  franc  as  a  grave  matter,  others  are 
more  lenient.  Most  theologians  are  inclined  to  com- 
pare the  sin  against  the  vow  of  poverty  with  the  sin  of 
theft,  and  say  that  the  same  amount  which  would  make 
theft  a  mortal  sin  would,  if  appropriated  contrary  to 
the  vow,  constitute  a  grave  offence  against  poverty. 
With  the  exception  of  Palmieri  (Opus  morale,  tr.  IX, 
c.  i,  n.  123)  and  G6nicot  (Theol.  mor.,  II,  n.  98)  moral- 
ists admit  that  as  in  the  case  of  sins  against  justice, 
so  here  circumstances  may  be  considered.  While 
many  persons  consider  the  importance  and  the  wealth 
or  poverty  of  the  community  in  which  the  offence  is 
committed,  we  are  of  opinion  that  it  is  rather  the 
extent  of  the  vow  that  should  be  considered,  since  the 
act  does  not  violate  the  vow  by  reason  of  the  harm  it 
causes,  but  by  its  being  a  forbidden  appropriation.  If 
the  fault  is  aggravated  by  injustice  it  must,  as  an  un- 
just act,  be  judged  according  to  the  usual  rules;  but 
when  considered  as  an  offence  against  the  vow,  its 
gravity  will  be  measured  by  the  condition  of  the  per- 
son who  commits  it.  Thus  a  sum  which  would  be 
very  large  for  a  beggar  will  be  insignificant  for  a  man 
who  had  belonged  to  a  higher  class.  The  social  posi- 
tion should  be  considered;  is  it  that  of  the  poor  or 
mendicant  class?  One  cannot  without  grave  fault 
dispose  independently  of  a  sum  which  without  grave 
fault  one  could  not  take  away  from  a  beggar.  For 
many  existing  congregations,  the  matter  will  be 
that  of  a  mortal  sin  of  theft  committed  to  the  detri- 
ment of  a  priest  of  honourable  condition.  It  fol- 
lows that  in  the  case  of  incomplete  appropriation, 
we  must  consider  the  economical  value  of  the  act  in 
question ;  whether,  for  example,  it  is  an  act  of  simple 
use  of  administration;  and  when  the  religious  does 
nothing  but  give  away  honourably  goods  of  which  he 
retains  the  ownership,  the  amount  must  be  very  large 
before  the  reasonable  disposal  of  it  can  be  regarded 
as  a  grave  sin  for  want  of  the  required  authorization. 
If  the  sin  consists,  not  in  an  independent  appropria- 
tion, but  in  a  life  of  too  great  luxury,  it  will  be  nece.s- 
sary  to  measure  the  gravity  of  the  fault  by  the  oppo- 
sition which  exists  between  luxury  and  the  poverty 
which  is  promised  by  vow. 

Variety  in  the  Vows  of  Poverty— The  vow  of  poverty 
is  ordinarily  attached  to  a  religious  profession;  a 
person  may  however  bind  himself  to  a  modest  and 


frugal  life,  or  even  to  foUow  the  direction  of  an  adviser 
in  the  use  of  his  property.  The  vow  may  be  perpetual 
or  temporary.  It  may  exclude  private  possession,  or 
even  to  a  certain  point  possession  in  common.  It  may 
entaU  legal  disabihty  or  be  simply  prohibitive.  It 
may  extend  to  all  goods  possessed  at  present,  or  ex- 
pected in  the  future;  or  it  may  be  limited  to  certain 
classes  of  property;  it  may  require  the  complete  re- 
nunciation of  rights,  or  simply  forbid  the  application 
to  personal  profit,  or  even  the  independent  use  of  the 
property.  According  to  the  present  discipline  of  the 
Church,  the  vow  of  poverty  taken  by  religious  always 
involves  a  certain  renunciation  of  rights:  thus  the 
religious  is  understood  to  give  up  to  his  order  for  ever 
the  fruit  of  his  work  or  personal  industry,  stipends  of 
Masses,  salary  as  professor,  profits  of  any  publication 
or  invention,  or  savings  from  money  allowed  him  for 
personal  expenses.  The  independent  disposal  of  any 
of  these  would  be  contrary  not  only  to  the  vow,  but 
also  to  justice.  We  have,  moreover,  to  distinguish  in 
the  religious  life  between  the  solemn  vow  of  poverty 
and  the  simple  vow.  The  latter  may  be  a  step  towards 
the  solemn  vow,  or  it  may  have  a  final  character  of  its 
own. 

The  Solemn  Vow  of  Poverty. — The  solemn  vow  by 
common  law  has  the  following  special  characteristics: 
it  extends  to  all  property  and  rights;  it  renders  one 
incapable  of  possessing  property,  and  therefore  of 
transferring  it;  it  makes  all  gifts  or  legacies  which  a 
religious  receives,  as  well  as  the  fruits  of  his  own  work, 
the  property  of  the  monastery;  and  in  case  prop- 
erty is  inherited,  the  monastery  succeeds  in  place  of 
the  professed  religious,  in  accordance  with  the  maxim : 
Quicquid  monachus  acquirit  monaslerio  acquirit.  Some 
orders  are  incapable  of  inheriting  on  such  occasions, 
e.  g.,  the  Friars  Minor  Observantines,  the  Capuchins, 
and  the  Society  of  Jesus.  The  inheritance  then  passes  to 
those  who  would  succeed  under  the  civil  law  in  default 
of  the  professed  religious.  Sometimes  before  solemn 
vows  are  made  by  a  religious,  his  monastery  gives  up 
its  right  of  inheritance  by  arrangement  with  the  fam- 
ily, and  sometimes  the  religious  is  allowed  to  dispose 
of  his  share  in  anticipation.  (As  to  these  arrange- 
ments and  their  effect,  see  Vermeersch,  "De  relig. 
instit.  et  pers.",  II,  4th  ed.,  supp.  VI,  70  sqq.)  As 
long  as  monasteries  were  independent,  the  monastery 
which  inherited  in  place  of  the  professed  monk  was 
the  house  to  which  he  was  bound  by  his  vow  of  stabil- 
ity; but  in  more  recent  orders,  the  religious  often 
changes  his  house,  and  sometimes  his  province,  and 
has  therefore  no  vow  of  stability,  except  as  to  the 
entire  order;  in  such  cases,  the  monastery  according 
to  the  common  usage  is  the  whole  order,  unless  some 
arrangement  is  made  for  partition  among  provinces  or 
houses.  (See  Sanchez,  "In  decalogum",  VII,  xxxii 
sqq.;  De  Lugo,  "De  iustitia  et  iure",  d.  iii,  nn. 
226  sqq.)  We  have  already  said  that  the  religious  of 
Belgium  preserve  their  capacity  to  acquire  property 
and  dispose  of  it:  their  acts  therefore  are  valid,  but 
they  will  only  be  licit  if  done  with  the  approval  of  their 
superior.  It  will  be  the  duty  of  the  latter  to  see  that 
the  rigour  of  observance  and  especially  the  common 
life  do  not  suffer  by  this  concession,  which  is,  indeed, 
in  other  respects  most  important  for  their  own  civil 
security. 

The  Simple  Vow  of  Religious  Poverty. — The  simple 
vow  of  poverty  has  these  common  characteristics:  it 
leaves  the  capacity  to  acquire  intact,  and  permits  the 
religious  to  retain  certain  rights  of  ownership.  In  ex- 
ceptional cases  the  simple  vow  may  involve  incapac- 
ity, as  is  characteristic  of  the  last  simple  vows  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  We  have  now  to  distinguish  between 
the  simple  vow  which  is  preparatory  to  the  solemn 
vow,  and  the  final  simple  vow. 

(a)  The  simple  vow  in  preparation  for  the  solemn 
vow. — The  Decree  "Sanctissimus"  of  12  June,  1858, 
with   the   subsequent   declarations,    constitutes   the 


POVERTY 


327 


POVERTY 


common  law  on  the  subject  of  this  simple  vow.  (See 
Vermeersch,  "De  religiosis  institutis  etc.",  II,  4th  ed., 
nn.  61  sqq.,  pp.  178  sqq.)  This  vow  permits  the  reli- 
gious to  retain  the  ownership  of  property  possessed  at 
the  time  of  _  his  entrance  into  religion,  to  acquire 
property  by  inheritance,  and  to  receive  gifts  and  per- 
sonal legacies.  The  administration  and  usufruct  and 
the  use  of  this  property  must  before  the  taking  of  the 
vow  pass  either  to  the  order  (if  it  is  able  and  willing 
to  approve  of  the  arrangement),  or  into  other  hands, 
at  the  choice  of  the  religious.  Such  an  arrangement 
is  irrevocable  as  long  as  the  religious  remains  under 
the  conditions  of  the  vow,  and  ceases  should  he  leave 
the  order;  he  seems  authorized  also  to  make  or  com- 
plete the  resignation  which  he  may  have  omitted  to 
make  or  complete  previously.  Except  so  far  as  he  is 
affected  by  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  which 
forbids  novices  to  make  any  renunciation  which  would 
interfere  ■s\ith  their  liberty  to  leave  their  order,  the 
religious  who  is  bound  by  this  simple  vow  may,  with 
the  permission  of  his  superior,  dispose  of  his  property 
by  a  donation  inter  fii'os,  and  ajiparently  has  full 
liberty  to  make  a  will.  But  the  Decree  "Perpensis" 
of  3  May,  1902,  which  extends  to  nuns  the  simple 
profession  of  orders  of  men,  without  mentioning  a 
will,  declares  simply  that  women  are  not  permitted 
to  make  final  disposition  of  their  property  except 
during  the  two  months  immediately  preceding  their 
solemn  profession. 

(b)  The  final  simple  vow. — With  the  exception  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  in  which  the  simple  vow  of 
formed  coadjutors  entails  the  same  personal  obliga- 
tions and  the  same  disability  as  the  solemn  vow,  the 
final  simple  vow  is  known  only  in  religious  congrega- 
tions, and  the  practice  differs  in  different  congrega- 
tions (cf.  Luoidi,  "De  visitatione  SS.  liminum",  II, 
V,  sec.  S,  nn.  319  sqq.),  and  very  often  resembles  that  of 
the  vow  preparatory  to  the  solemn  vow;  but  accord- 
ing to  the  Regulations  {Norniw)  of  2S  June,  1901,  the 
transfer  of  property  by  donations  inter  vivos  cannot  be 
Ucitly  made  before  the  perpetual  vows;  after  these 
vows,  the  complete  renunciation  requires  the  per- 
mission of  the  Holy  See,  which  reserves  to  itself  also 
the  right  to  authorize  the  execution  or  modification 
of  a  will  after  profession.  Any  arrangements  made 
before  profession  for  the  administration  of  property 
and  the  application  of  the  revenues  may  be  subse- 
quently modified  with  the  consent  of  the  superior. 
In  diocesan  institutes,  there  is  no  question  of  the 
capacity  of  the  religious;  but  the  bishops  generally 
reserve  to  themselves  the  right  of  approving  the  more 
important  acts  of  administration. 

The  PecuUum. — Certain  goods,  for  example  sums  of 
money,  independent  of  the  common  stock,  and  made 
over  to  the  religious  to  be  used  without  restriction  for 
their  private  wants,  form  what  is  called  the  peculium. 
Only  that  which  is  irrevocably  put  out  of  the  power 
of  the  superior  is  contrary  to  the  vow  of  poverty;  but 
all  peculium  is  an  injury  to  that  common  life,  which 
since  the  earliest  times  was  considered  so  important 
by  the  founders  of  religious  communities.  The  Holy 
See  constantly  uses  its  efforts  to  abolish  it,  and  to 
establish  that  perfect  common  life  which  provides  that 
there  shall  be  in  the  convent  one  common  treasury  for 
the  personal  needs  of  all. 

Possession  in  Common. — The  vow  of  poverty  does 
not  necessarily  or  as  a  general  rule  exclude  the  capacity 
to  possess  in  common,  that  is  to  say,  to  have  a  common 
stock  of  property  at  the  common  disposal  of  the 
possessors,  provided  that  they  do  not  dispose  of  it  in 
any  manner  contrary  to  the  accepted  rules  and  cus- 
toms. It  is  a  great  mistake  to  argue  from  the  vow  of 
poverty  that  it  is  just  to  deny  to  religious  this  real 
common  possession. 

Sources. — I.  Historical. — Butler,  The  Lausiac  Historu  of  Pai- 
ladius  (Cambridge,  1899),  af-ritical  discussion  together  with  notes 
on  early  Egyptian  monachism;  Carri^ke,  De  iustitia  et  lure 
(Louvain    1845),  195  sqq.;    De  Buck,  De  sollemnitate  votorum, 


preecipue  pauperiatis  religiosce  epistola  (Brussels,  1862) ;  Ladeuze, 
Etude  sur  le  c6nobitisine  Palchdmien  pendant  le  /V"  si^cle  et  la 
premih-e  moitie  du  V'  (Louvain,  1898) ;  Mart&ne,  Comment,  in 
reg.  S.  P.  Benedirti;  Schiwietz,  Das  oriental.  Monchtum  (Mainz, 
1904) ;  Thomassinus,  Vetus  et  nova  eccles.  discip.,  I-  iii. 

II.  Doctrinal. — Bastien,  Directoire  canonique  d  I'usage  des  con- 
gregations d  v(eux  simples  (Maredsous,  1911) ;  Battandier,  Guide 
canonique  pour  les  constitutions  des  sceur^  A  voeux  simples  (Paris, 
1908);  Bouix.,  Tract,  de  jure  regularium  {Pa.Tis,lS5S);  De  Lugo, 
De  iustitia  et  iure,  d.  iii,  s.  4  sqq.;  Moccheggiani,  Jurisprudentia 
ecctesiastica  ad  usum  et  commoditatem  utriusgue  cleri,  I  (Quaracchi, 
1904) ;  Passerini,  De  Iwminum  statibus,  I,  in  Q.  clxxxvi,  art.  7,  pp. 
519sqq. I  Pbllizariu-s,  Maiiaaleregularium,tr.  IV,  c. ii;  tr.  VI,  cc. 
ix  andxiv;  Piat,  Proilectiones  iuris  regularis,  I  (Tournai,  1898), 
239-69;  Sanchez,  In  Decalogum,  1.  VII,  especially  cc.  xviii- 
xxi;  SUAREZ,  Dereligione,  tr.  VII,  I.  VIII;  St.  Thomas,  II-II,  Q. 
clxxxiv,  a.  3;  Q.  clxxxv,  a.  6,  ad  1"'";  Q.  clxxxvi,  aa.  3  and  7;  Q. 
cixxxviii,  a.  7,  c.;  Vermeersch,  De  rc/iuin.^is  institutis  et  personis, 
I  (Bruges,  1907),  nn.  237  sqq.;  II  (4th  cd.,  1910),  suppl.  vi. 

A.  Vermeersch. 

Poverty  and  Pauperism. — In  a  legal  and  technical 
sense,  pauperism  denotes  the  condition  of  persons 
who  are  supported  at  public  expense,  whether  within 
or  outside  of  almshouses.  More  commonly  the  term 
is  applied  to  all  persons  whose  existence  is  dependent 
for  any  considerable  period  upon  charitable  assist- 
ance, whether  this  assistance  be  public  or  private. 
Not  infrequently  it  denotes  an  extreme  degree  of 
poverty  among  a  large  group  of  persons.  Thus,  we 
speak  of  the  pauperism  of  the  most  abject  classes 
in  the  large  cities.  Poverty  is  even  less  definite,  and 
more  relative.  In  Catholic  doctrinal  and  ascetical 
treatises  and  usage,  it  indicates  merely  renunciation 
of  the  right  of  private  property;  as  in  speaking  of 
the  vow  of  poverty,  or  the  poverty  of  the  poor  in 
spirit  recommended  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 
Apart  from  this  restricted  and  technical  signification, 
poverty  means  in  general  a  condition  of  insufficient 
subsistence,  but  different  persons  have  different  con- 
ceptions of  sufficiency.  At  one  extreme  poverty  in- 
cludes paupers,  while  its  upper  limit,  at  least  in 
common  language,  varies  with  the  plane  of  living 
which  is  assumed  to  be  normal.  As  used  by  econo- 
mists and  social  students,  it  denotes  a  lack  of  some  of 
the  requisites  of  physical  efficiency;  that  is,  normal 
health  and  working  capacity.  Like  pauperism,  it 
implies  a  more  or  less  prolonged  condition;  for  to  be 
without  sufficient  food  or  clothing  for  a  few  days  is 
not  necessarily  to  be  in  poverty.  Unlike  pauperism, 
poverty  does  not  always  suppose  the  receipt  of 
charitable  assistance.  As  the  definition  just  given 
sets  up  a  purely  material  and  utilitarian  standard, 
namely,  productive  efficiency,  we  shall  in  this  article 
substitute  one  that  is  more  consonant  with  human 
dignity,  yet  which  is  substantially  equivalent  in 
content  to  the  economic  conception. — Poverty,  then, 
denotes  that  more  or  less  prolonged  condition  in 
which  a  person  is  without  some  of  those  goods  essen- 
tial to  normal  health  and  strength,  an  elementary 
degree  of  comfort,  and  right  moral  life. 

One  question  which  at  once  suggests  itself  is: 
whether  the  amount  of  poverty  and  pauperism  exist- 
ing to-day  is  greater  or  less  than  that  of  former  times. 
No  general  answer  can  be  given  that  will  not  be  mis- 
leading. Even  the  partial  and  particular  estimates 
that  are  sometimes  made  are  neither  certain  nor 
illuminating.  Economic  historians  like  Rogers  and 
Gibbins  declare  that  during  the  best  period  of  the 
Middle  Ages — say,  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth 
century,  inclusive — there  was  no  such  grinding  and 
hopeless  poverty,  no  such  chronic  semi-starvation 
in  any  class,  as  exists  to-day  among  large  classes  in 
the  great  cities  (cf.  "Six  Centuries  of  Work  and 
Wages",  and  "Industry  in  England").  Probably 
this  is  true  as  regards  the  poorest  of  the  poor  at  these 
two  periods.  In  the  Middle  Ages  there  was  no  class 
resembling  our  proletariat,  which  has  no  security, 
no  definite  place,  no  certain  claim  upon  any  organiza- 
tion or  institution  in  the  socio-economic  organism. 
Whether  the  whole  number  of  persons  in  poverty  in 
the  earlier  period  was  relatively  larger  or  smaller 


POVERTY 


328 


POVERTY 


than  at  present,  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  The 
proportion  of  medieval  persons  who  lacked  what  are 
to-day  regarded  as  requisites  of  elementary  comfort 
was  probably  larger,  while  the  proportion  that  had 
to  go  without  adequate  food  and  clothing  for  long 
periods  of  time  was  not  improbably  smaller.  One 
of  the  great  causes  of  poverty — namely,  insecurity 
of  employment,  of  residence,  and  of  shelter — was  cer- 
tainly much  less  frequent  in  the  older  time.  If  we 
compare  the  poverty  of  to-day  with  that  of  one  cen- 
tury ago,  we  find  all  authorities  agreeing  that  it  has 
decreased  both  absolutely  and  relatively.  Againsi 
this  general  fact,  however,  we  must  note  one  or  two 
circumstances  that  are  less  gratifying.  Both  the 
intensity  and  the  extent  of  the  lowest  grade  of  poverty 
are  probably  quite  as  great  now  as  they  were  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century;  and  there  are 
some  indications  that  the  improvement  occurring 
during  the  last  twenty-five  years  has  been  less  than 
in  the  preceding  half-century. 

Owing  to  lack  of  statistical  data,  it  is  impossible 
to  estimate,  even  approximately,  the  proportion  of 
the  people  of  any  country  that  is  in  poverty.  On  the 
basis  of  unemployment  statistics,  eviction  statistics, 
cases  of  charity  relief,  and  other  evidences  of  distress, 
Robert  Hunter  declared  that  the  number  of  persons 
in  poverty  in  the  United  States  in  1904  was  ten 
millions;  that  is,  they  were  "much  of  the  time  un- 
derfed, poorly  clothed,  and  improperly  housed" 
("The  New  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform",  940; 
cf.  also  his  work  on  Poverty).  Ten  millions  repre- 
sented at  that  time  about  one-eighth  of  our  total 
population.  Professor  Bushnell  estimated  the  num- 
ber of  persons  known  to  be  in  receipt  of  public  or 
private  relief  at  three  millions  (Modern  Methods 
of  Charity,  385-90).  Of  course  the  total  number  of 
persons  who  received  charitable  aid  was  much  larger, 
for  a  large  proportion  of  such  cases  do  not  come  to 
the  knowledge  of  statisticians  or  social  students.  On 
the  other  hand,  not  all  who  are  charitably  assisted 
are  paupers,  nor  strictly  speaking  in  poverty.  Mr. 
Hunter's  estimate  is  perhaps  too  high.  After  a  very 
careful  and  thorough  investigation  of  the  poor  in 
London,  completed  in  1902,  Charles  Booth  found  that 
nearly  thirty-one  per  cent  of  the  people  of  that  city 
were  in  poverty  (of.  "Life  and  Labor  of  the  People 
in  London").  This  estimate  was  fully  and  remark- 
ably confirmed  by  the  studies  of  Seebohm  Rowntree 
in  the  City  of  York,  where  the  proportion  of  the  in- 
habitants in  poverty  appeared  as  twenty-eight  per 
cent  (cf.  "Poverty:  a  Study  of  Town  Life").  There 
are  good  reasons  for  thinking  that  both  these  esti- 
mates are  under-statements,  if  poverty  be  understood 
according  to  the  definition  adopted  in  this  article. 
For  example,  Rowntree  placed  above  the  poverty 
line  all  persons  who  were  in  a  condition  of  present 
physical  efficiency,  even  though  many  of  them  were 
unable  to  make  any  outlay  for  carfare,  amusement, 
recreation,  newspapers,  religion,  societies,  or  in- 
surance against  old  age.  Evidently,  physical  ef- 
ficiency in  such  circumstances  can  be  maintained 
only  for  a  few  years.  At  any  rate,  this  condition 
is  not  elementary  comfort  nor  decent  existence. 
Since  wages  and  their  purchasing  power  are  quite 
as  high  in  England  as  in  any  other  country  of  Europe, 
the  proportion  of  poverty  is  probably  as  great  in  the 
latter  as  in  the  former. 

The  causes  of  poverty  are  very  numerous  and  very 
difficult  to  classify  satisfactorily.  While  the  division 
of  them  into  social  and  individual  causes  is  useful 
and  suggestive  it  is  not  strictly  logical;  for  each  of 
these  is  often  to  some  extent  responsible  for  the  other. 
\\'here  both  causes  affect  the  same  person,  it  is  fre- 
quently impossible  to  say  which  is  the  more  important. 
A  better  classification  is  that  of  immediate  and  origi- 
nal causes;  but  it  is  not  always  possible  to  deter- 
mine which  is  the  true  original  cause,  nor  how  many 


of  the  intermediate  causes  have  operated  as  mere  in- 
struments, and  contributed  no  special  influence  of 
their  own.  As  a  rule,  each  case  of  poverty  is  due  to 
more  than  one  distinct  factor,  and  it  is  not  possible 
to  measure  the  precise  contribution  of  each  factor 
to  the  general  result.  In  any  particular  situation, 
the  most  satisfactory  method  is  to  enumerate  all  the 
chief  causes  and  to  state  which  seems  to  be  the  most 
potent.  Professor  Warner  applied  this  method  to 
more  than  110,000  cases  which  had  been  investigated 
in  London,  in  five  American  cities,  and  in  se\'enty- 
six  German  cities  ("American  Charities",  1st  ed., 
22-58).  He  found  the  principal  cause  to  be:  in 
21.3  per  cent  of  the  whole  number  of  instances,  mis- 
conduct, such  as  drink,  immorality,  inefficiency,  and 
a  roving  disposition;  in  74.4  per  cent,  misfortune, 
under  which  head  he  included  such  factors  as  lack 
of  normal  support,  matters  of  employment,  and  in- 
dividual incapacity  as  distinguished  from  individual 
fault.  Misfortune  was,  therefore,  the  predominant 
cause  in  three  and  one-half  times  as  many  cases  as 
misconduct.  Among  the  particular  chief  factors 
drink  was  credited  with  11  per  cent,  lack  of  employ- 
ment with  17.4,  no  male  support  with  8,  sickness  or 
death  in  family  with  23.6,  old  age  with  9.6,  insuffi- 
ciency of  employment  with  6.7,  poorly  paid  employ- 
ment with  4.4,  and  inefficiency  and  shiftlessness  with 
8.26.  In  a  general  way  these  figures  support  the 
contention  of  Dr.  E.  T.  Devine,  that  poverty  "is 
economic,  the  result  of  maladjustment,  that  defective 
personality  is  only  a  halfway  explanation,  which 
itself  results  directly  from  conditions  which  society 
may  largely  control"  (Misery  and  its  Causes,  11). 

It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  Professor  Warner 
aims  to  state  the  immediate  causes  only.  In  a  large 
proportion  of  cases  these  are  the  result  of  some  other 
cause  or  causes.  Thus,  disease,  accident,  or  unem- 
ployment might  be  due  to  immorality  or  intem- 
perance in  the  more  or  less  distant  past;  and  what 
is  now  classified  aa  culpable  inefficiency  or  shiftless- 
ness might  be  ultimately  traceable  to  prolonged  un- 
employment. The  important  lesson  conveyed  by 
this  and  every  other  attempt  to  estimate  the  com- 
parative influence  of  the  various  causes  of  poverty 
is  that  we  must  never  regard  our  estimates  as  more 
than  very  rough  approximations.  Certain  factors 
are  known  to  be  very  important  everywhere.  They 
are:  intemperance,  sexual  immorality,  crime,  im- 
providence, inefficiency,  heredity  and  associations, 
insufficient  wages  and  employment,  congenital  de- 
fects, injurious  occupations,  sickness,  accident,  and 
old  age.  Every  one  of  these  is  not  only  capable  of 
producing  poverty  on  its  own  account,  but  of  in- 
ducing or  supplementing  one  of  the  other  causes. 
Intemperance  leads  to  sickness,  accident,  inefficiency, 
immorality,  and  unemployment;  on  the  other  hand, 
it  often  appears  as  the  effect  of  these.  Almost  all 
of  the  other  factors  may  properly  be  regarded  in  the 
same  light,  as  causes  and  as  effects  reciprocally. 

Among  the  principal  effects  of  poverty  are  physical 
suffering,  through  want  of  sufficient  sustenance, 
through  sickness,  and  other  forms  of  disability; 
moral  degeneration  and  immorality  in  many  forms; 
intellectual  defects  and  inefficiency;  social  injury 
through  diminished  productive  efficiency,  and  un- 
necessary expenditures  for  poor  relief;  finally,  more 
poverty  through  the  vicious  circle  of  many  of  the 
effects  just  enumerated.  For  example,  intemperance, 
improvidence,  sickness,  and  inefficiency  are  at  once 
effects  and  causes.  In  a  word,  the  effects  of  poverty 
are  sufficiently  numerous  and  sufficiently  destruc- 
tive to  elicit  the  fervent  wish  that  this  condition 
might  be  totally  abolished. 

The  relief  of  poverty,  especially  under  the  direction 
of  the  Church,  has  been  discussed  at  length  in  the 
article  Charity  and  Charities.  Here  we  merely 
note  the  fact  that  the  poor  are  now  assisted  by  the 


POVEETY 


329 


POVERTY 


public  authorities,  by  churches,  by  reUgious  and 
secular  associations,  and  by  private  individuals. 
All  these  methods  are  subject  to  abuses,  but  all  are 
necessary.  In  many  countries  old-age  pensions  and 
insurance,  housing  activities,  and  insurance  against 
sickness  and  other  forms  of  disability,  prevent  a 
considerable  amount  of  poverty,  and  thus  relieve  it 
in  the  most  effective  fashion.  At  present  poor-relief 
is  to  a  much  greater  extent  carried  on  by  the  State, 
and  to  a  much  less  extent  by  the  Church,  than  in  the 
period  before  the  Protestant  Reformation.  The 
remedies  and  preventives  of  poverty  are  as  numerous 
and  various  as  the  causes.  Persons  who  attribute 
it  almost  wholly  to  social  influences  propose  social 
correctives,  such  as  legislation,  and  frequently  some 
simple  form  of  social  reconstructing — for  example, 
the  single  tax  or  Socialism.  Persons  who  believe  that 
the  individual  is  almost  always  responsible  for  his 
poverty  or  for  the  poverty  of  his  natural  dependents 
reject  social  remedies  and  insist  upon  the  supreme 
and  sufficient  worth  of  reformation  of  character 
through  education  and  religion.  In  times  past  the 
latter  attitude  was  much  more  common  than  to-day, 
when  the  tendency  is  strongly  and  quite  generally 
toward  the  social  viewpoint.  Both  are  exaggera- 
tions, and  lead,  therefore,  to  the  use  of  one-sided  and 
inefficient  methods  of  dealing  with  poverty.  While 
a  large  proportion  of  the  individual  causes  of  poverty 
are  ultimately  traceable  to  social  causes,  to  congenital 
defects,  or  to  pure  misfortune,  many  of  them  never- 
theless exert  an  original  and  independent  influence. 
This  is  clearly  seen  in  the  case  of  two  persons  who 
have  had  precisely  the  same  opportunities,  environ- 
ment, and  natural  endowments,  only  one  of  whom  is 
in  poverty.  For  such  cases  individual  remedies  are 
obviously  indispensable.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
only  the  crassly  ignorant  who  can  honestly  think 
that  all  poverty  is  due  to  individual  defects,  whether 
culpable  or  not.  Individual  remedies,  such  as  re- 
generation of  character,  cannot  lift  out  of  poverty 
the  wage-earner  who  is  without  employment.  In- 
dividual and  social  causes  originate,  produce  re- 
spectively their  own  specific  influences,  and  can  be 
effectively  counteracted  only  by  measures  that  affect 
them  directly. 

Of  the  individual  causes  that  must  be  prevented 
in  whole  or  in  part  by  individual  regeneration,  the 
principal  are  intemperance,  immorality,  indolence, 
and  improvidence.  All  these  would  be  responsible 
for  many  cases  of  poverty  even  if  the  environment  and 
the  social  arrangements  were  ideal.  Each  of  them 
is,  indeed,  frequently  affected  by  social  forces,  and 
consequently  is  preventible  to  some  extent  by  social 
remedies.  Thus,  intemperance  can  be  diminished 
by  a  better  regulation  of  the  liquor  traffic,  and  by 
every  measure  that  makes  better  provision  for  food, 
clothing,  housing,  security,  and  opportunity  among 
the  poor.  Immorality  can  be  lessened  by  more 
stringent  and  effective  methods  of  detection  and 
punishment.  Indolence  can  be  discouraged  and  to 
some  extent  prevented  by  compulsory  labour  colonies, 
as  well  as  by  penalties  inflicted  upon  persons  who  re- 
fuse to  provide  for  their  natural  dependents.  Im- 
providence can  be  greatly  lessened  by  laws  providing 
larger  economic  opportunities,  insurance  against 
disability,  and  better  methods  of  saving.  Yet,  in 
every  one  of  these  cases,  the  remedy  which  aims  at 
improvement  of  character  will  be  beneficial;  and  in 
many  cases  it  will  be  indispensable.  The  chief 
causes  of  poverty  to  be  removed  by  social  methods  are : 
unemployment,  low  wages,  sickness,  accident,  old 
age,  improper  woman  labour  and  child  labour, 
unsanitary  and  debilitating  conditions  of  employ- 
ment, refusal  of  head  of  family  to  provide  for  support 
of  family,  and  industrial  inefficiency.  The  necessary 
social  remedies  must  be  applied  by  individuals,  by 
voluntary  associations  and  by  the  State;    and  the 


greater  part  of  them  will  fall  under  the  general  head 
of  larger  economic  opportunity.  If  this  were  at- 
tained to  a  reasonable  degree,  persons  who  are  at  or 
below  the  poverty  line  would  enjoy  adequate  in- 
comes and  better  conditions  of  employment  generally, 
and  thus  would  be  enabled  to  jirotect  themselves 
against  most  of  the  other  causes  of  poverty  which 
have  just  been  enumerated.  In  great  part,  this 
larger  economic  opportunity  will  have  to  come 
through  legislation  directed  towards  a  better  or- 
ganization of  production  and  distribution,  and 
towards  an  efficient  system  of  industrial  education. 
Legal  provision  must  also  be  made  for  insurance 
against  sickness,  accident,  unemployment,  and  old 
age,  and  for  the  coercion  and  punishment  of  negligent 
husbands  and  fathers.  Since,  however,  many  of 
these  social  causes  of  poverty  are  frequently  due,  in 
part  at  least,  to  individual  delinquencies,  they  are 
curable  to  a  considerable  extent  by  individual 
remedies.  Sickness,  accident,  inefficiency,  and  un- 
employment are  often  the  results  of  intemperance, 
immorality,  and  indolence.  A\'henever  this  is  the 
case,  the  reformation  of  character  must  enter  into 
the  remedy.  In  a  word,  we  may  say  that  the  cor- 
rectives of  some  causes  of  poverty  must  be  domi- 
nantly  social,  of  others  dominantly  individual;  but 
that  in  nearly  all  cases  both  methods  will  be  to  some 
extent  effective. 

The  abolition  of  all  poverty  which  is  not  due  to 
individual  fault,  congenital  defect,  or  unusual  mis- 
fortune is  one  of  the  ideals  of  contemporary  philan- 
thropy and  social  reform.  It  is  a  noble  aim,  and  it 
ought  not  to  be  impossible  of  realization.  Against 
it  are  sometimes  quoted  the  words  of  Christ:  "The 
poor  you  have  always  with  you";  but  this  sentence 
is  in  the  present  tense,  and  it  was  obviously  addressed 
to  the  Disciples,  not  to  the  whole  world.  Until 
the  words  have  been  authoritatively  given  a  universal 
application,  the  repetition  of  them  as  an  explanation 
of  current  poverty,  or  as  an  argument  against  the 
abolition  of  poverty,  will  be  neither  convincing  nor 
edifying.  Equally  irrelevant  is  the  fact  that  poverty 
is  highly  honoured  in  ascetical  life  and  literature. 
In  the  first  place,  there  is  question  here  of  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  poverty  that  is  involuntary,  not  that 
which  is  freely  embraced.  In  the  second  place,  re- 
ligious poverty  generally  includes  those  things  the 
lack  of  which  makes  the  other  kind  of  poverty  so 
undesirable,  namely,  the  requisites  of  elementary 
health  and  comfort,  and  decent  living.  Nor  should 
we  oppose  the  abolition  of  poverty  on  the  ground 
that  this  would  lessen  the  opportunities  of  the  poor 
to  practise  humility,  and  of  the  rich  to  exercise 
benevolence.  At  present  the  majority  of  the  people 
are  not  in  poverty,  yet  no  one  urges  that  they  should 
descend  to  that  condition  for  the  sake  of  the  greater 
opportunity  of  humility.  There  would  still  be  abun- 
dant room  for  the  exercise  of  both  these  virtues  after 
all  involuntary  poverty  had  disappeared,  for  there 
would  be  no  lack  of  suffering,  misfortune,  and  genuine 
need.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  had  escaped 
poverty,  or  been  lifted  out  of  it,  would  be  better  able 
to  practise  many  other  virtues  more  beneficial  than 
compulsory  humility. 

Poverty  has,  indeed,  been  a  school  of  virtue  for 
many  persons  who  otherwise  would  not  have  reached 
such  heights  of  moral  achievement,  btit  these  are  the 
exceptions.  The  vast  majority  of  persons  are  better 
off,  physically,  mentally,  and  morally,  when  they  are 
above  the  line  which  marks  the  lower  limit  of  ele- 
mentary health,  comfort,  and  decency.  For  the 
great  majority,  the  wish  of  the  Wise  Man,  "neither 
poverty  nor  riches",  represc^nts  th(^  most  favourable 
condition  for  right  and  reasonable  life.  If  any  per- 
son sees  in  poverty  better  opportunities  for  virtuous 
living,  let  him  embrace  it,  but  no  man  ought  to  be 
compelled  to  take  this  course.     After  all,  the  proposal 


POWEL 


330 


POZZO 


to  abolish  involuntary  poverty  is  merely  the  proposal 
to  enable  every  person  to  have  a  decent  livelihood, 
and  enjoy  that  reasonable  and  frugal  comfort  which 
Leo  XIII  declared  to  be  the  natural  right  of  every 
wage-earner,  and  which,  consequently,  is  the  normal 
condition  of  every  human  being.  It  merely  seeks  to 
lift  the  lowest  and  weakest  classes  of  the  community 
to  that  level  which  Father  Pesch  believes  is  both 
desirable  and  practicable:  "Permanent  security  in 
living  conditions  which  are  in  conformity  with  the 
contemporary  state  of  civilization,  and  in  this  sense 
worthy  of  human  beings"  (op.  cit.  infra.,  II,  276). 

Hunter,  Poverty  (New  York,  1904) ;  Devine,  Misery  and  lis 
Causes  (New  York,  1909);  Wahner,  American  Charities  (New 
York,  1894) ;  Booth,  Life  and  Labour  of  the  People  in  London 
(London,  1889-1902);  Rowntree,  Poverty:  A  Study  of  Town 
Life  (London,  1901);  Hobson,  Problems  of  Poverty  (London, 
1899) :  Adams  and  Stjmner,  Labor  Problems  (New  York,  1905) ; 
Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics  (New  York,  1905) ;  Devas, 
Political  Economy  (London,  1901) ;  Antoine,  Cours  d'economie 
sociale  (Paris,  1899) ;  Pesch,  Lehrbuch  der  Nationalokonomie 
(Freiburg,    1909). 

John  A.  Ryan. 

Powel,  Philip,  Venerable  (alias  Morgan,  alias 
Prossbb),  martyr,  b.  at  Tralon,  Brecknockshire, 
2  Feb.,  1594;  d.  at  Tyburn  30  June,  1646.  He 
was  the  son  of  Roger  and  Catharine  Powel,  and  was 
brought  up  to  the  law  by  David  Baker,  afterwards 
Dom  Augustine  Baker,  O.S.B.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  became  a  student  in  the  Temple,  London,  but  went 
to  Douai  three  or  four  years  later,  where  he  received 
the  Benedictine  habit  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Gregory 
(now  Downside  Abbey,  Bath).  In  1618  he  was  or- 
dained priest  and  in  1622  left  Douai  for  the  English 
mission.  About  1624  he  went  to  reside  with  Mr. 
Poyntz  of  Leighland,  Somersetshire,  but,  when  the 
Civil  War  broke  out,  in  1645,  retired  to  Devonshire, 
where  he  stayed  for  a  few  months  with  Mr.  John 
Trevelyan  of  Yarnscombe  and  then  with  Mr.  John 
Coffin  of  Parkham.  He  afterwards  served  for  six 
months  as  chaplain  to  the  Catholic  soldiers  in  General 
Goring's  army  in  Cornwall,  and,  when  that  force  was 
disbanded,  took  ship  for  South  Wales.  The  vessel 
was  captured  on  22  February,  1646;  Father  Powel 
was  recognized  and  denounced  as  a  priest.  On  11 
May  he  was  ordered  to  London  by  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick, and  confined  in  St.  Catherine's  Gaol,  Southwark, 
where  the  harsh  treatment  he  received  brought  on  a 
severe  attack  of  pleurisy.  His  trial,  which  had  been 
fixed  for  30  May,  did  not  take  place  till  9  June,  at 
Westminster  Hall.  He  was  found  guilty  and  was 
hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered  at  Tyburn.  At  the 
instance  of  the  Common  Council  of  London  the  head 
and  quarters  were  not  exposed,  but  were  buried  in  the 
old  churchyard  at  Moorfields.  The  martyr's  crucifix, 
which  had  formerly  belonged  to  Feckenham,  last 
Abbot  of  Westminster,  is  preserved  at  Downside,  with 
some  of  his  hair  and  a  cloth  stained  with  his  blood. 

Relation  du  martyre  de  Philippe^  Powel,  autrement  dit  le  Phe 
Morgan,  Religieux  BSnMictin  (Paria,  1647) ;  Challoner,  Mem- 
oirs of  Missionary  Priests,  II  (London,  1742),  297;  Oliver,  Col- 
lections Illustrating  the  History  of  the  Catholic  Religion  in  Cornwall, 
Devon,  etc.  (London,  1857),  20,  386;  Weldon,  ed.  Dolan,  Chron- 
ological Notes  on  the  English  Congregation  of  the  Order  of  St, 
Benedict  (Worcester,  1881),  186;  Stanton,  Menology  of  England 
and  Wales  (London,  1887),  295;  Downside  Review  (London,  1882), 
I,  346-52;  XII,  239-48;  Spillmann,  Geschichte  der  Katholiken- 
verfolgung  in   England,  1635-1681,  IV  (Freiburc  1905),  309-13. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Powell,  Edward,  Blessed.  See  Thomas  Abel, 
Blessed. 

Poynter,  William,  b.  20  May,  1762,  at  Peters- 
field,  Hants;  d.  26  Nov.,  1827,  in  London.  He  was 
educated  at  the  English  College  at  Douai,  where  he 
was  ordained  in  17S6.  He  remained  as  professor, 
and  afterwards  prefect  of  studies  till  the  college  came 
to  an  end  during  the  Terror.  After  undergoing 
eighteen  months  imprisonment,  the  collegians  were 
set  free,  and  returned  to  England  in  March,  1795. 
Poynter  with  the  students  from  the  South  went  to 


Old  Hall,  where  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the  founda- 
tion of  St.  Edmund's  College,  being  first  vice-presi- 
dent, then  (1801-13)  president.  In  1803,  Bishop 
Douglass  of  the  London  district  being  in  declining 
health.  Dr.  Poynter  was  consecrated  his  coadjutor, 
remaining  at  the  same  time  president  of  the  college. 
On  the  death  of  Bishop  Douglass  in  1812,  Bishop 
Poynter  succeeded  as  vicar  Apostolic.  His  position 
was  rendered  difficult  by  the  persistent  attacks  of 
Bishop  Milner  in  pamphlets  and  even  in  his  pas- 
torals (see  MiLNER,  John).  Dr.  Poynter  endured  all 
Milner's  accusations  in  silence,  having  the  support  of 
all  the  other  English  and  Scotch  bishops;  but  when 
in  May,  1814,  on  the  issue  of  the  famous  Quarantotti 
Rescript,  which  sanctioned  all  the  "security"  re- 
strictions, Milner  went  to  Rome  to  obtain  its  re- 
versal. Dr.  Poynter  followed  him  there  and  wrote 
his  " Apologetical  Epistle"  defending  himself  to 
Propaganda.  Quarantotti's  Rescript  was  with- 
drawn, and  in  its  place  was  substituted  a  "Letter  to 
Dr.  Poynter",  dated  from  Genoa,  where  the  pope  had 
taken  refuge.  A  limited  veto  was  sanctioned,  but 
the  exequatur  was  refused.  Milner  was  directed  to 
abstain  from  publishing  pastorals  or  pamphlets 
against  Dr.  Poynter.  He  obeyed  this  injunction, 
but  continued  his  attacks  in  letters  to  the  "Ortho- 
dox Journal"  until  he  was  peremptorily  prohibited 
by  order  of  the  pope,  under  pain  of  being  deposed. 

During  his  episcopate  Dr.  Poynter  paid  four  visits 
to  Paris  of  several  months  each  (1814,  15,  17,  and 
22),  with  the  object  of  reclaiming  the  property  of  the 
colleges  at  Douai  and  elsewhere,  which  had  been  con- 
fiscated during  the  Revolution.  He  received  the 
support  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and  Lord  Castle- 
reagh,  and  of  the  British  commissioners  appointed  to 
deal  with  the  claims.  He  succeeded  eventually  in 
recovering  the  colleges  themselves  and  about  £30,000 
which  had  been  kept  in  the  names  of  the  bishops, 
but  the  main  claim  amounting  to  £120,000  was  lost. 
The  French  indeed  paid  it  to  the  British  commission- 
ers, but  these  refused  to  hand  it  over,  on  the  plea 
that  it  would  be  applied  to  purposes  considered  by 
English  law  as  "superstitious".  The  final  de- 
cision was  given  in  November,  1825.  It  is  said  that 
the  disappointment  of  the  failure  of  his  long  labours 
notably  shortened  the  bishop's  life.  His  principal 
works  are:  "Theological  Examinations  of  Colum- 
banus"  (London,  1811);  "Epistola  Apologetica", 
tr.  by  Butler  (London,  1820),  also  appeared  in  Butler, 
"Hist.  Mem.",  3rd  edition;  "Prayerbook  for  Catho- 
lic Sailors  and  Soldiers  "  (London,  1858);  "Evidences 
of  Christianity"  (London,  1827);  "New  Year's 
Gift"  in  Directories  (1813-28);  numerous  pamphlets, 
pastorals  etc.  There  is  a  portrait  of  him  by  Ramsay 
(1803)  at  St.  Edmund's  College,  another  in  "Catholic 
Directory"  for  1S29;  also  a  bust  by  Turnerelli  and 
another  at  Moorfields. 

Cooper  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.;  Gillow,  Diet,  Eng.  Caih.;  Kirk, 
Biographies  (London,  1909) ;  Brady,  Episcopal  Succession 
(London,  1877);  Au^eust,  Cath.  Emancipation  (London,  1886); 
Ward,  Hl-it.  of  St.  Edmund's  College  (London,  1893) ;  Idem, 
Catholic  London  a  Century  Ago  (London,  1905);  Idem,  Dawn  of 
Catholic  Revival  (London,  1909) ;  Husenbeth,  Life  of  Milner 
(Dublin,  1862);  Butler,  Hist.  Mem.  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1822); 
Laity's  Directory  (1829);  Cath.  Miscellany;  Orthodox  Journal, 
etc. 

Bernard  Ward. 

Pozzo  (PuTBus),  Andreas,  Italian  painter  and 
architect  of  the  Baroque  period,  b.  at  'Trent,  1642; 
d.  at  Vienna,  1709.  The  greater  part  of  his  life  was 
spent  at  Genoa,  Rome,  Turin,  and  Vienna.  After 
his  literary  studies,  he  devoted  himself  to  painting, 
and  at  twenty-four  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  as  a 
lay  brother.  After  his  death  he  was  commemorated 
by  a  memoir  and  a  medal.  Pozzo  was  an  unrivalled 
master  of  perspective;  he  used  light,  colour,  and  an 
architectural  background  as  means  of  creating  illu- 
sion.    In  the  Baroque  period,  instead  of  employing 


POZZONI 


331 


PRADES 


panels  ornamented  with  stucco  work,  painting  was 
used  not  only  to  cover  the  domes  and  semi-domes  but 
also  the  ceilings  and  vaultings.  Michelangelo  had 
pamted  the  ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  but  Bra- 
mante  did  not  follow  him  in  treating  the  main  vault- 
ing of  St.  Peter's.  It  had  begun  to  be  customary  to 
fill  the  sunken  panels  or  large  cartouches,  and  finally 
the  entire  vault,  as,  for  example,  the  domes,  with 
perspective  paintings  in  the  advanced  style  of  Cor- 
reggio.  Michelangelo's  device  of  painting  in  archi- 
tectural franaework  to  divide  the  different  portions 
of  the  painting  was  no  longer  in  vogue,  nor  even 
actual  architectural  members.  Pozzo  was  a  master 
in  this  new  style  of  painting;  he  gives  full  instructions 
concerning  this  method  in  his  manual.  His  frescoes 
on  the  ceihng,  dome,  and  apse  of  the  church  of  San 
Ignazio  at  Rome  are  greatly  admired.  By  the  skilful 
use  of  linear  perspective,  light,  and  shade,  he  made  the 
great  barrel-vault  of  the  nave  of  the  church  into  an 
idealized  aula  from  which  is  seen  the  reception  of  St. 
Ignatius  into  the  opened  hea^'ens.  About  the  paint- 
ing there  is  a  wonderful  effect  of  supernatural  maj- 
esty, but  the  whole  composition  is  more  a  feat  of 
skill  than  a  work  of  art.  Only  the  Baroque  era  could 
regard  it  as  a  genuine  devotional  picture.  Pozzo  exe- 
cuted a  similar  work  in  San  Bartolommeo  at  Modena. 
In  the  Abbey  of  the  Cassinese  at  Arezzo  and  in  the 
Pinacotheca  at  Bologna  the  magical  effect  is  produced 
by  the  architectural  perspective  alone.  Importance 
is  laid  on  the  profiles  of  the  ornamental  architectural 
members,  not  in  the  life  and  movement.  According 
to  his  theory,  columns  must  be  twisted;  they  can  even 
be  bent  and  cracked.  Coloured  stones  and  metals 
must  also  aid  in  securing  the  pictorial  effect.  An 
extraordinary  increase  in  bulk,  therefore,  would  be 
required  to  obtain  the  necessary  constructive  strength. 
In  making  the  altar  for  the  Jesuit  church  at  Venice, 
he  erected  for  the  plastic  work  of  the  centre  a  temple 
of  ten  columns,  with  twisted  entablature.  He  also 
constructed  the  high  altar  of  Gli  Scalzi  at  Venice. 
The  altar  of  St.  Ignatius  in  the  Gesti  at  Rome  is  an 
example  of  the  greatest  magnificence.  His  manual 
gives  directions  for  making  all  kinds  of  church  furni- 
ture. Pozzo's  decorative  work,  logically  systema- 
tized, shows  his  great  talent  which  perfectly  suited 
the  characteristic  taste  of  the  period  and  the  pomp 
then  customary  in  religious  services. 

Pozzo,  Perspectiva  ■p^ctorum  et  aTchitectorum  (2  vols.,  Rome, 
1693;  1700),  text  in  Italian  and  Latin  and  226  platea;  tr.  into 
English,  James  (London,  1893) ;  Lanzi,  Storia  pittorica  dell'  Italia 
(Bassano,  1789);   de  Quinct,  Diet.  (T architecture. 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Pozzoni,  DoMENico.  See  Hong-Kong,  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of. 

Pozzuoli,  Diocese  of  (Puteolana). — The  city  of 
Pozzuoli  in  the  province  of  Naples,  southern  Italy, 
on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  was  founded  by  the 
Cumaeans,  whose  port  it  became,  under  the  name  of 
Dicaearchia.  It  was  used  by  the  Carthaginians  in  the 
Second  Punic  War.  The  Romans  took  possession  of 
it,  fortified  it,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Puteoli.  Han- 
nibal sought  in  vain  to  take  this  place,  which  became 
a  Roman  colony  in  194  b.  c.  and  was  thereafter  the 
most  important  port  of  Italy,  enjoying  exceptional 
municipal  liberties.  The  harbour  was  set  off  from  the 
sea  by  a  line  of  pilaisters  supporting  a  long  arcade, 
which  was  restored  later  by  Antonius  Pius.  Caligula 
connected  the  ports  of  Pozzuoli  and  of  Baiae  with  a 
pontoon  bridge.  In  the  third  century  Pozzuoli  fell 
into  decadence.  In  410,  it  was  besieged  and  sacked 
by  Alaric,  in  545  by  Totila,  and  in  715  by  Grimoaldo 
II,  Duke  of  Benevento,  who,  however,  did  not  succeed 
in  taking  it  from  its  Byzantine  masters;  in  the  tenth 
century,  it  was  several  times  the  object  of  Saracen 
incursions.  In  1014  Pozzuoli  was  taken  by  the  Nea- 
politans, and  later  passed,  with  Naples,  into  the  King- 


dom of  the  Two  Sicilies.  In  1448  and  1538,  it  suffered 
from  severe  earthquakes;  in  1550  the  Turks  landed 
and  wrought  frightful  havoc  in  the  town.  Abundant 
ruins  of  villas  and  temples  attest  its  ancient  splendour. 
Among  the  temple  ruins,  the  most  important  are  those 
of  the  Temple  of  Serapis,  which  was  at  once  a  temple 
and  an  establishment  of  therapeutic  baths;  there  re- 
main the  cella  and  many  of  its  columns,  also  sixteen 
bath-rooms  for  baths  in  the  mineral  water  that  flows 
near  by.  The  work  of  excavation  (1838)  exposed  the 
ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  that  had  a  capacity  of 
30,000;  there  are  also  the  ruins  of  a  theatre,  and 
of  thermae  or  hot  baths,  where  was  found,  among  other 
objects,  the  Venus  Anadyomene  of  the  Naples  Museum. 
The  object  of  greatest  interest  at  Pozzuoli,  however, 
are  the  sulphur  caves,  the  "forum  Vulcani"  of  the  an- 
cients, which,  through  crevices  in  the  earth,  exude, 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  sulphurous  acid.  In  1190 
there  was  a  severe  volcanic  eruption  from  these  caves. 
There  are  also  four  mineral  springs,  and  two  caverns, 
known  as  the  "Grottadel  Cane",  which  exudes  car- 
bonic acid,  and  the  "Grotta  dell'  Ammoniaca" 

On  his  voyage  to  Rome,  St.  Paul  landed  at  Pozzuoli, 
where  he  met  some  "brothers"  (Acts,  xxviii,  13,  14), 
and  among  these  Jews  there  may  have  been  Chris- 
tians; no  doubt  the  Apostle  took  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  to  preach  to  his  countrymen  the  mystery 
of  the  Messiah  already  come.  That  St.  Patrobas,  a 
disciple  of  St.  Paul,  was  first  Bishop  of  Pozzuoli  is  a 
fabrication  of  the  notorious  Dositheos;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Bishops  St.  Celsus  and  St.  Joannes  governed 
the  diocese  before  the  fourth  century.  Proculus, 
Acutius,  Eutyches,  and  St.  Artemas  were  martyrs  of 
Pozzuoli,  and  St.  Januarius  of  Benevento  and  his  com- 
panions suffered  martyrdom  here.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury the  bishop  of  this  see  was  Florentius,  against 
whom  Pope  Damasus  was  compelled  to  seek  the  assist- 
ance of  the  emperors.  Bishop  St.  Theodorus  died  in 
435;  Julianus  was  pontifical  legate  to  the  Robber 
Council  of  Ephesus  in  449;  the  Bishop  Stephanus, 
whom  Cappelletti  names  at  this  period,  should  be  re- 
ferred to  the  seventh  century,  or  later.  Other  bishops 
were  Gaudiosus  (680);  St.  Leo  (about  1030),  later  a 
hermit;  Ludovico  di  Costanzo,  who,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  was  at  first  a  usurper  of 
this  see,  but  was  later  recognized  by  Nicholas  V; 
Carlo  Borromeo  (1537),  a  relative  of  the  saint  of  the 
same  name;  Gian  Matteo  Castaldi  (1542),  who  rebuilt 
thecathedral;  Lorenzo Mongevio  (1617), agood orator, 
formerly  AuxiUary  Bishop  of  Salzburg  and  of  Va- 
lencia (he  was  a  Franciscan),  unjustly  accused, 
and  held  prisoner  in  Castel  Sant'  Angelo;  Martin 
Leon  y  Cardenas  (1619),  to  whom  a  public  monument 
was  erected,  in  recognition  of  his  many  merits. 
The  cathedral  rises  on  the  ruins  of  the  "Temple  of 
Augustus;  it  contains  some  good  pictures,  among 
them  the  Martirio  di  San  Gennaro  by  Guido  Reni. 
The  churches  of  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie  and  of 
Santa  Croce  are  worthy  of  note.  The  diocese  is  a 
suffragan  of  Naples;  has  10  parishes,  with  57,100 
inhabitants,  1  religious  house  of  men,  and  3  of  women, 
and  1  educational  estabhshment  for  girls. 
Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d'ltalia,  XX. 

U.  Benigni. 

Prades,  Jean-Martin  de,  theologian,  b.  about 
1720  at  Castelsarrasin  (Diocese  of  Montauban),  d. 
in  1782  at  Glogau,  famous  through  an  irreligious 
thesis.  Having  finished  his  preliminary  studies,  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  lived  in  many  seminaries, 
especially  in  that  of  St-Sulpice.  He  very  soon  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  principal  publishers  of  the 
"Encyclop^die",  and  supplied  them  with  the  article 
on  "Certitude"  About  the  end  of  1751,  he  presented 
himself  for  the  doctorate,  driven,  as  a  memoire  of 
that  time  says,  "by  the  incredulous,  who,  in  order 
to  justify  his  blasphemies,  wanted  to  have  his  doc- 


PRADO 


332 


PR^LATUS 


trine  approved  by  the  Faculty"  Prades  wrote  a 
very  long  thesis,  which  the  examiners  accepted  with- 
out reading.  The  defence,  which  took  place  on  IS 
November,  was  very  sharp,  and  the  scandal  broke 
out.  On  15  December  following,  the  Faculty  de- 
clared several  propositions  to  be  "worthy  of  blame 
and  censures".  On  1.5  January  following,  the  cen- 
sure was  published.  According  to  Abb6  de  Prades, 
the  soul  is  an  unknown  substance;  sensations  are 
the  source  of  our  ideas;  the  origin  of  civil  law  is 
might,  from  which  are  derived  all  notions  of  just  and 
of  unjust,  of  good  and  evil;  natural  law  is  empiric; 
revealed  religion  is  only  natural  religion  in  its  evolu- 
tion; the  chronology  of  Moses's  books  is  false;  the 
healings  operated  by  Jesus  Christ  are  doubtful 
miracles,  since  those  operated  by  Esculapius  present 
the  same  characteristics.  The  archbishop  of  Paris 
and  several  bishops  approved  the  censure;  after- 
wards, on  the  2  March,  Benedict  XIV  condemned  the 
thesis;  at  last  the  Parliament  of  Paris  issued  a  decree 
against  the  author;  further,  Stanislas,  Duke  of 
Lorraine,   incited  the  Faculty  against  the  Abb^. 

The  latter  found  a  refuge  in  Holland,  where  he  pub- 
lished his  "Apology"  (1752).  It  consists  of  two  parts: 
a  third  part  containing  "reflexions  upon  the  Pastoral 
Letter  of  the  bishop  of  Montauban  and  the  Pastoral 
Instruction  of  the  bishop  of  Auxerre"  as  written  by 
Diderot.  Le  Pere  Brotier  published  "the  Survey 
of  the  Apology  of  the  Ahb6  de  Prades"  (1753).  The 
question  is  whether  the  Abb6  de  Prades  is  not  the 
author  of  an  "Apology  of  the  Abb6  de  Prades"  in 
verse.  Upon  the  recommendation  of  Voltaire  and  of 
the  Marquis  of  Argens,  the  Abb6  became  lector  to 
Frederick  of  Prussia  and  went  to  Berlin.  Frederick 
gave  him  a  pension  and  two  canonries,  the  one  at 
Oppeln,  the  other  at  Glogau.  From  the  year  1753, 
negotiations  were  entered  upon  between  the  Abb6 
de  Prades  and  the  Bishop  of  Breslau,  Philip  von 
Schaffgotsch,  with  a  view  to  a  recantation.  Frederick 
himself  induced  the  Abb6  to  return  to  "the  bosom  of 
the  Church"  Benedict  XIV  and  the  Cardinal  of 
Vencin  wrote  the  formula  of  recantation  which  was 
signed  by  the  Abbe.  In  1754,  the  Faculty  of  Paris 
again  inscribed  the  Abb6  upon  the  list  of  bachelors. 
The  Abbe  de  Prades  became  the  archdeacon  of  the 
Chapter  of  Glogau,  and  died  in  that  town  in  1782. 

Besides  the  works  quoted,  he  left  an  "Abr6g6 
de  I'histoire  ecclesiastique  de  Fleury",  tr.  Berne 
(Berlin,  1767),  II  vols.,  with  a  violently  anti-catholic 
preface  written  by  Frederick  II.  This  would  make 
us  doubt  the  sincerity  of  the  recantation  of  the  Abb6 
de  Prades.  To  him  is  generally  ascribed  "le  Tombeau 
de  la  Sorbonne"  translated  from  Latin  (1782). 
According  to  Querard,  he  left  in  manuscript  a  com- 
plete translation  of  Tacitus,  which  remains  unpub- 
lished. What  has  become  of  the  manuscript  is  un- 
known. It  is  said  also  that  he  worked,  before  leaving 
France,  at  a  Treatise  on  "the  Truth  of  Religion". 

Acta.  S.  Facultatis  Pnri^.  circa  J.  M.  de  Prades  (Paris,  1794); 
Chieland.  Souvenirs  de  Berlin  (Srd  ed.,  IV,  368);  Feret,  La 
Faculte  de  tUologie  de  Paris,  VI  (Paris,  1909),  183-193. 

Joseph  Dedieu. 

Prado,  Jerome  de,  exegete,  b.  at  Baeza  in  Spain, 
151:7;  d.  at  Rome,  13  Jan.,  1595.  He  entered  the 
Suciety  of  Jesus  in  1572;  taught  literature;  and 
then  filled  the  chair  of  Scripture  at  Cordova  for  six- 
teen years.  His  great  work  is  "Tomus  primus  in 
Ezechiel"  (fol.  pp.  .360;  Rome,  1.596).  After  sixteen 
years  s]ient  on  this  tome  he  died  at  Rome,  where  he 
was  seeking  illustrations  for  it.  He  had  reached  the 
twenty-sixth  chapter.  The  remainder  of  Ezechiel  was 
interpreted  by  John  Baptist  Villalpando  S.J.,  of  Cor- 
dova, who  added  two  volumes:  Of  these  the  second  is 
in  two  parts:  I.  " Explanationum  Ezechielis  prophetae, 
pars  prima,  in  tredefim  capita  sequentia"  (fol.  pp. 
104;  Rome,  1604);  II.  "De  postrema  Ezechielis 
prophetae  visione"  (fol.  pp.  655;   Rome,  1605).    This 


second  part  of  the  second  volume  goes  into  a  detailed 
archaeological  study  of  the  Temple.  The  third  volume 
of  this  commentary  on  Ezechiel  is  entitled  "Apparatus 
urbis  ac  templi  Hierosolymitani "  (fol.  pp.  xvi,  603; 
Rome,  1604) .  There  are  two  parts  to  the  volume,  and 
both  are  the  joint  work  of  Prado  and  Villalpando. 
Commentaries  on  Isaias,  Zachary,  Mioheas,  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  together  with  a  book  on  Biblical 
chronology  are  among  the  MSS.  works  left  by  Prado, 
several  of  which  are  in  the  National  Library  of  Madrid. 
The  volumes  published  by  Villalpando  were  dedicated 
to  Philip  II,  at  whose  request  and  cost  the  work  begun 
by  Prado  was  brought  to  a  successful  completion. 
These  three  volumes  have  always  been  highly  es- 
teemed for  their  thorough  and  scientific  study  of  Jew- 
ish coins,  weights,  and  measures;  likewise  for  the  ca.re 
with  which  the  Temple  and  City  of  Jerusalem  are 
reconstructed  from  the  very  few  data  then  at  hand. 
Cardinal  Wiseman  found  the  work  of  Prado  to  be 
"still  the  great  repertory  to  which  every  modern 
scholiast  must  recur,  in  explaining  the  difficulties  of 
the  book"  (Science  and  Revealed  Religion,  II,  Lon- 
don, 1851,  199).  The  younger  Rosenmiiller  calls  these 
volumes  "a  work  replete  with  varied  erudition,  and 
most  useful  to  the  study  of  antiquity"  ("Ezechielis 
Vaticinia",  I,  Leipzig,  1826,  32,  in  Wiseman,  1.  c). 
Among  those  whom  Prado  inspired  with  his  thorough- 
ness and  enthusiasm  in  the  study  of  the  Bible  were  his 
pupils  John  Pineda  and  Louis  de  Alcazar. 

HuRTER,  Nomenclator,  I  (Innsbruck,  1892),  .S4;  Sommervogel, 
Bibliothkgue  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  VI,  1149. 

Walter  Drum. 

Prselatus  NuUius  (i.  e.  Diceceseos),  a  prelate  who 
exercises  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction  in  a  territory 
not  comprised  in  any  diocese.  The  origin  of  such 
prelates  must  necessarily  be  sought  in  the  Apostolic 
privileges,  for  only  he  whose  authority  is  superior  to 
that  of  bishops  can  grant  an  exemption  from  episcopal 
jurisdiction.  Such  exemption,  therefore,  comes  only 
from  the  pope.  The  rights  of  prelates  nullius  are 
quasi-episcopal,  and  these  dignitaries  are  supposed  to 
have  any  power  that  a  bishop  has,  unless  it  is  expressly 
denied  to  them  by  canonical  law.  When  they  have 
not  received  episcopal  consecration,  such  prelates  may 
not  confer  sacred  orders,  but  they  have  the  privilege 
(if  they  are  abbots  and  priests)  of  advancing  candi- 
dates to  tonsure  and  minor  orders.  If  not  consecrated 
episcopally,  they  have  not  the  power  to  exercise  those 
functions  of  consecrating  oils,  etc.,  which  are  referred 
to  the  episcopal  order  only  analogously.  Prelates 
nullius  may  take  cognizance  of  matrimonial  causes 
within  the  same  limits  as  a  bishop ;  they  may  dispense 
from  the  proclamation  of  matrimonial  banns,  grant 
faculties  for  hearing  confessions  and  preaching,  re- 
serve certain  cases  to  themselves,  publish  indulgences 
and  jubilees,  exercise  full  jurisdiction  over  the  enclo- 
sure of  nuns,  and  invite  any  bishop  to  confirm  in  their 
quasi-diocese.  These  prelates  may  not,  however, 
without  special  permission  of  the  Holy  See,  convoke  a 
synod  or  institute  synodal  examiners.  Neither  may 
they  confer  parochial  benefices.  They  are  not  allowed 
to  grant  indulgences,  or  absolve  from  the  reserved 
cases  and  secret  irregularities  whose  absolution  is 
restricted  to  the  pope  ordinarily,  but  allowed  to  bish- 
ops by  the  Council  of  Trent;  nor  promote  secular 
clerics  to  orders,  nor  grant  dimissorial  letters  for  ordi- 
nation, nor  exercise  jurisdiction  over  regulars  as  Apos- 
tolic delegates.  Prelates  nullius  are,  however,  bound 
to  residence,  to  preach  the  Word  of  God,  to  offer  up 
Mass  for  their  people,  to  make  the  visit  ad  limina,  and 
in  concurrence  with  the  neighbouring  bishop  to  make  a 
visitation  of  their  quasi-diocese.  The  only  prelate 
nullius  in  the  United  States  is  the  Abbot  of  Maryhelp, 
Belmont,  North  Carolina.    (See  Abbot.) 

Sanguinetti,  Juris  EcclesiasticiB  Instituiiones  (Rome,  1896); 
Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1906),  s.  v.  Prelates. 

William  H.  W.  Fanning, 


PROPOSITUS 


333 


PRAGMATISM 


Praepositus.     See  Provost. 

Praetextatus,  Catacomb  of.  See  Cemetery,  sub- 
title, Early  Roman  Christian  Cemeteries. 

Pragmatic  Sanction  (pragmnlica  sanclio,  lex,  jus- 
sio,  also  praginalica  or  pragmaticuiii)  meant  in  the 
latter  period  of  the  Roman  Empire  an  edict  formally 
issued  by  the  emperor.  They  were  called  pragmatics, 
from  Tpayfw.,  the  affair  or  matter  of  sanction.  In  later 
times  the  best  known  are: — 

I.  The  Sanctio  Pragmaticii  said  to  have  been  issued 
by  St.  Louis  IX  of  France  in  li'69. — Its  purpose  was  to 
oppose  the  extension  of  papal  power,  the  demands  of 
tribute  made  by  Rome,  and  the  increase  of  papal 
reservations  in  regard  to  the  filling  of  offices.  The 
rights  of  prelates,  patrons,  and  the  regular  collators  of 
benefices  were  protected  against  papal  collation  of 
benefices.  Free  elections,  promotions,  and  collations 
were  guaranteed  to  the  cathedrals  and  other  churches. 
This  was  directed  against  the  papal  right  of  reserva- 
tion and  presentation,  not  against  the  filling  of  offices 
by  the  king.  It  was  further  laid  down  that  all  promo- 
tions, collations,  and  bestowals  of  Church  offices  must 
be  in  accordance  with  the  common  law,  the  early  coun- 
cils and  the  ancient  regulations  of  the  Fathers.  Simony 
was  forbidden.  Papal  taxes  and  imposts  were  permitted 
only  in  case  of  necessity,  and  with  the  permission  of  the 
king  and  the  French  Church.  The  liberties  and  privi- 
leges granted  to  churches,  monasteries,  and  priests  by 
the  kings  were  guaranteed.  The  investigations  of 
Thomassy  (1844),  Gerin  (1869),  Viollet  (1870),  and 
Scheflfer-Boichorst  (1887),  have  proved  that  it  is  a 
forgery  which  appeared  between  1438  and  1452. 

II.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges. — The  Coun- 
cil of  Basle  (1431-7)  had  issued  many  useful  decrees 
concerning  reform,  but  finally  came  into  conflict  with 
Eugenius  TV  and  was  suspended  by  him.  Both  par- 
ties, pope  and  council,  now  sought  the  support  of  the 
secular  powers.  It  was  to  the  interest  of  these  to  pre- 
vent a  new  schism  and  not  to  permit  the  complete 
failure  of  the  reforms  of  Basle.  The  position  of  France 
in  regard  to  these  questions  was  to  be  discussed  at  a 
national  council  that  King  Charles  VII  commanded  to 
meet  at  Bourges  in  May,  1438.  This  council  declared 
itself  neutral  in  the  dispute  between  the  pope  and  the 
synod,  but  accepted  the  greater  part  of  the  Basle  de- 
crees on  reform,  modifying  some  on  account  of  the 
special  conditions  in  France;  these  changes  were  made 
with  the  expectation  that  the  council  would  ratify  the 
modifications.  On  7  July,  1438,  the  king  issued  a 
decree,  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  in  which  he  accepted 
the  decisions  and  ordered  the  observance  of  them. 
Essentially  it  contains  the  tenets  of  the  supremacy  of 
an  cecumenical  council  over  the  pope,  of  the  regular 
holding  of  general  councils,  and  of  the  limitation  of 
papal  reservations  and  demands  of  tribute.  The  sup- 
pression of  annates  by  the  Council  of  Basle  was  added, 
but  with  the  modification  that  a  fifth  of  the  former  tax 
was  conceded  to  the  papal  see. 

By  this  edict  the  French  king  issued  a  law  of  the 
secular  legislative  authority  in  purely  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  The  recognition  of  the  authority  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Basle  was  only  formal,  for  the  vaUdity  of  its  deci- 
sions in  France  rested  solely  upon  the  edict  of  the 
king.  As  the  law  was  recorded  in  the  Parliaments  these, 
especially  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  received  the  right  of 
interfering  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Church.  In 
addition,  no  attention  had  been  paid  to  the  pope,  conse- 
quently every  effort  was  made  at  Rome  to  have  the  law 
set  aside.  Pius  II  (1458-64)  declared  it  an  infringe- 
ment of  the  rights  of  the  papal  see,  and  called  upon  the 
French  bishops  to  aid  in  its  suppression.  Charles  VII 
appealed  against  this  to  a  general  council.  His  suc- 
cessor Louis  XI  promised  the  pope  to  repeal  the  sanc- 
tion but  the  Parliament  of  Paris  and  the  university 
resisted,  and  the  king  let  the  matter  drop.  In  1499 
Louis  XII  by  explicit  declaration   renewed  the  en- 


forcement of  the  sanction.  Leo  X  effected  its  an- 
nulment by  means  of  a  Concordat  made  with  Francis 
I  in  1516. 

III.  The  German  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  lJi39.^AX 
the  Diet  of  Frankfort  held  in  March,  1438,  the  Ger- 
man ruling  princes  also  declared  their  neutrality  in  the 
struggle  between  Eugenius  IV  and  the  Council  of 
Basle.  A  new  diet  was  held  for  further  discussion  of 
the  matter  in  March,  1439,  at  Mainz,  and  this  diet 
also  accepted  a  series  of  the  Basle  decrees  of  reform 
with  modifications  in  individual  cases.  The  diet  re- 
served to  itself  the  right  to  make  other  changes,  and 
at  a  convenient  time  the  council  was  to  pass  decisions 
on  such  points.  This  is  the  substance  of  the  "  In.stru- 
mentum  acceptationis "  of  26  March,  1439.  The 
designation  pragmatic  sanction  is,  however,  mislead- 
ing, for  it  was  not  confirmed  by  the  emperor. 

IV.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
VI. — This  edict,  issued  by  the  last  German  male 
member  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  regulating  the 
succession  to  his  hereditary  lands,  was  read  19  April, 
1713,  before  the  ministers  and  councillors,  but  was 
temporarily  kept  secret.  The  law  ordained  that  all 
the  Austrian  hereditary  lands  should  always  remain 
united,  and  that  on  the  failure  of  male  descendants 
they  should  pass  to  the  daughters  that  might  be  born 
to  the  emperor;  and  not  until  their  descendants  died 
out  should  the  right  of  succession  revert  to  the  daugh- 
ters of  his  brother,  the  Emperor  Joseph  I  (1705-11), 
and  to  their  male  and  female  descendants.  This  prag- 
matic sanction  was  accepted  by  the  estates  of  the 
Austrian  lands  in  1720-4;  then  in  the  course  of 
time  it  was  also  recognized  and  guaranteed  by  the 
Powers  of  Europe,  so  that  after  the  death  of  Charles 
VI  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa  could  succeed. 

V.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Charles  III  of  Spain. 
— Charles  III  was  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily  until  he 
succeeded  his  brother  Ferdinand  upon  the  throne  of 
Spain  in  1759.  The  pragmatic  sanction  that  he  issued 
6  Oct.,  1759,  before  he  left  Naples,  is  also  an  edict  of 
succession.  As  earlier  treaties  forbade  the  union  of 
Spain  and  Naples,  he  transferred  Naples  and  Sicily  to 
his  third  son  Ferdinand.  Up  to  Ferdinand's  sixteenth 
year  Naples  was  to  be  administered  by  a  regency.  The 
eldest  son,  PhiUp,  was  weak-minded;  the  second  son 
Charles  was  to  receive  Spain.  Charles  III  also  pro- 
vided that  in  case  Ferdinand's  line  should  become 
extinct  his  brothers  Philip  and  Louis  were  to  have  the 
succession.  The  union  of  Naples  and  the  Two  Sicilies 
was  expressly  forbidden  in  the  edict. 

Hergenrother,  HandbucJi  der  allgemeinen  Kirchengesch.,  ed. 
KiRSCH,  II  (4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1904),  600-01,  931;  Hefele, 
Komiliengeschichte,  VII  (Freiburg,  1869),  762-70;  Koch, 
Sanctio  pragmatica  Germanorum  illustrata  (Strasburg,  1789); 
St.  Louis  and  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  in  The  Month  (London,  Oct., 
1869),  366. 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Pragmatism,  as  a  tendency  in  philosophy,  signifies 
the  insistence  on  usefulness  or  practical  consequences 
as  a  test  of  truth.  In  its  negative  phase,  it  opposes 
what  it  styles  the  formalism  or  rationalism  of  Intellec- 
tualistic  philosophy.  That  is,  it  objects  to  the  view 
that  concepts,  judgments,  and  reasoning  processes  are 
representative  of  reality  and  the  processes  of  reality. 
It  considers  them  to  be  merely  symbols,  hypotheses 
and  schemata  devised  by  man  to  facilitate  or  render 
possible  the  use,  or  experience,  of  reality.  This  use, 
or  experience,  is  the  true  test  of  real  existence.  In  its 
positive  phase,  therefore,  Pragmatism  sets  up  as  the 
standard  of  truth  some  non-rational  test,  such  as  ac- 
tion, satisfaction  of  needs,  realization  in  conduct,  the 
possibility  of  being  lived,  and  judges  reality  by  this 
norm  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others. 

I.  The  Origins  of  Pragmatism. — Although  the 
Pragmatists  themselves  proclaim  that  Pragmatism  is 
but  a  new  name  for  old  ways  of  thinking,  they  are  not 
agreed  as  to  the  immediate  sources  of  the  Pragmatic 


PRAGMATISM 


334 


PRAGMATISM 


movement.  Nevertheless,  it  is  clear  that  Kant,  who  is 
held  responsible  for  so  many  of  the  recent  develop- 
ments in  philosophy  and  theology,  has  had  a  deciding 
influence  on  the  origin  of  Pragmatism.  Descartes,  by 
reason  of  the  emphasis  he  laid  on  the  theoretical  con- 
sciousness, "I  think,  therefore  I  exist",  may  be  said  to 
be  the  father  of  Intellcctualism.  From  Kant's  substi- 
tution of  moral  for  theoretical  consciousness,  from  his 
insistence  on  "I  ought"  instead  of  "I  think",  came  a 
whole  progeny  of  Voluntaristic  or  non-rational  philos- 
ophies, especially  Lotze's  philosophy  of  "  value  instead 
of  validity",  which  were  not  without  influence  on  the 
founders  of  Pragmatism.  Besides  the  influence  of 
Kant,  there  is  also  to  be  reckoned  the  trend  of  scien- 
tific thought  during  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. In  ancient  and  medieval  times  the  scientist 
aimed  at  the  discovery  of  causes  and  the  establishment 
of  laws.  The  cause  was  a  fact  of  experience,  ascertain- 
able by  empirical  methods,  and  the  law  was  a  general- 
ization from  facts,  representing  the  real  course  of 
events  in  nature.  With  the  advent  of  the  evolution 
theory  it  was  found  that  an  unproved  hypothesis  or 
hypothetical  cause,  if  it  explains  the  facts  observed, 
fulfils  the  same  purpose  and  serves  the  same  ends  as  a 
true  cause  or  an  established  law.  Indeed,  if  evolution, 
as  a  hypothesis,  explains  the  facts  observed  in  plant 
and  animal  life,  or  if  a  hypothetical  medium,  like  ether, 
explains  the  facts  observed  in  regard  to  light  and  heat, 
there  is  no  reason,  say  the  scientists,  why  we  should 
concern  ourselves  further  about  the  truth  of  evolution 
or  the  existence  of  ether.  The  hypothesis  functions 
satisfactorily,  and  that  is  enough.  From  this  equaliza- 
tion of  hypothesis  with  law  and  of  provisional  explana- 
tion with  proved  fact  arose  the  tendency  to  equalize 
postulates  with  axioms,  and  to  regard  as  true  any  prin- 
ciple which  works  out  well,  or  functions  satisfactorily. 
Moreover,  evolution  had  familiarized  scientists  with 
the  notion  that  all  progress  is  conditioned  by  adjust- 
ment to  new  conditions.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  to 
consider  that  a  problem  presented  to  the  thinking  mind 
calls  for  the  adjustment  of  the  previous  content  of  the 
mind  to  the  new  experience  in  the  problem  pondered. 
A  principle  or  postulate  or  attitude  of  mind  that  would 
bring  about  an  adjustment  would  satisfy  the  mind  for 
the  time  being,  and  would,  therefore,  solve  the  prob- 
lem. This  satisfaction  came,  consequently,  to  be  con- 
sidered a  test  of  truth.  This  account,  however,  would 
be  incomplete  without  a  mention  of  the  temperamen- 
tal, racial,  and,  in  a  sense,  the  environmental  deter- 
minants of  Pragmatism.  The  men  who  represent 
Pragmatism  are  of  the  motor-active  type;  the  coun- 
try, namely  the  United  States,  in  which  Pragmatism 
has  flourished  most  is  pre-eminently  a  country  of 
achie\'ement,  and  the  age  in  which  Pragmatism  has 
appeared  is  one  which  bestows  its  highest  praise  on 
successful  endeavour.  The  first  of  the  Pragmatists 
declares  that  Pragmatism  rests  on  the  axiom  "The  end 
of  man  is  action",  an  axiom,  he  adds,  which  does  not 
recommend  itself  to  him  at  sixty  as  forcibly  as  it  did 
when  he  was  thirty. 

II.  The  Pragmatists. — In  a  paper  contributed  to 
the  "Popular  Science  Monthly"  in  1878  entitled 
"How  to  make  our  Ideas  clear",  Mr.  C.  S.  Peirce  first 
used  the  word  Pragmatism  to  designate  a  principle  put 
forward  by  him  as  a  rule  to  guide  the  scientist  and  the 
mathematician.  The  principle  is  that  the  meaning  of 
any  conception  in  the  mind  is  the  practical  effect  it 
will  have  in  action.  "Consider  what  effects  which 
might  conceivably  have  practical  bearings  we  consider 
the  object  of  our  conception  to  have.  Then  our  con- 
ception of  these  efTects  is  the  whole  of  our  conception 
of  the  object."  This  rule  remained  unnoticed  for 
twenty  years,  until  it  was  taken  up  by  Professor  Wil- 
liam James  in  his  address  delivered  at  the  University  of 
California  in  1898.  "Pragmatism",  according  to 
James,  "is  a  temper  of  mind,  an  attitude;  it  is  also  a 
theory  of  the  nature  of  ideas  and  truth;  and  finally,  it 


is  a  theory  about  reality"  (Journal  of  Phil.,  V,  85). 
As  he  uses  the  word,  therefore,  it  designates  (a)  an 
attitude  of  mind  towards  philosophy,  (b)  an  episte- 
mology,  and  (c)  a  metaphysics.  James's  epistemology 
and  metaphysics  will  be  described  in  sections  III  and 
IV.  The  attitude  which  he  calls  Pragmatism  he  de- 
fines as  follows:  "The  whole  function  of  philosophy 
ought  to  be  to  find  out  what  definite  difference  it  will 
make  to  j'ou  and  me,  at  definite  instants  of  our  lives, 
if  this  world-formula  or  that  world-formula  be  the  true 
one"  (Pragmatism,  p.  50).  Thus,  when  one  is  con- 
fronted with  the  evidence  in  favour  of  the  formula 
"the  human  soul  is  immortal",  and  then  turns  to  the 
considerations  put  forward  by  the  sceptic  in  favour  of 
the  formula  "the  human  soul  is  not  immortal",  what 
is  he  to  do?  If  he  is  a  Pragmatist,  he  will  not  be  con- 
tent to  weigh  the  evidence,  to  compare  the  case  for 
with  the  case  against  immortality;  he  will  not  attempt 
to  fit  the  affirmative  or  the  negative  into  a  "closed 
system"  of  thought;  he  will  work  out  the  conse- 
quences, the  definite  differences,  that  follow  from  each 
alternative,  and  decide  in  that  way  which  of  the  two 
"works"  better.  The  alternative  which  works  better 
is  true.  The  attitude  of  the  Pragmatist  is  "the  atti- 
tude of  looking  away  from  first  things,  principles, 
categories,  supposed  necessities;  and  of  looking 
towards  last  things,  fruits,  consequences,  facts"  (op. 
cit.,  55). 

This  view  of  the  scope  and  attitude  of  philosophy  is 
sustained  in  Professor  James's  numerous  contributions 
to  the  literature  of  Pragmatism  (see  bibliography),  in 
lectures,  articles,  and  reviews  which  obtained  for  him 
the  distinction  of  being  the  most  thorough-going  and 
the  most  eminent,  if  not  the  most  logical,  of  the  Prag- 
matists. Next  in  importance  to  James  is  Professor 
John  Dewey,  who  in  his  "Studies  in  Logical  Theory" 
and  in  a  number  of  articles  and  lectures,  defends  the 
doctrine  known  variously  as  Instrumentalism,  or  Im- 
mediate Empiricism.  According  to  Dewey,  we  are 
constantly  acquiring  new  items  of  knowledge  which 
are  at  first  unrelated  to  the  previous  contents  of  the 
mind;  or,  in  moments  of  reflection,  we  discover  that 
there  is  some  contradiction  among  the  items  of  knowl- 
edge already  acquired.  This  condition  causes  a  strain 
or  tension,  the  removal  of  which  gives  satisfaction  to 
the  thinker.  An  idea  is  "a  plan  of  action",  which  we 
use  to  relieve  the  strain;  if  it  performs  that  function 
successfully,  that  is,  satisfactorily,  it  is  true.  The 
adjustment  is  not,  however,  one-sided.  Both  the  old 
truths  in  the  mind  and  the  new  truth  that  has  just 
entered  the  mind  must  be  modified  before  we  can  have 
satisfaction.  Thus  there  is  no  static  truth,  much  less 
absolute  truth;  there  are  truths,  and  these  are  con- 
stantly being  made  true.  This  is  the  view  which, 
under  the  names  Personalism,  and  Humanism,  has 
been  emphasized  by  Professor  F.  S.  Schiller,  the  fore- 
most of  the  English  exponents  of  Pragmatism.  "Hu- 
manism", and  "Studies  in  Humanism"  are  the  titles 
of  his  principal  works.  Pragmatism,  Schiller  thinks, 
"is  in  reality  only  the  application  of  Humanism  to 
the  theory  of  knowledge"  (Humanism,  p.  xxi),  and 
Humanism  is  the  doctrine  that  there  is  no  absolute 
truth,  but  only  truths,  which  are  constantly  being 
made  true  by  the  mind  working  on  the  data  of  expe- 
rience. 

On  the  Continent  of  Europe,  Pragmatism  has  not 
attained  the  same  prominence  as  in  English-speaking 
countries.  Nevertheless,  writers  who  favour  Prag- 
matism see  in  the  teachings  of  Mach,  Ostwald,  Avena- 
rius,  and  Simmel  a  tendency  towards  the  Pragmatic 
definition  of  philosophy.  James,  for  instance,  quotes 
Ostwald,  the  illustrious  Leipzig  chemist,  assaying,  "I 
am  accustomed  to  put  questions  to  my  classes  in  this 
way:  in  what  respects  would  the  world  be  different  if 
this  alternative  or  that  were  true?  If  I  can  find  nothing 
that  would  become  different,  then  the  alternative  has  no 
sense"  (Pragmatism,  p.  48).    Avenarius's  "Criticism 


PRAGMATISM 


335 


PRAGMATISM 


of  Experience",  and  Simmel's  "Philosophie  des 
Geldes"  tend  towards  establishing  the  same  criterion. 
In  France,  Renouvier's  return  to  the  point  of  view  of 
practical  reason  in  his  neo-Criticism,  the  so-called 
"new  philosophy  "  which  minimizes  the  value  of  scien- 
tific categories  as  interpretations  of  reality,  and  which 
has  its  chief  representative  in  Poinoard,  who,  as  James 
says,  "misses  Pragmatism  only  by  the  breadth  of  a 
hair",  and,  finally,  Bergson,  whom  the  Pragmatists 
everywhere  recognize  as  the  most  briUiant  and  logical 
of  their  leaders,  represent  the  growth  and  develop- 
rnent  of  the  French  School  of  Pragmatism.  Side  by 
side  with  this  French  movement,  and  not  uninfluenced 
by  it,  is  the  school  of  Catholic  Immanent  Apologists, 
beginning  with  0116-Laprune  and  coming  down  to 
Blondel  and  Le  Roy,  who  exalt  action,  life,  sentiment, 
or  some  other  non-rational  element  into  the  sole  and 
supreme  criterion  of  higher  spiritual  truth.  In  Italy, 
Giovanni  Papini,  author  of  "  Introduzione  al  prag- 
matismo",  takes  his  place  among  the  most  advanced 
exponents  of  the  principle  that  "the  meaning  of 
theories  consists  uniquely  in  the  consequences  which 
those  who  believe  them  true  may  expect  from  them" 
(Introd.,  p.  2S).  Indeed,  he  seems  at  times  to  go  far- 
ther than  the  American  and  English  Pragmatists: 
when,  for  instance,  in  the  "  Popular  Science  Monthly 
(Oct.,  1907),  he  writes  that  Pragmatism  "is  less  a 
philosophy  than  a  method  of  doing  without  philos- 
ophy" 

III.  Pragmatic  Theory  op  Knowledge. — In  fair- 
ness to  the  Pragmatists  it  must  be  recorded  that,  when 
they  claim  to  shift  the  centre  of  philosophic  inquiry 
from  the  theoretical  to  the  practical,  they  explain  that 
by  "practical"  they  do  not  understand  merely  the 
"bread  and  butter"  consequences,  but  include  also 
among  practical  consequences  such  considerations  as 
logical  consistency,  intellectual  satisfaction,  and  har- 
mony of  mental  content ;  and  James  expressly  affirms 
that  by  "practical"  he  means  "particular  and  con- 
crete". Individualism  or  Nominalism  is,  therefore, 
the  starting-point  of  the  Pragmatist.  Indeed  Dr. 
Schiller  assures  us  that  the  consequences  which  are 
the  test  of  truth  must  be  the  consequences  to  some  one, 
for  some  purpose.  The  Intellectualism  against  which 
Pragmatism  is  a  revolt  recognizes  logical  consistency 
among  the  tests  of  truth.  But  while  Intellectualism 
refers  the  truth  to  be  treated  to  universal  standards, 
to  laws,  principles,  and  to  established  generalizations. 
Pragmatism  uses  a  standard  which  is  particular,  indi- 
vidual, personal.  Besides,  realistic  Intellectualism, 
such  as  was  taught  by  the  Scholastics,  recognizes  an 
order  of  real  things,  independent  of  the  mind,  not 
made  by  the  mind,  but  given  in  experience,  and  uses 
that  as  a  standard  of  truth,  conformity  to  it  being  a 
test  of  truth,  and  lack  of  conformity  being  a  proof  of 
falseness.  Pragmatism  regards  this  realism  as  naive, 
as  a  reHc  of  primitive  modes  of  philosophizing,  and  is 
obliged,  therefore,  to  test  newly-acquired  truth  by  the 
standard  of  truth  already  in  the  mind,  that  is,  by  per- 
sonal or  individual  experience.  Again,  there  underlies 
the  pragmatic  account  of  knowledge  a  Sensist  psy- 
chology, latent,  perhaps,  so  far  as  the  consciousness 
of  the  Pragmatist  is  concerned.  For  the  Pragmatist, 
although  he  does  not  affirm  that  we  have  no  knowledge 
superior  to  sense  knowledge,  leaves  no  room  in  his 
philosophy  for  knowledge  that  represents  universally 
and  necessarily  and,  at  the  same  time,  validly; 

Knowledge  begins  with  sense-impressions.  At  this 
point  the  Pragmatist  falls  into  his  initial  error,  an 
error,  however,  of  which  the  idealistic  Intellectualist 
is  also  guilty.  What  we  are  aware  of,  say  both  the 
Pragmatist  and  the  Idealist,  is  not  a  thing,  or  a  quality 
of  an  object,  but  the  state  of  self,  the  subjective  condi- 
tion, the  "sensation  of  whiteness",  the  "sensation  of 
sweetness"  etc.  This  error,  fatal  as  it  is,  need  not 
detain  us  here,  because,  as  has  been  said,  it  is  common 
to  Ideahsts  and  Pragmatists.    It  is,  in  fact,  the  luck- 


less Cartesian  legacy  to  all  modern  systems.  Next,  we 
come  to  percepts,  concepts,  or  ideas.  Incidentally,  it 
may  be  remarked  that  the  Pragmatist,  in  common 
with  the  Sensist,  this  time,  fails  to  distinguish  between 
a  percept,  which  is  particular  and  contingent,  and  an 
idea  or  concept,  which  is  universal  and  necessary.  Let 
us  take  the  word  concept,  and  use  it  as  he  does,  with- 
out distinguishing  its  specific  meaning.  What  is  the 
value  of  the  concept?  The  Realist  answers  that  it  is  a 
representation  of  reality,  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  im- 
pression, so  here,  too,  there  is  a  something  outside  the 
mind  which  the  concept  represents  and  which  is  the 
primary  test  of  the  truth  of  the  concept.  The  Prag- 
matist rejects  the  notion  that  concepts  represent 
reality.  However  the  Pragmatists  may  differ  later  on, 
they  are  all  agreed  on  this  point:  James,  Schiller, 
Bergson,  Papini,  the  neo-Critics  of  science  and  the 
Immanentists.  What,  then,  does  the  concept  do? 
Concepts,  we  are  told,  are  tools  fashioned  by  the 
human  mind  for  the  manipulation  of  experience. 
James,  for  example,  says  "The  notions  of  one  Time, 
one  Space  the  distinctions  between  thoughts 

and  things  .  .  .  the  conceptions  of  classes  with 
subclasses  within  them  .  .  .  surely  all  these  were 
once  definite  conquests  made  at  historic  dates  by  our 
ancestors  in  their  attempts  to  get  the  chaos  of  their 
crude  individual  experiences  into  a  more  shareable  and 
manageable  shape.  They  proved  of  such  sovereign 
use  as  Denkmittel  that  they  are  now  a  part  of  the  very 
structure  of  our  mind"  (Meaning  of  Truth,  p.  62). 

A  concept,  therefore,  is  true  if,  when  we  use  it  as  a 
tool  to  manipulate  or  handle  our  experience,  the  re- 
sults, the  practical  results,  are  satisfactory.  It  is  true 
if  it  functions  well;  in  other  words,  if  it  "works". 
Schiller  expresses  the  same  notion  in  almost  identical 
words.  Concepts,  he  tells  us,  are  "tools  slowly  fash- 
ioned by  the  practical  intelligence  for  the  mastery  of 
experience"  (Studies  in  Humanism,  p.  64).  They  are 
not  static  but  dynamic;  their  work  is  never  done. 
For  each  new  experience  has  to  be  subjected  to  the 
process  of  manipulation,  and  this  process  implies  the 
readjustment  of  all  past  experience.  Hence,  as  Schiller 
says,  there  are  truths  but  there  is  no  truth ;  or,  as  James 
expresses  it,  truth  is  not  transcendent  but  ambulatory; 
that  is  to  say,  no  truth  is  made  and  set  aside,  or  out- 
side experience,  for  future  reference  of  new  truth  to 
it ;  experience  is  a  stream  out  of  which  we  can  never 
step;  no  item  of  experience  can  ever  be  verified  defi- 
nitely and  irrevocably;  it  is  verified  provisionally 
now,  but  must  be  verified  again  to-morrow,  when  I 
acquire  a  new  experience.  Verificability  and  not 
verification  is  the  test  of  experience;  and,  therefore, 
the  function  of  the  concept,  of  any  concept  or  of  all 
of  them,  goes  on  indefinitely. 

Professor  Dewey  agrees  with  James  and  Schiller  in 
his  description  of  the  meaning  of  concepts.  He  ap- 
pears to  differ  from  them  merely  in  the  greater  em- 
phasis which  he  lays  on  the  strain  or  stress  which  the 
concept  relieves.  Our  first  experience,  he  says,  is  not 
knowledge  properly  so-called.  When  to  this  is  added 
a  second  experience  there  is  likely  to  arise  in  the  mind 
a  sense  of  contradiction,  or,  at  least,  a  consciousness  of 
the  lack  of  coordination,  between  the  first  and  the 
second.  Hence  arises  doubt,  or  uneasiness,  or  strain, 
or  some  other  form  of  the  throes  of  thinking.  We  can- 
not rest  until  this  painful  condition  is  remedied. 
Therefore  we  inquire,  and  continue  to  inquire  until 
we  obtain  an  answer  which  satisfies  by  removing  the 
inconsistency  which  existed,  or  by  bringing  about  the 
adjustment  which  is  required.  In  this  inquiry  we  use 
the  concept  as  a  "plan  of  action";  if  the  plan  leads  to 
satisfaction,  it  is  true,  if  it  does  not,  it  is  false.  For 
Dewey,  as  for  James  and  Schiller,  each  adjustment 
means  a  going  over  and  a  doing  over  of  all  the  previous 
contents  of  experience,  or,  at  least,  of  those  contents 
which  are  in  any  way  relevant  or  referrable  to  the 
newly-acquired  item.    Here,  therefore,  we  have  once 


PRAGMATISM 


336 


PRAGMATISM 


more  the  doctrine  that  the  concept  is  not  static  but 
dynamic,  not  fixed  but  fluent;  its  meaning  is  not  its 
content  but  its  function.  The  same  doctrine  is  brought 
out  very  forcibly  by  Bergson  in  his  criticism  of  the  cat- 
egories of  science.  The  reality  which  science  attempts 
to  interpret  is  a  stream,  a  continuum,  more  like  a  living 
organism  than  a  mineral  substance.  Truth  in  the 
mind  of  the  scientist  is,  therefore,  a  vital  stream,  a  suc- 
cession of  concepts,  each  of  which  flows  into  its  suc- 
cessor. To  say  that  a  given  concept  represents  things 
as  they  are  can  be  true  only  in  the  fluent  or  functional 
sense.  A  concept  out  out  of  the  continuum  of  expe- 
rience at  any  moment  no  more  represents  the  reality 
of  science  than  a  cross-section  of  a  tissue  represents 
the  specific  vital  function  of  that  tissue.  When  we 
think  we  cut  our  concepts  out  of  the  continuum:  to  use 
our  concepts  as  they  were  intended  to  be  used,  we  must 
keep  them  in  the  stream  of  reaUty,  that  is,  we  must 
live  them. 

If  we  pass  now  from  the  consideration  of  concepts 
to  that  of  judgment  and  reasoning,  we  find  the  same 
contrast  between  the  intellectual  Realist  and  the 
Pragmatist  as  in  the  case  of  concepts.  The  intellectual 
Realist  defines  judgment  as  a  process  of  the  mind,  in 
which  we  pronounce  the  agreement  or  difference  be- 
tween two  things  represented  by  the  two  concepts  of 
the  judgment.  The  things  themselves  are  the  stand- 
ard. Sometimes,  as  in  self-evident  judgments,  we  do 
not  appeal  to  experience  at  the  moment  of  judging,  but 
perceive  the  agreement  or  difference  after  an  analysis 
of  the  concepts.  Sometimes,  as  in  empirical  judg- 
ments, we  turn  to  experience  for  the  evidence  that 
enables  us  to  judge.  Self-evident  truths  are  axiomatic, 
necessary,  and  universal,  such  as  "All  the  radii  of  a 
given  circle  are  equal",  or  "The  whole  is  greater  than 
its  part".  Truths  that  are  not  self-evident  may 
change,  if  the  facts  change,  as,  for  instance,  "The  pen 
I  hold  in  my  hand  is  six  inches  long  ".  There  are  neces- 
sary truths,  which  are  a  legitimate  standard  by  which 
to  test  new  truths;  and  there  are  truths  of  fact, 
which,  as  long  as  they  remain  true,  are  also  legitimate 
tests  of  new  truth.  Thus,  systems  of  truth  are  built 
up,  and  part  of  the  system  may  be  axiomatic  truths, 
which  need  not  be  re-made  or  made  over  when  a  new 
truth  is  acquired. 

All  this  is  swept  aside  by  the  Pragmatist  with  the 
same  contempt  as  the  naive  realism  which  holds  that 
concepts  represent  reality.  There  are  no  necessary 
truths,  there  are  no  axioms,  says  Pragmatism,  but 
only  postulates.  A  judgment  is  true  if  it  functions  in 
such  a  way  as  to  explain  our  experiences,  and  it  con- 
tinues to  be  true  only  so  long  as  it  does  explain  our 
experiences.  The  apparent  self-evidence  of  axioms, 
says  the  Pragmatist,  is  due,  not  to  the  clearness  and 
cogency  of  the  evidence  arising  from  an  analysis  of 
concepts,  much  less  is  it  due  to  the  cogency  of  reality; 
it  is  due  to  a  long-established  habit  of  the  race.  The 
reason  why  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  two  and  two 
are  four  is  the  habit  of  so  thinking,  a  habit  begun  by 
our  ancestors  before  they  were  human  and  indulged  in 
by  all  their  descendants  ever  since.  All  truths  are, 
therefore,  empirical :  they  are  all ' '  man-made ' ' ;  hence 
Humanism  is  only  another  name  for  Pragmatism. 
Our  judgments  being  all  personal,  in  this  sense,  and 
based  on  our  own  experience,  subject  to  the  limita- 
tions imposed  by  the  habits  of  the  race,  it  follows  that 
the  conclusions  which  we  draw  from  them  when  we 
reason  are  only  hypothetical.  They  are  valid  only 
within  our  experience,  and  should  not  be  carried  be- 
yond the  region  of  verifiable  experience.  Pragmatism, 
as  James  pointed  out,  does  not  look  backward  to  axi- 
oms, premises,  systems,  but  forward  to  consequences, 
results,  fruits.  In  point  of  fact,  then,  we  are,  if  we 
believe  the  Pragmatist,  obliged  to  subscribe  to  the 
doctrine  of  John  Stuart  Mill  that  all  truth  is  hypo- 
thetical, that  "can  be"  and  "cannot  be"  have  refer- 
ence only  to  our  experience,  and  that,  for  all  we  know. 


there  may  be  in  some  remote  region  of  space  a  country 
where  two  and  two  are  five,  and  a  thing  can  be  and  not 
be  at  the  same  time. 

IV.  Phagmatic  Theory  of  Reality. — The  atti- 
tude of  Pragmatism  towards  metaphysics  is  some- 
what ambiguous.  Professor  James  was  quoted  above 
(Sec.  II)  as  saying  that  Pragmatism  is  "finally,  a 
theory  of  reality".  Schiller,  too,  although  he  con- 
siders metaphysics  to  be  "  a  luxury ' ' ,  and  believes  that 
"neither  Pragmatism  nor  Humanism  necessitates  a 
metaphysics",  yet  decides  ^t  last  that  Humanism 
"implies  ultimately  a  voluntaristic  metaphysics" 
Papini,  as  is  well  known,  puts  forward  the  "corridor- 
theory",  according  to  which  Pragmatism  is  a  method 
through  which  one  may  pass,  or  must  pass,  to  enter 
the  various  apartments  indicated  by  the  signs  "Mate- 
rialism", "Idealism",  etc.,  although  he  confesses  that 
the  Pragmatist  "will  have  an  antipathy  for  all  forms 
of  Monism"  (Introduzione,  p.  29).  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  metaphysics  of  the  Pragmatist  is  distinctly 
anti-Monistio.  It  denies  the  fundamental  unity  of 
reality  and,  adopting  a  word  which  seems  to  have 
been  first  used  by  Wolff  to  designate  the  doctrines  of 
the  Atomists  and  the  Monadism  of  Leibniz,  it  styles 
the  Pragmatic  view  of  reality  Pluralistic.  Pluralism, 
the  doctrine,  namely,  that  reality  consists  of  a  plural- 
ity or  multiplicity  of  real  things  which  cannot  be 
reduced  to  a  basic  metaphysical  unity,  claims  to  offer 
the  most  consistent  solution  of  three  most  important 
problems  in  philosophy.  These  are:  (1)  The  possi- 
bility of  real  change;  (2)  the  possibility  of  real  variety 
or  distinction  among  things;  and  (3)  the  possibility 
of  freedom  (see  art.  "Pluralism"  in  Baldwin,  "Diet, 
of  Philosophy  and  Psychology").  It  is  true  that 
Monism  fails  on  these  points,  since  (1)  it  cannot  con- 
sistently maintain  the  reality  of  change;  (2)  it  tends 
to  the  Pantheistic  view  that  all  distinctions  are  mierely 
limitations  of  the  one  being;  and  (.3)  it  is  inevitably 
Deterministic,  excluding  the  possibility  of  true  in- 
dividual freedom  (see  art.  Monism). 

At  the  same  time.  Pluralism  goes  to  the  opposite 
extreme,  for:  (1)  while  it  explains  one  term  in  the 
problem  of  change,  it  eliminates  the  other  term, 
namely  the  original  causal  unity  of  all  things  in  God, 
the  First  Cause;  (2)  while  it  accounts  for  variety,  it 
cannot  consistently  explain  the  cosmic  harmony  and 
the  multitudinous  resemblances  of  things;  and  (3) 
while  it  strives  to  maintain  freedom,  it  does  not  dis- 
tinguish with  sufficient  care  between  freedom  and 
causalism.  James,  the  chief  exponent  of  Pragmatic 
Pluralism,  contrasts  Pluralism  and  Monism  as  fol- 
lows: "Pluralism  lets  things  really  exist  in  the  each- 
form  or  distributively.  Monism  thinks  that  the  all- 
form  or  collective-unit  form  is  the  only  form  that  is 
rational.  The  all-form  allows  of  no  taking  up  and 
dropping  of  connexions,  for  in  the  '  all '  the  parts  are 
essentially  and  externally  co-imphcated.  In  the  each- 
form,  on  the  contrary,  a  thing  may  be  connected  by 
intermediate  things,  with  a  thing  with  which  it  has 
no  immediate  or  essential  connexion.  ...  If  the 
each-form  be  the  eternal  form  of  reality  no  less  than 
the  form  of  temporal  appearance,  we  still  have  a 
coherent  world,  and  not  an  incarnate  incoherence,  as 
is  charged  by  so  many  absolutists.  Our  'multiverse' 
still  makes  a  '  universe ' ;  f or  every  part,  though  it  may 
not  be  in  actual  or  immediate  connexion,  is  neverthe- 
less in  some  possible  or  mediate  connexion  with  every 
other  part,  however  remote"  (A  Pluralistic  Universe, 
324).  This  type  of  union  James  calls  the  "strung- 
along  type",  the  type  of  continuity,  contiguity,  or 
concatenation,  as  opposed  to  the  co-implication  or  in- 
tegra,tion  type  of  unity  advocated  by  the  absolute 
Monists.  If  one  prefers  a  Greek  name,  he  says,  the 
unity  may  be  called  synechism.  Others,  however, 
prefer  to  call  this  tychism,  or  mere  chance  succession. 
Peirce,  for  instance,  holds  that  the  impression  of 
novelty  which  a  new  occurrence  produces  is  explicable 


PRAGMATISM 


337 


PRAGMATISM 


only  on  the  theory  of  chance,  and  Bergson  seems  to  be 
in  no  better  case  when  he  tries  to  explain  what  he  calls 
the  devenir  reel. 

The  gist  of  PluraUsm  is  that  "Things  are  'with' 
one  another  in  many  ways,  but  nothing  includes  every- 
thing or  dominates  over  everything"  (ibid.,  p.  321). 
One  of  the  consequences  of  this  view  is  that,  as  Seliil- 
lersays  ("Personal  Idealism",  p.  60),  "the  world  is 
what  we  make  it"  "Sick  souls",  and  "tender- 
minded"  people  may,  as  James  says,  be  content  to 
take  their  places  in  a  world  already  made  according 
to  law,  divided  off  into  categories  by  an  Absolute 
Mind,  and  ready  to  be  represented  in  the  mind  of  the 
beholder,  just  as  it  is.  This  is  the  point  of  view  of  the 
Monist.  But,  the  "strenuous",  and  the  "tough- 
minded"  will  not  be  content  to  take  a  ready-made 
world  as  they  find  it;  they  will  make  it  for  themselves, 
o\-ercoming  all  difficulties,  filhng  in  the  gaps,  so  to 
speak,  and  smoothing  over  the  rough  places  by  estab- 
hshing  actual  and  immediate  connexions  among  the 
events  as  they  occur  in  experience.  The  Monistic 
view,  James  confesses,  has  a  majesty  of  its  own  and  a 
capacity  to  yield  religious  comfort  to  a  most  respect- 
able class  of  minds.  "But,  from  the  human  (prag- 
matic Pluralist)  point  of  view,  no  one  can  pretend 
that  it  does  not  suffer  from  the  faults  of  remoteness 
and  abstractness.  It  is  eminently  a  product  of  what 
I  have  ventured  to  call  the  Rationalistic  temper. 
.  It  is  dapper,  it  is  noble  in  the  bad  sense,  in 
the  sense  in  which  it  is  noble  to  be  inapt  for  humble 
service.  In  this  real  world  of  sweat  and  dirt,  it  seems 
to  me  that  when  a  view  of  things  is  'noble',  that 
ought  to  count  as  a  presumption  against  its  truth,  and 
as  a  philosophic  disqualification"  (Pragmatism,  pp. 
71  and  72).  ^loreover,  Monism  is  a  species  of  spirit- 
ual laziness,  of  moral  cowardice.  "They  [the  Mo- 
nists]  mean  that  we  have  a  right  ever  and  anon  to 
take  a  moral  holiday,  to  let  the  world  wag  its  own  way, 
feeUng  that  its  issues  are  in  better  hands  than  ours  and 
are  none  of  our  business"  (ibid.,  p.  74).  Pluralistic 
strenuosity  suffers  no  such  restraints;  it  recognizes  no 
obstacle  that  cannot  be  overcome.  The  test  of  its 
audacity  is  its  treatment  of  the  idea  of  God.  For  the 
Plurahst,  "God  is  not  the  absolute,  but  is  Himself  a 
part.  .  .  .  His  functions  can  be  taken  as  not 
wholly  dissimilar  to  those  of  the  other  smaller  parts — 
as  similar  to  our  functions,  consequently,  having  an 
environment,  being  in  time,  and  working  out  a  history 
just  hke  ourselves,  He  escapes  from  the  foreignness 
from  all  that  is  human,  of  the  static,  timeless,  perfect 
absolute"  (A  Pluralistic  Universe,  p.  318).  God, 
then,  is  finite.  We  are,  indeed,  internal  parts  of  God, 
and  not  external  creations.  God  is  not  identical  with 
the  universe,  but  a  limited,  conditioned,  part  of  it. 
We  have  here  a  new  kind  of  Pantheism,  a  Pantheism 
of  the  "strung-along"  type,  and  if  James  is  content 
to  have  his  philosophical  democratic  strenuosity 
judged  by  this  result,  he  has  very  effectively  con- 
demned his  own  case,  not  only  in  the  estimation  of 
aristocratic  Absolutists  but  also  in  that  of  every 
Christian  philosopher. 

V.  Pragmatism  and  Religion. — It  has  been 
pointed  out  that  one  of  the  secrets  of  the  popularity 
of  Pragmatism  is  the  belief  that  in  the  warfare  be- 
tween religion  and  Agnosticism  the  Pragmatists  have, 
somehow,  come  to  the  rescue  on  the  side  of  religious 
truth  (Pratt,  "What  is  Pragmatism",  p.  17.5).  It 
should  be  admitted  at  once  that,  by  temperamental 
disposition,  rather  than  by  force  of  logic,  the  Prag- 
matist  is  inclined  to  uphold  the  vital  and  social  im- 
portance of  positive  religious  faith.  For  him,  religion 
is  not  a  mere  attitude  of  mind,  an  illumination  thrown 
on  facts  already  ascertained,  or  a  state  of  feeling 
which  disposes  one  to  place  an  emotional  value  on  the 
truths  revealed  by  science.  It  adds  new  facts  and 
brings  forward  new  truths  which  make  a  difference, 
and  lead  to  differences,  especially  in  conduct.  Whether 
XII.— 22 


religions  are  proved  or  not,  they  have  approved  them- 
selves to  the  Pragmatist  (Varieties  of  Religious  Ex- 
perience, p.  331).  They  should  be  judged  by  their 
intent  and  not  merely  by  their  content.  James  says 
expressly:  "On  Pragmatic  principles,  if  the  hypothesis 
of  God  works  satisfactorily  in  the  widest  sense  of  the 
word,  it  is  true"  (Pragmatism,  p.  299).  This  is  open 
to  two  objections.  In  the  first  place,  what  functions 
or  "works  satisfactorily"  is  not  the  existence  of  God, 
but  belief  in  the  existence  of  God.  In  the  struggle 
with  Agnosticism  and  religious  scepticism  the  task  of 
the  Christian  apologist  is  not  to  prove  that  men  be- 
heve  in  God  but  to  justify  that  beUef  by  proving  that 
God  exists;  and  in  this  task  the  assistance  which  he 
receives  from  the  Pragmatist  is  of  doubtful  value.  In 
the  second  place,  it  will  be  remembered  that  the 
Pragmatist  makes  experience  synonymous  with  real- 
ity. .The  consequences,  therefore,  which  follow  from 
the  "hypothesis  of  God"  must  fall  within  actual  or 
possible  human  experience,  not  of  the  inferential  or 
deductive  kind,  but  experience  direct  and  intuitional. 
But  it  is  clear  that  if  we  attach  any  definite  meaning 
at  all  to  the  idea  of  God,  we  must  mean  a  Being  whose 
existence  is  not  capable  of  direct  intuitional  experi- 
ence, except  in  the  supernatural  order,  an  order  which, 
it  need  hardly  be  said,  the  Pragmatist  does  not  admit. 
We  do  not  need  the  Pragmatist  to  tell  us  that  belief  in 
God  functions  for  good,  that  it  brings  order  into  our 
intellectual  chaos,  that  it  sustains  us  by  confidence  in 
the  rationality  of  things  here,  and  buoys  us  up  with 
hope  when  we  look  towards  the  things  that  are  be- 
yond. What  we  need  is  assistance  in  the  task  of 
showing  that  that  belief  is  founded  on  inferential 
evidence,  and  that  the  "hypothesis  of  God"  may  be 
proved  to  be  a  fact. 

VI.  Estimate  of  Pragmatism. — In  a  well-known 
passage  of  his  work  entitled  "Pragmatism",  Professor 
James  sums  up  the  achievements  of  the  Pragmatists 
and  outhnes  the  future  of  the  school.  "  The  centre  of 
gravity  of  philosophy  must  alter  its  place.  The  earth 
of  things,  long  thrown  into  shadow  by  the  glories  of 
the  upper  ether,  must  resume  its  rights.     .     .  It 

will  be  an  alteration  in  the  'seat  of  authority'  that 
reminds  one  almost  of  the  Protestant  Reformation. 
And  as,  to  papal  minds,  Protestantism  has  often 
seemed  a  mere  mess  of  anarchy  and  confusion,  such, 
no  doubt,  will  Pragmatism  often  seem  to  ultra- 
Rationalist  minds  in  philosophy.  It  would  seem  so 
much  trash,  philosophically.  But  life  wags  on,  all 
the  same,  and  compasses  its  ends,  in  Protestant  coun- 
tries. I  venture  to  think  that  philosophic  Protes- 
tantism will  compass  a  not  dissimilar  prosperity" 
(Pragmatism,  p.  123).  It  is,  of  course,  too  soon  to 
judge  the  accuracy  of  this  prophecy.  Meantime,  to 
minds  papal,  though  not  ultra-Rationalistic,  the 
parallel  here  drawn  seems  quite  just,  historically  and 
philosophically.  Pragmatism  is  Individualistic.  De- 
spite the  disclaimers  of  some  of  its  exponents,  it  sets 
up  the  Protagorean  principle,  "Man  is  the  measure  of 
all  things".  For  if  Pragmatism  means  anything,  it 
means  that  human  consequences,  "consequences  to 
you  and  me",  are  the  test  of  the  meaning  and  truth 
of  our  concepts,  judgments,  and  reasonings.  Prag- 
matism is  Nominalistio.  It  denies  the  validity  of 
content  of  universal  concepts,  and  scornfully  rejects 
the  mere  possibility  of  universal,  all-including  or  even 
rnany-including,  reality.  It  is,  by  implication,  Sen- 
sistio.  For  in  describing  the  functional  value  of  con- 
cepts it  restricts  that  function  to  immediate  or  remote 
sense-experience.  It  is  Idealistic.  For,  despite  its 
disclaimer  of  agreement  with  the  intellectual  Idealism 
of  the  Bradley  type,  it  is  guilty  of  the  fundamental 
error  of  Idealism  when  it  makes  reality  to  be  co- 
extensive with  experience,  and  describes  its  doctrine 
of  perception  in  terms  of  Cartesian  Subjectivism.  It 
is,  in  a  sense.  Anarchistic.  Discarding  Intellectual- 
istic  logic,  it  discards  principles,  and  has  no  substitute 


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338 


PRAGUE 


for  them  except  individual  experience.  Like  the 
Reformers,  who  misunderstood  or  misrepresented  the 
theology  of  the  Schoolmen,  it  has  never  grasped  the 
true  meaning  of  Scholastic  Realism,  always  confound- 
ing it  with  Intellectual  Realism  of  the  Absolutist  type. 
Finally,  by  bringing  all  the  problems  of  life  within 
the  scope  of  Pragmatism,  which  claims  to  be  a  system 
of  philosophy,  it  introduces  confusion  into  the  rela- 
tions between  philosophy  and  theology,  a,nd  still 
worse  confusion  into  the  relations  between  philosophy 
and  rehgion.  It  consistently  appeals  to  future  pros- 
perity as  a  Pragmatic  test  of  its  truth,  thus  leaving 
the  verdict  to  time  and  a  future  generation.  But 
with  the  elements  of  error  and  disorganization  which 
it  has  embodied  in  its  method  and  adopted  in  its 
synthesis,  it  has  done  much,  so  the  Intellectualist 
thinks,  to  prejudge  its  case. 

James,  Varieties  of  Religious  Experience  (New  Yorkj  1902); 
Idem,  Pragmatism  (New  York,  1908) ;  Idem,  A  Pluralistic  Uni- 
verse (New  York,  1909) ;  Idem,  The  Meaning  of  Truth  (New  York, 
1910);  Dewey,  Oiiiitnes  o/£iAics  (Chicago,  1891);  Idem,  .Sfurfies 
in  Logical  Theory  (Chicago,  1903) ;  articles  in  Journal  of  Phi- 
losophy, etc.;  ScHiLLEH,  Personal  Idealism  (London,  1902);  Idem, 
Humanism  (London,  1903) ;  Idem,  Studies  in  Humanism  (New 
York,  1907);  BEnasoti,  L' Evolution  crlatrice  (VaTia,  1907);  Idem, 
Matiire  et  m^moire  (Paris,  1897) ;  Bawden,  Principles  of  Prag- 
matism (New  York,  1910). 

Anti-Pragmatiat:  Pratt,  What  is  Pragmatism?  (New  York, 
1909) ;  SoHiNZ,  Anti-Pragmatism  (New  York,  1909) ;  Walker, 
Theories  of  Knowledge  (New  York,  1910) ;  Farges,  La  crise  de  la 
certitude  (Paris,  1907);  Lecl^ire,  Pragmatisme,  modernisme, 
protestantisme  (Paris,  1909). 

Articles:  Rivisla  difilosofia  neo-scolastica  (April  and  Oct.,  1910) ; 
Revue  neo-scolastique  (1907),  pp.  220  sq.  (1909),  pp.  451  sq.; 
Revue  des  sciences  phil.  et  theol.  (1907),  pp.  105  sq.,  give  an  up-to- 
date  bibliography  of  Pragmatism.  Of  the  many  articles  which 
appeared  on  the  subject  from  the  Catholic  point  of  view,  cf. 
Turner,  Kew  York  Reviev:  (1906);  Shanahan  in  Catholic  Uni- 
versity Bulletin  (1909 — ) ;  Sauvage,  ibid.  (1906 — ) ;  MoORE,  Cath- 
olic World  (Dec,  1909).  Articles  criticizing  Pragmatism  have 
appeared  in  the  Philosophical  Review,  Creighton  in  vols.  XIII, 
XV,  XVII;  HiBBEN  in  vol.  XVII;  Bakewell  in  vol.  XVII; 
Monist,  Cabuh  in  vols.  XVIII,  XIX,  etc.  In  defence  of  Prag- 
matism many  articles  have  appeared  in  the  Journal  of  Phil. 
Psychol,  etc.,  and  in  Mind.  A  recent  article  on  the  French  School 
of  Pragmatism  is  entitled  Le  pragmatisme  de  I'Scole  franQaise  in 
Rev.  de  phil.  (April,  1910). 

William  Turner. 

Prague,  Archdiocese  of  (Pragbnsis),  in  Bohemia. 
From  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  Slavonic 
tribes  advancing  into  Bohemia  drove  the  Mar- 
comanni  to  the  borders  of  the  country.  The  Slavs 
soon  came  under  the  influence  of  the  Carolingian 
civilization.  In  84.5  Czech  princes  and  their  warriors 
appeared  at  the  Court  of  Louis  the  German  at  Ratis- 
bon,  where  they  were  baptized  on  the  octave  of 
Epiphany  (13  January)  by  the  Bishop  of  Ratisbon. 
Although  many  German  priests  now  came  into  Bohe- 
mia to  aid  in  the  spread  of  Christianity,  the  land  soon 
fell  under  the  dominion  of  Moravia,  which  was  natu- 
rally followed  by  the  appearance  of  Slavonic  priests 
from  Great  Moravia.  It  is  supposed,  though  it  can- 
not be  proved,  that  the  Bohemian  Duke  Bofiwoi 
was  baptized  by  Methodius,  the  apostle  to  the  Slavs. 
The  first  Duke  of  Bohemia  of  whom  there  is  historic 
certainty  that  he  was  a  Christian  is  Bofiwoi's  son, 
Spitigniew,  who  in  895  allied  himself  to  Carlmann's 
son,  Arnulf  of  Carinthia.  Spitigniew's  brother  and 
successor,  Wrati.slaw  I,  built  the  church  of  St.  George 
upon  the  Hradschin  (castle  hill)  at  Prague.  His  wife 
Drahomira,  who  belonged  to  a  pagan  Slavonic  family, 
though  probably  baptized,  was  not  Christian  at  heart. 
Their  sons,  St.  Wcnceslaus  and  Boleslaw  I  the  Cruel, 
were  still  minors  at  the  death  of  their  father.  The 
most  important  factor  in  the  history  of  Bohemia  at 
this  time  was  the  opposition  between  the  pagan  or 
national  party  and  tlie  Christian  or  German  party. 
Wenceslaus  hoped  to  gain  everything  from  the  Ger- 
mans. Desiring  to  build  a  church  upon  the  Hrad- 
schin he  requostcil  permission  from  the  diocesan 
bishop  who  came  to  the  consecration.  The  church 
was  dedicated  to  St.  Vitus,  as  Henry  I  the  Saxon  of 
Germany  had  sent  a  present  of  a  precious  relic  of  this 


saint.  The  struggle  between  pagan  and  Christian 
divided  even  the  ducal  family.  On  28  September, 
935,  Wenceslaus  was  murdered  by  his  brother  Bole- 
slaw and  his  accomplices  at  the  door  of  the  church  in 
Altbunzlau.  Yet  Boleslaw  found  himself  obliged  to 
rule  in  a  manner  favourable  to  the  Christian-German 
party.  Much  was  done  for  the  Christian  civilization 
of  Bohemia  by  his  children,  Boleslaw  II  the  Pious, 
Milada,  and  Dubravka.  Boleslaw  II  desired  to  be 
independent  of  Germany  in  ecclesiastical  matters  and 
sought  to  have  Prague  made  a  bishopric.  Otto  II  of 
Germany  aided  this  effort,  for  he  regarded  it  as  a  pro- 
tection against  Hungary.  John  XIII  consented  on 
condition  that  the  Latin  Rite  should  be  used.  Milada, 
sister  of  the  duke,  who  lived  in  a  Benedictine  abbey  at 
Rome,  was  appointed  by  the  pope  under  the  name  of 


The  Cathedral  of  St.  Vitus,  Prague 

Maria  abbess  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  George  on  the 
Hradschin,  the  first  monastic  foundation  in  Bohemia. 
Bohemia  then  formed  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Ratis- 
bon, suffragan  of  Salzburg.  St.  Wolfgang  drew  up 
the  charter  for  the  new  diocese  and  it  was  made  a  suf- 
fragan of  Mainz. 

Thietmar,  a  monk  from  Magdeburg  who  had  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  Slavonic  language,  was 
appointed  (973)  the  first  Bishop  of  Prague.  The  new 
diocese  included:  Bohemia,  Silesia  including  Cracow, 
and  Lusatia;  Moravia,  western  Hungary  as  far  as  the 
Waag  and  Danube  Rivers;  Lower  Austria  between 
Taja  and  Kamp.  In  Moravia,  Vracen  was  appointed 
bishop.  St.  Adalbert,  second  Bishop  of  Prague,  ap- 
pointed by  Otto  II  at  \^erona,  was  consecrated  by 
Willigis  of  Mainz.  He  proved  in  Bohemia  and 
Moravia  a  stern  censor  of  morals,  striving  to  suppress 
concubinage  among  the  clergy,  polygamy,  and  heathen 
practices,  but,  obliged  to  withdraw,  took  refuge  in  a 
monastery  at  Rome.  At  the  request  of  the  Bohe- 
mians he  returned  with  twelve  monks  from  Monte 
Cassino,  among  them  Christinus,  Bcnediotus,  and 
Mattha>us.  In  993  Adalbert  founded  for  these 
monks  the  first  monastery  for  men  in  Bohemia,  that 
of  Bfewnow  near  Prague  (St.  Margaret),  and  ap- 
pointed his  teacher  Radla  (Anastasius)  abbot.  Two 
years  later  Adalbert  was  again  obliged  to  flee.     The 


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339 


PRAGUE 


pope  now  dissolved  his  connexion  with  Prague  and 
Adalbert  died  (997)  a  martyr  in  Prussia.  Severus, 
sixth  Bishop  of  Prague,  was  one  of  the  retinue  of  Dulie 
Bfetislaw  Achilles,  who  brought  (1039)  the  reUcs  of 
St.  Adalbert  from  Gnesen  to  Prague.  The  ambitious 
Bfetislaw  wished  to  be  independent  of  Germany.  It 
was  his  intention  to  make  use  of  the  Benedfiotine 
monastery  of  Sazawa,  founded  in  1037,  with  a  Greek- 
Slavonic  liturgy,  as  a  national  church;  he  appointed 
St.  Procopius  the  first  abbot  of  this  monastery.  A 
part  of  his  plan  was  that  Bishop  Severus,  as  the  lawful 
successor  of  St.  Methodius,  should  receive  the  pallium. 
As,  however,  the  Polish  Church  complained  of  the 
robbery  of  the  relics  of  St.  Adalbert,  the  duke  and 
bishop  became  involved  in  an  investigation  and  they 
were  condemned  to  found  a  monastery  as  penance. 
Bfetislaw  established  the  collegiate  chapter  of  Alt- 
bunzlau  in  1096  and  two  years  later  founded  Raigern, 
the  first  monastery  in  Moravia.  Raigern  was  united 
with  Bfewnow.  The  next  duke,  Spitihnew,  founded 
(1058)  the  collegiate  church  of  St.  Stephen  at  Leit- 
meritz.  The  Slavonic  monks,  who  were  replaced  by 
Latin  monks,  were  transferred  to  the  monasteries  of 
Vesprim,  Vysehrad,  Csanad,  and  Arad.  Nicholas  II 
granted  the  duke  the  honour  of  "the  mitre"  (a  cloak) 
for  an  annual  payment  of  one  hundred  marks;  this 
honour  was  regarded  as  a  sign  of  royal  dignity. 
Spitihnew's  brothers,  Wratislaw  II,  who  succeeded 
him,  and  Jaromir  (Gebhard),  who  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Prague,  were  men  very  different  in  charac- 
ter. In  1063  the  duke  gave  his  consent  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Diocese  of  Olmiitz.  The  Bishop  of 
Prague  received  compensation  for  what  he  lost  in 
tithes  and  fiefs,  and  a  monk  named  John,  belonging  to 
the  monastery  of  Bfewnow,  was  appointed  first 
Bishop  of  Olmiitz.  The  new  bishop  had  much  to 
suffer  from  Jaromir,  who  attacked  and  ill-treated  him 
in  his  episcopal  residence.  Alexander  II  sent  to 
Prague  the  legate  Rudolphus,  who  held  there  a  synodal 
diet  at  which,  however,  Jaromir  did  not  appear.  Jaro- 
mir was  declared  to  be  deposed;  Gregory  VII  sum- 
moned the  contending  bishops  to  Rome.  At  the 
Easter  synod  of  1074,  Jaromir  expressed  his  regret  for 
his  ill-usage  of  John  but  was  unwilling  to  yield  the 
fief  of  Podvin.  The  pope  now  wrote  to  Wratislaw 
that  if  necessary  he  should  drive  Jaromir  away  by 
force. 

In  the  struggle  over  Investitures  Wratislaw  II  and 
Jaromir  supported  Henry  IV.  After  the  death  of 
Bishop  John,  Jaromir  secured  the  union  of  Olmiitz 
with  Prague  (1085-91),  as  his  brother  had  received 
the  title  of  king  from  Henry  IV  and  consequently  was 
entirely  on  the  king's  side.  Wratislaw  soon  deserted 
the  emperor  and  gave  Olmiitz  to  his  court  chaplain 
Wefiel  (Andreas  I),  who  was  made  bishop.  Jaromir 
died  at  Gran,  where  he  was  preparing  to  fight  his  rival. 
After  WeceFs  death  Henry  IV  invested  the  canon 
Andreas  at  Mantua  with  the  ring  and  crozier,  but  he 
was  not  consecrated  until  two  years  later.  At  Easter 
(1138)  Bishop  Henry  of  Olmutz,  called  Zdik  after  his 
native  town,  entered  the  Premonstratensian  Order  in 
the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  On 
his  return,  he  persuaded  the  Bishop  of  Prague,  John 
I,  to  bring  Premonstratensians  from  Steinhof  near 
Cologne  and  establish  them  at  Strahow.  Bitter  con- 
tention arose  between  Zdik  and  his  clergy  when  the 
princes  of  Moravia  rebelled  against  Wladislaw  II, 
Duke  of  Bohemia.  Zdik  adhered  to  the  duke,  and 
was,  therefore,  obliged  to  flee  to  Prague;  after  givmg 
warnings  in  vain  he  placed  the  rebels  and  the  land 
under  bann  and  interdict,  which  were  later  removed 
by  the  legate  Guido.  He  deposed  ecclesiastics  who 
had  concubines.  Ordinations  were  only  permitted 
on  definite  conditions.  Wladislaw  supported  the 
legate  so  vigorously  that  it  was  said  of  him  that  he 
had  enforced  clerical  chastity  throughout  Bohemia. 
Wladislaw  also  granted  Podvin  in  perpetuity  to  the 


bishop  and  bestowed  on  him  the  right  to  have  a  mint. 
Lucius  II  invited  Zdik  to  Rome.  On  the  way  he  waa 
attacked  and  robbed  near  Boscowicz,  and  escaped  to 
Leitomischl.  In  1143,  Bishop  Otto  settled  Cister- 
cians from  Waldsassen  at  Sedlek.  When  the  Second 
Crusade  was  preached  Bishop  Henry  of  Olmutz  was 
the  subdelegate  of  St.  Bernard  for  Bohemia  and 
Moravia.  Henry  himself  went  to  Pomerania,  but 
soon  returned  unsuccessful.  In  1156,  the  Order  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem  was  introduced  in  the  hospice 
of  St.  Mary  near  the  Prague  bridge.  Frederick  I 
Barbarossa  in  1158  made  Wladislaw  a  king  in  return 
for  his  aid  against  Lombardy.  The  right  to  crown  the 
king  was  assigned  to  the  Bishops  of  Prague  and  Ol- 
miitz. The  Bohemian  king  and  Bishop  Daniel  I 
supported  Frederick  in  his  bitter  struggle  with  Alex- 
ander III.  The  king  and  bishop  were  excommuni- 
cated and  when  in  1167  the  bishop  died  the  clergy 
of  Prague  refused  to  recite  the  Office  for  the  Dead. 
It  was  during  the  quarrel  between  Duke  Pfemysl 
Ottokar  I  and  Bishop  Henry  Bfetislaw  that  Kacim, 
Bishop  of  Olmiitz,  ordained  deacons  and  priests  at 
Prague  in  1193  but  forgot  the  laying  on  of  hands. 
Two  years  later  his  successor,  Engelbert,  performed 
this  part  of  the  rite,  but  the  cardinal  legate  Peter 
suspended  the  ordination  and  in  1197  the  entire  ordi- 
nation had  to  be  repeated.  At  the  renewed  ordina- 
tion the  cardinal  legate  insisted  positively  upon  the 
vow  of  chastity.  The  candidates  rebelled  at  this  and 
Peter  had  to  leave  the  church.  Not  long  after,  the 
legate  succeeded  in  making  a  synod  pass  his  demands, 
and  the  prosperity  of  the  Bohemian  Church  rapidly 
increased.  About  this  time  St.  Hrozata  founded  the- 
Premonstratensian  Abbey  of  Tepl,  which  he  entered. 
Pfemysl  Ottokar  I  made  Bohemia  a  hereditary 
kingdom,  and  independent  of  Germany;  hence  the 
Bishops  of  Prague  and  Olmiitz  no  longer  received  in- 
vestiture from  the  emperor  but  from  the  King  of 
Bohemia.  The  cathedral  chapter  was  to  elect  the 
bishop.  Ottokar  wished  to  make  Prague  an  arch- 
bishopric with  Olmiitz  as  its  suffragan.  Innocent  III, 
however,  had  all  the  less  reason  to  be  gracious  to  the 
Bohemian  king  as  Ottokar  had  just  changed  his  po- 
litical adherence  from  Otto  IV  to  Philip  of  Swabia, 
against  the  wishes  of  the  pope.  The  first  king  who 
received  Bohemia  by  inheritance  desired  to  annul  the 
immunity  of  the  clergy  and  take  the  church  tithes  for 
himself,  while  Bishop  Andreas  wished  to  enforce  the 
decrees  of  the  fourth  Synod  of  Laberno.  The  king 
would  not  permit  this.  Andreas  placed  Bohemia  un- 
der an  interdict,  the  king  cut  off  all  the  bishop's; 
revenues.  The  pope  commanded  that  Robert  of  Ol- 
miitz, who,  in  spite  of  the  interdict,  had  celebrated 
Mass  at  Prague,  should  be  punished.  With  the  aid 
of  a  legate  a  fairly  satisfactory  agreement  was  reached 
(Concord  of  Skacenze,  1220).  One  of  Ottokar's 
daughters,  St.  Agnes,  corresponded  with  St.  Clare  of 
Assisi,  and  founded  the  convent  of  St.  Clare,  called 
later  St.  Agnes,  in  1234  at  Prague;  as  soror  major 
Agnes  was  the  head  of  it.  She  also  aided  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of  the  Cross  of  the 
Red  Star  at  Prague.  While  on  his  journey  to  Poland 
St.  Hyacinth  brought  Dominicans  to  Prague,  who 
established  themselves  in  the  monastery  of  St. 
Clement.  Wenceslaus  granted  to  the  Franciscans 
the  monastery  of  St.  James  in  the  Altstadt,  Prague. 
Bohemian  nobles  who  went  to  France  became  ac- 
quainted there  with  the  Knights  Templars.  They 
introduced  them  into  Bohemia  and  the  order  flour- 
ished to  such  extent  that  in  1240  Bohemia  became  a 
national  priory  and  Prague  had  two  commanderies, 
the  Temple  and  St.  Laurence.  Church  hfe  flourished 
in  Bohemia  at  this  era;  the  country  seemed  "to 
breathe  nothing  but  holiness".  King  Wenceslaus 
remained  a  firm  adherent  of  Frederick  II  even  after 
his  deposition  by  the  Council  of  Lyons.  An  interdict 
was  pronounced  over  Bohemia  and  Bishop  Nicholas 


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PRAGUE 


of  Bohemia  was  suspended.  Mass  was  only  cele- 
brated in  the  monasteries  and  there  behind  closed 
doors  without  the  ringing  of  bells.  For  some  time, 
the  Teutonic  Knights  had  been  fighting  against  the 
natives  of  Prussia.  In  122.5  Pfemysl  Ottokar  II  as- 
sumed the  cross;  he  wished  to  gain  the  favour  of  the 
pope  and  Christendom.  The  name  of  the  city  of 
Konigsberg  preserves  the  memory  of  the  king,  who 
was  called  not  only  the  Golden  but  also  the  Iron. 
About  this  time  (1256)  the  first  heresy  appeared  in 
Bohemia;  the  Flagellants  came  from  Germany  (see 
Flagellants).  In  gratitude  for  the  successful  issue 
of  his  struggle  with  Bela  IV  (battle  of  Kressenbrunn) 
Pfemysl  Ottokar  II  in  1263  founded  the  Cistercian 
monastery  of  Goldenkron,  so  named  because  of  a 
relic  of  the  Crown  of  Thorns  set  in  gold  that  had  been 
given  by  St.  Louis.  Ottokar's  viceroy  in  Austria, 
Peter  of  Rosenberg,  founded  the  monastery  of  Hohen- 
furt  in  expiation  of  his  sins  and  for  the  salvation  of  the 
souls  of  his  ancestors.  Bishop  John  III  of  Bohemia 
attended  the  Council  of  Vienna  in  1276,  which  had 
been  summoned  by  the  king.  The  council's  nineteen 
canons  treat  of  the  behaviour  of  the  clergy,  of  the 
penal  power  of  bishops  and  abbots,  and  the  relations 
between  Christians  and  Jews.  The  Jews  were  to  be 
distinguished  by  pointed  hats,  and  on  Good  Friday 
they  were  not  to  appear  in  public.  Bishop  Bruno  of 
Olmtltz  had  brought  to  Ottokar  from  the  Council  of 
Lyons  a  letter  written  by  the  pope  calling  upon  him 
to  support  the  election  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  as 
Emperor  of  Germany.  When  Ottokar  recommenced, 
he  was  excommunicated ;  consequently  it  was  not  until 
eighteen  years  after  he  had  been  killed  in  battle  that 
he  was  buried  in  consecrated  ground  in  the  Cathedral 
of  Prague.  During  this  time,  it  is  said,  there  were 
not  less  than  twenty-one  thousand  Beghards  in  Bo- 
hemia. The  country  was  also  disturbed  by  off-shoots 
of  the  Waldensians  who  called  themselves  "Apostolic 
Brethren  " ,  and  "  Brethren  of  the  Holy  Spirit " .  They 
even  wished  to  have  wives  and  property  in  common 
and  sought  to  live  underground.  They  claimed  that 
God  did  not  trouble  Himself  about  what  happened 
under  the  eartii  and  so  have  been  called  Gruben- 
heimer. 

Bishop  John  IV  of  Prague  had  taken  part  in  pre- 
paring the  decrees  concerning  the  dispute  between  the 
Mendicant  Orders  and  the  secular  priests,  which  were 
drawn  up  at  Vienna.  After  his  return,  he  desired  to 
execute  these  decrees.  The  Mendicants  were  only 
to  preach  in  their  own  churches  and  not  there  during 
the  service  at  the  parish  church ;  they  were  not  in  any 
way  to  encroach  upon  the  pastoral  work,  and  must 
have  episcopal  authority  to  hear  confessions.  The 
Mendicants  appealed  to  their  exemption  and  made 
loud  complaint  that  the  bishop  denied  the  validity  of 
confessions  heard  by  them.  The  parish  priests  of 
Prague  announced  that  they  would  publish  the  deci- 
sions of  the  Council  of  Vienna  in  their  churches.  The 
Mendicants  also  made  their  preparations.  Bishop 
John  established  the  Court  of  the  Inquisition  as  the 
council  had  desired.  When  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
however,  this  court  delivered  to  the  State  fourteen 
heretics  who  were  burned  at  the  stake,  the  bishop  sent 
the  Inquisitors  away  and  opened  their  prisons.  Com- 
plaint ha\-ing  been  made  against  him,  he  had  to  go  to 
Avignon,  and  after  an  investigation  of  eleven  years 
he  finally  returned  home.  After  the  suppression  of 
the  Knights  Templar,  their  lands  were  given  by  King 
John  of  Luxemburg  to  other  orders  of  knights,  and 
he  substituted  religious  houses  founded  by  him.  He 
also  established  the  first  Carthusian  monastery  in 
Bohemia,  Maria  Garten  am  Smichow,  and  at  Raud- 
nitz  a  monastery  of  Augustinian  Canons.  The  in- 
creasing prosperity  of  the  Church  reached,  its  most 
flourishing  period  during  the  reign  of  Charles  IV. 
The  emperor  had  been  educated  at  the  French  court; 
his  teacher  and  friend  Peter  de  Rosisires  was  now 


Clement  \I.  It  was,  therefore,  not  difficult  for 
Charles  to  obtain  from  him  in  1344  a  Bull  raising 
Prague  to  an  archbishopric,  with  the  suffragan  Dio- 
ceses of  Olmiitz  and  of  the  newly  founded  Leitomischl. 
The  archbishop  was  to  anoint  and  crown  the  Bohe- 
mian kings;  thus  he  was  the  Primate  of  Bohemia.  The 
first  archbishop  was  St.  Ernst  of  Pardubitz,  the  ad- 
visor of  Charles  IV  in  his  great  undertakings.  Charles 
brought  Matthias  of  Arras  from  Avignon  to  Prague 
so  that,  with  the  aid  of  Peter  Parler  of  Gmtind  (in 
Suabia),  he  might  build  the  beautiful  Cathedral  of 
St.  Vitus,  the  corner-stone  of  which  had  been  laid 
by  the  emperor's  father.  It  is  yet  unfinished.  The 
emperor  even  included  his  crown  among  the  treasures 
with  which  he  thought  to  enrich  the  cathedral;  from 
that  time  it  adorned  the  head  of  St.  Wenceslaus.  The 
crown  jewels  were  kept  in  the  Castle  of  Karlstein 
built  by  Arras.  The  chapel  of  Castle  Karlstein  was 
built  in  the  shape  of  a  cross ;  its  walls  were  inlaid  with 
Bohemian  garnets  on  a  gold  ground,  so  that  the  lights 
of  the  altar  were  reflected  many  hundred  times.  At 
Emaus  Charles  founded  an  abbey  for  Benedictines, 
who  were  to  use  the  Glagolitic  Liturgy  in  celebrating 
Mass.  The  foundation  in  which  Charles  was  most 
interested  was  the  University  of  Prague,  established 
in  134S,  the  oldest  German  university.  The  arch- 
bishop was  to  be  its  chancellor  {Protector  studiorum  et 
Cancellarius).  In  1349  Archbishop  Ernst  held  the 
celebrated  provincial  synod  that  defined  the  rights  and 
duties  of  the  clergy.  Correctores  Cleri  were  provided 
who  were  to  supervise  the  carrying  out  of  the  Statuta 
Ernesli  and  to  supply  what  was  lacking. 

Now  began  a  religious  movement  that  plunged 
Bohemia  and  the  surrounding  countries  into  war, 
seriously  retarded  the  growth  of  the  Church,  and  left 
the  See  of  Prague  vacant  for  one  hundred  and  forty 
years  (1421-1561).  For  details  of  this  period,  see 
Hus  AND  Hussites;  Constance,  Council  op:  III. 
The  Repression  op  Heresy.  These  hundred  years 
of  religious  unrest  had  prepared  a  fruitful  soil  for  the 
Reformation.  Matthias  preached  Luther's  doctrines 
openly  on  the  public  roads;  Thomas  Miinzer  and 
Gallus  Cahera  preached  them  in  Prague.  King  Fer- 
dinand, who  had  taken  up  his  residence  on  the  Hrad- 
schin,  checked  the  growth  of  Protestantism,  but  the 
war  over  the  Hungarian  throne  and  the  struggle  with 
the  Turks  impeded  his  efforts.  The  Utraquist  Con- 
sistory of  Prague  obtained  in  Mistopol  an  adminis- 
trator who  was  even  inclined  to  Lutheranism.  During 
the  Smalkaldic  war  the  Bohemian  Brethren  united 
with  the  Protestants.  After  the  battle  of  Milhlberg 
(1547),  the  religious  reformers,  driven  out  of  the  cities 
of  Bohemia,  went  to  Poland  and  Prussia,  which  were 
added  by  the  Bohemian  Brethren  as  a  third  province 
to  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  The  greatest  aid  received 
by  the  Catholic  Church  came  from  the  Jesuits.  In 
1556,  Peter  Canisius  brought  the  first  twelve  Jesuits 
to  St.  Clement's  at  Prague;  their  college  there,  called 
Clementinum,  ranked  with  the  Carolinum.  In  1561, 
Prague  again  received  an  archbishop,  Anton  Brus  of 
Miiglitz  in  Moravia.  At  the  Council  of  Trent  the 
archbishop  sought  to  gain  the  cup  for  the  laity,  which 
Pius  IV  granted  in  1567  for  the  countries  ruled  by 
Ferdinand.  As,  however,  the  result  expected  from 
this  concession  did  not  appear,  the  Utraquists  becom- 
ing more  largely  Lutheran,  Pius  V  recalled  the  permis- 
sion. Maximilian  II  was  more  fa-\'ourable  to  Protes- 
tantism. In  1567  he  annulled  the  Coinpacta  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Utraquists.  Not  only  the  Utraquistic 
Catholics,  but  also  all  Utraquists  (Protestants)  were 
to  be  tolerated.  At  the  Diet  of  Prague  they  demanded 
the  introduction  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  The 
"Bohemian  Confession"  was  drawn  up  in  twenty-five 
articles;  it  maintained  Luther's  teachings,  but  was 
indefinite  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist.  The  ad- 
ministrator of  the  consistory  was  to  ordain  their 
priests  also,  while  fifteen  defenders  were  to  be  added 


PRAGUE 


341 


PRAGUE 


to  the  consistory.  Thus  the  imperial  cities  which  had 
been  Utraquistic  rapidly  became  Lutheran.  At  Prague 
three  Lutheran  parishes  were  soon  formed.  When 
Rudolph  II  shut  himself  up  in  the  castle  on  the 
Hradschin  the  archdukes  of  Austria  selected  Matthias 
as  the  head  of  the  Hapsburg  dynasty.  The  Bohemian 
estates,  taking  advantage  of  the  family  quarrel  of  the 
Hapsburgs,  elected  a  directory  and  raised  an  army. 
They  remained  indeed  loyal  to  Rudolph,  but  forced 
from  him  in  1609  the  royal  charter  (MajesUiisbrief), 
which  confirmed  the  Bohemian  Confession,  opened  the 
university  to  the  evangelical  estates,  granted  them  the 
right  to  elect  defensors,  and  also  permitted  the  three 
secular  estates  of  lords,  knights,  and  imperial  cities  to 
build  Protestant  churches  and  schools.  Rudolph 
finally  abdicated  and  in  1611  Cardinal  Dietrichstein  of 
Olmiitz  crowned  Matthias  King  of  Bohemia  (1611-9). 
Contrary  to  the  regulations  of  the  royal  charter 
granted  by  Rudolph,  subjects  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Prague  built  a  Protestant  church  at  Klostergrab  and 
subjects  of  the  Abbot  of  Braunau  one  at  Braunau. 
The  archbishop  commanded  these  to  be  closed,  and 
when  the  Emperor  Matthias  sanctioned  this  order  the 
result  was  the  Third  Defenestration  of  Prague,  with 
which  the  Thirty  Years'  War  began.  A  government  of 
thirty  directors  was  formed,  and  the  head  of  the  Prot- 
estant Union  and  of  the  German  Calvinists,  Frederick 
V,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  was  elected  King  of 
Bohemia.  The  Cathedral  of  Prague  was  arranged  for 
Calvinistic  services;  altars  were  torn  down,  pictures 
and  statues  destroyed.  The  court  preacher  Scultetus 
drew  up  an  independent  liturgy  for  Bohemia. 

A  sovereign  has  seldom  begun  his  reign  under  greater 
difficulties  than  Ferdinand  II  (1619-37).  The  insur- 
gents under  Thurn  were  at  the  gates  of  Vienna;  within 
the  city  the  non-Catholic  estates  made  common  cause 
with  the  besiegers.  Ferdinand,  however,  never  yielded. 
After  the  battle  of  the  Wliite  Mountain  (1620)  he  took 
more  severe  measures  against  the  disturbers;  they 
were  driven  out  of  the  country,  the  royal  charter  that 
had  been  the  source  of  so  much  disorder  was  annulled, 
and  a  system  of  government  introduced  in  1627  that 
among  other  things  made  the  clergy  the  first  estate. 
It  granted  the  bishops,  prelates,  and  abbots  seats  and 
votes  in  the  diet  (the  ecclesiastical  bench)  and  the  title 
of  Primas  regni  to  the  archbishop.  Only  the  Catholic 
religion  was  to  be  permitted.  An  imperial  commission 
of  reform  ("dragonnades",  "saviours")  was  to  tra- 
verse the  country  purging  it  of  preachers,  heretical 
schoolmasters  and  books.  Thirty-six  thousand  fami- 
lies were  welcomed  in  neighbouring  countries,  but  with 
all  this  the  country  was  not  made  thoroughly  Cath- 
olic. !\lany  conformed  only  externally  and  the  vary- 
ing phases  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  for  which  in  the 
end  rehgion  was  merely  the  excuse,  constantly  favoured 
Protestantism.  In  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648), 
however,  Ferdinand  III  did  not  allow  himself  to  be 
dictated  to.  During  the  period  when  princes  were 
absolute  rulers,  events  protected  the  Church  against 
fresh  attacks.  Pastoral  care,  instruction,  and  eccle- 
siastical administration  were  improved.  The  Mont- 
seratines,  Piarists,  Theatines,  and  Ursuline  nuns  were 
introduced  into  the  country,  the  clerical  seminary  was 
founded,  and  the  new  Dioceses  of  Leitmeritz  (1655) 
and  Koniggriitz  (1665)  were  erected.  The  old  Univer- 
sity of  Prague  and  the  Clementinum,  the  Jesuit  col- 
lege, were  united  into  the  Caroline-Ferdinand  Univer- 
sity. The  tax  of  fifteen  kreuzers  on  salt,  either  mined 
in  IJohemia  or  imported,  was  applied  to  Church 
purposes,  the  St.  Wenceslaus  fund  was  used  to  dis- 
tribute good  books,  and  the  Emeritus  fund  was  em- 
ployed to  aid  poor  priests.  For  two  years  from 
1712  the  churches  even  in  Prague  were  closed  on 
account  of  the  plague.  In  1729  the  canonization  of 
St.  John  Nepomucene  was  celebrated  with  great  festivi- 
ties. The  power  of  the  sovereign  over  the  Church  was 
introduced  by  Protestantism.    The  Catholic  rulers  at 


first  only  assumed  this  position  as  regards  their  Prot- 
estant subjects.    In  the  course  of  time,  however,  they 
began  to  exercise  this  power  also  as  regards  their  Cath- 
olic subjects.     As  the  maintenance  of  religion  (the 
Counter-Reformation)  was  their  work  and  they  ob- 
tained the  chief  patronage  of  the  Church,  a  State 
Church  was  the  natural  consequence.     Even  in  the 
reign  of  Maria  Theresa  edicts  were  issued  concerning 
ecclesiastical  matters.    No  one  could  take  the  vows  of 
an  order  until  fully  twenty-four  (1770);    monastic 
prisons  were  to  be  suppressed  (1771).    As  the  basis  of 
theological   instruction   were   to   be   used:    Sagan's 
Catechism  (1772),  Riegger's  "Institutiones  jurispru- 
dentise  ecclesiastic8e",andRautenstrauch's  "Synopsis 
juris  eoclesiastici".     Trumpets  and  drums  could  no 
longer  be  used  in  the  churches;  in  the  lessons  of  the 
Breviary  for  the  feast  of  St.  Gregory  VII  the  places 
concerning  the  power  of  the  pope  to  depose  kmgs  were 
to  be  omitted.    Parish   priests  were  expressly  for- 
bidden to  speak  abusively  of  the  laws  of  the  country. 
Within  ten  years  Joseph  II  issued  sixty-two  hundred 
laws,  orders  of  the  court,  and  ordinances.    Even  what 
was  good  showed  marks  of  haste ;  laws  and  ordinances 
contradicted  one  another.    When  in  1781  the  patent  of 
toleration  was  issued  quite  a  number  who  had  been 
Protestants  in  secret  now  appeared  as  such  openly. 
The  Bull  "In  coena  Domini"  and  "Unigenitus"  were 
to  be  suppressed.    It  was  forbidden  to  study  theology 
at  Rome,  Roman  dignities  and  titles  could  only  be 
assumed  after  obtaining  permission  of  the  ruler.     A 
general  seminary  was  established  at  Prague,  where 
both  secular  priests  and  candidates  for  the  orders  were 
to  be  educated.    Even  the  number  of  Masses  to  be 
held  in  a  church  and  the  number  of  candles  that  could 
be  used  at  such  services  were  prescribed  by  law;  the 
litany  of  the  Trinity  was  forbidden  "on  account  of 
various  additions".     Many  monasteries  were  sup- 
pressed, the  remaining  ones  were  regulated  by  the 
State,  and  fell  into  decay.    One  good  measure  of  the 
emperor  was,  that  he  formed  a  fund  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  religion  from  the  property  of  the  suppressed 
monasteries  and  used  it  to  increase  the  number  of 
parishes.    In  this  way  Joseph  II  founded  eighty-one 
parishes  and  three  hundred  and  fourteen  dependent 
churches  in  Bohemia.    He  also  established  the  Diocese 
of  Budweis. 

Joseph's  brother  Leopold  II  soon  changed  condi- 
tions. The  general  seminaries  were  abolished,  there 
was  no  further  suppression  of  monasteries,  and  books 
for  theological  instruction  were  submitted  to  the  cen- 
sorship of  the  bishop.  Francis  II  was  a  pious  ruler,  who 
took  a  serious  view  of  his  duty  in  regard  to  conscience 
and  religious  duties,  but  for  nearly  a  generation  the 
war  with  France  claimed  all  the  strength  and  energy 
of  the  Government.  In  the  meantime  both  laity  and 
clergy  grew  more  and  more  accustomed  to  the  Jose- 
phine reforms  of  the  Church.  Were  any  ecclesiastical 
concessions  made  the  Josephinists  raised  a  cry  over 
the  unjustifiable  demands  of  the  Church  and  the  un- 
heard of  concessions  of  the  Government.  One  of  the 
results  of  the  French  war  was  the  demand  of  the  Gov- 
ernment for  the  silver  plate  in  1806,  1809  etc.,  when 
all  the  Church  silver  not  absolutely  necessary  went  to 
the  mint.  In  return,  the  churches  received  from  the 
Government  an  acknowledgment  of  the  indebted- 
ness. During  this  period  the  priest,  Bernhard  Bol- 
zano, a  philosophical  writer  and  professor  of  theology 
at  the  University  of  Prague,  wrote:  "Ijchrbuch  der 
Religionswissenschaft "  (4  vols.);  " Wissenschafts- 
lehre";  "Logic"  (4  vols.);  "Athanasia  oder  die 
Grilnde  ftir  die  Unsterblichkeit  der  Seele";  "Erbau- 
ungsreden  an  die  akademische  Jugend"  (4  vols.); 
"Ueber  die  Perfektibilitat  des  Katholizismus".  The 
authorities  were  suspicious  of  him  on  account  of  his 
teachings,  but  his  archbishop.  Prince  von  Salm,  pro- 
tected him.  In  1820  he  was  removed  from  his  profes- 
sorship and  died  in  1848.    In  1848  Alois,  Freiherr  von 


PRAGUE 


342 


PRAGUE 


Schrenk  became  Prince  Archbishop  of  Prague.  On  15 
March,  the  emperor  announced  his  intention  of  grant- 
ing a  constitution.  Schrenk  may  have  thought  that 
"freedom  is  a  great  good  for  tliose  who  know  how  to 
use  it"  On  22  March  he  issued  a  censure,  as  some 
priests,  forgetting  their  sacred  calhng,  turned  the  pul- 
pit into  a  political  platform.  The  freedom  gained 
should  rather  be  the  signal  for  greater  activity.  His 
address  at  the  Easter  festival,  posted  on  the  streets  in 
Czech  and  German,  sought  to  allay  the  hostility  to  the 
Jewish  population.  A  meeting  of  thirty-five  ecclesias- 
tics, parish  priests,  members  of  orders,  cathedral 
canons,  professors,  and  prelates,  called  together  with- 
out asking  the  consent  of  the  archbishop  by  F.  Nah- 
lowsky,  principal  of  the  seminary  for  Wends,  Upper 
Ijusatia,  was  held  at  the  seminary  on  18  and  22  May. 
In  his  address  Nahlowsky  expressed  his  opinion  con- 
cerning the  unsuitability  of  the  unessential  system  of 
celibacy;  the  monasteries  should  be  thoroughly  re- 
formed. The  proceedings  of  this  assembly  even  ap- 
peared in  print.  Naturally  both  the  archbishop  and 
Bishop  Hille  of  Leitmeritz,  of  which  diocese  Nahlow- 
sky  was  a  priest,  expressed  "  their  deep  sorrow  " .  Late 
in  August  the  pamphlet  issued  by  the  Bohemian  epis- 
copate appeared.  The  contents  discussed  the  two 
questions :  What  is  the  position  of  the  Church  towards 
the  State  in  general  and  what  are  the  special  rights  of 
the  Church  in  dogma,  hturgy,  and  administration. 
The  strain  he  had  undergone  shattered  the  health  of 
the  archbishop  and  he  died  in  March,  1849,  at  the  age 
of  forty-seven.  His  successor  was  Cardinal  Schwarz- 
enberg.  The  present  prince  archbishop  is  Leo  Cardi- 
nal von  Skrbensky. 

The  Archdiocese  of  Prague  (1911)  has  a  population 
of  2,228,750  Catholics,  63,475  Protestants,  51,016 
Jews.  There  are:  570  parishes;  1348  secular,  258 
regular  priests;  1517  nuns  in  76  orders.  (See  Bohe- 
mia; MOKAVIA.) 

DoBNER,  Mon.  hist.  Bcemi(E  (6  vols.,  Prague,  1764-85);  Pontes 
rerum  bohemicarum  (4  vols.,  Prague,  1871-84) ;  Gindely,  Mon. 
/it.s^  Bohemica  (5  vols.,  Prague,  1864-90);  Mon.  Vat.  res  bohe- 
micas  illustrantia,  134-2-140^  (5  vols.,  Prague,  1903-05);  Pelzel 
AND  DoBROwsKY,  Scriplores  rerum  Bohemicarum  (2  vola.,  Prague, 
17S3-).  Works  oa  Bohemia:  Bachmann,  Gesch.  Bdhmens,  I 
(1899)  to  1400,  II  (1905)  to  1526;  Fkind,  Die  Kirchengesch. 
Bdhmens  (4  vols.,  Prague,  1S64-78) ;  Die  Gesch.  d.  Bischofe  u. 
Erzbischdfe  I'on  Prag  (Prague.  1873);  Palacky,  Gesch.  von  Boh- 
men  (9  vols.,  Prague,  1836-67);  .Schindler,  D.  soziaJe  Wirken 
d,  Kath.  Kirche  in  d.  Prager  Erzdiozese  (Vienna,  1902) ;  Watten- 
BACH,  Beitrdge  zur  Gesch.  d.  Christ,  Kirche  in  Mdhren  u.  Bohmen 
(Vienna,  1849);  VoN  LuTZOW  (non-Catholic),  Bohemia.  A  His- 
torical Sketch  (London,  1896) ;  Denis,  La  BoMvic  depuis  la 
Montague  Blanche  (Paris,  1903). 

C.    WOLFSGRUBER. 

University  of  Prague,  founded  by  Charles  IV 
with  the  consent  of  the  Estates  on  the  model  of  the 
universities  of  Paris  and  Bologna  and  confirmed 
at  the  emperor's  request  by  Clement  VI  as  a  studium 
generale.  It  was  established  by  the  Golden  Bull 
of  7  April,  1345,  and  received  imperial  sanction  14 
September,  1349.  Archbishop  Ernst  of  Pardiibitz 
took  an  active  part  in  the  foundation  by  obliging  the 
clergy  to  contribute.  Its  official  title  is  "Imperial 
and  Royal  Franz  Ferdinand  University";  at  the 
present  time  it  is  divided  into  two  completely  sepa- 
rated universities,  one  German  and  the  other  Bohe- 
mian or  Czech,  each  having  four  faculties  (namely, 
theology,  jurisprudence,  philosophy,  and  medicine), 
each  its  own  rector  and  four  deans.  Both  universi- 
ties are  national  and  are  under  the  immediate  control 
of  the  Imperial  and  Royal  Ministry  of  Education  at 
Vienna.  All  professors  are  appointed  by  the  State, 
even  the  theological  professors;  these  latter  are  ap- 
pointed in  agreement  with  the  Archbishop  of  Prague, 
who  is  chancellor  of  both  theological  faculties. 

I.  History. — From  the  time  of  its  founding  the 
University  of  Prague  was  equipped  with  four  faculties, 
of  which  each  came  gradually  to  elect  its  dean  for 
one  half-year,  and  jointly  the  rector,  at  first  for  a  year, 
then  later  for  a  half-year.     On  account  of  a  dispute 


about  an  inheritance  the  faculty  of  law  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  university  in  April,  1372,  and 
from  that  time  on,  with  the  consent  of  the  king, 
formed  what  might  be  called  an  independent  uni- 
versity under  the  direction  of  a  dean  of  its  own; 
the  chancellor  was  the  only  official  whose  authority 
extended  to  all  the  faculties;  this  office  was  held 
in  perpetuity  by  the  Archbishop  of  Prague.  The 
list  of  matriculations  from  1372  to  1418  of  the  faculty 
of  law  is  still  in  existence.  The  lectures  were  held  in 
the  colleges,  of  which  the  oldest  was  the  Carolinum. 
The  chapel  of  the  Carolinum  still  stands  and  serves 
as  the  chapel  of  the  university  for  the  ceremony  of 
giving  degrees.  Theological  instruction  was  given 
in  the  Carolinum  and  in  the  monasteries.  For  the 
administration  of  its  affairs  the  university  was  divided 
into  four  "nations",  according  to  the  native  land 
of  the  teachers  and  students,  namely :  the  Bohemian, 
including  Bohemians,  Moravians,  southern  Slavs, 
and  Hungarians;  the  Bavarian,  including  Austrians, 
Swabians,  natives  of  Franconia  and  of  the  Rhine 
provinces;  the  Polish,  including  Silesians,  Poles, 
Russians;  the  Saxon,  including  inhabitants  of  the 
Margravate  of  Meissen,  Thuringia,  Upper  and  Lower 
Saxony,  Denmark,  and  Sweden.  Each  nation  had 
a  vote  in  all  deliberations  regarding  the  affairs  of  the 
university.     This  was  changed  in  1409. 

Although  in  1403  the  university  had  forbidden  its 
members  to  follow  the  teachings  of  Wyclif,  yet  his 
doctrine  constantly  gained  adherents  in  the  Bohemian 
nation,  the  most  conspicuous  being  the  magister, 
Jerome  of  Prague,  and  John  Hus.  The  latter  had 
translated  Wyclif's  "Trialogus"  into  Czech.  In 
1401-02  Hus  had  been  dean  of  the  faculty  of  arts,  in 
1402-03  rector  of  the  university;  he  had  also  been  an 
exceedingly  popular  preacher  at  the  Bethlehem 
chapel.  The  majority  of  the  other  three  nations  of 
the  university  had  declared  themselves,  together  with 
the  Archbishop  of  Prague,  on  the  side  of  Gregory 
XII,  to  whom  King  Wenceslaus  IV  was  opposed, 
and  Hus  knew  how  to  make  use  of  the  king's  dis- 
pleasure at  this  to  obtain  from  him  what  is  called 
the  "Kuttenberg  Decree"  of  18  January,  1409. 
This  gave  the  Bohemian  nation  three  votes  in  all  the 
affairs  of  the  university  and  only  one  vote  to  all  the 
other  nations  together;  the  result  of  this  decree  was 
the  emigration  of  the  German  professors  and  students 
to  Leipzig  in  May,  1409.  In  1408  the  university 
had  about  200  doctors  and  magisters,  500  bachelors, 
and  30,000  students;  it  now  lost  a,  large  part  of  this 
number,  accounts  of  the  loss  varying  from  5000  to 
20,000  including  46  professors.  This  was  the  be- 
ginning of  the  decline  of  the  university,  from  now  on 
a  national  Bohemian  institution,  which  sank  to  a 
very  low  status.  For  the  faithfulness  of  Hus's  op- 
ponents led  to  a  far-reaching  division  between  the 
theological  and  the  secular  faculties,  as  the  latter 
held  firmly  to  his  teachings  even  after  he  was  burnt 
by  the  Council  of  Constance  (1414).  The  faculty 
of  arts  became  a,  centre  of  the  Hussite  movement, 
and  the  chief  doctrinal  authority  of  the  Utraquists. 

On  account  of  the  part  taken  by  the  university  in 
ecclesiastico-political  affairs,  its  position  as  a  centre 
of  learning  suffered.  No  degrees  were  given  in  the 
years  1417-30;  at  times  there  were  only  eight  or  nine 
professors,  as  in  1419  the  faculties  of  theology  and 
law  disappeared,  and  only  the  faculty  of  arts  remained 
in  existence.  There  were  also  very  few  students,  for 
many  were  unwilling  to  study  under  the  Calixtine 
faculties  and  therefore  went  into  foreign  countries. 
The  holdings  of  the  university  were  taken  by  the 
Emperor  Sigismund  as  his  personal  property.  Under 
the  impulse  of  Humanism  some  progress  was  made 
by  the  philosophical  faculty  when  the  Emperor 
Rudolf  II  (1612)  took  up  his  residence  in  Prague,  but 
it  did  not  last  long.  The  only  thing  to  the  credit 
of  the  university  was  what  it  did  in  directing  the  school 


PRAGUE 


343 


PRAGUE 


system  of  the  country.  In  the  meantime  the  Em- 
peror Ferdinand  I  had  called  the  Jesuits  to  Prague, 
in  1556,  and  these  had  opened  an  academy  near  St. 
Clement's,  the  imperial  letter  of  foundation  being 
dated  1562.  This  academy  comprised  a  gymnasium 
of  six  classes  as  well  as  an  institute  for  teaching  the- 
ology and  philosophy  arranged  according  to  the 
"Plan  of  Study"  {Ratio  studiorum)  of  the  Society. 
At  first  there  was  only  one  teacher  for  each  of  the  two 
departments  of  theology  and  philosophy.  In  addi- 
tion, a  large  college  was  built  near  St.  Clement's, 
which  on  this  account  was  called  the  Clementina, 
or,  after  its  founder,  the  Ferdinandea.  The  right 
of  giving  degrees,  which  it  received  from  the  emperor 
in  1562,  was  sharply  contested  by  the  old  university, 
the  Carolina. 

After  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain,  the  Jesuits, 
who  had  been  expelled  in  the  years  1618-21,  came 
to  have  a  predominant  influence  over  the  emjieror 
in  matters  concerning  instruction  on  account  of  their 
"Plan  of  study",  and  the  great  work  they  did  for 
Catholicism.  An  imperial  decree  of  19  September, 
1622,  gave  them  the  supreme  control  of  the  entire 
school  system  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia.  In 
November  of  the  same  year,  after  the  resignation  of  the 
remaining  four  professors,  they  were  also  given  con- 
trol of  the  Carolina  together  with  nine  colleges,  and  all 
the  rights  and  revenues  of  these,  so  that  whoever 
was  rector  of  the  Jesuit  college  was  the  future  rector 
of  the  Carolo-Ferdinandea.  The  right  of  giving  de- 
grees, of  holding  the  chancellorship,  and  of  appoint- 
ing the  secular  professors  was  also  granted  to  the 
Jesuits.  Cardinal  Ernst,  Count  von  Harrach,  who 
opposed  this  union  of  the  university  with  another 
institution  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  archiepisoopal 
right  to  the  chancellorship,  prevented  the  drawing-up 
of  the  imperial  Golden  Bull  for  the  confirmation  of 
these  grants.  He  also  founded  an  archiepisoopal 
seminary  of  his  own,  the  Collegium  Adalbertinum, 
in  order  to  secure  his  influence  over  the  students  in 
training  for  the  priesthood.  In  1638  Ferdinand  III 
limited  the  monopoly  of  teaching  enjoyed  by  the 
Jesuits  by  taking  from  them  the  rights,  properties, 
and  archives  of  the  Carolina,  the  faculties  of  law  and 
medicine,  and  making  these  once  more  independent 
under  an  imperial  protector.  During  the  last  year 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  the  Karls  Bridge  of  Prague 
was  courageously  defended  against  the  Swedes  by  the 
students  of  the  Carohna  and  Clementina  under  the 
leadership  of  the  Jesuit  Father  George  Plach;^.  After 
this  war  the  university  received  its  permanent  con- 
stitution and  by  a  formal  ceremony  (4  March,  1654) 
the  Carolo-Ferdinandea  was  again  united  and  placed 
under  a  chancellor,  the  Archbishop  of  Prague,  and 
an  imperial  superintendent.  The  Jesuits  retained 
all  the  professorships  in  the  philosophical  and  theo- 
logical faculties  up  to  1757,  when  a  Dominican  and  an 
Augustinian  were  also  appointed  to  give  theological 
instruction.  In  the  two  secular  faculties  the  iiumber 
of  lay  professors  increased  after  the  abolition,  in 
1612,  of  the  obligatory  celibacy  of  the  professors. 
The  secular  professors  were  appointed  by  the  em- 
peror, the  Jesuit  professors  were  merely  presented  to 
him.  They  held  closely  to  the  Ratio  studiorum  of 
the  Society  and,  in  regard  to  discipline  and  juris- 
diction, they  were  entirely  their  own  masters.  The 
theological  faculty  had  four  regular  professorships; 
that  of  law,  four  to  six;  the  philosophical,  three  to 
five;  the  medical,  five.  . 

The  dilapidated  Carolinum  was  rebuilt  in  1718 
by  Max  Kanka  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  _  The 
university  was  strictly  Cathohc:  the  profession  of 
faith  that  had  to  be  made  on  receiving  a  degree  before 
the  chancellor,  the  Archbishop  of  Prague,  excluded 
non-Catholics  from  the  professorships;  the  rector 
granted  the  degrees  for  the  ecclesiastical  chancellor 
(pro  cancellario) .   The  laws  of  the  university  prescribed 


that  the  whole  teaching  corps  should  receive  Commu- 
nion on  Maundy  Thursday,  and  (after  1602)  should 
take  part  as  a  body  in  the  Corpus  Christi  procession. 
From  1650  those  who  received  degrees  took  an  oath  to 
maintain  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  as  long  as  the  Church  did  not  decide  against  it, 
and  this  oath  was  annually  renewed  on  8  December  by 
all  the  cives  academici.  Such,  on  the  whole,  was  the 
status  which  continued  until  the  bureaucratic  reform 
of  the  universities  of  Austria  in  1752  and  1764.  This 
reform  deprived  the  universities  of  many  of  their 
corporate  rights,  and  rectors  appointed  by  the  State 
were  placed  at  the  head  of  the  faculties;  as  neither 
the  rectors  nor  the  deans  so  appointed  were  pro- 
fessors, the  Senate  was  little  more  than  an  ornamental 
body.  Matters  remained  thus  until  1849.  A  great 
change  was  brought  about  in  the  entire  school 
system  of  Austria  by  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits 
in  1773:  secular  priests  now  received  positions  in  the 
theological  faculty,  and  laymen  were  appointed  to 
the  philosophical  faculty.  In  1781  the  prevailing 
Josephinism  opened  academic  offices  to  non-Catho- 
lics, and  this  was  followed,  in  1785,  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  first  Protestant  as  professor  in  the  philo- 
sophical faculty;  in  1781  Jews  were  permitted  to 
study  at  the  university,  and  in  1790  they  were  allowed 
to  receive  degrees.  The  juramentum  de  Immaculata 
Conceptione  and  the  profession  of  faith  on  receiving 
a  degree  were  dropped  in  1782.  The  new  regula- 
tions concerning  studies  (1784)  increased  the  number 
of  professorships  and  teaching  positions  in  all  the 
faculties;  German  was  made  the  language  of  in- 
struction, only  pastoral  theology  and  obstetrics  were 
taught  in  Czech.  In  1784  the  professors  dropped  the 
dress  peculiar  to  the  university,  which  has  been  re- 
tained to  the  present  only  by  the  five  proctors,  the 
upper  proctor  and  the  proctors  for  the  four  faculties. 
The  university  was  completely  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  the  state,  which  prescribed  the  text-books, 
themes  for  disputation,  semi-annual  examinations 
and  fees;  in  making  all  these  changes,  practical  train- 
ing was  kept  in  view.  It  was  not  until  the  revolu- 
tionary year  of  1848  in  which  the  students  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague  took  up  arms  that  a  radical  change 
was  made. 

The  "regulation  respecting  study"  of  1  October, 
1850,  is  based  upon  freedom  of  teaching  and  learning. 
By  this  law  and  that  "concerning  the  organization 
of  academic  boards  of  control"  the  early  autonomy 
of  the  university  with  its  independent  election  of 
rectors  and  deans  was  restored.  The  religious 
limitations  upon  academic  degrees  and  positions  were 
to  be  entirely  removed;  although  as  late  as  1863 
a  Protestant  elected  dean  of  the  philosophical  faculty 
failed  of  confirmation  by  the  State.  Since  that  time 
the  election  of  non-Catholics  as  deans  and  rectors 
has  been  of  common  occurrence.  Jews,  also,  have 
held  the  office  of  dean,  but  not,  so  far,  that  of  rector, 
two  who  were  elected  having  declined  the  position. 
Great  difficulties  have  arisen  from  the  national  condi- 
tions. One  indication  of  the  constitutional  tendency 
was  a  constant  development  of  the  national  and 
political  consciousness  of  the  Czech  majority  of  the 
Bohemian  people.  The  university  recognized  this 
to  a  limited  degree  by  founding  parallel  Czech  pro- 
fessorships. Thus,  in  1863,  out  of  187  lecture 
courses  22  were  in  Czech;  the  number  was  increased 
but  even  this  did  not  satisfy  the  Czechs.  Conse- 
quently, after  long  negotiations,  the  Carolo-Fer- 
dinandea was  divided  into  a  German  and  a  Bohemian 
Karl-Ferdinand  University,  by  the  law  of  28  Feb- 
ruary, 1882.  The  academic  authorities  and  institu- 
tions of  each  section  are  entirely  independent  of 
the  other  section;  only  the  aula  in  the  Carolinum  and 
the  university  library  are  in  common.  The  separa- 
tion came  into  effect  in  the  winter  semester  of  1882- 
83,  but  it  did  not  include  the  theological  faculty, 


PRATO 


344 


PRAXEDES 


where  lectures  are  generally  given  in  Latin,  on  ac- 
count of  the  opposition  of  Cardinal  Sohwarzenburg. 
Under  Sohwarzenburg's  successor,  Cardinal  Count 
Schonborn,  this  faculty  was  also  divided  in  the  winter 
semester  of  1891-2,  while  the  archiepiscopal  semi- 
nary for  priests  remained  mixed  in  nationality.  The 
sum  of  93,000  kronen  is  required  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  150  students  of  this  seminary — i.  e.  about  620 
kronen  apiece  (a  krone  is  twenty  cents).  Of  this 
amount  32,043  kronen  come  from  the  revenues  of 
the  seminary;  the  rest  is  granted  by  the  State.  The 
separation  and  the  constantly  increasing  needs  of 
the  work  of  teaching  make  new  buildings  necessary. 
Two  new  university  buildings  to  replace  the  inade- 
quate Carolinum  are  in  course  of  construction. 

II.  Present  Condition. — In  the  winter  semester 
of  1909-10  the  German  Karl-Ferdinand  University 
had  1778  students;  these  were  divided  into:  58  theo- 
logical students,  for  both  the  secular  priesthood  and 
religious  orders;  755  law  students;  376  medical; 
589  philosophical.  Among  the  students  were  about 
80  women.  The  professors  were  divided  as  follows: 
theology,  7  regular  professors,  1  assistant  professor, 
1  docent;  law,  12  regular  professors,  2  assistant  pro- 
fessors, 4  docents;  medicine,  15  regular  professors, 
19  assistant,  30  docents;  philosophy,  30  regular 
professors,  S  assistant,  19  docents,  7  lecturers.  The 
budget  for  the  year  (not  including  building  expenses) 
was:  1,612,246  kronen  ($322,450)  for  regular  ex- 
penses, 94,534  kronen  for  extraordinary  expenses. 
The  student  associations,  copied  from  those  in  the 
German  Empire,  are  highly  developed.  The  prin- 
cipal ones  are:  the  "Reading  and  Debating  Club  of 
the  German  Students",  founded  in  1848,  with  about 
500  members;  the  "Germania",  founded  in  1892, 
with  600  members  (both  Liberal  associations);  the 
Catholic  association,  "Academia",  founded  in  1909, 
with  over  a  hundred  members.  In  the  face  of  over 
twenty  student  corps  which  have  colours  of  their 
own  and  favour  duelling,  the  three  Catholic  corps  with 
about  a  hundred  active  members  have  a  difficult 
position;  yet  they  continually  increase  in  number. 
In  aid  of  the  students  there  is  a  German  students' 
home  with  a  hundred  rooms  and  a  students'  commons. 
The  Bohemian  Karl-Ferdinand  University  in  the 
winter  semester  of  1909-10  included  4319  students; 
of  these  131  were  theological  students  belonging  both 
to  the  secular  and  regular  clergy;  1962  law  students; 
687  medical;  1539  philosophical;  256  students  were 
women.  The  professors  were  divided  as  follows: 
theological  faculty,  8  regular  professors,  2  docents; 
law,  12  regular,  7  assistant  professors,  12  docents; 
medicine,  16  regular  professors,  22  assistant,  24 
docents;  philosophy,  29  regular,  16  assistant,  35 
docents,  11  lecturers.  The  annual  budget  amounts 
to  1,763,790  kronen  ($352,758)  for  regular  expendi- 
tures, and  117,760  kronen  for  extraordinary  expendi- 
tures, without  including  building  expenses.  The 
theological  faculty  is  temporarily  housed  in  a  private 
residence.  The  "Academic  Reading  Society" 
(Akademick^  fiten^fsk;^  spolek)  is  Liberal  in  religion, 
the  "Svaz  cesko-slovanas-k^ho  studentstva"  is  more 
radical  still.  In  comparison  with  these  the  Catholic 
associations  are  comparatively  weak.  They  are: 
"Dru^stvo  Arnosta  z  Pardubie"  (100  to  200  mem- 
bers), "Ceska  akademicka  Liga",  and  the  Slavonic 
"Dan".  In  addition  to  the  Hlaska  house  of  studies 
for  students,  there  is  a  Catholic  home  for  students 
founded  by  Ernst  von  Pardiibitz.  The  library  com- 
mon to  both  universities,  and  to  which  the  public 
is  also  admitted,  contains  375,630  volumes;  among 
these  are  3921  manuscripts,  and  1523  early  printed 
books.  The  expenses  of  the  library  for  1910  were 
178,509  kronen   ($35,702). 

ToMAK,  Gesch.  der  Frager  Univi^rsitdt  fPrague,  184P) ;  Idem,  Gesch, 
■son  Prag  (12  vols.,  Prague,  1855-1901),  in  Bohemian;  Zschokka, 
Theologische  Studien  und  Anstalten  im  Osierreich  (Vienna,  1894), 
167-219:     Ermann-Hoen,     Bibliographia     der    diutschen     Uni- 


versitaien,  II  (Leipzig,  1904),  nn.  14790  sqq.;  Die  Karl-Ferdi- 
nands-Universitat  in  Prag  1848-1898  (Prague,  1898) ;  Prag  als 
deulscher  Hochschulstadt  (2nded.,  Prague,  1910);  Rashdall,  Uni- 
versities of  the  Middle  Ages,  II  (Oxford,  1S95). 

Karl  Hilgenreiner. 

Prato.     See  Pistoia  and  Prato,  Diocese  of. 

Praxeas,  an  early  anti-Montanist,  is  known  to  us 
only  by  'TertuUian's  book  "Ad versus  Praxean". 
His  name  in  the  list  of  heresies  appended  to  the  "De 
Praesoriptionibus"  of  that  writer  (an  anonymous 
epitome  of  the  lost  "Syntagma"  of  Hippolytus)  is  a 
correction  made  by  some  ancient  diorthotes  for  Noetus. 
Praxeas  was  an  Asiatic,  and  was  inflated  with  pride 
(says  TertuUian)  as  a  confessor  of  the  Faith  because 
he  had  been  for  a  short  time  in  prison.  He  was 
well  received  at  Rome  (c.  190-98)  by  the  pope 
(Victor,  or  possibly  Zephyrinus) .  The  latter  pope  had 
decided  to  acknowledge  the  prophetic  gifts  of  Mon- 
tanus,  Prisca,  and  Maximilla  (if  we  may  believe 
TertuUian).  The  intention  had  been  sufficiently 
public  to  bring  peace  to  the  Churches  of  Asia  and 
Phrygia — so  much  depended  on  the  papal  sanction; 
but  Praxeas  prevailed  upon  the  pope  to  recall  his 
letter.  He  came  to  Carthage  before  TertuUian  had 
renounced  the  Catholic  communion  (o.  206-8). 
He  taught  Monarchian  doctrine  there,  or  at  least 
doctrine  which  TertuUian  regarded  as  Monarchian: 
"Patrem  cruci  fixit;  Paraclitum  fugavit" — "Having 
driven  out  the  Paraclete  [Montanus],  he  now  cruci- 
fied the  Father"-  He  was  refuted,  evidently  by  Ter- 
tuUian himself,  and  gave  an  explanation  or  recanta- 
tion in  writing,  which,  when  TertuUian  wrote  several 
years  afterwards,  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the  au- 
thorities of  the  Carthaginian  Church,  the  "carnal", 
as  he  affects  to  call  them.  When  TertuUian  wrote 
he  himself  was  no  longer  in  the  Church;  ]\Ionarchian- 
ism  had  sprung  up  again,  but  he  does  not  mention 
its  leaders  at  Rome,  and  directs  his  whole  argument 
against  his  old  enemy  Praxeas.  But  the  arguments 
which  he  refutes  are  doubtless  those  of  Epigonus  and 
Cleomenes.  There  is  little  reason  for  thinking  that 
Praxeas  was  a  heresiarch,  and  less  for  identifying  him 
with  Noetus,  or  one  of  his  disciples.  He  was  very 
likely  merely  an  adversary  of  the  Montanists  who 
used  some  quasi-Monarchian  expressions  when  at 
Carthage,  but  afterwards  withdrew  them  when  he  saw 
they  might  be  misunderstood.  On  the  identification 
by  Hageman  of  Praxeas  with  Callistus,  see  Monar- 

CHIANS. 

For  bibliograpiiy  see  Monarchians;  also  D'Ales,  La  tMo- 
logie  de  Tertullien  (Paris,  1908). 

John  Chapman. 

Praxedes  and  Pudentiana,  martyrs  of  an  un- 
known era.  The  seventh-century  itineraries  to  the 
graves  of  the  Roman  martyrs  mention  in  the  catacomb 
of  Priscilla  two  female  martyrs  called  Potentiana 
(Potenciana)  and  Praxedis  (Praxidis) .  They  occupied 
adjoining  graves  in  this  catacomb  (De  Rossi,  "Roma 
sott.",  I,  176-7).  Of  the  various  MSS.  of  the  "Mar- 
tyrologium  Hieronymianum"  only  the  Echternaoh 
Codex  (Cod.  Eptern.)  gives  the  name  of  St.  Praxedes 
on  21  July  ("Martyrol.  Hieronym.",  ed.  De  Rossi- 
Duchesne,  94),  but  it  looks  like  a  later  addition,  and 
not  as  if  it  came  from  the  fourth-century  Roman 
Martyrology.  St.  Potentiana's  name  is  found  under 
19  May  in  the  Martyrology  of  Reichenau.  Praxedes 
and  Pudentiana  were  venerated  as  martyrs  at  Rome. 
Later  legends  connect  them  with  the  founder  of  the 
old  title-church  of  Rome,  "titulus  Pudentis",  called 
also  the  "ecclesia  Pudentiana".  Legend  makes 
Pudens  a  pupil  of  St.  Peter,  and  Praxedes  and  Poten- 
tiana, his  daughters.  Later  Potentiana  became  cus- 
tomarUy  known  as  "Pudentiana",  probably  because 
the  "ecclesia  Pudentiana"  was  designated  as  "eccl. 
sanctae  Pudentianae"  and  Pudentiana  was  identified 
with  Potentiana.  The  two  female  figures  offering 
their  crowns  to  Christ  in  the  mosaic  of  the  apse  in  St. 


PRAY 


345 


PRAYER 


Pudentiana  are  probably  Potentiana  and  Praxedes. 
The  veneration  of  these  martyrs  therefore  was  in  the 
fourth  century  connected  in  a  particular  manner  with 
the  "Titulus  Pudentis".  About  that  time  a  new 
church,  "titulus  Praxedis",  was  built  near  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore,  and  the  veneration  of  St.  Praxedes 
was  now  especially  connected  with  it.  When  Paschal 
I  (817-824)  rebuilt  the  church  in  its  present  form  he 
translated  to  it  the  bones  of  Sts.  Praxedes,  Poten- 
tiana, and  other  martyrs.  St.  Pudentiana's  feast  is 
observed  on  19  May,  St.  Praxedes's  on  21  July. 

Ada  SS.,  IV  May,  299  sq.;  Bibl.  hagiogr.  lot.,  II,  1007,  1017; 
DurouRCQ,  Lcs  Gesia  tnarlyrum  romains,  I  (Puria,  1900),  127-30; 
Db  Waal,  Der  Titulus  Praxedis  in  RSm.  Q iiiirlalschrijt,  XIX 
(1905),  Arch.y  169  sqq.;  De  Roaai,  Musaici  lUtlc  chiese  di  Roma 
(Rome,  1899),  plate  X  (Santa  Pudenziana) ,  plate  XXV  (Santa 
Praasede) ;  RI.\rucchi,  Basiliques  et  ^glines  de  Rome  (Rome,  1909) , 
323  sqq.,  364  sqq. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Pray,  George,  abbot,  canon,  librarian  of  the  Uni- 
versity librar.y  of  Buda,  and  important  Hungarian  his- 
torian, b.  at  firsekujvAr,  USept.,  1723;  d.inPesth,23 
Sept.,  1801.  His  family  came  from  the  Tyrol.  He 
studied  in  Pozsony,  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1745,  spent  two  years  in  the  Jesuit  college  (St.  Ann's) 
in  Vienna,  and  completed  his  higher  studies  at  Nagy- 
Szombat.  He  taught  at  Nagy-Vdrad,  Trencs6n,  Nagy- 
Szombat,  and  Pozsony.  In  17.54  he  was  ordained  and 
continued  teaching  in  Rozsny6  and  in  the  Theresianum 
at  Vienna,  where  he  was  professor  of  political  science 
and,  at  the  same  time,  tutor  to  the  Princes  of  Salm. 
He  was  professor  in  Gyor  (1758),  Nagy-Szombat 
(1759),  and  Buda  (1760),  where,  among  other  subjects, 
he  lectured  on  moral  theology.  After  the  suppression 
of  the  Jesuits  (1773)  he  went  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Gran,  and  ^laria  Theresa  appointed  him  imperial 
historiographer,  with  a  yearly  income  of  400  florins. 
T\Tien  the  University  of  Nagy-Szombat  was  transferred 
to  Pesth  (1777),  Pray  was  given  charge  of  the  library; 
he  resigned  this  position  in  1780,  but  resumed  it  in 
1784.  During  this  year  he  surrendered  his  manuscripts 
and  collection  of  documents  to  the  university  library 
for  a  life  annuity  of  400  florins.  He  became  canon  in 
Grosswardein  (1790),  and  was  sent  by  the  chapter  as 
its  representative  to  the  Hungarian  Reichstag.  Later 
he  became  Abbot  of  Tormowa.  His  literary  activity 
embraced  the  history  of  Hungary,  especially  the  earlier 
centuries,  the  history  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Hun- 
gary, and  editing  the  sources  of  Hungarian  history.  He 
was  the  fir.st  to  draw  attention  to  the  oldest  coherent 
te.xt  in  the  Himgarian  language,  "Oratio  funebris", 
dating  probably  from  1199,  which  was  called  after  him 
"The  Pray-codex".  Among  his  works  maybe  men- 
tioned: "Annales  veteres  Hunnorum,  Avarorum  et 
Hungarorum,  210  ad  997"  (Vienna,  1761);  "Annales 
regum  Hungaria;,  997-1564"  (5  vols.,  Vienna,  1763- 
70);  "VitaS.  Elisabethse"  (Vienna,  1770);  "Specimen 
Hierarchiae  Hungariae"  (2  vols.,  Presburg,  1776-9). 

SziNNYEi  in  Magyar  irdk  ilete  6s  munkdi  (Life  and  works  of 
Hungarian  writers),  XI,  where  the  bibhography  of  hia  works  and 
matter  concerning  him  are  collected.  , 

A.  Aldasy. 

Prayer,  Apostleship  op.  See  Apostleship  of 
Prayer. 

Prayer  (Gr.  eix^'^Sai,  Lat.  precari,  Fr.  prier,  to 
plead,  to  beg,  to  ask  earnestly),  an  act  of  the  virtue 
of  religion  which  consists  in  asking  proper  gifts  or 
graces  from  God.  In  a  more  general  sense  it  is  the 
application  of  the  mind  to  Divine  things,  not  merely 
to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  them  but  to  make  use  of 
such  knowledge  as  a  means  of  union  with  God.  This 
may  be  done  by  acts  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  but 
petition  is  the  principal  act  of  prayer.  The  words 
used  to  express  it  in  Scripture  are:  to  call  upon  (Gen., 
iv,  26);  to  intercede  (Job,  xxii,  10);  to  meditate  (Is., 
liii,  10);  to  consult  (I  Kings,  xxviii,  6);  to  beseech 
(Ex.,  xxxii,  11);  and,  very  commonly,  to  cry  out  to. 
The  Fathers  speak  of  it  as  the  elevation  of  the  mind 


to  God  with  a  view  to  asking  proper  things  from  Him 
(St.  John  Damascene,  "De  fide".  III,  xxiv,  in  P.  G., 
XCIV,  1090) ;  communing  and  conversing  with  God 
(St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  "De  oratione  dom.",  in  P.  G., 
XLIV,  1125);  talking  with  God  (St.  John  Chrysos- 
tom,  "Hom.  xxx  in  Gen.",  n.  5,  in  P.  G.,  LIII,  280). 
It  is  therefore  the  expression  of  our  desires  to  God 
whether  for  ourselves  or  others.  This  expression  is 
not  intended  to  instruct  or  direct  God  what  to  do, 
but  to  appeal  to  His  goodness  for  the  things  we  need; 
and  the  appeal  is  necessary,  not  because  He  is  igno- 
rant of  our  needs  or  sentiments,  but  to  give  definite 
form  to  our  desires,  to  concentrate  our  whole  attention 
on  what  we  have  to  recommend  to  Him,  to  help  us 
appreciate  our  close  personal  relation  with  Him.  The 
expression  need  not  be  external  or  vocal;  internal 
or  mental  is  sufficient. 

By  prayer  we  acknowledge  God's  power  and  good- 
ness, our  own  neediness  and  dependence.  It  is  there- 
fore an  act  of  the  virtue  of  religion  implying  the  deep- 
est reverence  for  God  and  habituating  us  to  look  to 
Him  for  everything,  not  merely  because  the  thing 
asked  be  good  in  itself,  or  advantageous  to  us,  but 
chiefly  because  we  wish  it  as  a  gift  of  God,  and  not 
otherwise,  no  matter  how  good  or  desirable  it  may 
seem  to  us.  Prayer  presupposes  faith  in  God  and 
hope  in  His  goodness.  By  both,  God,  to  whom  we 
pray,  moves  us  to  prayer.  Our  knowledge  of  God 
by  the  light  of  natural  reason  also  inspires  us  to  look 
to  Him  for  help,  but  such  prayer  lacks  supernatural 
inspiration,  and  though  it  may  avail  to  keep  us  from 
losing  our  natural  knowledge  of  God  and  trust  in 
Him,  or,  to  some  extent,  from  offending  Him,  it  cannot 
positively  dispose  us  to  receive  His  graces. 

Objects  of  Prayer. — Like  every  act  that  makes  for 
salvation,  grace  is  required  not  only  to  dispose  us  to 
pray,  but  also  to  aid  us  in  determining  what  to  pray 
for.  In  this  "the  spirit  helpeth  our  infirmity.  For  we 
know  not  what  we  should  pray  for  as  we  ought;  but 
the  Spirit  himself  asketh  for  us  with  unspeakable 
groanings"  (Rom.,  viii,  26).  For  certain  objects  we 
are  always  sure  we  should  pray,  such  as  our  salvation 
and  the  general  means  to  it,  resistance  to  temptation, 
practice  of  virtue,  final  perseverance;  but  constantly 
we  need  light  and  the  guidance  of  the  Spirit  to  know 
the  special  means  that  will  most  help  us  in  any  par- 
ticular need.  That  there  may  be  no  possibility  of 
misjudgment  on  our  part  in  such  an  essential  obliga- 
tion, Christ  has  taught  us  what  we  should  ask  for  in 
prayer  and  also  in  what  order  we  should  ask  it.  In 
response  to  the  request  of  His  disciples  to  teach  them 
how  to  pray,  He  repeated  the  prayer  commonly 
spoken  of  as  the  Lord's  Pra}'er  (q.  v.),  from  which  it 
appears  that  above  all  we  are  to  pray  that  God  may 
be  glorified,  and  that  for  this  purpose  men  may  be 
worthy  citizens  of  His  kingdom,  living  in  conformity 
with  His  will.  Indeed,  this  conformity  is  implied  in 
every  prayer:  we  should  ask  for  nothing  unless  it  be 
strictly  in  accordance  with  Divine  Providence  in  our 
regard.  So  much  for  the  spiritual  objects  of  our 
prayer.  We  are  to  ask  also  for  temporal  things,  our 
daily  bread,  and  all  that  it  implies,  health,  strength, 
and  other  worldly  or  temporal  goods,  not  material 
or  corporal  only,  but  mental  and  moral,  every  accom- 
plishment that  may  be  a  means  of  serving  God  and 
our  fellow-men.  Finally,  there  are  the  evils  which 
we  should  pray  to  escape,  the  penalty  of  our  sins,  the 
dangers  of  temptation,  and  every  manner  of  physical 
or  spiritual  affliction,  so  far  as  these  might  impede 
us  in  God's  service. 

To  whom  may  we  pray. — Although  God  the  Father 
is  mentioned  in  this  prayer  as  the  one  to  whom  we 
are  to  pray,  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  address  our 
prayers  to  the  other  Divine  persons.  The  special 
appeal  to  one  does  not  exclude  the  others.  More 
commonly  the  Father  is  addressed  in  the  beginning 
of  the  prayers  of  the  Church,  though  they  close  with 


PRAYER 


346 


PRAYER 


the  invocation,  "Through  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  Thy 
Son  who  with  Thee  Hveth  and  reigneth  in  the  unity 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  world  without  end".  If  the  pray(T 
be  addressed  to  God  the  Son,  the  conclusion  is :  "  \Aho 
livest  and  reignest  with  God  the  Father  in  the  unity 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  God,  world  without  end  " ;  or,  "  Who 
with  Thee  hveth  and  reigneth  in  the  unity,  etc.". 
Prayer  may  be  addressed  to  Christ  as  Man,  because 
He  is  a  Divine  Person,  not  however  to  His  human 
nature  as  such,  precisely  because  prayer  must  always 
be  addressed  to  a  person,  never  to  something  im- 
personal or  in  the  abstract.  An  appeal  to  anything 
impersonal,  as  for  instance  to  the  Heart,  the  Wounds, 
the  Cross  of  Christ,  must  be  taken  figuratively  as  in- 
tended for  Christ  Himself. 

Who  can  pray. — As  He  has  promised  to  intercede 
for  us  (John,  xiv,  16),  and  is  said  to  do  so  (Rom.,  viii, 
34;  Heb.,  vii,  25),  we  may  ask  His  intercession, 
though  this  is  not  customary  in  public  worship.  He 
prays  in  virtue  of  His  own  merits;  the  saints  inter- 
cede for  us  in  virtue  of  His  merits,  not  their  own.  Con- 
sequently when  we  pray  to  them,  it  is  to  ask  for  their 
intercession  in  our  behalf,  not  to  expect  that  they  can 
bestow  gifts  on  us  of  their  own  power,  or  obtain  them 
in  virtue  of  their  own  merit.  Even  the  souls  in 
purgatory,  according  to  the  common  opinion  of  theo- 
logians, pray  to  God  to  move  the  faithful  to  offer 
prayers,  sacrifices,  and  expiatory  works  for  them.  They 
also  pray  for  themselves  and  for  souls  still  on  earth. 
The  fact  that  Christ  knows  the  future,  or  that  the 
saints  may  know  many  future  things,  does  not  pre- 
vent them  from  praying.  As  they  foresee  the  future, 
so  also  they  foresee  how  its  happenings  may  be  in- 
fluenced by  their  prayers,  and  they  at  least  by  prayer 
do  all  in  their  power  to  bring  about  what  is  best, 
though  those  for  whom  they  pray  may  not  dispose 
themselves  for  the  blessings  thus  invoked.  The  just 
can  pray,  and  sinners  also.  The  opinion  of  Quesnel 
that  the  prayer  of  the  sinner  adds  to  his  sin  was  con- 
demned by  Clement  XI  (Denzinger,  10  ed.,  n.  1409). 
Though  there  is  no  supernatural  merit  in  the  sinner's 
prayer,  it  may  be  heard,  and  indeed  he  is  obliged  to 
make  it  just  as  before  he  sinned.  No  matter  how  hard- 
ened he  may  become  in  sin,  he  needs  and  is  bound  to 
pray  to  be  delivered  from  it  and  from  the  temptations 
which  beset  him .  His  prayer  could  offend  God  only  if  it 
were  hypocritical,  or  presumptuous,  as  if  he  should 
ask  God  to  suffer  him  to  continue  in  his  evil  course. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  in  hell  prayer  is  impos- 
sible ;  neither  devils  nor  lost  souls  can  pray,  or  be  the 
object  of  prayer. 

For  whom  we  may  pray. — For  the  blessed  prayers 
maj'  be  offered  not  with  the  hope  of  increasing  their 
beatitude,  but  that  their  glory  may  be  better  es- 
teemed and  their  deeds  imitated.  In  praying  for  one 
another  we  assume  that  God  will  bestow  His  favours  in 
consideration  of  those  who  pray.  In  virtue  of  the 
solidarity  of  the  Church,  that  is,  of  the  close  relations 
of  the  faithful  as  members  of  the  mystical  Body  of 
Christ,  any  one  may  benefit  by  the  good  deeds,  and 
especially  by  the  prayers  of  the  others  as  if  par- 
ticipating in  them.  This  is  the  ground  of  St.  Paul's 
desire  that  supplications,  prayers,  intercessions,  and 
thanksgivings  be  made  for  all  men  (Tim.,  ii,  1),  for 
all,  without  exception,  in  high  or  low  station,  for  the 
just,  for  sinners,  for  infidels;  for  the  dead  as  well  as 
for  the  living;  for  enemies  as  well  as  for  friends. 
(See  Communion  of  Saints.) 

Effects  of  Fraycr. — In  hearing  our  prayer  God  does 
not  change  His  will  or  action  in  our  regard,  but  simply 
puts  into  effect  what  He  had  eternally  decreed  in  view 
of  our  prayer.  This  He  may  do  directly  without  the 
intervention  of  any  secondary  cause  as  when  He  im- 
parts to  us  some  supernatural  gift,  such  as  actual 
grace,  or  indirectly,  when  He  bestows  some  natural 
gift.  In  this  latter  case  He  directs  by  His  Provi- 
dence the   natural   causes   which  contribute  to  the 


effect  desired,  whether  they  be  moral  or  free  agents, 
such  as  men;  or  some  moral  and  others  not,  but 
physical  and  not  free;  or,  again,  when  none  of  them 
is  free.  Finally,  by  miraculous  intervention,  and 
without  employing  any  of  these  causes,  He  can  pro- 
duce the  effect  prayed  for. 

The  use  or  habit  of  prayer  redounds  to  our  ad- 
vantage in  many  ways.  Besides  obtaining  the  gifts 
and  graces  we  need,  the  very  process  elevates  our 
mind  and  heart  to  a  knowledge  and  love  of  Divine 
things,  greater  confidence  in  God,  and  other  precious 
sentiments.  Indeed,  so  numerous  and  so  helpful 
are  these  effects  of  prayer  that  they  compensate  us, 
even  when  the  special  object  of  our  prayer  is  not 
granted.  Often  they  are  of  far  greater  benefit  than 
what  we  ask  for.  Nothing  that  we  might  obtain  in 
answer  to  our  prayer  could  exceed  in  value  the 
familiar  converse  with  God  in  which  prayer  consists. 
In  addition  to  these  effects  of  prayer,  we  may  (de 
congruo)  merit  by  it  restoration  to  grace,  if  we  are  in 
sin;  new  inspirations  of  grace,  increase  of  sanctifying 
grace,  and  satisfy  for  the  temporal  punishment  due 
to  sin.  Signal  as  all  these  benefits  are,  they  are  only 
incidental  to  the  proper  effect  of  prayer  due  to  its 
impetratory  power  based  on  the  infalhble  promise 
of  God,  "Ask,  and  it  shall  be  given  you;  seek,  and 
you  shall  find:  knock,  and  it  shall  be  opened  to  you" 
(Matt.,  vii,  7) ;  "  Therefore  I  say  unto  you,  all  things 
whatsoever  you  ask  when  ye  pray,  believe  that  you 
shall  receive"  (Mark,  xi,  24 — see  also  Luke,  xi,  11; 
John,  xvi,  24,  as  well  as  innumerable  assurances  to 
this  effect  in  the  Old  Testament). 

Conditions  of  Prayer. — Absolute  though  Christ's 
assurances  in  regard  to  prayer  would  seem  to  be, 
they  do  not  exclude  certain  conditions  on  which  the 
efficacy  of  prayer  depends.  In  the  first  place,  its 
object  must  be  worthy  of  God  and  good  for  the  one 
who  prays,  spiritually  or  temporally.  This  condi- 
tion is  always  implied  in  the  prayer  of  one  who  is 
resigned  to  God's  will,  ready  to  accept  any  spiritual 
favour  God  may  be  pleased  to  grant,  and  desirous 
of  temporal  ones  only  in  so  far  as  they  may  help 
to  serve  God.  Next,  faith  is  needed,  not  only  the 
general  belief  that  God  is  capable  of  answering  prayer 
or  that  it  is  a  powerful  means  of  obtaining  His  favour, 
but  also  the  implicit  trust  in  God's  fidelity  to  His 
promise  to  hear  a  prayer  in  some  particular  instance. 
This  trust  implies  a  special  act  of  faith  and  hope  that  if 
our  request  be  for  our  good,  God  will  grant  it,  or  some- 
thing else  equivalent  or  better,  which  in  His  Wisdom 
He  deems  best  for  us.  To  be  efficacious  prayer 
should  be  humble.  To  ask  as  if  one  had  a  binding 
claim  on  God's  goodness,  or  title  of  whatever  colour 
to  obtain  some  favour,  would  not  ba  prayer  but 
demand.  The  parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the 
Publican  illustrates  this  very  clearly,  and  there  are 
innumerable  testimonies  in  Scripture  to  the  power 
of  humility  in  prayer.  "A  contrite  and  humbled 
heart,  O  God,  thou  wilt  not  despise"  (Ps.  1,  19). 
"The  prayer  of  him  that  humbleth  himself  shall 
pierce  the  clouds"  (Eccl.,  xxxv,  21).  Without 
sacrifice  of  humility  we  may  and  should  try  to  be 
sure  that  our  conscience  is  good,  and  that  there  is 
no  defect  in  our  conduct  inconsistent  with  prayer; 
indeed,  we  may  even  appeal  to  our  merits  so  far  as 
they  recommend  us  to  God,  provided  always  that 
the  principal  motives  of  one's  confidence  are  God's 
goodness  and  the  merits  of  Christ.  Sincerity  is 
another  necessary  quality  of  prayer.  It  would  be 
idle  to  ask  favour  without  doing  all  that  may  be  in 
our  power  to  obtain  it;  to  beg  for  it  without  really 
wishing  for  it;  or,  at  the  same  time  that  one  prays, 
to  do  anything  inconsistent  with  the  prayer. 
Earnestness  or  fervour  is  another  such  quality,  pre- 
cluding all  lukewarm  or  half-hearted  petitions.  To 
be  resigned  to  God's  will  in  prayer  does  not  imply 
that  one  should  be  indifferent  in  the  sense  that  one 


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does  not  care  whether  one  be  heard  or  not,  or  should 
as  lief  not  receive  as  receive;  on  the  contrary,  true 
resignation  to  God's  will  is  possible  only  after  we  have 
desired  and  earnestly  expressed  our  desire  in  prayer 
for  such  things  as  seem  needful  to  do  God's  will. 
This  earnestness  is  the  element  which  makes  the 
perse\'cring  prayer  so  well  described  in  such  parables 
as  the  Friend  at  Midnight  (Luke,  xi,  5-8),  or,  the 
Widow  and  the  Unjust  Judge  (Luke,  xviii,  2-5), 
and  which  ultimately  obtains  the  precious  gift  of 
perseverance  in  grace. 

Attention  in  Prayer. — Finally,  attention  is  of  the 
verj'  essence  of  prayer.  As  an  expression  of  senti- 
ment emanating  from  our  intellectual  faculties  prayei 
requires  their  application,  i.  e.  attention.  As  soon 
as  this  attention  ceases,  prayer  ceases.  To  begin 
praying  and  allow  the  mind  to  be  wholly  diverted  or 
distracted  to  some  other  occupation  or  thought 
necessarily  terminates  the  prayer,  which  is  resumed 
only  when  the  mind  is  withdrawn  from  the  object 
of  distraction.  To  admit  distraction  is  wrong  when 
one  is  obliged  to  apply  oneself  to  prayer:  when  there 
is  no  such  obligation,  one  is  at  liberty  to  pass  from 
the  subject  of  prayer,  provided  it  be  done  without 
irreverence,  to  any  other  proper  subject.  This  is 
all  very  simple  when  applied  to  mental  prayer;  but 
does  vocal  prayer  require  the  same  attention  as  men- 
tal,— in  other  words,  when  praying  vocally  must  one 
attend  to  the  meaning  of  words,  and  if  one  should 
cease  to  do  so,  would  one  by  that  very  fact  cease  to 
pray?  Vocal  prayer  differs  from  mental  precisely 
in  this  that  mental  prayer  is  not  possible  without 
attention  to  the  thoughts  that  are  conceived  and  ex- 
pressed whether  internally  or  externally.  Neither 
is  it  possible  to  pray  without  attending  to  thought 
and  words  when  we  attempt  to  express  our  sentiments 
in  our  own  words;  whereas  all  that  is  needed  for 
vocal  prayer  proper  is  the  repetition  of  certain  words, 
usually  a  set  form  with  the  intention  of  using  them 
in  prayer.  So  long  as  this  intention  lasts,  i.  e.  so 
long  as  nothing  is  done  to  terminate  it  or  wholly 
inconsistent  with  it,  so  long  as  one  continues  to  re- 
peat the  form  of  prayer,  with  proper  reverence  in  dis- 
position and  outward  manner,  with  only  this  general 
purpose  of  praying  according  to  the  prescribed  form, 
so  long  one  continues  to  pray  and  no  thought  or  ex- 
ternal act  can  be  considered  a  distraction  unless  it 
terminate  our  intention,  or  by  levity  or  irreverence 
be  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  prayer.  Thus  one 
may  pray  in  the  crowded  streets  where  it  is  irnpossible 
to  avoid  sights  and  sounds  and  consequent  imagina- 
tions and  thoughts. 

Provided  one  repeats  the  words  of  the  prayer  and 
avoids  wilful  distractions  of  mind  to  things  in  no 
way  pertaining  to  prayer,  one  may  through  mental 
infirmity  or  inadvertence  admit  numerous  thoughts 
not  connected  with  the  subject  of  the  prayer,  without 
irreverence.  It  is  true,  this  amount  of  attention  does 
not  enable  one  to  derive  from  prayer  the  full  spiritual 
advantage  it  should  bring;  nay,  to  be  satisfied  with 
it  as  a  rule  would  result  in  admitting  distractioris 
quite  freely  and  wrongfully.  For  this  reason  it  is 
advisable  not  only  to  keep  the  mind  bent  on  praymg 
but  also  to  think  of  the  purport  of  the  prayer,  and 
as  far  as  possible  to  think  of  the  meaning  of  some  at 
least  of  the  sentiments  or  expressions  of  the  prayer. 
As  a  means  of  cultivating  the  habit,  it  is  recommended, 
notably  in  the  spiritual  exercises  of  St.  Ignatius,  often 
to  recite  certain  familiar  prayers,  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
the  AngeUcal  Salutation,  the  Creed,  the  Confiteor, 
slowly  enough  to  admit  the  interval  of  a  breath  be- 
tween the  principal  words  or  sentences,  so  as  to  have 
time  to  think  of  their  meaning,  and  .to  feel  in  one's 
heart  the  appropriate  emotions.  Another  practice 
strongly  recommended  by  the  same  author  is  to  take 
each  sentence  of  these  prayers  as  a  subject  of  re- 
flection, not  delaying  too  long  on  any  one  of  them  un- 


less one  finds  in  it  some  suggestion  or  helpful  thought 
or  sentiment,  but  then  stopping  to  reflect  as  long  as 
one  finds  proper  food  for  thought  or  emotion,  and, 
when  one  has  dwelt  sufficiently  on  any  passage, 
finishing  the  prayer  without  further  deliberate  re- 
flection   (see   Distraction)  . 

Necessity  of  Prayer. — Prayer  is  necessary  for  sal- 
vation. It  is  a  distinct  precept  of  Christ  in  the 
Gospels  (Matt.,  vi,  9;  vii,  7;  Luke,  xi,  9;  John,  xvi, 
26;  Col.,  iv,  2;  Rom.,  xii,  12;  I  Pet.,  iv,  7).  The 
precept  imposes  on  us  only  what  is  really  necessary 
as  a  means  of  salvation.  Without  prayer  we  cannot 
resist  temptation,  nor  obtain  God's  grace,  nor  grow 
and  persevere  in  it.  This  necessity  is  incumbent  on 
all  according  to  their  different  states  in  life,  especially 
on  those  who  by  virtue  of  their  office,  of  priesthood, 
for  instance,  or  other  special  religious  obligations, 
should  in  a  special  manner  pray  for  their  own  welfare 
and  for  others.  The  obligation  to  pray  is  incumbent 
on  us  at  all  times.  "And  he  spoke  also  a  parable, 
to  them  that  we  ought  always  to  pray,  and  not  to 
faint"  (Luke,  xviii,  1);  but  it  is  especially  pressing 
when  we  are  in  great  need  of  prayer,  when  without 
it  we  cannot  overcome  some  obstacle  or  perform  some 
obligation;  when,  to  fulfil  various  obligations  of 
charity,  we  should  pray  for  others;  and  when  it  is 
specially  implied  in  some  obligation  imposed  by  the 
Church,  such  as  attendance  at  Mass,  and  the  ob- 
servance of  Sundays  and  feast-days.  This  is  true 
of  vocal  prayer,  and  as  regards  mental  prayer,  or 
meditation,  this,  too,  is  necessary  so  far  as  we  may 
need  to  apply  our  mind  to  the  study  of  Divine 
things  in  order  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  truths 
necessary  for  salvation. 

The  obligation  to  pray  is  incumbent  on  us  at  all 
times,  not  that  prayer  should  be  our  sole  occupation, 
as  the  Euchites,  or  Messalians  (q.  v.),  and  similar 
heretical  sects  professed  to  believe.  The  texts  of 
Scripture  bidding  us  to  pray  without  ceasing  mean 
that  we  must  pray  whenever  it  is  necessary,  as  it  so 
frequently  is  necessary;  that  we  must  continue  to 
pray  until  we  shall  have  obtained  what  we  need. 
Some  writers  speak  of  a  virtuous  life  as  an  uninter- 
rupted prayer,  and  appeal  to  the  adage  "to  toil  is 
to  pray"  (laborare  est  orare).  This  does  not  mean  that 
virtue  or  labour  replaces  the  duty  of  prayer,  since 
it  is  not.  possible  either  to  practise  virtue  or  to 
labour  properly  without  frequent  use  of  prayer. 
The  Wyclifites  and  Waldenses,  according  to  Suarez, 
advocated  what  they  called  vital  prayer,  consisting 
in  good  works,  to  the  exclusion  even  of  all  vocal 
prayer  except  the  Our  Father.  For  this  reason 
Suarez  does  not  approve  of  the  expression,  though 
St.  Francis  de  Sales  uses  it  to  mean  prayer  reinforced 
by  work,  or  rather  work  which  is  inspired  by  prayer. 
The  practice  of  the  Church,  devoutly  followed  by  the 
faithful,  is  to  begin  and  end  the  day  with  prayer; 
and  though  morning  and  evening  prayer  is  not  of 
strict  obligation,  the  practice  of  it  so  well  satisfies 
our  sense  of  the  need  of  prayer  that  neglect  of  it, 
especially  for  a  long  time,  is  regarded  as  more  or 
less  sinful,  according  to  the  cause  of  the  neglect, 
which  is  commonly  some  form  of  sloth. 

Vocal  Prayer. — Prayer  may  be  classified  as  vocal 
or  mental,  private  or  public.  In  vocal  prayer  some 
outward  action,  usually  verbal  expression,  accom- 
panies the  internal  act  implied  in  every  form  of  prayer. 
This  external  action  not  only  helps  to  keep  us  at- 
tentive to  the  prayer,  but  it  also  adds  to  its  intensity. 
Examples  of  it  occur  in  the  prayer  of  the  Israelites 
in  captivity  (Ex.,  ii,  23);  again  after  their  idolatry 
among  the  Chanaanites  (Judges,  iii,  9);  the  Lord's 
Prayer  (Matt.,  vi,  9);  Christ's  own  prayer  after  re- 
suscitating Lazarus  (John,  xi,  41) ;  and  the  testimonies 
in  Heb.,  v,  7,  andxiii,  15,  and  frequently  we  are  rec- 
ommended to  use  hymns,  canticles,  and  other  vocal 
forms  of  prayer.     It  has  been  common  in  the  Church 


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348 


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from  the  beginning;  nor  has  it  ever  been  denied, 
except  by  the  A\'ycHfites  and  the  Quietists.  The 
former  objected  to  it  a,s  unnecessary,  as  God  does 
not  need  our  words  to  linow  what  goes  on  in  our 
souls,  and  prayer  being  a  spiritual  act  need  be  per- 
formed by  the  soul  alone  without  the  body.  The 
latter  regarded  all  external  action  in  prayer  as  an 
untoward  disturbance  or  interference  with  the 
passivity  of  the  soul  required,  in  their  opinion,  to 
pray  properly.  It  is  obvious  that  prayer  must  be 
the  action  of  the  entire  man,  body  as  well  as  soul; 
that  God  who  created  both  is  pleased  with  the  service 
of  both,  and  that  when  the  two  act  in  unison  they 
help  instead  of  interfering  with  one  another's  activi- 
ties. The  Wyclifites  objected  not  only  to  all  ex- 
ternal expression  of  prayer  generally,  but  to  vocal 
prayer  in  its  proper  sense,  viz.  prayer  expressed  in 
set  form  of  words,  excepting  only  the  Our  Father. 
The  use  of  a  variety  of  such  forms  is  sanctioned  by 
the  prayer  over  the  first-fruits  (Deut.,  xxvi,  13).  If 
it  be  right  to  use  one  form,  that  of  the  Our  Father, 
why  not  others  also?  The  Litany,  Collective  and 
Euoharistic  prayers  of  the  early  Church  were  surely 
set  forms,  and  the  familiar  daily  prayers,  the  Our 
Father,  Hail  Mary,  Apostles'  Creed,  Confiteor,  Acts 
of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity,  all  attest  the  usage  of 
the  Church  in  this  respect  and  the  preference  of  the 
faithful  for  such  approved  forms  to  others  of  their 
own  composition. 

Postures  in  Prayer. — Postures  in  prayer  are  also 
an  evidence  of  the  tendency  in  human  nature  to  ex- 
press inward  sentiment  by  outward  sign.  Not  only 
among  Jews  and  Christians,  but  among  pagan  peoples 
also,  certain  postures  were  considered  appropriate 
in  prayer,  as,  tor  instance,  standing  with  arms  raised 
among  the  Romans.  The  Orante  (see  Orans)  in- 
dicates the  postures  favoured  by  the  early  Chris- 
tians, standing  with  hands  extended,  as  Christ  on  the 
Cross,  according  to  TertuUian;  or  with  hands  raised 
towards  heaven,  with  bowed  heads,  or,  for  the  faith- 
ful, with  eyes  raised  towards  heaven,  and,  for  cate- 
chumens, with  ej'es  bent  on  the  earth;  prostration, 
kneeling,  genuflexion  (q.  v.),  and  such  gestures  as 
striking  the  breast  are  all  outward  signs  of  the  rev- 
erence proper  for  prayer,  whether  in  public  or  private. 

Mental  Prayer. — lileditation  is  a  form  of  mental 
prayer  consisting  in  the  application  of  the  various 
faculties  of  the  soul,  memory,  imagination,  intellect, 
and  will,  to  the  consideration  of  some  mystery, 
principle,  truth,  or  fact,  with  a  view  to  exciting  proper 
spiritual  emotions  and  resolving  on  some  act  or  course 
of  action  regarded  as  God's  will  and  as  a  means  of 
union  with  Him.  In  some  degree  or  other  it  has 
always  been  practised  by  God-fearing  souls.  There 
is  abundant  evidence  of  this  in  the  Old  Testament, 
as,  for  instance,  in  Ps.  xxxviii,  4;  Ixii,  7;  Ixxvi,  13; 
cxviii  throughout;  Eoclus.,  xiv,  22;  Is.,  xxvi,  9; 
Ivii,  1;  Jer.,  xii,  11.  In  the  New  Testament  Christ 
gave  frequent  examples  of  it,  and  St.  Paul  of  ten  re- 
fers to  it,  as  in  Eph.,  vi,  18;  Col.,  iv,  2;  I  Tim., 
iv,  1.5;  I  Cor.,  xiv,  15.  It  has  always  been  practised 
in  the  Church.  Among  others  who  have  recom- 
mended it  to  the  faithful  are  Chrysostom  in  his  two 
books  on  prayer,  as  also  in  his  "Horn,  xxx  in  Gen." 
and  "Hom.  vi.  in  Isaiam";  Cassianin  "Conference  ix"; 
St.  Jerome  in  "Epistola  22  ad  Eustochium";  St.  Basil 
in  his  "Homily  on  St.  Julitta,  M.",  and  "In  regula 
brcviori",  301;  St.  C>7)rian,  "In  expositione  ora- 
tionis  dominicalis " ;  St.  Ambrose,  "De  sacramentis", 
VI,  iii;  St.  Augustine,  "Epist.  121  ad  Probam", 
cc.  V,  vi,  vii:  Boetius,  "De  spiritu  et  anima",  xxxii; 
St.  Leo,  "Sermo  viii  de  jejunio";  St.  Bernard, 
"De  consecratione",  I,  vii;  St.  Thomas,  II-II,  Q. 
Ixxxiii,  a.  2. 

The  writings  of  the  Fathers  themselves  and  of 
the  great  theologians  are  in  large  measure  the  fruit 
of  devout  meditation  as  well  as  of  study  of  the  mys- 


teries of  religion.  There  is,  however,  no  trace  of 
methodical  meditation  before  the  fifteenth  century. 
Prior  to  that  time,  even  in  monasteries,  no  regulation 
seems  to  have  existed  for  the  choice  or  arrangement 
of  subject,  the  order,  method,  and  time  of  the  con- 
sideration. From  the  beginning,  before  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century,  the  Carthusians  had  times  set 
apart  for  mental  prayer,  as  appears  from  Guigo's 
"Consuetudinary",  but  no  further  regulation. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  one 
of  the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life,  Jean  Mombaer 
of  Brussels,  issued  a  series  of  subjects  or  points  for 
meditation.  The  monastic  rules  generally  prescribed 
times  for  common  prayer,  usually  the  recitation  of 
the  Office,  leaving  it  to  the  individual  to  ponder  as  he 
might  on  one  or  other  of  the  texts.  Early  in  the  six- 
teenth century  the  Dominican  chapter  of  Milan 
prescribed  mental  prayer  for  half  an  hour  morning 
and  evening.  Among  the  Franciscans  there  is  record 
of  methodical  mental  prayer  about  the  middle  of  that 
century.  Among  the  Carmelites  there  was  no  regu- 
lation for  it  until  Saint  Theresa  introduced  it  for 
two  hours  dail\f.  Although  Saint  Ignatius  reduced 
meditation  to  such  a  definite  method  in  his  spiritual 
exercises,  it  was  not  made  part  of  his  rule  until 
thirty  years  after  the  formation  of  the  Society.  His 
method  and  that  of  St.  Sulpice  have  helped  to  spread 
the  habit  of  meditating  beyond  the  cloister  among 
the  faithful  everywhere. 

Methods  of  Meditation. — In  the  method  of  St. 
Ignatius  the  subject  of  the  meditation  is  chosen  before- 
hand, usually  the  previous  e^^ening.  It  may  be  any 
truth  or  fact  whatever  concerning  God  or  the  human 
soul,  God's  existence.  His  attributes,  such  as  justice, 
mercy,  love,  wisdom.  His  law,  providence,  revelation, 
creation  and  its  purpose,  sin  and  its  penalties,  death, 
judgment,  hell,  redemption,  etc.  The  precise  aspect 
of  the  subject  should  be  determined  very  definitely, 
otherwise  its  consideration  will  be  general  or  super- 
ficial and  of  no  practical  benefit.  As  far  as  possible 
its  application  to  one's  spiritual  needs  should  be  fore- 
seen, and  to  work  up  interest  in  it,  as  one  retires  and 
rises,  one  should  recall  it  to  mind  so  as  to  make  it  a 
sleeping  and  a  waking  thought.  AA'hen  ready  for 
meditation,  a  few  moments  should  be  given  to  recol- 
lecting what  we  are  about  to  do  so  as  to  begin  with 
quiet  of  mind  and  deeply  impressed  with  the  sacred- 
ness  of  prayer.  A  brief  act  of  adoration  of  God 
naturally  follows,  with  a  petition  that  our  intention 
to  honour  Him  in  prayer  may  be  sincere  and  persever- 
ing, and  that  every  faculty  and  act,  interior  and  ex- 
terior, may  contribute  to  His  service  and  praise.  The 
subject  of  the  meditation  is  then  recalled  to  mind,  and 
in  order  to  fix  the  attention,  the  imagination  is  here 
employed  to  construct  some  scene  appropriate  to  the 
subject,  e.  g.  the  Garden  of  Paradise,  if  the  medita- 
tion be  on  Creation,  or  the  Fall  of  Man;  the  Valley  of 
Jehosaphat,  for  the  Last  Judgment;  or,  for  Hell,  the 
bottomless  and  boundless  pit  of  fire.  This  is  called  the 
composition  of  place,  and  c\'en  when  the  subject  of 
meditation  has  no  apparent  material  associations,  the 
imagination  can  always  devise  some  scene  or  sensible 
image  that  will  help  to  fix  or  recall  one's  attention  and 
appreciate  the  spiritual  matter  under  consideration. 
Thus,  when  considering  sin,  especially  carnal  sin,  as 
enslaving  the  soul,  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  ix,  15,  sug- 
gests the  similarity  of  the  body  to  the  prison  house  of 
the  soul:  "The  corruptible  body  is  a  load  upon  the 
soul,  and  the  earthly  habitation  presseth  down  the 
mind  that  museth  upon  many  things." 

Quite  often  this  initial  step,  or  prelude  as  it  is 
called,  might  occupy  one  profitably  the  entire  time 
set  apart  for  meditation;  but  ordinarily  it  should  be 
made  in  a  few  minutes.  A  brief  petition  follows  for  the 
special  grace  one  hopes  to  obtain  and  then  the  medita- 
tion proper  begins.  The  memory  recalls  the  subject 
as  definitely  as  possible,  one  point  at  a  time,  repeating 


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it  over  if  necessary,  always  as  a  matter  of  intimate 
personal  interest,  and  with  a  strong  act  of  faith  until 
the  intellect  naturally  apprehends  the  truth  or  the 
import  of  the  fact  under  consideration,  and  begins  to 
conceive  it  as  a  matter  for  careful  consideration, 
reasoning  about  it  and  studying  what  it  implies  for 
one's  welfare.  Gradually  an  intense  interest  is 
aroused  in  these  reflections,  until,  with  faith  quicken- 
ing the  natural  intelligence,  one  begins  to  perceive 
applications  of  the  truth  or  fact  to  one's  condition 
and  needs  and  to  feel  the  advantage  or  necessity  of 
acting  upon  the  conclusions  drawn  from  one's  reflec- 
tions. This  is  the  important  moment  of  meditation. 
The  conviction  that  we  need  or  should  do  something 
in  accordance  with  our  consideration  begets  in  us 
desires  or  resolutions  which  we  long  to  accomplish. 
If  we  arc  serious  we  shall  admit  of  no  self-deception 
either  as  to  the  propriety  or  possibility  of  such  resolu- 
tions on  our  part.  No  matter  what  it  may  cost  us 
to  be  consistent,  we  shall  adopt  them,  and  the  more 
we  appreciate  their  difficulty  and  our  own  weakness 
or  incapacity,  the  more  we  shall  try  to  value  the 
motives  which  prompt  us  to  adopt  them,  and  above 
all  the  more  we  shall  pray  for  grace  to  be  able  to 
carry  them  out. 

If  we  are  in  earnest  we  shall  not  be  satisfied  with 
a  superficial  process.  In  the  light  of  the  truth  we  are 
meditating,  our  past  experience  will  come  to  mind 
and  confront  us  perhaps  with  memory  of  failure  in 
previous  attempts  similar  to  those  we  are  considering 
now,  or  at  least  with  a  keen  sense  of  the  difficulty  to 
be  apprehended,  making  us  more  solicitous  about  the 
motives  animating  us  and  humble  in  petitioning  God's 
grace.  These  petitions,  as  well  as  all  the  various 
emotions  that  arise  from  our  reflections,  find  expression 
in  terms  of  prayer  to  God  which  are  called  colloquies, 
or  conversations  with  Him.  They  may  occur  at 
any  point  in  the  process,  whenever  our  thoughts  in- 
spire us  to  call  upon  God  for  our  needs,  or  even  for 
light  to  perceive  and  appreciate  them  and  to  know  the 
means  of  obtaining  them.  This  general  process  is 
subject  to  variations  according  to  the  character  of 
the  matter  under  consideration.  The  number  of 
preludes  and  colloquies  may  vary,  and  the  time  spent 
in  reasoning  may  be  greater  or  less  according  to  our 
familiarity  with  the  subject.  There  is  nothing  me- 
chanical In  the  process;  indeed,  if  analysed,  it  is 
clearly  the  natural  operation  of  each  faculty  and  of  all 
in  concert.  Roothaan,  who  has  prepared  the  best 
summary  of  it,  recommends  a  remote  preparation  for 
it,  so  as  to  know  whether  we  are  properly  disposed  to 
enter  into  meditation,  and,  after  each  exercise,  a  brief 
review  of  each  part  of  it  in  detail  to  see  how  far  we 
may  have  succeeded.  It  is  also  strongly  advised  to 
select  as  a  means  of  recalling  the  leading  thought  or 
motive  or  affection  some  brief  memorandum,  prefer- 
ably couched  in  the  words  of  some  text  of  Scrip- 
ture, the  "Imitation  of  Christ",  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  or  of  some  accredited  writer  on  spiritual 
things.  Meditation  made  regularly  according  to  this 
method  tends  to  create  an  atmosphere  or  spirit  of 
prayer. 

The  method  in  vogue  among  the  Sulpicians  and 
followed  by  the  students  in  their  seminaries  is  not 
substantially  different  from  this.  According  to 
Chenart,  companion  of  Olier  and  for  a  long  time 
director  of  the  S<'minary  of  St.  Sulpice,  the  medita- 
tion should  consist  of  three  parts:  the  preparation, 
the  prayer  proper,  and  the  conclusion.  By  way  of 
preparation  we  should  begin  with  acts  of  adoration 
of  Almighty  God,  of  self-humihation,  and  with  fervent 
petition  to  be  directed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  in  our 
prayer  to  know  how  to  make  it  well  and  obtain  its 
fruits.  The  prayer  proper  consists  of  considerations 
and  the  spiritual  emotions  or  affections  that  result 
from  such  considerations.  Whatever  the  subject  of 
the  meditation  may  be,  it  should  be  considered  as  it 


may  have  been  exemplified  in  the  life  of  Christ,  in 
itself,  and  in  its  practical  importance  for  ourselves. 
The  simpler  these  considerations  are  the  better.  A 
long  or  intricate  course  of  reasoning  is  not  at  all  desir- 
able. When  some  reasoning  is  needed,  it  should  be 
simple  and  always  in  the  light  of  faith.  Speculation, 
subtlety,  curiosity  are  all  out  of  place.  Plain,  prac- 
tical reflections,  always  with  an  eye  to  self-examina- 
tion, in  order  to  see  how  well  or  ill  our  conduct  con- 
forms to  the  conclusions  we  derive  from  such  reflec- 
tions, are  by  all  means  to  be  sought.  The  affections 
are  the  main  object  of  the  meditation.  These  are  to 
have  charity  as  their  aim  and  norm.  They  should  be 
few,  if  possible,  one  only  of  such  simplicity  and  inten- 
sity that  it  can  inspire  the  soul  to  act  on  the  conclu- 
sion derived  from  the  consideration  and  resolve  to  do 
something  definite  in  the  service  of  God.  To  seek  too 
many  affections  only  distracts  or  dissipates  the  atten- 
tion of  the  mind  and  weakens  the  resolution  of  the 
will.  If  it  be  difficult  to  limit  the  emotions  to  one, 
it  is  not  well  to  make  much  effort  to  do  so,  but  better 
to  devote  our  energies  to  deriving  the  best  fruit  we 
can  from  such  as  arise  naturally  and  with  ease  from 
our  mental  reflections.  As  a  means  of  keeping  in  mind 
during  the  day  the  uppermost  thought  or  motive  of  the 
meditation  we  are  advised  to  cull  a  spiritual  nosegay, 
as  it  is  quaintly  called,  with  which  to  refresh  the  memory 
from  time  to  time. 

Meditation  carefully  followed  forms  habits  of 
recalling  and  reasoning  rapidly  and  with  some  ease 
about  Divine  things  in  such  a  manner  as  to  excite 
pious  affections,  which  become  very  ardent  and  which 
attach  us  very  strongly  to  God's  will.  When  prayer  is 
made  up  chiefly  of  such  affections,  it  is  called  by  Alvarez 
de  Paz,  and  other  writers  since  his  time,  affective 
prayer,  to  denote  that  instead  of  having  to  labour  men- 
tally to  admit  or  grasp  a  truth,  we  have  grown  so  famil- 
iar with  it  that  almost  the  mere  recollection  of  it  fills 
us  with  sentiments  of  faith,  hope,  charity ;  moves  us  to 
practise  more  generously  one  or  other  of  the  moral 
virtues;  inspires  us  to  make  some  act  of  self-sacrifice 
or  to  attempt  some  work  for  the  glory  of  God.  When 
these  affections  become  more  simple,  that  is,  less 
numerous,  less  varied,  and  less  interrupted  or  im- 
peded by  reasoning  or  mental  attempts  to  find  ex- 
pression either  for  considerations  or  affections,  they 
constitute  what  is  called  the  prayer  of  simplicity  by 
Bossuet  and  those  who  follow  his  terminology,  of 
simple  attention  to  one  dominant  thought  or  Divine 
object  without  reasoning  on  it,  but  simply  letting  it 
recur  at  intervals  to  renew  or  strengthen  the  senti- 
ments which  keep  the  soul  united  to  God. 

These  degrees  of  prayer  are  denoted  by  various 
terms  by  writers  on  spiritual  subjects,  the  prayer  of 
the  heart,  active  recollection,  and  by  the  paradoxical 
phrases,  active  repose,  active  quietude,  active 
silence,  as  opposed  to  similar  passive  states;  St. 
Francis  de  Sales  called  it  the  prayer  of  simple  com- 
mittal to  God,  not  in  the  sense  of  doing  nothing  or 
of  remaining  inert  in  His  sight,  but  doing  all  we  can 
to  control  our  own  restless  and  aberrant  faculties 
so  as  to  keep  them  disposed  for  His  action.  By  what- 
ever name  these  degrees  of  prayer  may  be  called,  it 
is  important  not  to  confuse  them  with  any  of  the 
modes  of  Quietism  (see  Guyon,  Molinos,  Quiet- 
ism), as  also  not  to  exaggerate  their  importance,  as 
if  they  were  absolutely  different  from  vocal  prayers 
and  meditation,  since  they  are  only  degrees  of  or- 
dinary prayer.  With  more  than  usual  attention  to 
the  sentiment  of  a  set  form  of  prayer  meditation 
begins;  the  practice  of  meditation  develops  a  habit 
of  centring  our  affections  on  Divine  things;  as  this 
habit  is  cultivated,  distractions  are  more  easily 
avoided,  even  such  as  arise  from  our  own  varied  and 
complex  thoughts  or  emotions,  until  God  or  any 
truth  or  fact  relating  to  Him  becomes  the  simple 
object  of  our  undisturbed  attention,  and  this  atten- 


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350 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


tion  is  held  steadfast  by  the  firm  and  ardent  affection 
it  excites.  St.  Ignatius  and  other  masters  in  the  art 
of  prayer  have  provided  suggestions  for  passing  from 
meditation  proper  to  these  further  degrees  of  prayer. 
In  the  "  Spiritual  Exercises  "  the  repetition  of  previous 
meditations  consists  in  affective  prayer,  and  the  ex- 
ercises of  the  second  week,  the  contemplations  of 
the  life  of  Christ,  are  virtually  the  same  as  the  prayer 
of  simplicity,  which  is  in  its  last  analysis  the  same 
as  the  ordinary  practice  of  contemplation.  Other 
modes  of  prayer  are  described  under  Contempla- 
tion; Quiet,  Prayer  of. 

The  classification  of  private  and  public  prayer  is 
made  to  denote  distinction  between  the  prayer  of  the 
individual,  whether  in  or  out  of  the  presence  of  others, 
for  his  or  for  others'  needs,  and  all  prayer  offered 
officially  or  liturgically  whether  in  public  or  in  secret, 
as  when  a  priest  recites  the  Divine  Office  outside  of 
choir.  All  the  liturgical  prayers  of  the  Church  are 
public,  as  are  all  the  prayers  which  one  in  sacred 
orders  offers  in  his  ministerial  capacity.  These 
public  prayers  are  usually  offered  in  places  set  apart 
for  this  purpose,  in  churches  or  chapels,  just  as  in 
the  Old  Law  they  were  offered  in  the  Temple  and  in 
the  synagogue.  Special  times  are  appointed  for 
them:  the  hours  for  the  various  parts  of  the  daily 
Office,  days  of  rogation  or  of  vigil,  seasons  of  Advent 
and  Lent;  and  occasions  of  special  need,  affliction, 
thanksgiving,  jubilee,  on  the  part  of  all,  or  of  large 
numbers  of  the  faithful.    (See  Union  of  Prayer.) 

St.  Thomas,  II-II,  Q.  Ixxxv;  Suarez,  De  oratione,  I,  in  De 
religione,  IV;  Pesch,  Pr(Blectiones  dogmatics,  IX  (Freiburg, 
1902) :  St.  Bernard,  Scala  claustralium,  attributed  to  St.  Au- 
gustine under  the  title  of  Scala  paradisi  in  volume  IX  among  his 
works;  RoOTHAAN,  The  Method  of  Meditation  (New  York,  1858); 
LETOtJRr^E ATJ,  Mt'ihode  d'oraison  mentale  du  setnirmire  de  St- 
Sulpice  (Paris,  1903) ;  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  tr. 
Donovan  (Dublin,  s.  d.);  Poulain,  The  Graces  of  Interior  Prayer 
(St.  Louis,  1911);  Causade,  Progress  in  Prayer,  tr.  Shbehan 
(St.  Louis) ;  Fisher,  A  Treatise  on  Prayer  (London,  1885) ;  Egger, 
Are  Our  Prayers  Heard?  (London,  1910);  St.  FRANCia  DE  Sales, 
Treatise  of  the  Love  of  God  (tr.  London,  1884);  St.  Peter  op 
AlcA-NTARA,  a  Golden  Treatise  on  Mental  Prayer  (tr.  Oxford, 
1906);  Faber,  Growth  in  Holiness  (London,  1854).  Among  the 
many  books  of  meditation,  the  following  may  be  mentioned: 
AVANCINI,  Vita  et  doctrina  Jesu  Christi  ex  quatuor  etiangeliis 
coUectae  (Paris,  1850) ;  DE  Ponte,  Meditationes  de  preecipuis  fidei 
nostrx  mysteriis  (St.  Louis,  1908-10),  tr..  Meditations  on  the 
Mysteries  of  Holy  Faith  (London,  1854) ;  Granada,  Medita- 
tions aTid  Contemplations  (New  York,  1879) ;  Lancicius,  Pious 
Affections  towards  God  and  the  Saints  (London,  1883) ;  .Segneri, 
The  Manna  of  the  Soul  (London,  1892) ;  St.  John  Baptist  de  La 
Salle,  Meditations  for  Sundays  and  Festivals  (New  York,  1882); 
Bellord,  Meditations  (London);  Luck,  Meditations;  Chal- 
loner,  Considerations  upon  Christian  Truths  and  Christian 
Doctrines  (Philadelphia,  1863);  Clarke,  Meditations  on  the  Life, 
Teaching  and  Passion  of  Jesus  Christ  (New  York,  1901);  Hamon, 
Meditations  for  all  the  Days  in  the  Year  (New  York,  1894) ;  M^- 
DAiLLE,  Meditations  on  the  Gospels,  tr.  Etre  (New  York,  1907); 
Newman,  Meditations  and  Devotions  (New  Y''ork,  1893);  Wise- 
man, Daily  Meditations  (Dublin,  1868);  Vercruysse,  Practical 
Meditations   (London). 

John  J.  Wynne. 

Prayer-Booka. — -By  "prayer-books"  usage  gen- 
erally understands  a  collection  of  forms  of  prayer 
intended  for  private  devotion,  and  in  so  far  distinct 
from  the  "service  books"  which  contain  the  liturgical 
formularies  used  in  public  worship.  In  the  Church 
of  England,  of  course,  the  official  liturgy  is  entitled 
"The  Book  of  Common  Prayer"  or  more  compen- 
diously the  "Prayer  Book",  but  this  is  an  exception. 
Of  prayer-books  in  the  sense  defined,  the  early  Chris- 
tian centuries  have  left  us  no  specimen,  neither  can 
we  be  certain  that  any  such  existed.  The  work  some- 
times known  as  "Bishop  Serapion's  Prayer-book" 
(Eng.  tr.  by  J.  Wordsworth,  1899)  and  compiled 
probably  by  an  Egyptian  bishop  of  that  name  in 
the  fourth  century  should  rather  be  described  as  a 
Pontifical  or  Euchologium  than  as  a  prayer-book,  and 
was  certainly  not  intended  for  private  devotion.  On 
the  other  hanrl  we  do  find  traces  of  isolated  composi- 
tions, sometimes  in  prose,  sometimes  in  a  metrical 
form  which  entitles  them  perhaps  to  be  regarded 
rather  as  hymns,  which  in  all  probability  were  not 


meant  to  be  used  in  church,  and  there  is  nothing  in 
the  nature  of  things  which  could  render  it  improbable 
that  individuals  may  have  copied  these  and  other 
more  liturgical  prayers  into  a  volume  as  an  aid  to 
piety.  Thus  one  or  two  prayers  or  hymns  of  the 
third  or  fourth  century  have  been  recovered  from 
buried  papyri  (see  Wessely,  "Les  plus  anciens  Monu- 
ments du  Christianisme",  Paris,  1906,  pp.  195  and 
205).  An  ostracon  from  a  Coptic  monastery  at  De 
reli-Bahri  preserves  in  Greek  what  amounts  prac- 
tically to  a  sixth-century  equivalent  of  the  Hail  Mary, 
though  this  may  be  liturgical  (see  Crum,  "Coptic 
Ostraca",  1902,  p.  3),  while  two  long  prayers  formerly 
attributed  to  St.  Cyprian,  but  probably  of  the  fifth, 
century,  are  especially  worthy  of  remark  on  account 
of  the  light  they  throw  upon  certain  early  develop- 
ments of  Christian  art  (see  K.  Michel,  "Gebet  und 
Bild  in  fruhchristhcher  Zeit",  1902,  pp.  3-7).  But 
on  the  whole  the  Christians  in  the  first  centuries 
probably  found  that  the  Psalms  sufficed  for  the  needs 
of  private  as  well  as  public  devotion  (cf.  Cassian, 
"De  coenob.  inst.",  II,  v,  P.  L.,  XLIX,  34;  Euse- 
bius,  "In  Psalm."  in  P.  G.,  XXIII,  647),  and  the 
fact  is  significant  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
surviving  books  of  piety  belonging  to  the  early 
Middle  Ages  which  were  copied  for  private  use  are 
simply  psalters,  to  which  devotional  supplements  of 
various  kinds,  for  example  the  litanies,  the  Gloria, 
Credo,  Athanasian  Creed  etc.,  were  added  with  in- 
creasing frequency. 

Some  few  of  these  psalter  prayer-books  have  been 
happily  preserved  to  us,  probably  on  account  of  their 
illuminations,  ornamentation,  or  binding,  while  the 
plainer  copies  belonging  to  less  exalted  owners  have 
entirely  perished.  The  psalter  of  the  Emperor 
Lothair  (c.  845)  is  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  famous 
of  these,  but  there  is  also  a  similar  manuscript  which 
belonged  to  Charles  the  Bald  now  preserved  at 
Paris  and  two  very  fine  psalters  of  St.  Gall,  one  of 
them  known  as  the  "psalterium  aureum",  the  work 
of  the  famous  scribe  Sindram  and  belonging  to  the 
beginning  of  the  tenth  century.  Similar  books  of 
devotion  are  to  be  found  in  English  libraries.  The 
ancient  psalter  in  the  British  Museum  (Cotton 
M.S.  Vespas.,  A.  1),  formerly  supposed  to  be  one  of 
the  books  brought  by  St.  Augustine  from  Rome  but 
really  written  in  England  about  700,  is  probably  to 
be  accounted  liturgical.  It  is  not  a  manual  for  private 
devotion,  although  in  the  eleventh  century  a  number 
of  non-liturgical  prayers  were  added  to  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  volume  in  the  same  collection,  known 
as  King  Athelstan's  psalter  (ninth  century),  seems  to 
have  been  intended  for  a  prayer-book,  being  small  in 
size  and  supplemented  with  a  number  of  prayers  in  a 
later  but  tenth-century  script.  And  here  be  it  said 
that  down  to  the  time  of  the  invention  of  printing, 
the  Psalter,  or  at  least  a  volume  containing  psalms 
and  portions  of  the  Office  with  a  supplement  of  mis- 
cellaneous prayers,  remained  the  type  of  the  devo- 
tional manuals  most  favoured  by  the  laity.  After 
King  Alfred,  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen  (861), 
as  Asser  tells  us,  had  learned  to  read,  "he  carried 
about  with  him  everywhere,  as  we  ourselves  have 
often  seen,  the  daily  Office  (cvrsum  diurnum),  that 
is,  the  celebrations  of  the  hours  {celehrationes  horarum), 
and  next  certain  psalms  and  a  number  of  prayers, 
all  collected  into  one  book  which  he  kept  as  an  in- 
separable companion  in  his  bosom  to  help  him  to 
pray  amid  all  the  contingencies  of  life".  Similarly 
we  read  in  the  life  of  St.  Wenceslaus  (tenth  century) 
of  the  dog-eared  prayer-book  (codicellum  manuale 
frequentia  rugosum)  which  he  carried  about  with  him 
while  he  continuously  recited  the  Psalms  and  other 
prayers.  These  descriptions  seem  to  apply  accurately 
enouijh  to  a  number  of  devotional  manuals  still 
surviving  in  manuscript,  though  often  enough  the 
whole  Psalter  was  transcribed  and  not  merely  select 


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FACSIMILE  OF  TWO  PAGES  IN  LIVRE  D'HEURES  PRINTED  ON  VELLUM  BY 
THIELMAN  KERVER,  PARIS,  1528 

THE  MINIATURE  ON  THE  LEFT  SHOWS  DAVID  LEAVING  THE  CROWN  TO  SOLOMON:  BELOW 

THE  PICTURE  ARE  FOUR  LINES  OF  FRENCH  VERSE.   ON  THE  OPPOSITE  PAGE 

IS  PRINTED  ONE  OF  THE  SEVEN  PENITENTIAL  PSALMS 

NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  LIBRARY 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


351 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


portions  of  the  Office.  Many  of  those  thus  pre- 
served must  have  been  intended  for  the  use  of  great 
personages  and,  like  the  famous  "Utrecht  Psalter", 
for  example,  in  the  ninth  century,  or  the  psalter  of 
Archbishop  Egbert  of  Trier  (d.  993),  were  elaborately 
illustrated,  and,  as  in  the  last  case  at  least,  very 
considerably  enlarged  by  devotional  additions.  At 
least  five  psalters  of  this  kind  are  still  in  existence, 
which  seem  to  have  belonged  to  St.  Louis  of  France, 
more  than  one  of  them  being  clearly  of  English 
workmanship,  which  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  was  very  famous.  One  of  these,  now  pre- 
served at  Leyden,  was  used  by  the  saint  in  his  boy- 
hood as  an  elementary  reading-book,  a  fact  which 
brings  us  very  near  the  origin  of  the  English  name 
"primer"  Moreover,  to  pass  from  the  complete 
book  of  psalms  to  a  collection  of  offices,  of  which  the 
principal  was  the  Little  Office  of  Our  Lady,  was  the 
most  natural  of  transitions,  and  we  thus  arrive  at 
the  manual  which  is  universally  recognized  as  being 
the  great  prayer-book  of  the  laity  during  the  close  of 
the  ^liddle  Ages  (see  Primer,  The). 

The  psalter  type,  however,  was  not  the  only  form 
of  manual  of  private  devotions  which  existed  in  the 
Carlovingian  period.  Several  collections  of  mis- 
cellaneous prayers,  often  with  extracts  from  the 
Gospels  and  more  especially  the  Passion  according 
to  the  four  Evangelists,  still  survive  from  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centm-ies.  The  codex  known  as  "the 
Book  of  Cerne",  written  apparently  for  Bishop 
^Edeluald  of  Lichfield  (818-30)  and  now  preserved 
in  the  University  Library,  Cambridge,  is  one  of  the 
most  famous  of  these,  and  ithas  recently  been  rendered 
accessible,  with  valuable  notes  by  Mr.  Edmund 
Bishop,  in  the  edition  of  Dom  Kuypers  (Cambridge, 
1902).  The  traces  of  Celtic  influences  and,  as  Mr. 
Bishop  points  out,  of  "Spanish  symptoms",  are  very 
marked  in  this  book,  but  it  is  difficult  not  to  admit 
that  such  a  prayer  as  the  "Lorica"  (breastplate), 
which,  while  resembling  that  attributed  to  St.  Patrick, 
is  different  from  it  and  ascribed  to  a  certain  Loding, 
partakes  in  some  respects  of  the  nature  of  an  in- 
cantation. There  are  also  in  the  "Book  of  Cerne" 
and  some  similar  collections  forms  of  general  accusa- 
tion for  confession,  embracing  almost  every  imagi- 
nable crime,  which  were  probably  intended  to  help 
the  penitent,  much  as  a  modern  examination  of  con- 
science might  do.  Closely  resembhng  the  "Book  of 
Cerne"  is  the  eighth-century  Book  of  Nunnaminster 
(MS.  Harl.  2965).  This  also  contains  the  Passion 
according  to  the  four  Evangelists  and  a  miscellaneous 
collection  of  non-liturgical  prayers  (many  of  them  con- 
nected with  the  Passion  of  Christ),  and  also  the 
"Lorica"  of  Loding.  Irish  and  Galhcan  charac- 
teristics are  much  in  evidence,  in  spite  of  the  book 
coming  from  Winchester.  This  is  still  more  the  case 
with  Harl.  MS.  7053,  a  fragmentary  "book  of  private 
devotions  written  by  an  Irish  lady  probably  a  nun", 
and  with  MS.  Reg.  2,  A.  XX.,  compiled  probably  at 
Lindisfarne  in  the  eighth  century.  In  all  of  them, 
despite  much  genuine  piety,  there  is  a  pronounced 
tendency  to  fall  occasionally  to  the  level  of  magical 
incantations  and  spells.  Even  on  the  Continent  these 
collections  of  prayers  for  private  use  were  apt  to 
wear  an  Irish  colouring,  as,  for  example,  may  be 
observed  in  the  tenth-century  "Libellus  Precum 
of  Fleury  (printed  by  Martfine,  "De  antiq.  ecc. 
ritibus".  III,  234),  though  prayers  extracted  from 
the  Fathers,  e.  g.  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Ephrani, 
predominated.  Alcuin  in  his  "De  Psalmorum  Usu 
and  "Officia  per  Ferias"(P.  L.,  CI,  465-612)  also  made 
similar  collections.  His  arrangement  of  such^  de- 
votions according  to  days  of  the  week  was  especially 
noteworthy,  since  it  was  conspicuously  revived  by 
Simon  Verepaeus  and  other  prayer-book  compilers 
of  the  sixth  century.  ,       j-        ■  .  j 

The  affection  for  the  Psalms,  even  when  dissociated 


from  any  form  of  Office,  was  always  a  conspicuous 
feature  in  the  early  devotional  books  of  the  laity; 
see,  for  example,  the  "Liber  Orationum"  of  Charles 
the  Bald  (ninth  century,  edited  at  Ingolstadt,  1583), 
in  which,  after  the  example  of  Alcuin,  selections  of  the 
Psalms  are  made  for  various  spiritual  needs,  e.  g. 
"Psalmi  pro  tribulatione  et  tentatione  carnis",  "Pro 
gratiarum  actione",  etc.  When,  however,  some  few 
centuries  later,  it  had  become  the  custom  in  most 
of  the  monastic  orders  to  supplement  the  Divine 
Office  with  various  "cursus"  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
of  All  Saints,  of  the  Holy  Cross,  etc.,  these  excres- 
cences upon  the  official  prayer  of  the  Church  acquired 
great  popularity  with  the  laity  also,  and  in  the  long 
run  it  seems  to  have  been  felt  that  the  psalms  in- 
cluded in  these  little  offices,  with  the  Gradual  and 
Penitential  Psalms,  sufficed  for  the  needs  of  the  ordi- 
nary layman.  Hence  the  "Book  of  Hours",  or 
"Primer"  (q.  v.),  as  it  was  called  in  England,  gradu- 
ally replaced  the  Psalter  in  popular  use.  At  the 
same  time  an  immense  variety  of  prayers  came  to  be 
added  to  the  Office  of  Our  Lady,  which  formed  the 
kernel  of  these  "  Horse  ",  so  that  hardly  any  two  manu- 
script copies  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries 
are  identical  in  their  contents.  In  the  case  of 
books  written  for  the  devotion  of  royal  and  noble 
personages,  the  most  exquisite  artistic  skill  was  often 
lavished  upon  the  illuminations  and  miniatures  with 
which  they  were  adorned.  Be  it  noted  also  that  in 
course  of  time  a  certain  traditional  order  of  subjects 
established  itself  in  the  full-page  miniatures  which 
commonly  preceded  each  of  the  Little  Hours,  the 
Penitential  Psalms,  the  Office  for  the  Dead,  and  the 
other  elements  of  which  these  Books  of  Hours  were 
made  up,  but  to  give  details  would  be  impossible 
here.  A  brief  description  of  some  of  the  most  famous 
of  these  artistic  treasures,  e.  g.  the  "Horse"  of  Bona 
of  Luxemburg  (1327)  and  that  of  Catherine  of  Cleves, 
wife  of  Duke  Arnold  of  Gelders,  is  given  by  Father 
Beissel  in  the  "Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach"  (Aug., 
1909)  and  a  more  general  account  by  Dr.  M.  R.  James 
in  his  catalogue  of  the  MSS.  of  the  FitzwiUiam 
Museum  (especially  pp.  xxv-xxxviii) . 

Upon  the  introduction  of  printing  an  immense 
stimulus  was  given  to  the  production  of  manuals  of 
popular  devotion.  Apart  from  a  relatively  quite 
small  and  unimportant  class  of  booklets  (the  "Fifteen 
O's"  in  English,  "printed  by  command  of  Princess 
Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England",  at  Caxton's  press  in 
1490,  may  be  cited  in  illustration),  the  books  issued 
from  1475  to  about  1530,  though  the  names  differed, 
varied  hardly  at  all  in  type.  In  France  and  England 
the  "Horse"  held  undisputed  sway.  As  explained 
in  the  article  Primer,  certain  elements  were  constant, 
and  the  supplementary  matter  exhibited  a  constant 
tendency  to  increase  in  bulk  and  we  may  add  also  in 
extravagance.  In  Germany  the  book  known  as  the 
"Hortulus  Animse"  (the  little  garden  of  the  soul), 
which  seems  first  to  have  appeared  in  1498,  enjoyed 
most  popularity.  But  though  the  "Horse"  and  the 
"Hortulus"  were  apt  to  differ  somewhat  in  arrange- 
ment, their  contents  in  substance  were  identical,  and, 
more  particularly  after  the  "Hortulus"  was  brought 
out  at  Lyons  in  1504,  the  various  publishers  of  the 
one  book  made  no  scruple  about  appropriating  any 
feature  in  the  other  which  took  their  fancy.  Both 
in  the  "Horse"  and  the  "Hortulus"  we  find,  at  any 
rate  in  the  later  copies,  almost  without  exception, 
after  the  Calendar,  the  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
extracts  from  the  four  Gospels  (either  the  beginnings 
or  the  narratives  of  the  Passion),  the  Penitential 
Psalms,  the  Litany  of  the  Saints,  a  long  series  of 
prayers  to  the  Holy  Trinity  and  the  Divine  Persons, 
to  Our  Lady  and  to  different  saints,  mostly  with  an 
antiphon,  versicle,  and  respond  taken  from  liturgical 
books,  also  prayers  for  the  principal  feasts  borrowed 
from  the  Missal,  and  particularly  the  Office  for  the 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


352 


PRATER-BOOES 


Dead  and  prayera  for  the  dying.  Both  the  "Horse'' 
and  the  "Hortulus"  appeared  in  innumerable  edi- 
tions. Even  as  early  as  the  period  1487  to  1498 
more  than  sixty-five  editions  of  the  different  "Horee" 
are  known  to  have  been  printed  in  France  alone. 
For  the  adornment  of  these  volumes,  which  were  often 
printed  upon  vellum,  the  best  art  of  the  wood  en- 
graver was  called  into  requisition.  The  editions  of 
the  " Horse"  by  Du  Pr6,  V6rard,  Pigouohet,  and 
Geoffrey  Tory,  especially  those  produced  between 
liSS  and  1502,  may  rank  among  the  most  beautiful 
specimens  of  the  printing  press  in  the  first  hundred 
years  of  its  existence,  while  the  German  cuts  of  the 
engravers  Schaufelein  and  Springinklee  have  also 
a  charm  of  their  own.  It  was  also  a  common  prac- 
tice to  employ  hand  illumination  to  add  further 
lustre  to  many  of  the  copies  printed  upon  vellum. 
In  regard  to  the  contents,  the  devotional  extrava- 
gance of  the  age  and  the  competition  between  pub- 
lisher and  publisher  to  push  their  wares  and  attract 
purchasers  led  to  many  regrettable  abuses.  Spuri- 
ous indulgences  and  fantastic  promises  of  all  kinds 
abound,  and  even  prayers  which  in  themselves  are 
full  of  piety  and  absolutely  unobjectionable — for 
example  the  prayers  in  honour  of  the  Passion  pre- 
viously referred  to,  which  were  attributed  to  St. 
Bridget  and  were  known  in  England  as  the  "Fifteen 
O's" — are  not  exempt  from  these  disfigurements.  A 
deplorable  example  of  such  extravagance  is  presented 
by  a  Sarum  "Horse"  of  Thielman  Kerver  printed  at 
Paris  in  1.510,  in  which  we  find  such  assertions  as  the 
following:  "Alexander  the  VI  pope  of  Rome  hath 
granted  to  all  them  that  say  this  prayer  devoutly 
in  the  worship  of  St.  Anne  and  Our  Lady  and  her 
Son  Jesus  V  thousand  years  of  pardon  for  deadly 
sins  and  XX  years  for  venial  sins  totiens  quotiens", 
or  again,  "This  prayer  our  Lady  showed  to  a  devout 
person,  saying  that  this  golden  prayer  is  the  most 
sweetest  and  acceptablest  to  me,  and  in  her  appear- 
ing she  had  this  salutation  and  prayer  written  with 
letters  of  gold  on  her  breast"  (Hoskins,  "Horse", 
124-.5).  Again,  for  a  certain  prayer  to  be  said  before 
a  picture  of  Christ  crucified.  Pope  Gregory  III  (!) 
is  declared  to  have  granted  an  indulgence  of  so  many 
days  as  there  were  wounds  in  our  Saviour's  sacred 
Body.  In  another  supposed  grant  of  Boniface  VIII 
an  indulgence  of  eighty  thousand  years  is  mentioned. 
In  the  case  of  other  devotions  again  the  pious  reader 
is  assured  that  if  he  practise  them  he  shall  not  die 
without  confession,  that  Our  Lady  and  her  Divine 
Son  will  come  to  warn  him  before  his  death,  etc. 
Of  course  it  must  be  remembered  that,  practically 
speaking,  no  censorship  existed  in  the  early  years  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  Congregation  of  the 
Index  did  not  come  into  existence  until  after  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Hence  the  booksellers  in  pre- 
"Tridentine  days  were  free  to  publish  almost  any  ex- 
travagance which  might  help  to  sell  their  wares. 
After  Trent  things  in  this  respect  were  very  different. 
Besides  the  "Horse"  and  the  "Hortuli"  a  few  col- 
lections of  private  prayers,  generally  connected  with 
some  special  subject,  also  saw  the  light  before  Refor- 
mation times.  There  were  books  on  the  art  of  how 
to  die  well,  books  on  the  Rosary  copiously  inter- 
spersed with  meditations  and  prayers  (of  these  the 
volumes  of  the  Dominican  Castillo,  with  a  picture  for 
each  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty  Hail  Marys,  is 
perhaps  the  best  l%:nown),  books  on  various  forms  of 
devotion  to  the  Passion,  for  example,  the  seven 
Blooilsheddings  and  the  seven  Falls — spiritual  pil- 
grimages which  eventually  took  a,  more  permanent 
shape  in  the  exercise  of  the  Stations  of  the  Cross.  A 
more  important  work,  issued  about  1498,  was  the  col- 
lection of  prayers  called  "Paradisus  .-VnimEe".  In 
England  there  is  e\'idence  that  the  devotion  long  dear 
to  the  English  Catholics'  forefathers  in  the  days  of  per- 
secution under  the  name  of  "The  Jesus  Psalter"  was 


printed  and  sold  separately  as  early  as  1520,  though 
no  copy  is  now  known  to  survive.  The  author  of 
this  most  touching  prayer  is  believed  to  have  been 
Richard  Whitford,  the  Brigittine  monk  who  loved 
to  call  himself  "the  Wretch  of  Sion"  He  has  also 
left  a  spiritual  little  volume  compiled  for  the  use  of 
communicants,  and  has  been  sometimes  named  as 
the  true  author  of  "The  Fruyte  of  Redemcyon", 
a  collection  of  prayers  which  professes  to  have  been 
composed  by  "Simon  the  Anker  [Anchoret]  of  Lon- 
don Wall"  But  this  last  work  is  a  dull  performance 
and  quite  unworthy  of  Whitford.  In  all  probability 
there  must  have  been  many  more  of  these  devo- 
tional books  than  our  libraries  have  preserved  traces 
of,  for  such  works  when  they  are  not  protected  by 
the  abundance  or  beauty  of  their  illustrations  (as  was 
the  case  with  many  of  the  "Horse")  are  apt  to  dis- 
appear completely  without  leaving  any  trace.  The 
preface  of  an  early  "Reforming"  English  prayer- 
book  (Certeine  Prayers  and  godly  meditacyons,  1538), 
while  speaking  contemptuously  of  this  devotional 
literature,  implies  that  even  in  England  it  was  large 
and  varied.  "These  bokes,  (though  they  abounded 
in  every  place  with  infinite  errours  and  taught  prayers 
made  with  wicked  folysshenesse  both  to  God  and  also 
to  his  sayntes)  yet  by  cause  they  were  garnyshed 
with  glorious  tytles  and  with  redde  letters,  promis- 
inge  moche  grace  and  pardon  (though  it  were  but 
vanyte)  have  sore  deceyved  the  unlerned  multitude. 
One  is  called  the  Garden  of  the  Soule,  another  the 
Paradyse  of  the  Soule,  and  by  cause  I  will  be  short, 
loke  thou  thy  sylfen  whate  dyvers  and  tryfeling 
names  be  gyven  vnto  them." 

We  are  not  concerned  here  with  the  prayer-books 
of  the  Reformers,  but  it  may  be  worth  while  to  notice 
that,  just  as  in  Germany  the  Lutherans  produced  a 
modified  version  of  the  "Hortulus  Animse",  so  in 
England  it  was  the  first  care  of  Henry  VIII  and  his 
vicar-general,  Thomas  Cromwell,  after  the  breach 
with  Rome,  to  bring  out  a  new  set  of  primers  adapted 
to  the  new  condition  of  things.  Indeed  even  in 
1532  Sir  Thomas  More  in  his  "Confutacion  of  Tyn- 
dale's  Answer"  could  write  of  the  devotional  works 
produced  by  heretics:  "And  lest  we  should  lack 
prayers,  we  have  the  Primer  and  the  Ploughman's 
Prayer  and  a  book  of  other  small  devotions  and  then 
the  whole  Psalter  too".  These,  however,  we  can- 
not identify.  Better  known  were  the  emended 
Primers  of  Marshall  and  Hilsey  (1534  and  1538), 
followed  in  1545  by  "The  King's  Primer",  which 
Henry  VIII  supervised  himself.  Of  course  the  great 
bulk  of  this  material  was  entirely  Catholic  and  imi- 
tated in  arrangement  that  of  the  "Horse"  Other 
Primers  appeared  under  Edward  VI  in  1551  (in  this 
the  Hail  Mary  was  for  the  first  time  omitted)  and  1553 
(which  last,  omitting  all  references  to  the  Hours,  is 
simply  a  book  of  private  prayers  for  each  day  of  the 
week  beginning  with  Sunday),  but  under  Elizabeth 
in  1559  the  arrangement  of  the  Hours  was  restored 
and  even  the  Office  for  the  Dead  or  "Dirige"  (see 
Clay,  "Private  Prayers",  Parker  Society).  IBut 
the  transformations  of  these  forms  of  private  de- 
votional books  are  very  intricate,  and  they  were 
alternately  adapted  to  suit  Catholic  and  Protestant 
taste.  For  example,  the  book  called  the  "Pomander 
of  Prayer",  which  was  printed  towards  the  close 
of  Henry  VIII's  reign,  with  a  strong  Protestant 
colouring,  appeared  again  under  Mary  in  a  form  in 
which  it  could  well  be  used  by  Catholics.  One  point 
may  be  noted  as  of  some  importance,  and  it  is :  that 
down  to  the  breach  with  Rome  Latin  predominated, 
even  in  those  books  published  for  the  use  of  the 
laity.  The  Pater,  Ave,  and  Creed,  and  the  Psalms 
were  commonly  said  by  the  people  in  Latin  and  no 
printed  edition  of  the  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  or 
in  other  words  no  entirely  English  Primer,  is  known 
to  have  been  issued  before  1 534 .     But  the  books  of  the 


nbtrtio  Dei  prie  til  an^cfte  fuie  (it  (ui^  me  Umet) 
^  tlbtrtio  tcfii  jp^t  cil  (igefie  fuie  fit  fu^  me  af?t 
icf  to  (etc  matte  cil  ftfto  fuo  fttfup  mc  at1ig|fibt 
fete  ecde(ie  dne  fit  fup  mc  U^fPyitVf  {i  (i  am6ufa 
ucto  I  mebio^tnSu  moxti^  n3  timcOo  mafa  qt?i  tu  mccil 
^^Wt^  ?  ft  (^6ufaueto  f  mebto  tttBufaf  tdte  '^tutftca6t6 
mc  ct  fupcr  t'tati)  tmmtco;u»t)  meoTAi  t^tmXiifki  \n(\wm\ 
tuanj  ct  fafuutt)  mc  fecit  bey  tcta  tua. 


FACSIMILE  OF  A  PAGE  IN  THE  LIVRE  D'HEURES  PRINTED  BY 

PHILIPPE  PIGOUCHET,  PARIS,  GIVING  BENEDICTIONS 

FOR  PRIVATE  DEVOTIONS 

NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  LIBRARY 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


353 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


last  fifteen  years  of  Henry's  reign  accustomed  the 
people  to  pray  in  English,  and  under  Mary  we  have 
printed  Catholic  Primers  both  in  Latin  and  English, 
and  in  English  alone.  It  may  probably  be  said  that 
from  this  time  forth  the  uneducated  laity,  even 
though  Catholics,  prayed  almost  exclusively  in 
English. 

Although  a  similar  change  in  the  direction  of  the 
vernacular,  due  in  large  measure  to  the  same  cause, 
i.  e.  the  influence  of  the  Reformers,  was  taking  place 
in  Germany,  France,  and  the  Netherlands,  still  the 
most  widely  known  and  popular  prayer-books  in- 
troduced in  the  sixteenth  century  made  their  ap- 
pearance first  in  Latin.  The  reforms  initiated  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  took  practical  effect  in  the  Bull  of 
St.  Pius  V,  11  March,  1571,  which  enjoined  a  rigor- 
ous censorship  of  the  "Horae"  and  "Hortuli"  con- 
taining the  DItice  of  the  Blessed  Mrgin,  forbade  the 
extravagant  accretions  and  spurious  indulgences 
often  found  in  these  books,  prescribed  a  uniform 
text  for  the  Office  itself  and  forbade  it  to  be  printed 
in  the  vernacular,  ^\'e  may  suppose  that  this  ac- 
tion, while  occasioning  the  publication  of  revised  and 
corrected  editions  (though  these  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  numerous),  also  occasioned  or  at  least  marked 
a  certain  revulsion  of  feeling  against  the  type  of 
devotional  manual  thus  condemned.  In  any  case 
we  note  the  appearance  at  this  same  period  of  a  num- 
ber of  new  prayer-books,  which  seem  in  several  cases 
to  have  been  designed  to  serve  as  manuals  for  the 
sodalities  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  which  were  now 
springing  up  in  Germany  and  elsewhere  as  one  of 
the  first  fruits  of  the  Counter-Reformation  and  the 
educational  activity  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  With 
this  new  type  of  prayer-book  must  be  connected  in 
the  first  place  the  name  of  Blessed  Peter  Canisius. 
His  activity'  in  this  matter  cannot  be  discussed  in 
detail  (cf.  ''Zeitschrift  f.  kat.  TheoL",  1890,  XIV, 
pp.  727  sq.),  but  we  may  note  that  to  his  widely 
popular,  short  Catechism  a  collection  of  prayers  was 
appended,  that  he  produced  in  1556  his  "Lectiones 
et  precationes  ecclesiasticte "  for  the  use  of  students, 
and  in  1587  his  "Manuale  Catholicorum "  Other 
books  of  prayers  specially  intended  for  the  use  of 
sodalists  were  published  by  Fathers  Sailly  and  Veron, 
S.J.,  and  they  have  since  been  often  reprinted  and 
imitated.  A  similar  purpose  seems  to  have  been 
dominant  in  the  mind  of  Simon  Verepseus,  a  priest  of 
Mechlin,  who  in  1505  brought  out  a  little  work  en- 
titled "Precationum  piarum  Enchiridion"  founded 
in  part  upon  materials  left  by  Cornelius  Liadanus. 
Verepseus's  "Enchiridion"  was  frequently  reprinted 
and  several  editions  appeared  in  German.  Of  other 
foreign  works  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  here  two 
famous  prayer-books  of  German  origin  both  belong- 
ing to  the  seventeenth  century  and  both  appearing 
in  the  vernacular  before  they  were  published  in  Latin 
editions.  The  earlier  of  these  was  the  "Paradisus 
Anims"  compiled  by  Merlo  Horstius,  a  parish  priest 
of  Cologne,  the  first  (German)  edition  of  which  ap- 
peared in  1644.  The  later  was  the  still  more  famous 
collection  of  Father  William  Nakatenus,  S.J.,  known 
as  the  "Coeleste  Palmetum".  In  the  case  of  both  of 
these  works  their  popularity  seems  to  have  been 
largely  due  to  the  very  wide  range  of  devotions  which 
they  included,  adapted  to  every  occurrence  of  life 
and  including  many  litanies,  little  offices,  and  pious 
instructions.  In  France  during  the  seventeenth 
century  we  may  note  the  introduction  of  the  "Parois- 
sien",  a  book  which  contained  a  large  proportion  of 
liturgical  matter  connected  with  Mass  and  Vespers 
for  the  Sundays  and  feasts,  as  also  the  Epistles  and 
Gospels,  and  often  a  great  deal  of  musical  notation, 
but  not  excluding  private  devotions,  methods  of 
hearing  Mass,  preparation  for  Confession  and  Com- 
munion etc.  The  popularity  of  this  work  (though 
its  contents  have  varied  a  good  deal  at  different 
XII.— 23 


periods  and  in  different  localities)  has  lasted  on  down 
to  modern  times. 

For  the  use  of  English  Catholics  during  the  days  of 
persecution  two  forms  of  prayer-book  long  hold  an 
unchallenged  supremacy.  The  first  of  these  was 
simply  a  revision  of  the  old  pre-Reformation  Primer. 
An  important  edition  of  this,  the  first  since  Queen 
Mary's  time,  was  issued  by  that  energetic  scholar 
Richard  Verstegan  at  Antwerp  in  1599  "for  the  more 
utility",  as  he  said,  "of  such  of  the  English  nation 
and  others  using  our  language  as  understand  not  the 
Latin  tongue"  With  this  object  the  Office  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  was  printed  both  in  Latin  and  English 
and  the  book  contained  a  selection  of  hymns  rather 
rudely  translated  into  English  verse  probably  by 
Verstegan  himself.  In  other  respects  the  main  fea- 
tures of  the  old  Primer  reappear.  We  have  the 
Office  for  the  Dead,  Offices  of  the  Holy  Cross  and  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Litanies  of  the  Saints,  Seven 
Penitential  Psalms  etc.,  but  the  extravagant  prayers 
of  the  early  editions  were  eliminated  and  devotions 
of  a  more  practical  kind,  e.  g.  for  Confession  and 
Communion  etc.,  substituted  in  their  place.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  editions  appeared  subsequently 
and  the  book  was  in  favour  down  to  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Another  noteworthy  revision 
of  the  Primer  took  place  in  King  James  Il's  reign  and 
later  in  1706  the  rude  renderings  of  the  hymns  were  re- 
placed by  a  version  perhaps  executed  by  John  Dryden. 
The  other  prayer-book  was  the  "Manual  of  devout 
Prayers  and  Exercises,  collected  and  translated  out  of 
divers  authors",  which  seems  to  have  been  printed 
for  the  first  time  in  1583.  If  we  may  accept  the  con- 
clusions of  Mr.  Joseph  Gillow  (The  Ushaw  Maga- 
zine, 1910)  this  book  also  was  translated  by  Verste- 
gan and  then  printed  by  Flinton  at  Father  Persons' 
press  at  Rouen.  The  original  work  upon  which  it  was 
based  was,  Mr.  Gillow  maintains,  the  prayer-book  of 
Verepaeus,  from  which  it  borrowed  its  arrangement 
according  to  the  seven  days  of  the  week.  This 
compilation  became  very  popular.  Already  in  1584 
we  find  it  mentioned  among  a  list  of  Catholic  books 
seized  at  Hoxton,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  reprinted 
with  certain  modifications  in  1595,  1596,  1599,  and 
1604.  The  history  of  the  subsequent  impressions 
has  been  minutely  traced  by  Mr.  Gillow,  who  claims 
to  have  identified  seventy-two  different  editions,  but 
whose  list  is  nevertheless  not  entirely  exhaustive. 
An  important  revision  of  the  work  appeared  under 
Jesuit  auspices  in  1652  (St.  Omer's)  and  another  pub- 
lished by  command  of  His  Majesty,  James  II,  in 
1686.  In  1729  it  came  out  in  London  in  two  parts, 
and  in  1744  an  edition  was  printed  which  professed 
to  have  been  corrected  and  enlarged  by  Bishop 
Challoner,  but  the  changes  made  were  relatively 
slight.  It  appeared  also  in  1811  and  1819  and  for  the 
last  time  in  1847.  The  attraction  of  the  book  ap- 
pears to  have  lain  in  the  variety  of  its  contents,  and 
in  the  course  of  years  it  departed  a  good  deal  from 
the  type  of  a  collection  of  extracts  from  the  Fathers 
and  other  devout  writers,  which  was  its  leading 
characteristic  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Still  more  famous  than  the  "Manual  of  Prayers" 
is  the  work  compiled  by  Bishop  Challoner  in  1740 
under  the  title  of  "The  Garden  of  the  Soul".  The 
purpose  aimed  at  in  this  new  work  is  indicated  in  its 
subheading  "a  Manual  of  Spiritual  Exercises  and 
Instructions  for  Christians  who,  living  in  the  World, 
aspire  to  devotion",  and  although,  as  Dr.  Burton 
notices  (Life  of  Challoner,  I,  127),  the  book  "after 
170  years  has  been  edited  out  of  all  recognition", 
its  popularity  was  originally  acquired  while  it  still 
remained  "a  brief  guide  to  the  spiritual  life,  con- 
taining not  prayers  only,  but  information,  instruc- 
tions, and  much  practical  advice".  The  seventh 
edition  of  "The  Garden  of  the  Soul",  which  appeared 
in  1757,  was  "corrected  and  enlarged  by  the  Author" 


PRAYER 


354 


PREACHERS 


and  this  is  the  final  shape  in  which  he  left  it;  in- 
numerable modifications  to  which  it  has  since  been 
subjected  have  been  made  entirely  according  to  the 
caprice  of  the  different  i)ublishers.  Both  before  and 
after  the  issue  of  "The  Garden  of  the  Soul",  a  large 
number  of  other  Catholic  manuals  of  devotion  have 
enjoyed  more  or  less  popularity.  In  1617  and  1618 
we  have  "A  new  iManual  of  (ild  Christian  Catholic 
Meditations  and  Prayers"  and  "A  Manual  of  Prayers 
used  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Primitive  Church",  both 
compiled  by  Richard  Broughton,  a  divine  of  Douai. 
The  "Devotions  in  the  Ancient  Way  of  Offices", 
which  was  drawn  up  by  John  Austin  before  1670,  had 
the  compliment  paid  it  of  being  imitated  and  prac- 
tically pirated  by  Anglicans.  The  "Libellus  Precum" 
was  a  work  produced  by  the  English  Jesuits  in  the 
eighteenth  century  for  the  use  of  the  sodalists  in  their 
colleges  and  has  continued  in  use  down  to  the  present 
day.  Of  the  crowd  of  works  bearing  such  titles  as  the 
"Key  of  Heaven",  "The  Path  to  Paradise",  the 
"Golden  Manual",  the  "Path  to  Heaven"  etc., 
some  of  them  reproducing  names  already  in  use  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
speak  in  detail.  As  regards  the  censorship  of  prayer- 
books,  something  has  already  been  said  of  the  Motu 
Proprio  of  St.  Pius  V  (11  March,  1571).  The  most 
important  legislation  since  then  is  that  of  the  Con- 
stitution "Officiorum  et  Munerum",  25  Jan.,  1897 
(see  Censorship  of  Books).  Paragraph  20  of  this 
document  in  very  concise  terms  enacts  that  no  one 
is  to  publish  "libros  vel  libellos  precum"  (prayer- 
books  or  booklets)  as  well  as  works  of  devotion  or 
religious  instruction  etc.,  even  though  they  may  seem 
calculated  to  foster  piety,  "without  the  permission 
of  lawful  authority",  a  somewhat  vague  phrase  which 
is  generally  interpreted  to  mean  without  the  im- 
primatur of  the  ordinary:  "otherwise",  adds  the 
decree,  "such  a  book  must  be  held  to  be  forbidden". 
Special  restrictions  have  also  been  imposed  in  the 
same  Constitution  (§  19)  upon  the  publication  of  new 
litanies  without  the  revision  and  approbation  of  the 
ordinary.  Moreover,  it  has  since  been  decided  that 
even  then  litanies  which  have  only  an  episcopal 
approval  of  this  kind  cannot  be  used  for  public 
devotions  in  churches  (see  Hilgers,  "Der  Index  der 
verbotenen  Biicher",  Freiburg,  1904;  Vermeersch, 
"De  prohibitione  et  censura  librorum",  4th  ed., 
Tournai,  1906). 

Beissel  in  Stimmen  aus  Maria  -  Laach  LXXVII  (July  to 
October,  1909) ;  Burton,  Life  of  Bishop  Challoner,  I  (London, 
1907),  130  sq.;  Gillow  in  The  Tablet  (27  Dec,  1884;  10  Jan., 
1885) :  Idem  in  The  Ushaw  Magazine  (1910) ;  Linqard  in  The 
Catholic  Miscellany  (1830) ;  Kutpers  and  Bishop  in  The  Book 
ofCerne  (Cambridge,  1902). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Prayer  of  Christ,  Feast  of  the,  occurs  on  the 
Tuesday  after  Septuagesima  (double  major).  Its  ob- 
ject is  to  commemorate  the  prolonged  prayer  which 
Christ  offered  in  Gethsemane  in  our  behalf  in  prepa- 
ration for  His  Sacred  Passion.  The  Office  insists  on  the 
great  importance  of  prayer.  The  feast  is  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  Lent  to  remind  us  that  the  penitential 
season  is  above  all  a  time  of  prayer.  The  Office  prob- 
ably was  composed  by  Bishop  Struzzieri  of  Todi,  at 
the  suggestion  of  8t.  Paul  of  the  Cross  (d.  1775),  and, 
together  with  the  other  six  offices  by  which  the  mys- 
teries of  Christ's  Passion  are  celebrated  (see  Passion  of 
Christ,  Feast  of  the),  was  approved  by  Pius  VI.  The 
hymns  were  composed  by  Fatati  (Schulte,  "Hymnen 
des  rom.  Brev.").  Outside  of  the  Congregation  of  St. 
Paul  this  feast  was  adopted  later  than  any  of  the  other 
feasts  of  the  Passion.  It  is  not  found  in  the  proprium 
of  Salerno  (1793)  nor  in  that  of  Livorno  (1809).  Other 
dioceses  took  it  up  only  after  the  city  of  Rome  had 
adopted  it  (1831).  It  has  not  yet  been  inserted  in  the 
Baltimore  Ordo. 

NiLLEa,  Kal.  manuale  uiriu&que  ecclesicp  (Innsbruck,  1892). 

F.    G.    HOLWECK. 


Prayers  for  the  Dead. 

the;   Purgatory. 


See  Dead,  Prayers  for 


Preacher  (Concionator)  .    See  Ecclesiastes. 

Preacher  Apostolic,  a  dignitary  of  the  pontifical 
household.  As  a  regular  function,  under  special 
regulations,  this  oflfice  was  established  by  Paul  IV, 
in  1555,  and  formed  a  part  of  the  great  scheme  of 
reforms  which  that  pope  was  anxious  to  carry  out. 
The  innovation  was  somewhat  unpopular  among  the 
prelates,  as  the  preacher  Apostolic  had  to  expound 
wholesome  truths  before  the  papal  Court,  and  remind 
them  of  their  respective  duties.  Before  1555  several 
members  of  the  regular  clergy,  especially  of  the 
Franciscans,  had  preached  in  presence  of  the  Roman 
Court.  In  the  period  following,  among  those  who 
filled  the  office  of  preacher  Apostolic  were  Alonso 
Salmer6n,  companion  of  Saint  Ignatius,  Francis 
Toleto,  S.J.,  who  held  the  position  during  seven 
pontificates,  Anselmus  Marzatti,  Francis  Cassini, 
and  Bonaventure  Barberini,  Minor  Capuchins; 
Toleto,  Marzatti,  and  Cassini  were  elevated  to  the 
cardinalate.  By  the  Brief  of  2  March,  1753,  directed 
to  Father  Michael  Angelo  Franceschi,  then  preacher 
Apostolic,  Benedict  XIV  conferred  the  said  dignity 
in  perpetuum  upon  the  Capuchin  Order,  because  of 
"the  example  of  Christian  piety  and  religious  per- 
fection, the  splendour  of  doctrine  and  the  Apostolic 
zeal"  to  be  found  in  their  institute.  Two  of  the 
preachers  Apostolic  during  the  past  century  deserve 
special  mention:  Lewis  Micara  of  Frascati,  who  be- 
came Cardinal-Vicar  of  Rome,  and  Lewis  of  Trent, 
chosen  to  deliver  the  discourse  at  the  first  session  of 
the  Vatican  Council.  At  present  the  office  is  held 
by  Father  Luke  of  Padua,  the  former  titular,  Father 
Pacific  of  Sejano,  having  been  elected  Minister  Gen- 
eral of  the  order. 

The  preacher  is  chosen  by  the  pontiff,  though  gen- 
erally presented  by  the  predecessor,  or  by  the  supe- 
rior general  of  the  Capuchins.  He  is  notified  by  a 
Rescript  of  the  Cardinal  of  the  Apostolic  Palace; 
and  becomes  ipso  facto  a  Palatine  prelate  and  a  member 
of  the  papal  household,  enjoying  all  the  privileges  at- 
tached to  his  title.  The  sermons  are  delivered  in 
Advent  on  the  Feasts  of  St.  Andrew,  St.  Nicholas,  St. 
Lucy,  and  St.  Thomas;  and  on  Fridays  in  Lent,  except 
in  Holy  Week,  when  the  Passion  Sermon  is  preached 
on  Tuesday. 

The  papal  Court  meets  in  the  throne-room  in  the 
Vatican;  the  pulpit  occupies  the  place  of  the  throne. 
Beside  it  is  placed  the  bussola,  a  perforated  wooden 
partition,  covered  with  silver  hangings,  behind  which 
is  the  seat  of  the  pontiff.  On  the  appointed  day, 
the  preacher  with  his  "socius"  is  taken  to  the  Vatican 
in  a  pontifical  carriage,  and  enters  the  throne-room; 
when  notified  by  the  master  of  ceremonies,  he  draws 
near  the  bussola,  takes  off  his  mantle,  asks  the  pope's 
blessing,  and  ascends  the  pulpit.  The  sermon  begins 
with  an  "Ave  Maria",  recited  aloud  and  answered  by 
the  audience.  The  pontiff  is  assisted  by  his  major- 
domo  and  the  master  of  the  camera.  The  cardinals 
occupy  the  front  seats:  behind  them  are  the  bishops, 
prelates,  and  general  heads  of  the  Mendicant  Orders. 
Nobody  else  is  admitted  without  a  special  permission 
of  the  pope.  At  the  close  of  the  sermon,  the  preacher 
returns  to  the  pontiff,  kisses  his  feet,  takes  leave  of 
him,  and  is  driven  back  to  his  convent. 

Analecta  Ord.  Cap.;  Bull.  Cap.;  Baronius,  Anal,  eccl.; 
Pallavicino,  Hist,  cone,  Trid. 

F.  Candidb. 

Preachers,  Order  of. — As  the  Order  of  the 
Friars  Preachers  is  the  principal  part  of  the  entire 
Order  of  St.  Dominic,  we  shall  include  under  this 
title  the  two  other  parts  of  the  order:  the  Dominican 
Sisters  (Second  Order)  and  the  Brothers  of  Penitence 
of  St.  Dominic  (Third  Order).  First,  we  shall  study 
the  legislation  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  order, 


PREACHERS 


355 


PREACHERS 


and  the  nature  of  each.     Secondly,  we  shall  give  an 
historical  survey  of  the  three  branches  of  the  order. 

I.  Legislation  and  Nature. — In  its  formation 
and  development,  the  Dominican  legislation  as  a 
whole  is  closely  bound  up  with  historical  facts  rela- 
tive to  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  order.  Hence 
some  reference  to"  these  is  necessary,  the  more  so  as 
this  matter  has  not  been  sufficiently  studied.  For 
each  of  the  three  groups,  constituting  the  ensemble 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  we  shall  examine:  A. 
Formation  of  the  Legislative  Texts;  B.  Nature  of 
the  Order,  resulting  from  legislation. 

A.  Formation  of  the  Legislative  Teiis. — In  regard  to 
their  legislation  the  first  two  orders  are  closely  con- 
nected, and  must  be  treated  together.  The  preach- 
ing of  St.  Dominic  and  his  first  companions  in  Lan- 
guedoc  led  up  to  the  pontifical  letters  of  Innocent  III, 
17  Nov.,  1205  (Potthast,  "Reg.,  Pont.,  Rom.", 
2912).  They  created  for  the  first  time  in  the  Church 
of  the  Middle  Ages  the  type  of  apostolic  preachers, 
patterned  upon  the  teaching  of  the  Gospel.  In 
the  same  year,  Dominic  founded  the  Monastery 
of  Prouille,  in  the  Diocese  of  Toulouse,  for  the 
women  whom  he  had  converted  from  heresy,  and  he 
made  this  establishment  the  centre  of  union  of  his  mis- 
sions and  of  his  apostolic  works  (Balme-Lelaidier, 
"Cartulaire  ou  Histoire  Diplomatique  de  St.  Dominic  ", 
Paris,  lS9o,  1, 130 sq.;  Guiraud,  "Cart.de  Notre  Dame 
de  Prouille,"  Paris,  1907, 1,  CCCXXsq).  St.  Dominic 
gave  to  the  new  monastery  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  also  the  special  Institutions  which  regulated 
the  life  of  the  Sisters,  and  of  the  Brothers  who  lived 
near  them,  for  the  spiritual  and  temporal  adminis- 
tration of  the  community.  The  Institutions  are 
edited  in  Balme,  "Cart."  II,  425;  "Bull.  Ord. 
Prffid.",  VII,  410;  Duellius,  "Misc.",  bk.  I  (Augs- 
burg, 1723),  169;  "Urkundenbuch  der  Stadt.",  I 
(Fribourg,  Leipzig,  1883),  605.  On  17  Dec,  1219, 
Honorius  III,  with  a  view  to  a  general  reform  among 
the  religious  of  the  Eternal  City,  granted  the  mon- 
astery of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Sixtus  of  Rome  to  St. 
Dominic,  and  the  Institutions  of  Prouille  were  given 
to  that  monastery  under  the  title  of  Institutions  of 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Sixtus  of  Rome.  With  this  designa- 
tion they  were  granted  subsequently  to  other  monas- 
teries and  congregations  of  religious.  It  is  also  under 
this  form  that  we  possess  the  primitive  Institutions  of 
Prouille,  in  the  editions  already  mentioned.  St. 
Dominic  and  his  companions,  having  received  from 
Innocent  III  authorization  to  choose  a  rule,  with 
a  view  to  the  approbation  of  their  order,  adopted 
in  1216,  that  of  St.  Augustine,  and  added  thereto  the 
"Consuetudines",  which  regulated  the  ascetic  and 
canonical  life  of  the  religious.  These  were  borrowed 
in  great  part  from  the  Constitutions  of  Pr6montr6, 
but  with  some  essential  features,  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  the  new  Preachers,  who  also  renounced 
private  possession  of  property,  but  retained  the  reve- 
nues. The  "Consuetudines"  formed  the  first  part 
{prima  distinctio)  of  the  primitive  Constitutions  of 
the  order  (Qu^tif-Echard,  "Soriptores  Ord.  Prsed.", 
L  12-13;  Denifle,  "Archiv.  fur  Literatur  und  Kirch- 
engeschiohte",  I,  194;  Balme,  "Cart.",  II,  18). 
The  order  was  solemnly  approved,  22  Dec,  1216. 
A  first  letter,  in  the  style  of  those  granted  for  the 
foundation  of  regular  canons,  gave  the  order  canonical 
existence;  a  second  determined  the  special  vocation 
of  the  Order  of  Preachers  as  vowed  to  teaching  and 
defending  the  truths  of  faith.  "Nos  attendentes 
fratres  Ordinis  tui  futures  pugiles  fidei  et  vera  mundi 
lumina  confirmamus  Ordinem  tuum"  (Balme,  "Cart." 
II,  71-88;  Potthast,  5402-5403).  (Expecting  the 
brethren  of  your  order  to  be  the  champions  of  the 
Faith  and  true  lights  of  the  world,  we  confirm  your 
order.) 

On  15  Aug.,  1217,  St.  Dominic  sent  out  his  com- 
panions from  Prouille.     They  went  through  France, 


Spain,  and  Italy,  and  established  as  principal  centres, 
Toulouse,  Paris,  Madrid,  Rome,  and  Bologna. 
Dominic,  by  constant  journeyings,  kept  watch  over 
these  new  establishments,  and  went  to  Rome  to 
confer  with  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  (Balme,  "Cart." 
II,  131;  "Annales  Ord.  Prad.",  Rome,  1756,  p.  411; 
Guiraud,  "St.  Dominic",  Paris,  1899,  p.  95).  In 
May,  1220,  St.  Dominic  held  at  Bologna  the  first 
general  chapter  of  the  order.  This  assembly  drew 
up  the  Constitutions,  which  are  complementary  to 
the  "Consuetudines"  of  1216  and  form  the  second 
part  (secunda  distinctio).  They  regulated  the  or- 
ganization and  life  of  the  order,  and  are  the  essential 
and  original  basis  of  the  Dominican  legislation.  In 
this  chapter,  the  Preachers  also  gave  up  certain 
elements  of  the  canonical  life-  they  relinquished  all 
possessions  and  revenues,  and  adopted  the  practice 
of  strict  poverty;  they  rejected  the  title  of  abbey  for 
the  convents,  and  substituted  the  rochet  of  canons 
for  the  monastic  scapular.  The  regime  of  aimual 
general  chapters  was  established  as  the  regulative 
power  of  the  order,  and  the  source  of  legislative  au- 
thority. ("Script.  Ord.  Praed.",  I,  20;  Denifle, 
"Archiv.",  I,  212;  Balme,  "Cart.*^",  Ill,  575).  Now 
that  the  legislation  of  the  Friars  Preachers  was  fully 
established,  the  Rule  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Sixtus  was 
found  to  be  very  incomplete.  The  order,  however, 
supplied  what  was  wanting  by  compiling  a  few  years 
after,  the  Statuta,  which  borrowed  from  the  Constitu- 
tions of  the  Friars,  whatever  might  be  useful  in  a 
monastery  of  Sisters.  We  owe  the  preservation  of 
these  Statuta,  as  well  as  the  Rule  of  St.  Sixtus,  to  the 
fact  that  this  legislation  was  applied  in  1232  to  the 
Penitent  Sisters  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  in  Germany, 
who  observed  it  without  further  modification.  The 
Statuta  are  edited  in  Duellius,  "Misc.",  bk.  I,  182. 
After  the  legislative  work  of  the  general  chapters 
had  been  added  to  the  Constitution  of  1216-20, 
without  changing  the  general  ordinance  of  the  primi- 
tive text,  the  necessity  was  felt,  a  quarter  of  a  century 
later,  of  giving  a  more  logical  distribution  to  the 
legislation  in  its  entirety.  The  great  canonist, 
Raymond  of  Penaforte,  on  becoming  master  general 
of  the  order,  devoted  himself  to  this  work.  The 
general  chapters,  from  1239  to  1241,  accepted  the 
new  text,  and  gave  it  the  force  of  law.  In  this  form 
it  has  remained  to  the  present  time  as  the  official 
text,  with  some  modification,  however,  in  the  way  of 
suppressions  and  especially  of  additions  due  to  later 
enactments  of  the  general  chapters.  It  was  edited 
in  Denifle,  "Archiv.",  V,  553;  "Acta  Capitulorum 
Generalium",I  (Rome,  1898),  II,  13, 18,  m  ''Monum. 
Ord.  Prjed.  Hist.",  bk.  III. 

The  reorganization  of  the  Constitutions  of  the 
Preachers  called  for  a  corresponding  reform  in  the 
legislation  of  the  Sisters.  In  his  letter  of  27  Aug., 
1257,  Alexander  IV  ordered  Humbert  of  Romans, 
the  fifth  master  general,  to  unify  the  Constitutions  of 
the  Sisters.  Humbert  remodelled  them  on  the  Con- 
stitutions of  the  Brothers,  and  put  them  into  effect 
at  the  General  Chapter  of  Valenciennes,  1259. 
The  Sisters  were  henceforth  characterized  as  Sorores 
Ordinis  Prcedicatorum.  The  Constitutions  are  edited 
in  "Analeota,  Ord.  Prsed."  (Rome,  1897),  338; 
Finke,  "Ungedruckte  Dominicanerbriefe  des  13 
Jahrhunderts"  (Paderborn,  1891),  p.  53;  "Litterae 
Encyclicas  magistrorum  generalium"  (Rome,  1900), 
in  "  Mon.  Ord.  Prasd.  Hist.",  V ,  p.  513.  To  this  legisla- 
tion, the  provincials  of  Germany,  who  had  a  large 
number  of  rehgious  convents  under  their  care,  added 
certain  admonitiones  by  way  of  completing  and  def- 
initely settling  the  Constitutions  of  the  Sisters. 
They  seem  to  be  the  work  of  Herman  of  Minden, 
Provincial  of  Teutonia  (1286-90).  He  drew  up  at 
first  a  concise  admonition  (Denifle,  "Archiv.",  II, 
549);  then  other  series  of  admonitions,  more  im- 
portant,   which    have    not    been    edited    (Rome, 


PREACHERS 


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PREACHERS 


Archives  of  the  Order,  Cod.  Ruten,  130-139).  The 
legislation  ot  the  Friars  Preachers  is  the  firmest  and 
most  complete  among  the  systems  of  law  by  Tvhich 
institutions  of  this  sort  were  ruled  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  Hauck  is  correct  in  saying:  "We  do  not 
deceive  ourselves  in  considering  the  organization 
of  the  Dominican  Order  as  the  most  perfect  of  all 
the  monastic  organizations  produced  by  the  Middle 
Ages"  ("Kirchengeschichte  Deutschlands",  part  IV, 
Leipzig,  1902,  p.  390).  It  is  not  then  surprising  that 
the  majority  of  the  religious  orders  of  the  thirteenth 
century  should  have  followed  quite  closely  the 
Dominican  legislation,  which  exerted  an  influence 
even  upon  institutions  very  dissimilar  in  aim  and 
nature.  The  Church  considered  it  the  typical  rule 
for  new  foundations.  Alexander  IV  thought  of 
making  the  legislation  of  the  Order  of  Preachers 
into  a  special  rule  known  as  that  of  St.  Dominic, 
and  for  that  purpose  commissioned  the  Dominican 
cardinal,  Hugh  of  St.  Cher  (3  Feb.,  1255),  but 
the  project  encountered  many  obstacles,  and  noth- 
ing came  of  it.  (Potthast,  n.  1566;  Humberti  de 
Romanis,  "Opera  de  vita  regulari",  ed.,  Berthier, 
I,  Rome,  1888,  p.  43). 

B.  Nature  of  the  Order  of  Preachers.  (1)  Its 
Object. — The  canonical  title  of  "Order  of  Preachers", 
given  to  the  work  of  St.  Dominic  by  the  Church,  is  in 
itself  significant,  but  it  indicates  only  the  dominant 
feature.  The  Constitutions  are  more  explicit: 
"Our  order  was  instituted  principally  for  preaching 
and  for  the  salvation  of  souls."  The  end  or  aim  of 
the  order  then  is  the  salvation  of  souls,  especially  by 
means  of  preaching.  For  the  attainment  of  this 
purpose,  the  order  must  labour  with  the  utmost 
zeal — "Our  main  efforts  should  be  put  forth,  earn- 
estly and  ardently,  in  doing  good  to  the  souls  of  our 
fellow-men." 

(2)  Its  Organization. — The  aim  of  the  order  and 
the  conditions  of  its  environment  determined  the  form 
of  its  organization.  The  first  organic  group  is  the 
convent,  which  may  not  be  founded  with  less  than 
twelve  religious.  At  first  only  large  convents  were 
allowed  and  these  were  located  in  important  cities 
(Mon.  Ger.  Hist.:  SS.  XXXII,  233,  236),  hence  the 
Baying: 

Bernardus  valles,   montes  Benedictus  amabat, 

Oppida  Franciscus,  celebres  Dominicus  urbes. 

(Bernard  loved  the  valleys,  Benedict  the  mountains, 
Francis  the  towns,  Dominic  the  populous  cities). 

The  foundation  and  the  existence  of  the  convent 
required  a  prior  as  governor,  and  a  doctor  as  teacher. 
The  Constitution  prescribes  the  dimensions  of  the 
church  and  the  convent  buildings,  and  these  should 
be  quite  plain.  But  in  the  course  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  order  erected  large  edifices,  real  works 
of  art.  The  convent  possesses  nothing  and  lives  on 
alms.  Outside  of  the  choral  office  (the  Preachers  at 
first  had  the  title  of  canonici)  their  time  is  wholly 
employed  in  study.  The  doctor  gives  lectures  in 
theology,  at  which  all  the  religious,  even  the  prior, 
must  be  present,  and  which  are  open  to  secular 
clerics.  The  religious  vow  themselves  to  preaching, 
both  within  and  without  the  convent  walls.  The 
"general  preachers"  have  the  most  extended  powers. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  order,  the  convent  was 
called  prwdicalio,  or  sancta  proedicatio.  The  con- 
vents divided  up  the  territory  in  which  they  were 
established,  and  sent  out  on  preaching  tours  religious 
who  remained  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  in  the 
principal  places  of  their  respective  districts.  The 
Preachers  did  not  take  the  vow  of  stability,  but  could 
be  sent  from  one  locality  to  another.  Each  convent 
received  novices,  these,  according  to  the  Constitu- 
tions, must  be  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age,  but  this 
rule  was  not  strictly  observed.  The  Preachers  were 
the  first  among  religious  orders  to  suppress  manual 
labour,  the  necessary  work  of  the  interior  of  the  house 


being  relegated  to  laj-  brothers  called  conversi, 
whose  number  was  limited  according  to  the  needs  of 
each  convent.  The  prior  was  elected  by  the  religious, 
and  the  doctor  was  appointed  by  the  provincial 
chapter.  The  chapter,  when  it  saw  fit,  relieved  them 
from  office. 

The  grouping  of  a  certain  number  of  convents 
forms  the  province,  which  is  administered  by  a 
provincial  prior,  elected  by  the  prior  and  two  dele- 
gates from  each  convent.  He  is  confirmed  by  the 
general  chapter,  or  by  the  master  general,  who  can 
also  remove  him  when  it  is  found  expedient.  He 
enjoys  in  his  province  the  same  authority  as  the 
master  general  in  the  order;  he  confirms  the  election 
of  conventual  priors,  visits  the  province,  sees  to  it 
that  the  Constitutions  and  the  ordinances  are  ob- 
served and  presides  at  the  provincial  chapters.  The 
provincial  chapter,  which  is  held  annually,  discusses 
the  interests  of  the  province.  It  is  composed  of  a 
provincial  prior,  priors  from  the  convents,  a  delegate 
from  each  convent,  and  the  general  preachers.  The 
capitulants  (members  of  the  chapter),  choose  from 
among  themselves,  four  counsellors  or  assistants, 
who,  with  the  provincial,  regulate  the  affairs  brought 
before  the  chapter.  The  chapter  appoints  those 
who  are  to  visit  annually  each  part  of  the  province. 
The  provinces  taken  together  constitute  the  order, 
which  has  at  its  head  a  master  general,  elected  by  the 
provincial  priors  and  by  two  delegates  from  each 
province.  For  a  long  time  his  position  was  for  life; 
Pius  VII  (1804),  reduced  it  to  six  years,  and  Pius 
IX  (1862)  fixed  it  at  twelve  years.  At  first  the  master 
general  had  no  permanent  residence;  since  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  he  has  lived  usually  at 
Rome.  He  visits  the  order,  holds  it  to  the  observance 
of  the  laws,  and  corrects  abuses.  In  1509,  he  was 
granted  two  associates  (socii);  in  1752,  four;  in 
1910,  five.  The  general  chapter  is  the  supreme  au- 
thority within  the  order.  From  1370,  it  was  held 
every  two  years;  from  1553,  every  three  years; 
from  1625,  every  six  years.  In  the  eighteenth  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  chapters 
were  rarely  held.  At  present  they  take  place  every 
three  years.  From  1228,  for  two  years  in  succession, 
the  general  chapter  was  composed  of  definitors  or 
delegates  from  the  provinces,  each  province  sending 
one  delegate;  the  following  year  it  was  held  by  the 
provincial  priors.  The  chapter  promulgates  new 
constitutions,  but  to  become  law  they  must  be  ac- 
cepted by  three  constitutive  chapters.  The  chapter 
deals  with  all  the  general  concerns  of  the  order, 
whether  administrative  or  disciplinary.  It  corrects 
the  master  general,  and  in  certain  cases  can  depose 
him.  From  1220  to  1244,  the  chapters  were  held 
alternately  at  Bologna  and  Paris;  subsequently, 
they  passed  round  to  all  the  principal  cities  of  Europe. 
The  generalissimo  chapter  acknowledged  by  the 
Constitution  and  composed  of  two  definitors  from 
each  province,  also  of  provincials,  i.  e.  equivalent 
to  three  consecutive  general  chapters,  was  held 
only  in  1228  and  1236.  The  characteristic  feature 
of  government  is  the  elective  system  which  pre- 
vails throughout  the  order.  "Such  was  the  simple 
mechanism  which  imparted  to  the  Order  of  Friars 
Preachers  a  powerful  and  regular  movement,  and 
secured  them  for  a  long  time  a  real  preponderance  in 
Church  and  in  State"  (Delisle,  "Notes  et  extraits 
des  mss.  de  la  Bibl.  Nat.",  Paris,  xxvii,  1899,  2nd 
part,  p.  312.  See  the  editions  of  the  Constitutions 
mentioned  above:  "Const.  Ord.  Fr.  Prsed.",  Paris, 
1888;  "ActaCapit.  Gen.  Ord.  Fr.  Pried.",  ed.,  Reichert, 
Rome,  1898,  sq.  9  vols.;  Lo  Cicero,  Const.,  "Deolar. 
et  Ord.  Capit.  Gen.  O.  P.",  Rome,  1892;  Humberti 
de  Romanis,  "Opera  de  vita  regulari",  ed.  Berthier, 
Rome,  1888;  Reichert,  "Feier  und  Geschaftsordung 
der  provincialkapitel  des  Dominikanerordens  im  13 
Jahrhundert"  in  "Romische  Quart.",  1903,  p.  101). 


PREACHERS 


357 


PREACHERS 


(3)  Forms  of  its  Activity.— The  forms  of  life  or 
activity  of  the  Order  of  Preachers  are  many,  but  they 
are  all  duly  subordinated.  The  order  assimilated 
the  ancient  forms  of  the  religious  life,  the  monastic 
and  the  canonical,  but  it  made  them  subservient  to 
the  clerical  and  the  apostolic  life  which  are  its 
peculiar  and  essential  aims.  The  Preachers  adopted 
from  the  monastic  life  the  three  traditional  vows  of 
obedience,  chastity,  and  poverty;  to  them  they  added 
the  ascetic  element  known  as  monastic  observances; 
perpetual  abstinence,  fasting  from  14  Sept.  until 
Easter  and  on  all  the  Fridays  throughout  the  year, 
the  exclusive  use  of  wool  for  clothing  and  for  the  bed, 
a  hard  bed,  and  a  common  dormitory,  silence  almost 
perpetual  in  their  houses,  public  acknowledgment  of 
faults  in  the  chapter,  a  graded  list  of  penitential 
practices,  etc.  The  Preachers,  however,  did  not  take 
these  observances  directly  from  the  monastic  orders 
but  from  the  regular  canons,  especially  the  reformed 
canons,  who  had  already  adopted  monastic  rules. 
The  Preachers  received  from  the  regular  canons  the 
choral  Office  for  morning  and  evening,  but  chanted 
quickly.  They  added,  on  certain  days,  the  Office 
of  the  Holy  Virgin,  and  once  a  week  the  Office  of  the 
Dead.  The  habit  of  the  Preachers,  as  of  the  regular 
canons,  is  a  white  tunic  and  a  black  cloak.  The 
rochet,  distinctive  of  the  regular  canons,  was  aban- 
doned by  the  Preachers  at  the  General  Chapter  of 
1220,  and  replaced  by  the  scapular.  At  the  same 
time  they  gave  up  various  canonical  customs,  which 
they  had  retained  up  to  that  period.  They  sup- 
pressed in  their  order  the  title  of  abbot  for  the  head  of 
the  convent,  and  rejected  all  property,  revenues,  the 
carrying  of  money  on  their  travels,  and  the  use  of 
horses.  The  title  even  of  canon  which  they  had 
borne  from  the  beginning  tended  to  disappear  about 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  General 
Chapters  of  1240-1251  substituted  the  word  clericus 
for  canonicus  in  the  article  of  the  Constitutions 
relating  to  the  admission  of  novices;  nevertheless, 
the  designation,  "canon"  still  occurs  in  some  parts  of 
the  Constitutions.  The  Preachers,  in  fact,  are  pri- 
marily and  essentially  clerics.  The  pontifical  let- 
ter of  foundation  said:  "These  are  to  be  the 
champions  of  the  Faith  and  the  true  lights  of  the 
world."  This  could  apply  only  to  cleric8._  The 
Preachers  consequently  made  study  their  chief  oc- 
cupation, which  was  the  essential  means,  with  preach- 
ing and  teaching  as  the  end.  The  apostolic  character 
of  the  order  was  the  complement  of  its  clerical 
character.  The  Friars  had  to  vow  themselves  to 
the  salvation  of  souls  through  the  ministry  of  preach- 
ing and  confession,  under  the  conditions  set  down 
by  the  Gospel  and  by  the  example  of  the  Apostles: 
ardent  zeal,  absolute  poverty,  and  sanctity  of  life. 

The  ideal  Dominican  life  was  rich  in  the  multi- 
plicity and  choice  of  its  elements,  and  was  thoroughly 
unified  by  its  well-considered  principles  and  enact- 
ments; but  it  was  none  the  less  complex,  and  its 
full  realization  was  difficult.  The  monastic-canonical 
element  tended  to  dull  and  paralyze  the  intense 
activity  demanded  by  a  clerical-apostolic  life.  The 
legislators  warded  off  the  difficulty  by  a  system  of 
dispensations,  quite  peculiar  to  the  order.  At  the 
head  of  the  Constitutions  the  principle  of  dispensa- 
tion appears  jointly  with  the  very  definition  of  the 
order's  purpose,  and  is  placed  before  the  text  of  the 
laws  to  show  that  it  controls  and  tempers  their  ap- 
plication. "The  superior  in  each  convent  shall  have 
authority  to  grant  dispensations  whenever  he  may 
deem  it  expedient,  especially  in  regard  to  what  may 
hinder  study,  or  preaching,  or  the  profit  of  souls, 
since  our  order  was  originally  established  for  the  work 
of  preaching  and  the  salvation  of  souls",  etc.  The 
system  of  dispensation  thus  broadly  understood, 
while  it  favoured  the  most  active  element  of  the 
order    displaced,  but  did  not  wholly  eliminate,  the 


difficulty.  It  created  a  sort  of  dualism  in  the_  in- 
terior life,  and  permitted  an  arbitrariness  that  might 
easily  disquiet  the  conscience  of  the  religious  and  of 
the  superiors.  The  order  warded  off  this  new  dif- 
ficulty by  declaring  in  the  generalissimo  chapter  of 
1236,  that  the  Constitutions  did  not  oblige  under 
pain  of  sin,  but  under  pain  of  doing  penance  (Acta 
Cap.  Gen.  I,  8.)  This  measure,  however,  was  not 
heartily  welcomed  by  everyone  m  the  order  (Hum- 
berti  de  Romanis,  Op.,  II,  46),  nevertheless  it  stood. 
This  duahsm  produced  on  one  side,  remarkable 
apostles  and  doctors,  on  the  other,  stern  ascetics  and 
great  mystics.  At  all  events  the  interior  troubles  of 
the  order  grew  out  of  the  difficulty  of  maintaining 
the  nice  equilibrium  which  the  first  legislators  es- 
tablished, and  which  was  preserved  to  a  remarkable 
degree  during  the  first  century  of  the  order's  existence. 
The  logic  of  things  and  historical  circumstances  fre- 
quently disturbed  this  equilibrium.  The  learned 
and  active  members  tended  to  exempt  themselves 
from  monastic  observance,  or  to  moderate  its  strict- 
ness; the  ascetic  members  insisted  on  the  monastic 
life,  and  in  pursuance  of  their  aim,  suppressed  at 
different  times  the  practice  of  dispensation,  sanc- 
tioned as  it  was  by  the  letter  and  the  spirit  of 
the  Constitutions  ["Const.  Ord.  Praed.",  passim; 
Denifle,  "Die  Const,  des  Predigerordens"  in  "Ar- 
chiv.  f.  Lift.  u.  Kirohengesoh",  I,  165;  Mandonnet, 
"Les  Chanoines  -  Precheurs  de  Bologne  d'aprfea 
Jacques  de  Vitry"  in  "Archives  de  la  soci6t6 
d'histoire  du  canton  de  Fribourg",  bk.  VIII,  15; 
Lacordaire,  "M^moire  pour  la  restauration  des 
Fr^res  Precheurs  dans  la  Chrdtient(5",  Paris,  1852; 
P.  Jacob,  "Memoires  sur  la  canonicit6  de  I'institut 
de  St.  Dominic",  B^ziers,  1750,  tr.  into  Italian  under 
the  title;  "Difesa  del  canonicato  dei  FF.  Predicatori", 
Venice,  1758;  Laberthoni,  "ExposS  de  I'dtat,  du  re- 
gime, de  la  legislation  et  des  obligations  des  Freres 
Pr&oheurs",  Versailles,  1767  (new  ed.,  1872)  ]. 

(4)  Nature  of  the  Order  of  the  Dominican  Sisters. — 
We  have  indicated  above  the  various  steps  by 
which  the  legislation  of  the  Dominican  Sisters  was 
brought  into  conformity  with  the  Constitutions  of 
Humbert  of  Romans  (1259).  The  primitive  type 
of  religious  established  at  Prouille  in  1205  by  St. 
Dominic  was  not  affected  by  successive  legislation. 
The  Dominican  Sisters  are  strictly  cloistered  in  their 
monasteries;  they  take  the  three  religious  vows, 
recite  the  canonical  Hours  in  choir  and  engage  in 
manual  labor.  The  erudilio  litlerarum  inscribed  in 
the  Institutions  of  St.  Sixtus  disappeared  from  the 
Constitutions  drawn  up  by  Humbert  of  Romans. 
The  ascetic  life  of  the  Sisters  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Friars.  Each  house  is  governed  by  a  prioress, 
elected  canonically,  and  assisted  by  a  sub-prioress, 
a  mistress  of  novices,  and  various  other  officers. 
The  monasteries  have  the  right  to  hold  property  in 
common;  they  must  be  provided  with  an  income 
sufficient  for  the  existence  of  the  community;  they 
are  independent  and  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
provincial  prior,  the  master  general,  and  of  the  gen- 
eral chapter.  A  subsequent  paragraph  will  deal 
with  the  various  phases  of  the  question  as  to  the  re- 
lation existing  between  the  Sisters  and  the  Order  of 
Preachers.  Whilst  the  Institutions  of  St.  Sixtus 
provided  a  group  of  brothers,  priests,  and  lay  servants 
for  the  spiritual  and  temporal  administration  of  the 
monastery,  the  Constitutions  of  Humbert  of  Romans 
were  silent  on  these  points.  (See  the  legislative  texts 
relating  to  the  Sisters  mentioned  above.) 

(5)  The  Third  Order.— St.  Dominic  did  not  write 
a  rule  for  the  Tertiaries,  for  reasons  which  are  given 
further  on  in  the  historical  sketch  of  the  Third  Order. 
However,  a  large  body  of  the  laity,  vowed  to  piety, 
grouped  themselves  about  the  rising  Order  of  Preach- 
ers, and  constituted,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a 
Third  Order.     In  view  of  this  fact  and  of  some  cir- 


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cumstances  to  be  noted  later  on,  the  seventh  master 
general  of  the  order,  Munio  de  Zamora,  wrote  (1285) 
a  rule  for  the  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Penitence  of  St. 
Dominic.  The  privilege  granted  the  new  fraternity, 
28  Jan.,  1286,  by  Honorius  IV,  gave  it  a  canonical 
existence  (Potthast,  22358).  The  rule  of  Munio  was 
not  entirely  original;  some  points  being  borrowed 
from  the  Rule  of  the  Brothers  of  Penitence,  whose 
origin  dates  back  to  St.  Francis  of  Assisi;  but  it 
was  distinctive  on  all  essential  points.  It  is  in  a 
sense  more  thoroughly  ecclesiastical;  the  Brothers 
and  Sisters  are  grouped  in  different  fraternities; 
their  government  is  immediately  subject  to  ecclesias- 
tical authority;  and  the  various  fraternities  do  not 
form  a  collective  whole,  with  legislative  chapters,  as 
was  the  case  among  the  Brothers  of  Penitence  of 
St.  Francis.  The  Dominican  fraternities  are  local 
and  without  any  bond  of  union  other  than  that  of 
the  Preaching  Brothers  who  govern  them.  Some 
characteristics  of  these  fraternities  may  be  gathered 
from  the  Rule  of  Munio  de  Zamora.  The  Brothers 
and  Sisters,  as  true  children  of  St.  Dominic,  should 
be,  above  all  things^  truly  zealous  for  the  Catholic 
Faith.  Their  habit  is  a  white  tunic,  with  black  cloak 
and  hood,  and  a  leathern  girdle.  After  making  pro- 
fession, they  cannot  return  to  the  world,  but  may 
enter  other  authorized  religious  orders.  They  recite 
a  certain  number  of  Paters  and  Aves,  for  the  canonical 
Hours;  receive  communion  at  least  four  times  a  year, 
and  must  show  great  respect  to  the  ecclesiastical 
hierarchy.  They  fast  during  Advent,  Lent,  and  on 
all  the  Fridays  during  the  year,  and  eat  meat  only 
three  days  in  the  week,  Sunday,  Tuesday,  and 
Thursday.  They  are  allowed  to  carry  arms  only  in 
defence  of  the  Christian  Faith.  They  visit  sick 
members  of  the  community,  give  them  assistance 
if  necessary,  attend  the  burial  of  Brothers  or  Sisters 
and  aid  them  with  their  prayers.  The  head  or  spirit- 
ual director  is  a  priest  of  the  Order  of  Preachers, 
whom  the  Tertiaries  select  and  propose  to  the  master 
general  or  to  the  provincial;  he  may  act  on  their 
petition  or  appoint  some  other  religious.  The 
director  and  the  older  members  of  the  fraternity 
choose  the  prior  or  prioress,  from  among  the  Brothers 
and  Sisters,  and  their  office  continues  until  they  are 
relieved.  The  Brothers  and  the  Sisters  have,  on 
different  days,  a  monthly  reunion  in  the  church  of  the 
Preachers,  when  they  attend  Mass,  listen  to  an  in- 
struction, and  to  an  explanation  of  the  rule.  The 
prior  and  the  director  can  grant  dispensations;  the 
rule,  like  the  Constitutions  of  the  Preachers,  does  not 
oblige  under  pain  of  sin. 

The  text  of  the  Rule  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Peni- 
tence of  St.  Dominic  is  in  "Regula  S.  Augustini 
et  Constitutiones  FF.  Ord.  Praed."  (Rome,  1690), 
2nd  pt.,  p.  39;  Federici,  "Istoria  dei  cavalieri  Gau- 
dent"  (Venice,  1787),  bk.  II,  cod.  diplomat.,  p.  28; 
Mandonnet,  "Les  regies  et  le  gouvernement  de 
rOrdo  de  Pcenitentia  au  XIIP  si^ole"  (Paris,  1902); 
Mortier,  "Histoire  des  Maitres  G^n&aux  des  Frferes 
Prgcheurs",  II  (Paris,  1903),  220. 

II.  History  or  the  Order, — A.  The  Friars 
Preachers. — Their  history  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods:  (1)  The  Middle  Ages  (from  their  founda- 
tion to  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century) ;  (2) 
The  Modern  Period  up  to  the  French  Revolution; 
(3)  The  Contemporaneous  Period.  In  each  of  these 
periods  we  shall  examine  the  work  of  the  order  in  its 
various  departments. 

(1)  The  Jiliddle  Ages. — The  thirteenth  century  is 
the  classic  age  of  the  order,  the  witness  to  its  brilliant 
development  and  intense  activity.  This  last  is 
manifested  especially  in  the  work  of  teaching.  By 
preaching  it  reached  all  classes  of  Christian  society, 
fought  heresy,  schism,  paganism,  by  word  and  book, 
and  by  its  missions  to  the  north  of  Europe,  to  Africa, 
and  Asia,  passed  beyond  the  frontiers  of  Christendom. 


Its  schools  spread  throughout  the  entire  Church; 
its  doctors  wrote  monumental  works  in  all  branches  of 
knowledge,  and  two  among  them,  Albertus  Magnus, 
and  especially  Thomas  Aquinas,  founded  a  school 
of  philosophy  and  theology  which  was  to  rule  the  ages 
to  come  in  the  life  of  the  Church.  An  enormous 
number  of  its  members  held  offices  in  Church  and  State 
— as  popes,  cardinals,  bishops,  legates,  inquisitors, 
confessors  of  princes,  ambassadors,  and  paciarii 
(enforcers  of  the  peace  decreed  by  popes  or  councils). 
The  Order  of  Preachers,  which  should  have  remained 
a  select  body,  developed  beyond  bounds  and  absorbed 
some  elements  unfitted  to  its  form  of  life.  A  period 
of  relaxation  ensued  during  the  fourteenth  century 
owing  to  the  general  decline  of  Christian  society. 
The  weakening  of  doctrinal  activity  favoured  the 
development  here  and  there  of  the  ascetic  and  con- 
templative life  and  there  sprang  up,  especially  in 
Germany  and  Italy,  an  intense  and  exuberant 
mysticism  with  which  the  names  of  Master  Eckhart, 
Suso,  Tauler,  St.  Catherine  of  Siena  are  associated. 
This  movement  was  the  prelude  to  the  reforms  un- 
dertaken, at  the  end  of  the  century,  by  Raymond  of 
Capua,  and  continued  in  the  following  century. 
It  assumed  remarkable  proportions  in  the  congre- 
gations of  Lombardy  and  of  Holland,  and  in  the  re- 
forms of  Savonarola  at  Florence.  At  the  same  time 
the  order  found  itself  face  to  face  with  the  Renais- 
sance. It  struggled  against  pagan  tendencies  in 
Humanism,  in  Italy  through  Dominioi  and  Savon- 
arola, in  Germany  through  the  theologians  of  Cologne; 
but  it  also  furnished  Humanism  with  such  advanced 
writers  as  Francis  Colonna  (Poliphile)  and  Matthew 
Brandello.  Its  members,  in  great  numbers,  took 
part  in  the  artistic  activity  of  the  age,  the  most 
prominent  being  Fra  Angelico  and  Fra  Bartolomeo. 
(a)  Development  and  Statistics. — When  St.  Domi- 
nic, in  1216,  asked  for  the  official  recognition  of  his 
order,  the  first  Preachers  numbered  only  sixteen.  At 
the  general  Chapter  of  Bologna,  1221,  the  year  of 
St.  Dominic's  death,  the  order  already  counted  some 
sixty  establishments,  and  was  divided  into  eight 
provinces:  Spain,  Provence,  France,  Lombardy, 
Rome,  Teutonia,  England,  and  Hungary.  The 
Chapter  of  1228  added  four  new  provinces:  the  Holy 
Land,  Greece,  Poland,  and  Dacia  (Denmark  and 
Scandinavia).  Sicily  was  separated  from  Rome 
(1294),  Aragon  from  Spain  (1301).  In  1303  Lom- 
bardy was  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Lombardy; 
Provence  into  Toulouse  and  Provence;  Saxony  was 
separated  from  Teutonia,  and  Bohemia  from  Poland, 
thus  forming  eighteen  provinces.  The  order^  which 
in  1277  counted  404  convents  of  Brothers,  m  1303 
numbered  nearly  600.  The  development  of  the  order 
reached  its  height  during  the  Middle  Ages;  new 
houses  were  established  during  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  but  in  relatively  small  numbers. 
As  to  the  number  of  religious  only  approximate  state- 
ments can  be  given.  In  1256,  according  to  the  con- 
cession of  suffrages  granted  by  Humbert  of  Romans 
to  St.  Louis,  the  order  numbered  about  5000  priests; 
the  clerks  and  lay  brothers  could  not  have  been  less 
than  2000.  Thus  towards  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  it  must  have  had  about  7000  members 
(de  Laborde,  "Layette  du  tri5sor  des  chartes",  Paris, 
1875,  III,  304).  According  to  Sebastien  de  Olmeda, 
the  Preachers,  as  shown  by  the  census  taken  under 
Benedict  XII,  were  close  on  to  12,000  in  1337. 
(Fontana,  "Monumenta  Dominicana",  Rome,  1674, 
pp.  207-8).  This  number  was  not  surpassed  at  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages;  the  Great  Plague  of  1348, 
and  the  general  state  of  Europe  preventing  a  notable 
increase.  The  reform  movement  begun  in  1390  by 
Raymond  of  Capua  established  the  principle  of  a 
twofold  arrangement  in  the  order.  For  a  long  time, 
it  is  true,  the  reformed  convents  were  not  separated 
from  their  respective  provinces;  but  with  the  founda- 


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tion  of  the  congregation  of  Lombardy,  in  1459,  a 
new  order  of  things  began.  The  congregations  were 
more  or  less  self-governing,  and,  according  as  they 
developed,  overlapped  several  provinces  and  even 
several  nations.  There  were  established  successively 
the  congregations  of  Portugal  (1460),  Holland  (1464), 
Ai-agon,  and  Spain  (1468),  St.  Mark  in  Florence 
(1493),  France  (1497),  the  Galilean  (1514).  About 
the  same  time  some  new  provinces  were  also  estab- 
lished: Scotland  (1481),  Ireland  (1484),  B^tique  or 
Andalusia  (1514),  Lower  Germany  (1515).  (Qu^tif- 
Echard,  "Script.  Ord.  Praed.",  I,  p.  1-15;  "Anal. 
Ord.  Praed.",  1893,  passim;  Mortier,  "Hist,  des 
Maltrcs  Gen^raux",  I-V,  passim). 

(b)  Administration. — The  Preachers  possessed  a 
number  of  able  administrators  among  their  masters 
general  during  the  Middle  Ages,  especially  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  St.  Dominic,  the  creator  of  the 
institution  (1206-1221),  showed  a  keen  intelligence 
of  the  needs  of  the  age.  He  executed  his  plans 
with  sureness  of  insight,  firmness  of  resolution,  and 
tenacity  of  purpose.  Jordan  of  Saxony  (1222-1237) 
sensitive,  eloquent,  and  endowed  with  rare  powers 
of  persuasion,  attracted  numerous  and  valuable  re- 
cruits. St.  Raymond  of  Penaforte  (1238-1240),  the 
greatest  canonist  of  the  age,  ruled  the  order  only 
long  enough  to  reorganize  its  legislation.  John  the 
Teuton  (1241-12.32),  bishop  and  linguist,  who  was 
associated  with  the  greatest  personalities  of  his  time, 
pushed  the  order  forward  along  the  line  of  develop- 
ment outlined  by  its  founder.  Humbert  of  Romans 
(1254-1263),  a  genius  of  the  practical  sort,  a  broad- 
minded  and  moderate  man,  raised  the  order  to  the 
height  of  its  glory,  and  wrote  manifold  works,  setting 
forth  what,  in  his  eyes,  the  Preachers  and  Christian 
society  ought  to  be.  John  of  Vercelli  (1264-1283), 
an  energetic  and  prudent  man,  during  his  long  govern- 
ment maintained  the  order  in  all  its  vigour.  The 
successors  of  these  illustrious  masters  did  their  ut- 
most in  the  discharge  of  their  duty,  and  in  meeting 
the  situations  which  the  state  of  the  Church  and  of 
society  from  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  ren- 
dered more  and  more  difficult.  Some  of  them  did  no 
more  than  hold  their  high  office,  while  others  had  not 
the  genius  of  the  masters  general  of  the  golden  age 
[Balme-Lelaidier,  "Cart,  de  St.  Dominic";  Guiraud, 
"St. Dominic"  (Paris,  1899) ; Mothon,  "VieduB.  Jour- 
dain  de  Saxe"  (Paris,  1885);  Reichert,  "Das  Itinerar 
des  zweiten  Dominikaner-generals  Jordanis  von  Sach- 
sen"  in  "Festschrift  des  Deutschen  Campo  Santo  in 
Rom"  (Freiburg,  1S97),  153;  Mothon,  "Vita  del  B. 
Giovanini  da  Vercelli"  (Vercelli,  1903);  Mortier, 
"  Histoire  des  Mattres  G6n6raux",  I-V] .  The  general 
chapters  which  wielded  supreme  power  were  the  great 
regulators  of  the  Dominican  life  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  They  are  usually  remarkable  for  their  spirit  of 
decision,  and  the  firmness  with  which  they  ruled. 
They  appeared  even  imbued  with  a  severe  character 
which,  taking  no  account  of  persons,  bore  witness  to 
the  importance  they  attached  to  the  maintenance  of 
discipline.  (See  the  Acta  Cap.  Gen.  already  referred 
to.) 

(c)  Modification  of  the  Statute.— We  have  already 
spoken  of  the  chief  exception  to  be  taken  to  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  order,  the  difficulty  of  maintammg 
an  even  balance  between  the  monastic  and  canonical 
observances  and  the  clerical  and  apostolical  life. 
The  primitive  regime  of  poverty,  which  left  the  con- 
vents without  an  assured  income,  created  also  a 
permanent  difficulty.  Time  and  the  modifications 
of  the  state  of  Christian  society  exposed  these  weak 
points.  Already  the  General  Chapters  of  1240- 
1242  forbade  the  changing  of  the  general  statutes 
of  the  order,  a  measure  which  would  indicate  at  least 
a  hidden  tendency  towards  modification  (Acta,  I, 
p.  14^20).  Some  change  seems  to  have  been  con- 
templated also  by  the  Holy  See  when  Alexander  IV, 


4  February,  1255,  ordered  the  Dominican  cardinal, 
Hugh  of  Saint  Cher,  to  recast  the  entire  legisla- 
tion of  the  Preachers  into  a  rule  which  should  be 
called  the  Rule  of  St.  Dominic  (Potthast,  156-69). 
Nothing  came  of  the  project,  and  the  question  was 
broached  again  about  1270  (Humbert!  de  Romania, 
"Opera",  I,  p.  43).  It  was  during  the  pontificate 
of  Benedict  XII,  (1334-1342),  who  undertook  a  gen- 
eral reform  of  the  rehgious  orders,  that  the  Preach- 
ers were  on  the  point  of  undergoing  serious  modifica- 
tions in  the  secondary  elements  of  their  primitive 
statute.  Benedict,  desiring  to  give  the  order  greater 
eflttciency,  sought  to  impose  a  regime  of  property- 
holding  as  necessary  to  its  security,  and  to  reduce  the 
number  of  its  members  (12,000)  l3y  eliminating  the 
unfit  etc. ;  in  a  word,  to  lead  the  order  back  to  its  prim- 
itive concept  of  a  select  apostolic  and  teaching  body. 
The  order,  ruled  at  that  time  by  Hugh  de  Vansseman 
(1333-41),  resisted  with  all  its  strength  (1337-40). 
This  was  a  mistake  (Mortier,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  115).  As  the 
situation  grew  worse,  the  order  was  obliged  to  petition 
Sixtus  IV  for  the  right  to  hold  property,  and  this  was 
granted  1  June,  1475.  Thence  forward  the  convents 
could  acquire  property,  and  perpetual  rentals  (Mortier, 
IV,  p.  495).  This  was  one  of  the  causes  which 
quickened  the  vitality  of  the  order  in  the  sixteenth 
century. 

The  reform  projects  of  Benedict  XII  having  failed, 
the  master  general,  Raymond  of  Capua  (1390), 
sought  to  restore  the  monastic  observances  which  had 
fallen  into  decline.  He  ordered  the  establishment 
in  each  province  of  a  convent  of  strict  observance, 
hoping  that  as  such  houses  became  more  numerous, 
the  reform  would  eventually  permeate  the  entire 
province.  This  was  not  usually  the  case.  These 
houses  of  the  observance  formed  a  confederation 
among  themselves  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  special 
vicar.  However,  they  did  not  cease  to  belong  to 
their  original  province  in  certain  respects,  and  this 
naturally  gave  rise  to  numerous  conflicts  of  govern- 
ment. During  the  fifteenth  century,  several  groups 
made  up  congregations,  more  or  less  autonomous; 
these  we  have  named  above  in  giving  the  statistics 
of  the  order.  The  scheme  of  reform  proposed  by 
Raymond  and  adopted  by  nearly  all  who  subse- 
quently took  up  with  his  ideas,  insisted  on  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Constitutions  ad  unguem,  as  Ray- 
mond, without  further  explanation,  expressed  it. 
By  this,  his  followers,  and,  perhaps  Raymond  him- 
self, understood  the  suppression  of  the  rule  of  dis- 
pensation which  governed  the  entire  Dominican 
legislation.  "In  suppressing  the  power  to  grant  and 
the  right  to  accept  dispensation,  the  reformers  in- 
verted the  economy  of  the  order,  setting  the  part 
above  the  whole,  and  the  means  above  the  end" 
(Lacordaire,  '  'M^moire  pour  la  restauration  des  Frerea 
Precheurs  dans  la  chr6tienit6",  new  ed.,  Dijon, 
1852,  p.  18).  The  different  reforms  which  originated 
within  the  order  up  to  the  nineteenth  century,  began 
usually  with  principles  of  asceticism,  which  exceeded 
the  letter  and  the  spirit  of  the  original  constitutions. 
This  initial  exaggeration  was,  under  pressure  of 
circumstances,  toned  down,  and  the  reforms  which 
endured,  like  that  of  the  congregation  of  Lombardy, 
turned  out  to  be  the  most  effectual.  Generally 
speaking,  the  reformed  communities  slackened  the 
intense  devotion  to  study  prescribed  by  the  Con- 
stitutions; they  did  not  produce  the  great  doctors 
of  the  order,  and  their  literary  activity  was  directed 
preferably  to  moral  theology,  history,  subjects  of 
piety,  and  asceticism.  They  gave  to  the  fifteenth 
century  many  holy  men  (Thomae  Antonii  Senesis, 
"Historia  disciplinas  regularis  instauratae  in  Coeno- 
biis  Venetis  Ord.  Prsed."  in  Fl.  Cornehus,  "Ecclesiae 
Venetae",  VII,  1749,  p.  167;  Bl.  Raymond  of  Capua, 
"Opusculaet  Litteraj",  Rome,  1899;  Meyer,  "Buch 
der    Reformacio   Predigerordens"  in    "Quellen    und 


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Forschungen  zur  Geschichte  des  Dominikanerordens 
in  Deutsohland",  II,  III,  Leipzig,  1908-9;  Mortier, 
"Hist,  des  Maitres  Gfo^raux",  III,  IV). 

(d)  Preaciiing  and  Teaching.  —  Independently  of 
their  official  title  of  Order  of  Preachers,  the  Roman 
Church  especially  delegated  the  Preachers  to  the  office 
of  preaching.  It  is  in  fact  the  only  order  of  the  Middle 
Ages  which  the  popes  declared  to  be  specially  charged 
with  this  office  (Bull.  Ord.  Prad.,  VIII,  p.  768). 
Conformably  to  its  mission,  the  order  displayed  an 
enormous  activity.  The  "VitEE  Fratrum"  (1260) 
(Lives  of  the  Brothers)  informs  us  that  many  of  the 
brothers  refused  food  until  they  had  first  announced 
the  Word  of  God  (op.  cit.,  p.  150).  In  his  circu- 
lar letter  (1260),  the  Master  General  Humbert  of 
Romans,  in  view  of  what  had  been  accomplished  by 
his  religious,  could  well  make  the  statement:  "We 
teach  the  people,  we  teach  the  prelates,  we  teach  the 
wise  and  the  unwise,  religious  and  seculars,  clerics 
and  laymen,  nobles  and  peasants,  lowly  and  great." 
(Monum.  Ord.  Praed.  Historia,  V,  p.  53).  Rightly, 
too,  it  has  been  said:  "Science  on  one  hand,  num- 
bers on  the  other,  placed  them  [the  Preachers] 
ahead  of  their  competitors  in  the  thirteenth  century" 
(Lecoy  de  la  Marche,  "La  chaire  frangaise  au  Moyen 
Age",  Paris,  1886,  p.  31).  The  order  maintained 
this  supremacy  during  the  entire  Middle  Ages  (L. 
Pfleger,  "Zur  Geschichte  des  Predigtwesens  in 
Strasburg",  Strasburg,  1907,  p.  26;  F.  Jostes,  "Zur 
Geschichte  der  Mittelalterlichen  Predigt  in  West- 
falen",  Mtinster,  1885,  p.  10).  During  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  Preachers  in  addition  to  their  regular 
apostolate,  worked  especially  to  lead  back  to  the 
Church  heretics  and  renegade  Catholics.  An  eye- 
witness of  their  labours  (1233)  reckons  the  numlDcr 
of  their  converts  in  Lombardy  at  more  than  100,000 
("Annales  Ord.  Pried.",  Rome,  1756,  col.  128). 
This  movement  grew  rapidly,  and  the  witnesses  could 
scarcely  believe  their  eyes,  as  Humbert  of  Romans 
(1255)  informs  us  (Opera,  II,  p.  493).  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourteenth  century,  a  celebrated  pulpit 
orator,  Giordano  da  Rivalto,  declared  that,  owing  to 
the  activity  of  the  order,  heresy  had  almost  entirely 
disappeared  from  the  Church  ("Prediche  del  Beato 
Fra  Giordano  da  Rivalto",  Florence,  1831,  I,  p. 
239). 

The  Friars  Preachers  were  especially  authorized 
by  the  Roman  Church  to  preach  crusades,  against 
the  Saracens  in  favour  of  the  Holy  Land,  against 
Livonia  and  Prussia,  and  against  Frederick  II,  and 
his  successors  (Bull.  O.  P.,  XIII,  p.  637).  This 
preaching  assumed  such  importance  that  Humbert 
of  Romans  composed  for  the  purpose  a  treatise 
entitled,  "Tractatus  de  praedicatione  contra  Saracenos 
infideles  et  paganos"  (Tract  on  the  preaching  of  the 
Cross  against  the  Saracens,  infidels  and  pagans). 
This  still  exists  in  its  first  edition  in  the  Paris  Bibli- 
otheque  Mazarine,  incunabula,  no.  259;  Lecoy  de  la 
Marche,  "La  predication  de  la  Croisade  au  XIIP 
siecle"  in  "Rev.  des  questions  historiques",  1890,  p. 
5).  In  certain  provinces,  particularly  in  Germany  and 
Italy,  the  Dominican  preaching  took  on  a  peculiar 
quality,  due  to  the  influence  of  the  spiritual  direction 
which  the  religious  of  these  provinces  gave  to  the 
numerous  convents  of  women  confided  to  their  care. 
It  was  a  mystical  preaching;  the  specimens  which 
have  survived  are  in  the  vernacular,  and  are 
marked  by  simplicity  and  strength  (Denifle,  "tjber  die 
Anfange  der  Predigtweise  der  deutschen  Mystiker" 
in  "Archiv.  f.  Litt.  u.  Kirohengesch",  II,  p.  641; 
Pfeiffer,  "Deutsche  Mystiker  des  vierzehnten  Jahr- 
hundert",  Leipzig,  184.5;  Wackernagel,  "Altdeutsche 
Predigten  und  Gebete  aus  Handschriften",  Basle, 
1S76).  Among  these  preachers  may  be  mentioned: 
St.  Dominic,  the  founder  and  model  of  preachers 
(d.  1221);  Jordan  of  Saxony  (d.  1237)  (Lives  of  the 
Brothers,  pts.  II,  III) ;  Giovanni  di  Vincenza,  whose 


popular  eloquence  stirred  Northern  Italy  during  the 
year  1233  —  called  the  Age  of  the  Alleluia  (Sitter, 
"Johann  von  Vincenza  und  die  Italiensche  Friedens- 
bewegung",  Freiburg,  1891);  Giordano  da  Rivalto, 
the  foremost  pulpit  orator  in  Tuscany  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century  [d.  1311  (Galletti,  "Fra 
Giordano  da  Pisa",  Turin,  1899)];  Johann  Eokhart  of 
Hochheim  (d.  1327),  the  celebrated  theorist  of  the 
mystical  life  (Pfeiffer,  "Deutsche  Mystiker",  II,  1857; 
Buttner,  "Meister  Eckharts  Schriften  und  Predig- 
ten", Leipzig,  1903);  Henri  Suso  (d.  1366),  the  poet- 
ical lover  of  Divine  wisdom  (Bihlmeyer,  "Heinrioh 
Sense  Deutsche  Schriften",  Stuttgart,  1907);  Johann 
Tauler  (d.  1361),  the  eloquent  moralist  ("Johanns 
Taulers  Predigten",  ed.  T.  Harnberger,  Frankfort, 
1864);  Venturino  da  Bergamo  (d.  134.5),  the  fiery 
popular  agitator  (Clementi,  "Un  Santo  Patriota, 
II  B.  Venturino  da  Bergamo  ",  Rome,  1909) ;  Jacopo 
Passavanti  (d.  1357),  the  noted  author  of  the  "Mirror 
of  Penitence"  (Carmini  di  Pierro,  "Contributo  alia 
Biografia  di  Fra  Jacopo  Passavanti"  in  "Giornale 
storico  della  letteratura  italiana",  XLVII,  1906, 
p.  1);  Giovanni  Dominici  (d.  1419),  the  beloved 
orator  of  the  Florentines  (Gallette,  "Una  Raccolta 
di  Prediche  volgari  del  Cardinale  Giovanni  Dominici" 
in  "Miscellanea  di  studi  critici  publicati  in  onore  di 
G.  Mazzoni",  Florence,  1907,  I);  Alain  de  la  Roche 
(d.  1475),  the  Apostle  of  the  Rosary  (Script.  Ord. 
Praed.,  I,  p.  849);  Savonarola  (d.  1498),  one  of  the 
most  powerful  orators  of  all  times  (Luotto,  "II 
vero  Savonarola",  Florence,  p.  68). 

(e)  Academic  Organization. — The  first  order  institu- 
ted by  the  Church  with  an  academic  mission  was  the 
Preachers.  The  decree  of  the  Fourth  Lateran  Coun- 
cil (1215)  requiring  the  appointment  of  a  master  of  the- 
ology for  each  cathedral  school  had  not  been  effectual. 
The  Roman  Church  and  St.  Dominic  met  the  needs 
of  the  situation  by  creating  a  religious  order  vowed 
to  the  teaching  of  the  sacred  sciences.  To  attain 
their  purpose,  the  Preachers  from  1220  laid  down  as 
a  fundamental  principle,  that  no  convent  of  their 
order  could  be  founded  without  a  doctor  (Const., 
Dist.  II,  cog.  I).  From  their  first  foundation,  the 
bishops,  hkewise,  welcomed  them  with  expressions 
like  those  of  the  Bishop  of  Metz  (22  April,  1221): 
"Cohabitatio  ipsorum  non  tantum  laicis  in  prsedica- 
tionibus,  sed  et  clericis  in  sacris  lectionibus  esset 
plurimum  profutura,  exemplo  Domini  Papse,  qui 
eis  Romae  domum  contulit,  et  multorum  archiepis- 
coporum  ac  episcoporum"  etc.  (Annailes  Ord.  Prajd., 
I,  append.,  col.  71).  (Association  with  them  would 
be  of  great  value  not  only  to  laymen  by  their 
preaching,  but  also  to  the  clergy  by  their  lectures 
on  sacred  science,  as  it  was  to  the  Lord  Pope  who  gave 
them  their  house  at  Rome,  and  to  many  archbishops 
and  bishops.)  This  is  the  reason  why  the  second 
master  general,  Jordan  of  Saxony,  defined  the  voca- 
tion of  the  order:  "honeste  vivere,  discere  et  docere", 
i.  e.  upright  living,  learning  and  teaching  (Vitae 
Fratrum,  p.  138);  and  one  of  his  successors,  John 
the  Teuton,  declared  that  he  was  "ex  ordine  Praedica- 
torum,  quorum  proprium  esset  docendi  munus" 
(Annales,  p.  644).  (Of  the  Order  of  Preachers,  whose 
proper  function  was  to  teach.)  In  pursuit  of  this  aim 
the  Preachers  established  a  very  complete  and 
thoroughly  organized  scholastic  system,  which  has 
caused  a  writer  of  our  own  times  to  say  that  "Dom- 
inic was  the  first  minister  of  public  instruction  in 
modern  Europe"  (Laroussc,  "Grand  Dictionnaire 
Universel  du  XIXe  Siecle",  s.  v.  Dominic). 

The  general  basis  of  teaching  was  the  conventual 
school.  It  was  attended  by  the  religious  of  the 
convent,  and  by  clerics  from  the  outside;  the  teach- 
ing was  public.  The  school  was  directed  by  a  doctor, 
called  later,  though  not  in  all  cases,  lector.  His 
principal  subject  was  the  text  of  Holy  Scripture, 
which  he  interpreted,  and  in  connexion  with  which 


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he  treated  theological  questions.  The  "Sentences" 
of  Peter  Lombard,  the  "History"  of  Peter  Comestor, 
the  "Sum"  of  cases  of  conscience,  were  also,  but 
secondarily,  used  as  texts.  In  the  large  convents, 
which  were  not  called  siudia  generalia,  but  were  in 
the  language  of  the  times  siudia  solemnia,  the  teach- 
ing staff  was  more  complete.  There  was  a  second 
master  or  sub-lector,  or  a  bachelor,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  lecture  on  the  Bible  and  the  "Sentences".  This 
organization  somewhat  resembled  that  of  the  siudia 
generalia.  The  head  master  held  public  disputations 
every  fortnight.  Each  convent  possessed  a  magister 
studentium,  charged  with  the  superintendence  of  the 
students,  and  usually  an  assistant  teacher.  These 
masters  were  appointed  by  the  provincial  chapters, 
and  the  visitors  were  obliged  to  report  each  year  to 
the  chapter  on  the  condition  of  academic  work. 
Above  the  conventual  schools  were  the  studia  gen- 
eralia. The  first  studium  generalv  which  the  order 
possessed  was  that  of  the  Convent  of  St.  Jacques  at 
Paris.  In  1229  they  obtained  a  chair  incorporated 
with  the  university  and  another  in  1231.  Thus  the 
Preachers  were  the  first  religious  order  that  took  part 
in  teaching  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and  the  only 
one  possessing  two  schools.  In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury the  order  did  not  recognize  any  mastership  of 
theology  other  than  that  received  at  Paris.  Usually 
the  masters  did  not  teach  for  any  length  of  time. 
After  receiving  their  degrees,  they  were  assigned  to 
different  schools  of  the  order  throughout  the  world. 
The  schools  of  St .  Jacques  at  Paris  were  the  principal 
scholastic  centres  of  the  Preachers  during  the  Middle 
Ages. 

In  1248  the  development  of  the  order  led  to  the 
erection  of  four  new  studia  generalia — at  Oxford, 
Cologne,  >Iontpellier,  and  Bologna.  When  at  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century  several  provinces  of  the  order  were 
divided,  other  studia  were  established  at  Naples, 
Florence,  Genoa,  Toulouse,  Barcelona,  and  Salamanca. 
The  studium  generate  was  conducted  by  a  master  or 
regent,  and  two  bachelors  who  taught  under  his 
direction.  The  master  taught  the  text  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures  with  commentaries.  The  works  of  Albert 
the  Great  and  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  show  us  the  nature 
of  these  lessons.  Every  fifteen  days  the  master 
held  a  debate  upon  a  theme  chosen  by  himself. 
To  this  class  of  exercises  belong  the  "Quajstiones 
Disputatae"  of  St.  Thomas,  while  his  "Quaestiones 
Quodiibeticae"  represent  extraordinary  disputations 
which  took  place  twice  a  year  during  Advent  and  Lent, 
and  whose  subject  was  proposed  by  the  auditors. 
One  of  the  bachelors  read  and  commentated  the  Book 
of  Sentences.  The  commentaries  of  Albert  and 
Thomas  Aquinas  on  the  Lombard  are  the  fruit  of 
their  two-year  baccalaureate  course  as  sententiarii. 
The  biblicus  lectured  on  the  Scriptures  for  one  year 
before  becoming  a  sententiarius.  He  did  not  com- 
mentate, but  read  and  interpreted  the  glosses  which 
preceding  ages  had  added  to  the  Scriptures  for  a 
better  understanding  of  the  text.  The  professors 
of  the  stiulia  generalia  were  appointed  by  the  general 
chapters,  or  by  the  master  general,  delegated  for  that 
purpose.  Those  who  were  to  teach  at  Paris  were 
taken  indiscriminately  from  the  different  provinces 
of  the  order. 

The  conventual  schools  taught  only  the  sacred 
sciences,  i.  e.  Holy  Scripture  and  theology.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  neither  priests 
nor  religious  studied  or  taught  the  profane  sciences. 
As  it  could  not  set  itself  against  this  general  status, 
the  order  provided  in  its  constitutions,  that  the  master 
general,  or  the  general  chapter,  might  allow  certain 
religious  to  take  up  the  study  of  the  liberal  arts. 
Thus,  at  first,  the  study  of  the  arts,  i.  e.  of  philosophy, 
was  entirely  individual.  As  numerous  masters  of 
arts  entered  the  order  during  the  early  years,   es- 


pecially at  Paris  and  Bologna,  it  was  easy  to  make  a 
stand  against  this  private  teaching.  However,  the 
development  of  the  order  and  the  rapid  intellectual 
progress  of  the  thirteenth  century  soon  caused  the 
organization — for  the  use  of  religious  only — of  reg- 
ular schools  for  the  study  of  the  hberal  arts.  Towards 
the  middle  of  the  century  the  provinces  established 
in  one  or  more  of  their  convents  the  study  of  logic; 
and  about  1260  the  studia  naturalium,  i.  e.  courses  in 
natural  science.  The  General  Chapter  of  1315  com- 
manded the  masters  of  the  students  to  lecture  on  the 
moral  sciences  to  all  the  religious  of  their  convents; 
i.  e.  on  the  ethics,  politics,  and  economics  of  Aristotle. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  we 
find  also  some  religious  who  gave  special  courses 
in  philosophy  to  secular  students.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  the  Preachers  occupied  in  several  universities 
chairs  of  philosophy,  especially  of  metaphysics. 
Coming  in  contact  as  it  did  with  barbaric  peoples — 
principally  with  the  Greeks  and  Arabs — the  order  was 
compelled  from  the  outset  to  take  up  the  study  of 
foreign  languages.  The  Chapter  Generalissimo  of 
1236  ordered  that  in  all  convents  and  in  all  the  prov- 
inces the  religious  should  learn  the  languages  of  the 
neighbouring  countries.  The  following  year  Brother 
Phillippe,  Provincial  of  the  Holy  Land,  wrote  to 
Gregory  IX  that  his  religious  had  preached  to  the 
people  in  the  different  languages  of  the  Orient,  es- 
pecially in  Arabic,  the  most  popular  tongue,  and 
that  the  study  of  languages  had  been  added  to  their 
conventual  course.  The  province  of  Greece  furnished 
several  Hellenists  whose  works  we  shall  mention 
later.  The  province  of  Spain,  whose  population  was 
a  mixture  of  Jews  and  Arabs,  opened  special  schools 
for  the  study  of  languages.  About  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century  it  also  established  a  studium 
arabicum  at  Tunis;  in  1259  one  at  Barcelona;  be- 
tween 1265  and  1270  one  at  Murcia;  in  1281  one  at 
Valencia.  The  same  province  also  established  some 
schools  for  the  study  of  Hebrew  at  Barcelona  in  1281, 
and  at  Jativa  in  1291.  Finally,  the  General  Chapter 
of  1310  commanded  the  master  general  to  establish, 
in  several  provinces,  schools  for  the  study  of  Hetjrew, 
Greek,  and  Arabic,  to  which  each  province  of  the 
order  should  send  at  least  one  student.  In  view  of 
this  fact  a  Protestant  historian,  Molinier,  in  writing 
of  the  Friars  Preachers,  remarks:  "They  were  not 
content  with  professing  in  their  convents  all  the 
divisions  of  science,  as  it  was  then  understood;  they 
added  an  entire  order  of  studies  which  no  other  Chris- 
tian schools  of  the  time  seem  to  have  taught,  and 
in  which  they  had  no  other  rivals  than  the  rabbis  of 
Languedoc  and  Spain"  ("Guillem  Bernard  de 
Gaillac  et  I'enseignement  chez  les  Dominicains", 
Paris,  1884,  p.  30). 

This  scholastic  activity  extended  to  other  fields, 
particularly  to  the  universities  which  were  established 
throughout  Europe  from  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century;  the  Preachers  took  a  prominent  part 
in  university  life.  Those  universities,  like  Paris, 
Toulouse  etc.,  which  from  the  beginning  had  chairs 
of  theology,  incorporated  the  Dominican  conventual 
school  which  was  patterned  on  the  schools  of  the 
siudia  generalia.  When  a  university  was  established 
in  a  city — as  was  usually  the  case — after  the  founda- 
tion of  a  Dominican  convent,  which  always  possessed 
a  chair  of  theology,  the  pontifical  letters  granting  the 
establishment  of  the  university  made  no  mention 
whatever  of  a  faculty  of  theology.  The  latter  was 
consideredasalreadyexistingby  reason  of  the  Domin- 
ican school  and  others  of  the  mendicant  orders,  who 
followed  the  example  of  the  Preachers.  For  a  time 
the  Dominican  theological  schools  were  simply  in 
juxtaposition  to  the  universities,  which  had  no 
faculty  of  theology.  When  these  universities  peti- 
tioned the  Holy  See  for  a  faculty  of  theology,  and 
their  petition  was  granted,  they  usually  incorporated 


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362 


PREACHERS 


the  Dominican  school,  which  thus  became  a  part  of 
the  theological  faculty.  This  transformation  began 
towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  and  lasted  until 
the  first  years  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Once  es- 
tablished, this  state  of  things  lasted  until  the  Ref- 
ormation in  the  countries  which  became  Protestant, 
and  until  the  French  Revolution  and  its  spread  in 
the  Latin  countries. 

The  archbishops,  who  according  to  the  decree  of 
the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215)  were  to  establish 
in  each  metropolitan  church  a  master  of  theology, 
considered  themselves  dispensed  from  this  obliga- 
tion by  reason  of  the  creation  of  Dominican  schools 
open  to  the  secular  clergy.  However,  when  they 
thought  it  their  duty  to  apply  the  decree  of  the 
council,  or  when  later  they  were  obhged  by  the 
Roman  Church  to  do  so,  they  frequently  called  in  a 
Dominican  master  to  fill  the  chair  of  their  metro- 
politan school.  Thus  the  metropolitan  school  of 
Lyons  was  intrusted  to  the  Preachers,  from  their  es- 
tablishment in  that  city  until  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  (Forest,  "L'ecole  oathedrale  de 
Lyon",  Paris-Lyons,  1885,  pp.  238,  368;  Beyssac,  "Les 
Prieurs  de  Notre  Dame  de  Confort  ,  Lyons,  1909; 
"Chart.  Univer.  Paris",  III,  p.  28).  The  same  arrange- 
ment, though  not  so  permanent,  was  made  at  Toulouse, 
Bordeaux,  Tortosa,  Valencia,  tjrgel,  ]Milan  etc.  The 
popes,  who  believed  themselves  morally  obligated  to 
set  an  example  regarding  the  execution  of  the  scholastic 
decree  of  the  Lateran  Council,  usually  contented  them- 
selves during  the  thirteenth  century  with  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  at  Rome  by  the  Dominicans  and  other 
religious  orders.  The  Dominican  masters  who 
taught  at  Rome  or  in  other  cities  where  the  sovereign 
pontiffs  took  up  their  residence,  were  known  as 
leclores  carim.  Howe\'er,  when  the  popes,  once 
settled  at  Avignon,  began  to  require  from  the  arch- 
bishops the  execution  of  the  decree  of  Lateran,  they 
instituted  a  theological  school  in  their  omi  papal 
palace;  the  initiative  was  taken  by  Clement  V  (1305- 
1314).  At  the  request  of  the  Dominican,  Cardinal 
Nicolas  Albert!  de  Prato  (d.  1321),  this  work  was 
permanently  intrusted  to  a  Preacher,  bearing  the 
name  of  Magisler  Sacri  Palatii.  The  first  to  hold  the 
position  was  Pierre  Godin,  who  later  became  cardinal 
(1312).  The  office  of  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace, 
whose  functions  were  successively  increased,  remains 
to  the  present  day  the  special  jirivilege  of  the  Order 
of  Preachers  (Cutalani,  "De  ilagistro  Sacri  Palatii 
Apostolici",  Rome,  p.  175). 

Finally,  when  towards  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  old  monastic  orders  began  to  take  up 
the  scholastic  and  doctrinal  movement,  the  Cister- 
cians, in  particular,  applied  to  the  Preachers  for 
masters  of  theology  in  their  abbeys  ("Chart.  Univ. 
Paris",  I,  p.  1S4).  During  the  last  portion  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  Dominicans  furnished,  at  intervals, 
professors  to  the  different  orders,  not  themselves 
consecrated  to  study  (Denifle,  "Quellen  zur 
Gelehrtengeschichte  des  Predigerordens  im  13.  und 
14.  Jahrhundert"  in  "  Archiv.",  II,  p.  165;  Mandonnet, 
"Les  Chanoines  Precheurs  de  Bologne",  Fribourg, 
1903;  Douais,  "Essaisurl'organisation  des  etudes  dans 
I'OrdredesFreres-Prficheurs",  Paris,  1884;  Mandonnet, 
"  De  rincorporation  des  Dominicains  dans  I'anoienne 
Universite  de  Paris"  in  "Ro^qie  Thomiste",  IV,  1896, 
p.  139;  Denifle,  "DieUniversitaton  des  Mittelalters", 
Berlin,  1885;  I,  passim;  Denifle-Chatelain,  "Chart. 
Univ.,  Paris",  1SS9,  passim;  Bernard,  "Lea  Domini- 
cains dans  I'Universitc  de  Paris",  Paris,  183; 
Mandonnet,  "Siger  de  Brabant  et  I'averroisme  Latin 
au  Xllle  sicVle",  Louvain,  1911,  I,  p.  30-95).  The 
legislation  regarding  studies  occurs  here  and  there 
in  the  constitutions,  and  princi])aUy  in  the  "Acta 
Capitularium  Generalium",  Rome,  1898,  sq.  and 
Douais,  "Acta  Capitulorum  Provincialium"  (Tou- 
louse, 1894). 


The  teaching  activity  of  the  order  and  its  scholastic 
organization  placed  the  Preachers  in  the  forefront 
of  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Middle  Ages.  They 
were  the  pioneers  in  all  directions  as  one  may  see 
from  a  subsequent  paragraph  relative  to  their  literary 
productions.  We  speak  only  of  the  school  of  philos- 
ophy and  of  theology  created  by  them  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  which  has  been  the  most  influential 
in  the  history  of  the  Church.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century  philosophical  teaching  was 
confined  practically  to  the  logic  of  Aristotle  and 
theology,  and  was  under  the  influence  of  St.  Augustine; 
hence  the  name  Augustinism  generally  given  to  the 
theological  doctrines  of  that  age.  The  first  Domini- 
can doctors,  who  came  from  the  universities  into  the 
order,  or  who  taught  in  the  universities,  adhered  for 
a  long  time  to  the  Augustinian  doctrine.  Among 
the  most  celebrated  were  Roland  of  Cremona,  Hugh 
of  Saint  Cher,  Richard  Fitzacre,  Moneta  of  Cremona, 
Peter  of  Tarentaise,  and  Robert  of  Kilwardby.  It 
was  the  introduction  into  the  Latin  world  of  the  great 
works  of  Aristotle,  and  their  assimilation,  through  the 
action  of  Albertus  Magnus,  that  opened  up  in  the 
Order  of  Preachers  a  new  line  of  phflosophical  and 
theological  investigation.  The  work  begun  by 
Albertus  Magnus  (1240-1250)  was  carried  to  com- 
pletion by  his  disciple,  Thomas  Aquinas  (q.  v.),  whose 
teaching  activity  occupied  the  last  twenty  years  of  his 
life  (124.5-1274).  The  system  of  theology  and 
philosophy  constructed  by  Aquinas  is  the  most  com- 
plete, the  most  original,  and  the  most  profound, 
which  Christian  thought  has  elaborated,  and  the 
master  who  designed  it  surpasses  all  his  contem- 
poraries and  his  successors  in  the  grandeur  of  his 
creative  genius.  The  Thomist  School  developed 
rapidly  both  within  the  order  and  without.  The 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  witnessed  the 
struggles  of  the  Thomist  School  on  various  points 
of  doctrine.  The  Council  of  Vienne  (1311)  declared 
in  favour  of  the  Thomistic  teaching,  according  to 
which  there  is  but  one  form  in  the  human  composi- 
tion, and  condemned  as  heretical  any  one  who  should 
deny  that  "the  rational  or  intellective  soul  is  per  se 
and  essentially  the  form  of  the  human  body".  This 
is  also  the  teaching  of  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council 
(1515).  See  Zigliara,  "De  Mente  Concilii  Vien- 
nensis",  Rome,  1878,  pp.  88-89. 

The  discussions  between  the  Preachers  and  the 
Friars  on  the  poverty  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles  was 
also  settled  by  John  XXII  in  the  Thomistic  sense 
[(12  Nov.,  1323),  Ehrle,  "Archiv.  f.  Litt.  u  Khchen- 
gesch. ",  III,  p.  517;  Tocco,  "La  Questione  della 
poverta.  nel  Secolo  XIV",  Naples,  1910].  The  ques- 
tion regarding  the  Divinity  of  the  Blood  of  Christ 
separated  from  His  Body  during  His  Passion,  raised 
for  the  fii'st  time  in  1351,  at  Barcelona,  and  taken  up 
again  in  Italy  in  1463,  was  the  subject  of  a  formal 
debate  before  Pius  II.  The  Dominican  opinion  pre- 
vailed; although  the  pope  refused  a  sentence  prop- 
erly so  called  (Mortier,  "  Hist,  des  Maitres  Generaux", 
III,  p.  287,  IV,  p.  413;  G.  degli  Agostini,  "Notizie 
istorico-critiche  intorno  la  vita  e  le  opere  degli 
scrittori  Viniziani",  Venice,  1752,  I,  p.  401.  During 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  Thomist 
Sc-hool  had  to  make  a  stand  against  Nominalism,  of 
which  a  Preacher  had  been  one  of  the  protagonists. 
The  repeated  sentences  of  the  universities  and  of 
princes  slowly  combatted  this  doctrine  (De  Wulf, 
"Histoire  de  la  phUosophie  medi^vale",  Louvain- 
Paris,  1905,  p.  4.53). 

The  Averroism  against  which  Albert  the  Great, 
and  especially  Aquinas  had  fought  so  energetically  did 
not  disappear  entirely  with  the  condemnation  of 
Paris  (1277),  but  survived  under  a  more  or  less  at- 
tenuated form.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  debates  were  renewed,  and  the  Preachers 
found  themselves  actively  engaged  therein  in  Italy 


PREACHERS 


363 


PREACHERS 


where  the  Averroist  doctrine  had  reappeared.  The 
General  of  the  Dominicans,  Thomas  de  Vio  (Cajetan), 
had  published  his  commentaries  on  the  "De  Anima" 
of  Aristotle  (Florence,  1509),  in  which,  abandoning 
the  position  of  St.  Thomas,  he  contended  that 
Aristotle  had  not  taught  the  individual  immortality 
of  the  soul,  but  affirming  at  the  same  time  that  this 
doctrine  was  philosophically  erroneous.  The  Council 
of  Lateran,  by  its  Decree,  19  Dec,  1513,  not  only 
condemned  the  Averroistic  teaching,  but  exacted  still 
further  that  professors  of  philosophy  should  answer  the 
opposing  arguments  advanced  by  philosophers — a 
measure  which  Cajetan  did  not  approve  (Mansi, 
"Councils",  I,  32,  col.  842).  Pietro  Pomponazzi, 
having  published  at  Bologna  (1516)  his  treatise  on 
the  immortality  of  the  soul  in  the  Averroistic  sense, 
while  making  an  open  profession  of  faith  in  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine,  raised  numerous  polemics,  and  was 
held  as  a  suspect.  Chrysostom  Javelli,  regent  of 
theology  at  the  Convent  of  St.  Dominic,  in  agree- 
ment with  the  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  at  the 
request  of  Pomponazzi,  sought  to  extricate  him  from 
this  difficult)'  by  drawing  up  a  short  theological 
expose  of  the  question  which  was  to  be  added  in  the 
future  to  the  work  of  Pomponazzi.  But  this  dis- 
cussion did  not  cease  all  at  once.  Several  Dominicans 
entered  the  lists.  Girolamo  de  Fornariis  subjected  to 
examination  the  polemic  of  Pomponazzi  with  Augus- 
tin  Xifi  (Bologna,  1519);  Bartolommeo  de  Spina  at- 
tacked Cajetan  on  one  article,  and  Pomponazzi  in  two 
others  (Venice,  1519) ;  Isidore  of  Isolanis  also  wrote 
on  the  immortality  of  the  soul  (Milan,  1520);  Lucas 
Bettini  took  up  the  same  theme,  and  Pico  della  Miran- 
dola  published  his  treatise  (Bologna,  1523);  finally 
Chrysostom  Javelli  himself,  in  1523,  composed  a 
treatise  on  immortality  in  which  he  refuted  the  point 
of  view  of  Cajetan  and  of  Pomponazzi  (Chrysostomi 
JaveUi,  "Opera",  Venice,  1577,  I-III,  p.  52). 
Cajetan,  becoming  cardinal,  not  only  held  his  posi- 
tion regarding  the  idea  of  Aristotle,  but  further  de- 
clared that  the  immortality  of  the  soul  was  an  article 
of  faith,  for  which  philosophy  could  offer  only  prob- 
able reasons  ("In  Ecclesiasten",  1534,  cap.  iv; 
Fiorentino,   "Pietro  Pomponazzi",  Florence,   1868). 

(f )  Literary  and  Scientific  Productions. — During  the 
Middle  Ages  the  order  had  an  enormous  literary 
output,  its  activity  extending  to  all  spheres.  The 
works  of  its  writers  are  epoch-making  in  the  various 
branches  of  human  knowledge. 

(i)  Works  on  the  Bible. — The  study  and  teaching 
of  the  Bible  were  foremost  among  the  occupations 
of  the  Preachers,  and  their  studies  included  every- 
thing pertaining  to  it.  They  first  undertook  correc- 
tories  (correctoria)  of  the  Vulgate  text  (1230-36), 
under  the  direction  of  Hugh  of  Saint  Cher,  professor 
at  the  University  of  Paris.  The  collation  with  the 
Hebrew  text  was  accomplished  under  the  sub-prior 
of  St-Jacques,  Theobald  of  Sexania,  a  converted 
Jew.  Two  other  correctories  were  made  prior  to 
1267,  the  first  called  the  correctory  of  Sens.  Again 
under  the  direction  of  Hugh  of  Saint  Cher  the  Preach- 
ers made  the  first  concordances  of  the  Bible  which 
were  called  the  Concordances  of  St-Jacques  or  Great 
Concordances  because  of  their  development.  The 
English  Dominicans  of  Oxford,  apparently  under  the 
direction  of  John  of  Darlington,  made  more  simplified 
concordances  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury a  German  Dominican,  Conrad  of  Halberstadt, 
simplified  the  Enghsh  concordances  still  more;  and 
John  Fojkowich  of  Ragusa,  at  the  time  of  the  Council 
of  Basle,  caused  the  insertion  in  the  concordances  of 
elements  which  had  not  hitherto  been  incorporated 
in  them.  The  Dominicans,  moreover,  composed 
numerous  commentaries  on  the  books  of  the  Bible. 
That  of  Hugh  of  Saint  Cher  was  the  first  complete 
commentary  on  the  Scriptures  (last  ed.,  Venice,  1754, 


8  vols,  in  fol.).  The  commentaries  of  Bl.  Albertua 
Magnus  and  especially  those  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas 
are  still  famous.  With  St.  Thomas  the  interpretation 
of  the  text  is  more  direct,  simply  literal,  and  theolog- 
ical. These  great  Scriptural  commentaries  repre- 
sent theological  teaching  in  the  sludia  generalia. 
The  kcturae  on  the  text  of  Scripture,  also  composed 
to  a  large  extent  by  Dominicans,  represent  Scrip- 
tural teaching  in  the  other  studia  of  theology.  St. 
Thomas  undertook  an  "Expositio  continua"  of  the 
four  Gospels  now  called  the  "Catena  aurea",  com- 
posed of  extracts  from  the  Fathers  with  a  view 
to  its  use  by  clerics.  At  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century  Nicholas  of  Trevet  did  the  same  for 
all  the  books  of  the  Bible.  The  Preachers  were  also 
engaged  in  translating  the  Bible  into  the  vernacular. 
In  all  probability  they  were  the  translators  of  the 
French  Parisian  Bible  during  the  first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  in  the  fourteenth  century 
they  took  a  very  active  share  in  the  translation  of  the 
celebrated  Bible  of  King  John.  The  name  of  a 
Catalonian  Dominican,  Romeu  of  Sabruguera,  is  at- 
tached to  the  first  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into 
Catalonian.  The  names  of  Preachers  are  also  con- 
nected with  the  Valencian  and  Castilian  translations, 
and  still  more  with  the  Italian  (F.  L.  Mannoci, 
"Intorno  a  un  volgarizzamento  della  Biblia  attri- 
buita  al  B.  Jacopo  da  Voragine"  in  "Giornale  storico 
e  letterario  della  Liguria",  V,  1904,  p.  96).  The 
first  pre-Lutheran  German  translation  of  the  Bible, 
except  the  Psalms,  is  due  to  John  Rellach,  shortly 
after  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Finally 
the  Bible  was  translated  from  Latin  into  Armenian 
about  1330  by  B.  Bartolommeo  Parvi  of  Bologna,  mis- 
sionary and  bishop  in  Armenia.  These  works  en- 
abled Vercellone  to  write:  "To  the  Dominican  Order 
belongs  the  glory  of  having  first  renewed  in  the 
Church  the  illustrious  example  of  Origen  and  St. 
Augustine  by  the  ardent  cultivation  of  sacred  criti- 
cism" (P.  Mandonnet,  "Travaux  des  Dominicains  sur 
les  Saintes  Ecritures"  in  "Diet,  de  la  Bible",  II, 
col.  1463;  Saul,  "Das  Bibelstudium  im  Predigeror- 
den"  in  "Der  Katholik",  82  Jahrg,  3  f.,  XXVII, 
1902,  a  repetition  of  the  foregoing  article). 

(ii)  Philosophical  works. — The  most  celebrated 
philosophical  works  of  the  thirteenth  century  were 
those  of  Albertus  Magnus  and  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 
The  former  compiled  on  the  model  of  Aristotle  a 
vast  scientific  encyclopedia  which  exercised  great 
influence  on  the  last  centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages 
("Alberti  Magni  Opera",  Lyons,  1651,  20  vols, 
in  fol.;  Paris,  1890,  38  vols,  in  40;  Mandonnet, 
"Siger  de  Brabant",  I,  37,  n.  3).  Thomas  Aquinas, 
apart  from  special  treatises  and  numerous  philosoph- 
ical sections  in  his  other  works,  commentated  in 
whole  or  in  part  thirteen  of  Aristotle's  treatises,  these 
being  the  most  important  of  the  Stagyrite's  works 
(Mandonnet,  "Des  Merits  authentiques  de  St. 
Thomas  d'Aquin",  2nd  ed.,  p.  104,  Opera,  Paris, 
1889,  XXII-XVI).  Robert  of  Kilwardby  (d.  1279), 
a  holder  of  the  old  Augustinian  direction,  produced 
numerous  philosophical  writings.  His  "De  ortu  et 
divisione  philosophiae "  is  regarded  as  "the  most 
important  introduction  to  Philosophy  of  the  Middle 
Ages"  (Baur,  " Dominicus  Gundissalinus  De  divisione 
philosophise  '*,  Munster,  1903,  368) .  At  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, Dietrich  of  Vriberg  left  an  important  philosoph- 
ical and  scientific  work  (Krebs,  "Meister  Dietrich, 
sein  Leben,  seine  Werke,  seine  Wissenschaft", 
Munster,  1906).  At  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  and 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Domini- 
cans composed  numerous  philosophical  treatises, 
many  of  them  bearing  on  the  special  points  whereon 
the  Thomistic  School  was  attacked  by  its  adver- 
saries ("Archiv  f.  Litt.  und  Kirchengesch.",  II, 
226  sqq.). 


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364 


PREACHERS 


(iii)  Theological  works. — In  importance  and  num- 
ber theologicul  works  occupy  the  foreground  in  the 
literary  activity  of  the  order.  Most  of  the  theolo- 
gians composed  commentaries  on  the  "Sentences" 
of  Peter  Lombard,  which  was  the  classical  text  in 
theological  schools.  Besides  the  "Sentences"  the 
usual  work  of  bachelors  in  the  Universities  included 
Disputationcs  and  Quodlibcia,  which  were  always 
the  writings  of  masters.  The  theological  summoe 
set  forth  the  theological  matter  according  to  a  more 
complete  and  well-ordered  plan  than  that  of  Peter 
Lombard  and  especially  with  solid  philosophical 
principles  in  which  the  books  of  the  "Sentences" 
were  wanting.  Manuals  of  theology  and'  more  es- 
pecially manuals,  or  swmm-ce,  on  penance  for  the  use 
of  confessors  were  composed  in  great  numbers.  The 
oldest  Dominican  commentaries  on  the  "Sentences" 
are  those  of  Roland  of  Cremona,  Hugh  of  Saint  Cher, 
Richard  Fitzacre,  Robert  of  Kilwardby,  and  Albertus 
Magnus.  The  series  begins  with  the  year  1230  if 
not  earlier  and  the  last  are  prior  to  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century  (Mandonnet,  "Siger  de  Brabant", 
I,  53).  The  "Summa"  of  St.  Thomas  (12(35-7.5) 
is  still  the  masterpiece  of  theology.  The  monu- 
mental work  of  Albertus  Magnus  is  unfinished.  The 
"Summa  de  bono"  of  Uhich  of  Strasburg  (d.  1277), 
a  disciple  of  Albert,  is  still  unedited,  but  is  of  para- 
mount interest  to  the  historian  of  the  thought  of  the 
thirteenth  century  (Grabmann,  "Studien  ueber 
Ulrich  von  Strassburg"  in  "Zeitschrift  fur  Kathol. 
Theol.",  XXIX,  1905,  82).  The  theological  summa  of 
St.  Antoninus  is  highly  esteemed  by  moralists  and 
economists  (Ilgner,  "Die  Volkswirtschaftlichen  Ans- 
chaungen  Antonins  von  Florenz",  Paderborn,  1904). 
The  "Compendium  theologiose  veritatis"  of  Hugh 
Ripelin  of  St  rasburg  (d.  120S)  is  the  most  widespread 
and  famous  manual  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Mandonnet, 
"Des  rcrits  authentiques  de  St.  Thomas",  Fribourg, 
1910,  p.  86).  The  chief  manual  of  confessors  is  that 
of  Paul  of  Hungary  composed  for  the  Brothers  of  St. 
Nicholas  of  Bologna  (1220-21)  and  edited  without 
mention  of  the  author  in  the  "Bibliotheoa  Casinensis" 
(IV,  1880,  191)  and  with  false  assignment  of  author- 
ship by  R.  Duellius,  "MisccUan.  Lib."  (Augsburg, 
1723,  59).  The  "Summa  de  Prenitentia"  of  Ray- 
mond of  Pennafort,  composed  in  1235,  was  a  classic 
during  the  Middle  Ages  and  was  one  of  the  works 
of  which  the  MSS.  were  most  multiplied.  The 
"Summa  Confessorum"  of  John  of  Freiburg  (d. 
1314)  is,  according  to  F.  von  Schulte,  the  most  perfect 
product  of  this  class  of  literature.  The  Pisan  Bar- 
tolommco  of  San  Concordio  has  left  us  a  "Summa 
Casuum"  composed  in  133S,  in  which  the  matter  is 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  It  was  very  success- 
ful in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The 
manuals  for  confessors  of  John  Nieder  (d.  1438),  St. 
Antoninus,  Archbishop  of  Florence  (d.  1459),  and 
Girolamo  Savonarola  (d.  1498)  were  much  esteemed 
in  theb  time  (Qurtif-Echard,  "Script.  Ord.  Praid.", 
I,  passim;  Hurt  or,  "Nomenclator  litcrarius;  aetas 
media",  Innsbruck,  1906,  passim;  F.  von  Schulte, 
"Gesch.  der  Quellen  und  Literatur  des  canonischen 
Reclits",  Stuttgart,  II,  1877,  p.  410  sqq.;  Dietterle, 
"Die  Summa;  confessorum     .  .     von  ihron  An- 

fangen  an  bis  zu  Silvester  Prierias"  in  "Zeitschrift 
fiir  Kirchengesch.",  XX1\,  1903;   XXYHI,  1907). 

(iv)  Apologetic  works. — The  Preachers,  born  amid 
the  Albigensian  heresy  and  founded  especially  for 
the  defence  of  the  Faith,  bent  their  literar}'  efforts 
to  reach  all  classes  of  dissenters  from  the  Catholic 
Church.  They  produced  by  far  the  most  powerful 
works  in  the  sphere  of  apologetics.  The  "Summa 
contra  Catharos  et  Valdenses"  (Rome,  1743)  of  ]\Io- 
neta  of  Cremona,  in  course  of  composition  in  1244, 
is  the  most  complete  and  solid  work  produced  in  the 
Middle  Ages  against  the  Cathari  and  Waldenses. 
The  "Summa  contra  Gentiles"  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas 


is  one  of  that  master's  strongest  creations.  It  is 
the  defence  of  the  Christian  Faith  against  Arabian 
philosophy.  Raymond  Marti  in  his  "Pugio  fidei",  in 
course  of  composition  in  1278  (Paris,  1642;  1651;  Leip- 
zig, 1687),  measures  arms  with  Judaism.  This  work, 
to  a  large  extent  based  on  Rabbinic  literature,  is  the 
most  important  medieval  monument  of  Orientalism 
(Neubauer,  "Jewish  Controversy  and  the  Pugio 
Fidei"  in  "The  Expositor",  1888,  p.  81  sqq.;  Loeb, 
"La  controverse  religieuse  entre  les  Chretiens  et  les 
Juifs  au  moyen-age  en  France  et  en  Espagne"  in 
"Revue  de  I'histoire  des  religions",  XVIII,  136). 
The  Florentine,  Riccoldo  di  Monte  Croce,  a  mission- 
ary in  the  East  (d.  1320),  composed  his  "Propugna- 
culum  Fidei"  against  the  doctrine  of  the  Koran.  It 
is  a  rare  medieval  Latin  work  based  directly  on 
Arabian  literature.  Demetrius  Cydonius  translated 
the  "  Propugnaculum "  into  Greek  in  the  fourteenth 
century  and  Luther  translated  it  into  German  in  the 
sixteenth  (Mandonnet,  "Fra  Riccoldo  di  Monte 
Croce,  p^lerin  en  Terre  Sainte  et  missionnaire  en 
Orient"  in  "Revue  Biblique",  I,  1893,  44;  Grab- 
mann, "Die  Missionsidee  bei  den  Dominikaner- 
theologien  des  13.  Jahrhunderts "  in  "Zeitschrift  fiir 
iSIissionswissenschaft",  I,  1911,  137). 

(^')  Educational  literature. — Besides  manuals  of 
theology  the  Dominicans  furnished  a  considerable 
literary  output  with  a  view  to  meeting  the  various 
needs  of  all  social  classes  and  which  may  be  called 
educational  or  practical  literature.  They  composed 
treatises  on  preaching,  models  or  materials  for 
sermons,  and  collections  of  discourses.  Among  the 
oldest  of  these  are  the  "  Distinctiones "  and  the 
"  Dictionarius  pauperum"  of  Nicholas  of  Biard 
(d.  r2(il),  the  "Tractatus  de  diversis  materiis  prsedi- 
cabilibus"  of  Stephen  of  Bourbon  (d.  1261),  the  "De 
eruditione  prsedicatorum "  of  Humbert  of  Romans 
(d.  1277),  the  "Distinctiones"'  of  Nicholas  of  Goran 
(d.  1295),  and  of  Maurice  of  England  [d.  circa  1300; 
(Qu(5tif-Echard,  "Script.  Ord.  Pra;d.",  II,  968;  970; 
Lecoy  de  la  Marche,  "Lachaire  fran^aise  au  moyen- 
^e",  Paris,  1886;  Crane,  "The  exempla  or  illustra- 
tive stories  from  the  'Sermones  vulgares'  of  Jacques 
de  Vitry",  London,  1890)].  The  Preachers  led  the 
way  in  the  composition  of  comprehensive  collections 
of  the  lives  of  the  saints  or  legendaries,  writings  at 
once  for  the  use  and  edification  of  the  faithful. 
Bartholomew  of  Trent  compiled  his  "Liber  epilo- 
gorum  in  Gesta  Sanctorum"  in  1240.  After  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  Roderick  of  Cerrate 
composed  a  collection  of  "Vitae  Sanctorum"  (Madrid, 
University  Library,  cod.  146).  The  "Abbreviatio 
in  gestis  et  miraculis  sanctorum",  composed  in  1243 
according  to  the  "Speculum  historiale"  of  Vincent 
of  Beauvais,  is  the  work  of  Jean  de  Mailly.  The 
"Legenda  Sanctorum"  of  Jacopo  de  Voragine  (Vor- 
azze)  called  also  the  "Golden  Legend",  written  about 
1260,  is  universally  known.  "The  success  of  the 
book,"  writes  the  Bollandist,  A.  Poncelet,  "was  pro- 
digious; it  far  exceeded  that  of  all  similar  compila- 
tions." It  was  besides  translated  into  all  the  ver- 
naculars of  Europe.  The  "Speculum  Sanctorale" 
of  Bernard  Guidonis  is  a  work  of  a  much  more  schol- 
arly character.  The  first  three  parts  were  finished  in 
1324  and  the  fourth  in  1329.  About  the  same  time 
Peter  Calo  (d.  1348)  undertook  under  the  title  of 
"Legenda  sanctorum"  an  "immense  compilation" 
which  aimed  at  being  more  complete  than  its  pre- 
decessors (A.  Poncelet,  "Le  legendier  de  Pierre  Calo" 
in  "Analeota  Bollandiana",  XXIX,  1910,  5-116). 

Catechetical  literature  was  also  early  taken  in 
hand.  In  1256-7  Raymond  Marti  composed  his 
"Explanatio  symboli  ad  institutionem  fidelium" 
("Revue  des  BibliotMques",  VI,  1846,  32;  March, 
"La  'Explanatio  Symboli',  obra  inedita  de  Ramon 
Marti,  autor  del  'Pugio  Fidei'",  in  "Anuari  des 
Institut  d'Estudis  Catalans",  1908,  and  Barcelona, 


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1910).  Thomas  Aquinas  wrote  four  small  treatises 
which  represent  the  contents  of  a  catechism  as  it  was 
in  the  Middle  Ages:  "De  articulis  fidei  et  Eoclesiae 
Sacramentis  " ;  "Expositio  symboli  Apostolorum  " ; 
"De  decem  praeceptis  et  lege  amoris";  "Expositio 
orationis  dominicse"  Several  of  these  writings 
have  been  collected  and  called  the  catechism  of  St. 
Thomas.  (Portmann-Kunz,  "Katechismus  des  hi. 
Thomas  von  Aquin",  Lucerne,  1900.)  In  1277 
Laurent  d'Orl^ans  composed  at  the  request  of  Philip 
the  Bold,  whose  confessor  he  was,  a  real  catechism 
in  the  vernacular  known  as  the  "Somme  le  Roi" 
(Mandonnet,  "Laurent  d'Orl^ans  I'auteur  de  la 
Somme  le  Roi"  in  "Revue  des  langues  romanes", 
1911;  "Diet,  de  theol.  cath.",  II,  1900).  At  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  Bernard  Guidonis 
composed  an  abridgment  of  Christian  doctrine  which 
he  revised  later  when  he  had  become  Bishop  of 
LodSve  (1324-31)  into  a  sort  of  catechism  for  the 
use  of  his  priests  in  the  instruction  of  the  faithful 
("Notices  et  extraits  de  la  Bib.  Nat.",  XXVII,  Paris, 
1879,  2nd  part,  p.  3(j2;  C.  Douais,  "Un  nouvel  ocrit 
de  Bernard  Gui.  Le  synodal  de  Lodeve, "  Paris,  1944, 
p.  vii).  The  "Disoipulus"  of  John  H6rolt  was  much 
esteemed  in  its  day  (Paulus,  "Johann  Herolt  und 
seine  Lehre.  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Gesch.  des  religiosen 
\'olksunterichte  am  Ausgang  des  Mittelalters "  in 
"Zeitsoh.  ftirkath.  Theol.",  XXVI,  1902,  417). 

The  order  also  produced  pedagogical  works. 
William  of  Tournai  composed  a  treatise  "De  Modo 
docendi  pueros"  (Paris,  Bib.  Nat.  lat.  16435)  which 
the  General  Chapter  of  1264  recommended,  as  well 
as  one  on  preaching  and  confession  for  school  children. 
("Act.  Cap.  Gen."  I,  125;  "Script.  Ord.  Pra;d.", 
I,  345).  Vincent  of  Beauvais  wrote  especially  for  the 
education  of  princes.  He  first  composed  his  "De 
eruditione  filiorum  regalium"  (Basle,  1481),  then 
the  "De  eruditione  principum'',  published  with  the 
works  of  St.  Thomas,  to  whom  as  well  as  to  Guillaume 
Perrault  it  has  been  incorrectly  ascribed;  finally 
(c.  1260)  the  "Tractatus  de  morali  prinoipis  in- 
stitutione",  which  is  a  general  treatise  and  is  still 
unedited  ("Script.  Ord.  Prfed.",  I,  239;  R.  Fried- 
rich,  "Vincentius  von  Beauvais  als  Padagog  nach 
seiner  Schrift  De  eruditione  filiorum  regalium", 
Leipzig,  1883).  Early  in  the  fifteenth  century 
(1405)  John  Dominici  composed  his  famous  "Lucula 
noctis",  in  which  he  deals  with  the  study  of  pagan 
authors  in  the  education  of  Christian  youth.  This 
is  a  most  important  work,  written  against  the  dangers 
of  Humanism  ("B.  Johannis  Dominici  Cardinalis  S. 
Sixti  Lucula  Noctis",  ed.  R.  Coulon,  Paris,  1908). 
Dominici  is  also  the  author  of  a  much  esteemed  work 
on  the  government  of  the  family  ("Regola  del 
governo  di  cura  familiare  dal  Beato  Giovanni  Domin- 
ici", ed.  D.  Salve,  Florence,  1860).  St.  Antoninus 
composed  a  "Regola  a  ben  vivere"  (ed.  Palermo, 
Florence,  1858).  Works  on  the  government  of  coun- 
tries were  also  produced  by  members  of  the  order; 
among  them  are  the  treatises  of  St.  Thomas  "De 
rege  et  regno",  addressed  to  the  King  of  Cyprus 
(finished  by  Bartolommeo  of  Lucca),  and  the  "De 
regimine  subditorum",  composed  for  the  Countess 
of  Flanders.  At  the  request  of  the  Florentine 
Government  Girolamo  Savonarola  drew  up  (1493) 
his  "Trattati  circa  il  reggimento  e  governo  della 
citta  di  Firenze"  (ed.  Audin  de  Rians,  Florence, 
1847)  in  which  he  shows  great  political  insight. 

(vi)  Canon  law.— St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort  was 
chosen  by  Gregory  IX  to  compile  the  Decretals 
(1230-34) ;  to  his  credit  also  belong  opinions  and  other 
works  on  canon  law.  Martin  of  Troppau,  Bishop 
of  Gnesen,  composed  (1278)  a  "Tabula  decreti" 
commonly  called  "Margarita  Martiniana",  which 
received  wide  circulation.  Martin  of  Fano,  pro- 
fessor of  canon  law  at  Arezzo  and  Modena  and 
podesta  of  Genoa  in  1260-2,  prior  to  entering  the 


order,  wrote  valuable  canonical  works.  Nicholas  of 
Ennezat  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century 
composed  tables  on  various  parts  of  canon  law. 
During  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  XII  John  Doroinici 
wrote  copious  memoranda  in  defence  of  the  rights 
of  the  legitimate  pope,  the  two  most  important  being 
still  unedited  (Vienna,  Hof-bibliothek,  lat.  5102, 
fol.  1-24).  About  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury John  of  Torquemada  wrote  extensive  works 
on  the  Decretals  of  Gratian  which  were  very  influen- 
tial in  defence  of  the  pontifical  rights.  Important 
works  on  inquisitorial  law  also  emanated  from  the 
order,  the  first  directories  for  trial  of  heresy  being 
composed  by  Dominicans.  The  oldest  is  the  opinion 
of  St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort  [1235  (ed.  in  Bzovius, 
"Annal.  cedes."  ad  ann.  1235;  "Monum.  Ord. 
Pra!d.  Hist.",  IV,  faso.  II,  41;  "Le  Moyen  Age", 
2nd  series  III,  305)].  The  same  canonist  wrote 
(1242)  a  directory  for  the  inquisitions  of  Aragon 
(C.  Douais,  "L 'Inquisition",  Paris,  I,  1906,  p.  275). 
About  1244  another  directory  was  composed  by  the 
inquisitors  of  Provence  ("Nouvelle  revue  historique 
du  droit  franeais  et  stranger",  Paris,  1883,  670; 
E.  Vacandard,  "LTnquisition",  Paris,  1907,  p. 
314).  But  the  two  classical  works  of  the  Middle 
Ages  on  inquisitorial  law  are  that  of  Bernard  Guidonis 
composed  in  1321  under  the  title  of  "Directorium 
Inquisitionis  hereticte  pravitatis"  (ed.  C.  Douais, 
Paris,  1886)  and  the  "Directorium  Inquisitorum" 
of  Nicholas  Eymerioh  [(1399)  "  Archiv  fiir  Literatur- 
und  Kirchengescheohte " ;  Grahit,  "El  inquisidor  F. 
Nicholas  Eymerich",  Girona,  1878;  Schulte,  "Die 
Gesch.  der  Quellen  und  Literatur  des  Canonischen 
Rechts",  II,  passim]. 

(vii)  Historical  Writings. — The  activity  of  the 
Preachers  in  the  domain  of  history  was  considerable 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  Some  of  their  chief  works 
incline  to  be  real  general  histories  which  assured  them 
great  success  in  their  day.  The  "Speculum  His- 
toriale"  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d.  circa  1264)  is 
chiefly,  like  the  other  parts  of  the  work,  of  the  nature 
of  a  documentary  compilation,  but  he  has  preserved 
for  us  sources  which  we  could  never  otherwise  reach 
(E.  Boutarie,  "Examen  des  sources  du  Speculum 
historiale  de  Vincent  de  Beauvais",  Paris,  1863). 
Martin  the  Pole,  called  Martin  of  Troppau  (d.  1279), 
in  the  third  quarter  of  the  thirteenth  century  com- 
posed his  chronicles  of  the  popes  and  emperors  which 
were  widely  circulated  and  had  many  continuators 
("Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.",  XXII).  The  anony- 
mous chronicles  of  Colmar  in  the  second  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century  have  left  us  valuable  historical 
materials  which  constitute  a  sort  of  history  of  con- 
temporary civilization  (Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script., 
XVII).  The  chronicle  of  Jacopo  da  Voragine, 
Archbishop  of  Genoa  (d.  1298)  is  much  esteemed 
("Rer.  Ital.  Script.";  Mannuoci,  "La  Cronaoa  di 
Jacopo  da  Voragine",  Genoa,  1904).  Ptolemy  of 
Lucca  and  Bernard  Guidonis  are  the  two  great 
ecclesiastical  historians  of  the  early  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. The  "Historia  ecclesiastica  nova"  of  the 
former  and  the  "Flores  cronicorum  seu  cathalogus 
pontificum  romanorum  "  of  the  latter  contain  valuable 
historical  information. 

But  the  historical  activity  of  Bernard  Guidonis 
far  exceeded  that  of  Ptolemy  and  his  contemporaries; 
he  is  the  author  of  twenty  historical  publications, 
several  of  which,  such  as  his  historical  compilation 
on  the  Order  of  Preachers,  are  very  important  in 
value  and  extent.  Bernard  Guidonis  is  the  first 
medieval  historian  who  had  a  wide  sense  of  his- 
torical documentation  ("Rer.  Ital.  Script.",  XI; 
K.  Kriiger,  "Des  Ptolemaus  Lucensis  Leben  und 
Werke",  Gottingen,  1874;  D.  Konig,  "Ptolemaus 
von  Lucca  und  die  Flores  Chronicorum  des  B. 
Guidonis",  Wtirzburg,  1875;  Idem,  "Tolomeo  von 
Lucca",   Harburg,    1878;    Delisle,   "Notice  sur  les 


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manuscrits  de  Bernard  Gui"  in  "Notices  et  manu- 
sorits  de  la  Bib.  Nat.",  XVII,  pt.  II,  169-455; 
Douais,  "Un  nouveau  manuscrit  de  Bernard  Gui  et 
de  ses  cliromques  des  papes  d'Avignon"  in  "Mem. 
800.  Arch^ol.  Midi",  XIV,  1889,  p.  417,  Paris,  1889; 
Arbellot,  "Etude  biographique  et  bibliographique 
sur  Bernard  Guidonis",  Paris-Limoges,  1896).  The 
fourteenth  century  beheld  a  galaxy  of  Dominican 
historians,  the  chief  of  whom  were:  Francesco  Pipini 
of  Bologna  (d.  1320),  the  Latin  translator  of  Marco 
Polo  and  the  author  of  a  "Chronicon"  which  began 
with  the  history  of  the  Franks  (L.  Manzoni,  "  Di  frate 
Francesco  Pipini  da  Bologna,  storico,  geografo, 
viaggiatore  del  sec.  XIV",  Bologna,  1896);  Nicholas 
of  Butrinto  (1313),  author  of  the  "Relatio  de  Henrici 
VII  imperatoris  itinere  italioo"  (ed.  Heyck,  Inns- 
bruck, 1888);  Nicholas  Trevet,  compiler  of  the 
"Annales  sex  regum  Anglise"  (ed.  T.  Hog,  London, 
1845);  Jacopo  of  Acqui  and  his  "Chronicon  imaginis 
mundi  [(1330);  Monumenta  historiae  patrise,  script.". 
Ill,  Turin,  1848];  Galvano  Fiamma  (d.  circa  1340) 
composed  various  works  on  the  history  of  Milan 
(Ferrari,  "Le  cronache  di  Galvano  Fiamma  e  le 
fonti  della  Galvagnana"  in  "BuUetino  dell'  Istituto 
Storico  Italiano",  Rome,  1891);  John  of  Colonna 
(c.  1336)  is  the  author  of  a  "De  viris  illustribus"  and 
a  "Mare  Historiarum"  (Mandonnet,  "Des  Merits 
authentiques  de  St.  Thomas  d'Aquin",  Fribourg, 
2nd  ed.,  1910,  p.  97).  In  the  second  half  of  the  four- 
teenth century  Conrad  of  Halberstadt  wrote  a  "Chro- 
nographia  summorum  Pontificum  et  Imperatorum 
romanorum  (Mcnck,  "Die  Chronographia  Konrads 
von  Halberstadt"  etc.  in  "Forsoh.  deutsoh.  Gesch.", 
XX,  1880,  279);  Henry  of  Hervordia  (d.  1370) 
wrote  a  "Liber  de  rebus  memorabilibus "  (ed. 
Potthast,  Gottingen,  1859);  Stefanardo  de  Vico- 
mercato  is  the  author  of  the  rhythmical  poem  "De 
gestis  in  civitate  Mediolani"  (in  "Script.  Rer.  Ital.", 
IX;  G.  Calligaris,  "Alcune  osservazioni  sopra  un 
passo  del  poema  'De  gestis  in  civitate  Mediolani' 
di  Stefanardo"  in  "Misc.  Ceriani",  Milan,  1910). 
At  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  Hermann 
of  Lerbeke  composed  a  "Chronicon  comitum  Schauen- 
burgensium"  and  a  "Chronicon  episcoporum  Min- 
densium"  (Eckmann,  "Hermann  von  Lerbeke  mit 
besonderer  Berticksichtigung  seines  Lebens  und  der 
Abfassungszeit  seiner  Schriften"  (Hamm,  1879); 
Hermann  Korner  left  an  important  "Chronica 
novella"  (ed.  J.  Schwahn,  Gottingen,  1895;  cf. 
Waitz,  "Ueber  Hermann  Korner  und  die  Liibeoker 
Chronikon",  Gottingen,  1851).  The  "Chronicon" 
or  "Summa  Historialis"  of  St.  Antoninus,  Arch- 
bishop of  Florence,  composed  about  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century  is  a  useful  compilation  with 
original  data  for  the  author's  own  times  (Schaube, 
"Die  QucUen  der  Weltchronik  des  heil.  Antonin, 
Erzbischofs  von  Florenz"  Hirschberg,  1880).  Felix 
Fabri  (Schmid,  d.  1502)  left  valuable  historical  works; 
his  "Evagatorium  in  Terrae  Sanctse,  Arabiae  et 
^gypti  peregrinationem "  (ed.,  Hassler,  Stuttgart, 
1843)  is  the  most  instructive  and  important  work  of 
this  kind  during  the  fourteenth  century.  He  is  also 
the  author  of  a  "Descriptio  Sueviae"  ("Quellen  zer 
Schweizer  Gesch.",  Basle,  1884)  and  a  "Tractatus 
de  civitate  Ulmensi"  (Litterarischesverein  in  Stutt- 
gart, no.  186,  Tubingen,  1889,  ed.  G.  Veesenmeyer; 
cf.,  under  the  names  of  these  writers,  Qui5tif-Echard, 
"Script.  Ord.  Pr»d";  Chevalier,  "Repertoire  .  . 
du  moyen-age;  Bio-Bibl.",  Paris,  1907;  Potthast, 
"Bib.  Hist.  Medii  ^vi",  Berlin,  1896;  Hurter, 
"Nomenclator  Lit.",  II,  1906). 

(viii)  Miscellaneous  works. — Being  unable  to  de- 
vote a  section  to  each  of  the  different  spheres  wherein 
the  Preachers  exercised  their  activity,  we  shall  men- 
tion here  some  works  which  obtained  considerable 
influence  or  are  particularly  worthy  of  attention.  The 
"Specula"  ("Naturale",  "doetrinale",  "historiale"; 


the  "Speculum  morale"  is  apocryphal)  of  Vincent 
of  Beauvais  constitute  the  largest  encyclopedia  of  the 
Middle  Ages  and  furnished  materials  for  many  sub- 
sequent writers  (Vogel,  "  Literar-historischen  No- 
tizen  liber  den  mittelalterlichen  Gelehrten  \'incenz 
von  Beauvais",  Freiburg,  1843;  Bourgeat,  "Etudes 
sur  Vincent  de  Beauvais",  Paris,  1856).  The  work  of 
Humbert  of  Romans,  "De  tractandis  in  ooncilio  gen- 
erali",  composed  in  1273  at  the  request  of  Gregory  X, 
and  which  served  as  a  programme  to  the  General 
Council  of  Lyons  in  1274,  contains  the  most  remark- 
able views  on  the  condition  of  Christian  society  and 
the  reforms  to  be  undertaken  (Mortier,  "Hist,  des 
MaJtres  g(5neraux  de  I'ordre  des  Freres  Precheurs", 
I,  88).  The  treatise  is  edited  in  full  only  in  Brown, 
"Appendix  ad  fasc.  rerum  expectandarum  et  fugen- 
darum"  (London,  1690,  p.  185).  Burchard  of  Mount 
Sion  with  his  "Descriptio  Terrae  Sanctae"  written 
about  1283,  became  the  classic  geographer  of  Pales- 
tine during  the  Middle  Ages  (J.  C.  M.  Laurent, 
" Peregrinatores  medii  aevi  quatuor",  Leipzig,  1873). 
William  of  Moerbeke,  who  died  as  Archbishop  of 
Corinth  about  1286,  was  the  revisor  of  translations  of 
Aristotle  from  the  Greek  and  the  translator  of  por- 
tions not  hitherto  translated.  To  him  are  also  due 
translations  of  numerous  philosophical  and  scien- 
tific works  of  ancient  Greek  authors  (Mandonnet, 
"Siger  de  Brabant",  I,  40).  The  "Catholicon"  of 
the  Genoese  John  Balbus,  completed  in  1285,  is 
a  vast  treatise  on  the  Latin  tongue,  accompanied  by 
an  etymological  vocabulary.  It  is  the  fii'st  work 
on  profane  sciences  ever  printed.  It  is  also  famous 
because  in  the  Mainz  edition  (1460)  John  Guttenberg 
first  made  use  of  movable  type  ("Incunabula  xylo- 
graphica  et  typographica " ,  1455-1500,  Joseph  Baer, 
Frankfort,  1900,  p.  11).  The  " Philobiblion "  edited 
under  the  name  of  Richard  of  Bury,  but  composed  by 
Robert  Holcot  (d.  1349),  is  the  first  medieval  treatise 
on  the  love  of  books  (ed.  Cocheris,  Paris,  1856;  tr. 
Thomas,  London,  1888).  John  of  Tambaoh  (d. 
1372),  first  professor  of  theology  at  the  newly-founded 
University  of  Prague  (1347),  is  the  author  of  a  valu- 
able work,  the  "Consolatio  Theologiae"  (Denifle, 
"Magister  Johann  von  Dambach"  in  "Archiv  filr 
Litt.  u.  Kirchengesch "  III,  640).  Towards  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century  Frederico  Frezzi,  who  died 
as  Bishop  of  Foligno  (1416),  composed  in  Italian  a 
poem  in  the  spirit  of  the  "Divina  Commedia"  and 
entitled  "II  Quadriregio"  (Foligno,  1725);  (cf. 
Canetti,  "II  Quadriregio",  Venice,  1889;  Filippini, 
"Le  edizioni  del  Quadriregio"  in  "Bibliofilia", 
VIII,  Florence,  1907).  The  Florentine  Thomas 
Sardi  (d.  1517)  wrote  a  long  and  valued  poem, 
"L'anima  peregrina",  the  composition  of  which 
dates  from  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  (Romag- 
noli,  "Frate  Tommaso  Sardi  e  il  suo  poema  inedito 
dell'  anima  peregrina"  in  "II  propugnatore",  XVIII, 
1885,  pt.  II,  289). 

(ix)  Liturgy. — Towards  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  Dominicans  had  definitely  es- 
tablished the  liturgy  which  they  still  retain.  The 
final  correction  (1256)  was  the  work  of  Humbert  of 
Romans.  It  was  divided  into  fourteen  sections  or 
volumes.  The  prototype  of  this  monumental  work 
is  preserved  at  Rome  in  the  general  archives  of  the 
order  ("Script.  Ord.  Pra;d."  I,  143;  "Zeitsohr. 
f.  Kathol.  Theol.",  VII,  10).  A  portable  copy  for 
the  use  of  the  master  general,  a  beautiful  specimen 
of  thirteenth-century  book-making,  is  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum,  no.  23,935  (J.  W.  Legg,  "Tracts 
on  the  Mass",  Brad.shaw  Society,  1904;  Barge,  "Le 
Chant  liturgique  dans  I'Ordre  de  Saint-Dominique" 
in  "L'Ann^c  Dominicaine",  Paris,  1908,  27;  Gagin, 
"Un  manuscrit  liturgique  des  Freres  Precheurs  antcr- 
ieur  aux  r^glements  d'  Humbert  de  Romans  "  in  "  Revue 
des  Bibliothdques",  1899,  p.  163;  Idem,  "Domini- 
cains  et  Teutoniques,  conflit  d'attribution  du  'Liber 


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PREACHERS 


Choralis'",  no.  182  du  catalogue  120  de  M.  Ludwig 
Rosenthal"  in  '^Revue  des  Bibliotheques",  1908). 
Jerome  of  Moravia,  about  1250,  composed  a  "Trao- 
tatus  de  Musica"  (r;i,ris.  Bib.  Nat.  lat.  16,663), 
the  most  important  theoretical  work  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  on  liturgical  chant,  some  fragments  of 
which  were  placed  as  preface  to  the  Dominican 
liturgy  of  Humbert  of  Romans.  It  was  edited  by 
Coussemaker  in  his  "Scriptores  de  musica  medii 
aevi",  I  (Paris,  1864).  (Cf.  KornmuUer  "Die  alten 
Musiktheoretiker  XX.  Hieronymus  von  Mahren" 
in  " Kirchenmusikalisches  Jahrbuch",  IV,  1889,  14.) 
The  Preachers  also  left  numerous  liturgical  composi- 
tions, among  the  most  renowned  being  the  Office  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  one 
of  the  masterpieces  of  Catholic  liturgy  (Mandonnet, 
"Des  Merits  authentiques  de  S.  Thomas  d'Aquin", 
2nd  ed.  p.  127).  Armand  du  Prat  (d.  1306)  is  the 
author  of  the  beautiful  Office  of  St.  Louis,  King 
of  France.  His  work,  selected  by  the  Court  of 
Philip  the  Bold,  came  into  universal  use  in  France 
("Script.  Ord.  Pra;d."  I,  499;  "Notices  et  extraits 
des  manuscrits  de  la  Bib.  Nat.",  XXVII,  11th  pt., 
369,  n.  6).  The  "Dies  Ira;"  has  been  attributed  to 
Cardinal  Latino  Malabranca  who  was  in  his  time 
a  famous  composer  of  ecclesiastical  chants  and  offices 
("Scritti  vari  di  Filologia",  Rome,  1901,  p.  488). 

(x)  Humanistic  works. — The  order  felt  more  than 
is  commonly  thought  the  influence  of  Humanism, 
and  furnished  it  with  noteworthy  contributions. 
This  influence  was  continued  during  the  following 
period  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  reacted  on  its 
Biblical  and  theological  compositions.  Leonardo 
Giustiniani,  Archbishop  of  Mytilene,  in  1449,  com- 
posed against  the  celebrated  Poggio  a  treatise  "De 
vera  nobilitate", edited  withPoggio's  "De  nobilitate" 
(Avellino,  1657).  The  Sicilian  Thomas  Schifaldo 
wrote  commentaries  on  Perseus  about  1461  and  on 
Horace  in  1476.  He  is  the  author  of  a  "De  viris 
illustribus  Ordinis  Prsedicatorum",  written  in  human- 
istic style,  and  of  the  Office  of  St.  Catherine  of  Siena, 
usually  but  incorrectly  ascribed  to  Pius  II  (Cozzuli, 
"Tommaso  Schifaldo  umanista  siciliano  del  sec.  XV", 
Palermo,  1897,  in  "Documenti  per  servire  alia  storia 
di  Sicilia",  VI).  The  Venetian  Francesco  Colonna 
is  the  author  of  the  celebrated  work  "The  Dream 
of  Poliphilus"  ("Poliphili  Hypnerotomachia,  ubi 
humana  omnia  non  nisi  somnium  esse  docet",  Aldus, 
Venice,  1499;  cf.  Popelin,  "Le  songe  de  Poliphile 
ou  hypnerotomachia  de  Frere  Francesco  Colonna", 
Paris,  1880).  Colonna's  work  aims  to  condense 
in  the  form  of  a  romance  all  the  knowledge  of  antiq- 
uity. It  gives  evidence  of  its  author's  profound 
classical  learning  and  impassioned  love  for  Graeco- 
Roman  culture.  The  work,  which  is  accompanied 
by  the  most  perfect  illustrations  of  the  time,  has  been 
called  "the  most  beautiful  book  of  the  Renaissance" 
(Ilg,  "Ueber  den  kunsthistorisches  werth  der 
Hypnerotomachia  Poliphili",  Vienna,  1872;  Ephrusi, 
"Etudes  sur  le  songe  de  Poliphile"  in  "Bulletin  de 
Bibliophile",  1887;  Paris,  1888;  Dorez,  "Desorig- 
ines  et  de  la  diffusion  du  songe  de  Poliphile"  in 
"Revue  des  Bibliotheques",  VI,  1896,  239;  Gnoli, 
"II  sogno  di  Polifilo"  in  "Bibliofila",  1900,  190; 
Fabrini,  "Indagini  sul  Polifilo"  in  "Giorn.  Storico 
della  letteratura  Italiana",  XXXV,  1900,  I;  Poppel- 
reuter,  "Der  anonyme  Meister  des  Polifilo"  in 
"Zur  Kunstgesch.  des  Auslandes",  XX,  Strassburg, 
1904;  Molmenti,  "Alcuni  documenti  concernenti 
I'autore  della  (Hypnerotomachia  Poliphili)"  in 
"Archivio  storico  itahano",  Ser.  V,  XXXVIII 
(906,  291).  Tommaso  Radini  Todeschi  (Radinus 
Todisohus)  composed  under  the  title  "  Callipsychia " 
(Milan,  1511)  an  allegorical  romance  in  the  manner  of 
Apuleius  and  inspired  by  the  "Dream  of  Poliphilus". 
The  Dalmatian,  John  Polycarpus  Severitanus  of 
Sebenico,  commentated  the  eight  parts  of  the  dis- 


course of  Donatus  and  the  Ethics  of  Seneca  the 
Younger  (Perugia,  1517;  Milan,  1520;  Venice,  1522) 
and  composed  "Gramatices  historicae,  methodioae 
et  exegetica;"  (Perugia,  1518).  The Bolognese Leandro 
Alberti  (d.  1550)  was  an  elegant  Latinist  and  his  "De 
viris  illustribus  ordinis  praedicatorum "  (Bologna, 
1517),  written  in  the  humanistic  manner,  is  a  beau- 
tiful specimen  of  Bolognese  publishing  ("Script. 
Ord.  Pra;d.",  II,  137;  Campori,  "Sei  lettere  inedite 
di  Fra  Leandro  Alberti"  in  "Atti  e  mt^morie  della 
Deput.  di  Storia  patria  per  le  prov.  Modenesi  e 
Parmensi",  I,  1864,  p.  413).  Finally  Matteo  Ban- 
dello  (d.  1555),  who  was  called  the  "Dominican 
Boccacio",  is  regarded  as  the  first  novelist  of  the 
Italian  Cinquecento  and  his  work  shows  what  an  evil 
influence  the  Renaissance  could  exert  on  churchmen 
(Masi  "Matteo  Bandello  o  vita  italiana  in  un  novel- 
liere  del  cinquecento",  Bologna,  1900). 

(g)  The  Preachers  and  Art. — The  IPreachers  hold 
an  important  place  in  the  history  of  art.  They  con- 
tributed in  many  ways  to  the  artistic  life  of  the 
Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance.  Their  churches 
and  convents  offered  an  extraordinary  field  of  ac- 
tivity to  contemporary  artists,  while  a  large  number 
of  the  Preachers  themselves  did  important  work  in 
the  various  spheres  of  art.  Finally  by  their  teaching 
and  religious  activity  they  often  exercised  a  pro- 
found influence  on  the  direction  and  inspiration  of 
art.  Primarily  established  under  a  regime  of  evan- 
gelic poverty,  the  order  took  severe  measures  to  avoid 
in  its  churches  all  that  might  suggest  luxury  and 
wealth.  Until  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
its  constitutions  and  general  chapters  energetically 
legislated  against  anything  tending  to  suppress  the 
evidence  of  poverty  ("Archiv.  f.  Litt.-und  Kirch- 
gesch.",  I,  225;  "Acta  Cap.  Gen.",  I,  passim). 
But  the  order's  intense  activity,  its  establishment  in 
large  cities  and  familiar  contact  with  the  whole 
general  movement  of  civilization  triumphed  over  this 
state  of  things.  As  early  as  1250,  churches  and 
convents  appeared  called  opus  sumptuosum  (Finke, 
"Die  Freiburger  Dominikaner  und  der  Munster- 
bau",  Freiburg,  1901,  p.  47;  Potthast,  op.  cit., 
22,426).  They  were,  however,  encouraged  by  eccle- 
siastical authority  and  the  order  eventually  re- 
linquished its  early  uncompromising  attitude. 
Nevertheless  ascetic  and  morose  minds  were  scan- 
dalized by  what  they  called  royal  edifices  (Matthew 
Paris,  "Hist,  maj.",  ad.  ann.  1243;  d'Ach&y, 
"Spicelegium",  Paris,  1723,  II,  634;  Cocheris, 
"Philobiblion",  Paris,  1856,  p.  227).  The  second 
half  of  the  thirteenth  century  saw  the  beginning  of  a 
series  of  monuments,  many  of  which  are  still  famous 
in  history  and  art.  "The  Dominicans,"  says 
Cesare  Cantil,  "soon  had  in  the  chief  towns  of  Italy 
magnificent  monasteries  and  superb  temples,  veri- 
table wonders  of  art.  Among  others  may  be  men- 
tioned: the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  at  Flor- 
ence; Santa  Maria  Sopra  Minerva,  at  Rome;  St.  John 
and  St.  Paul,  at  Venice;  St.  Nicholas,  at  Treviso; 
St.  Dominic,  at  Naples,  at  Perugia,  at  Prato,  and 
at  Bologna,  with  the  splendid  tomb  of  the  founder, 
St.  Catherine,  at  Pisa;  St.  Eustorgius  and  Sta  Maria 
delle  Grazie,  at  Milan,  and  several  others  remarkable 
for  a  rich  simplicity  and  of  which  the  architects  were 
mostly  monks"  ("Les  H6r6tiques  de  I'ltalie",  Paris, 
1869,  I,  165;  Berthier,  "L'^glise  de  Sainte  Sabine  k 
Rome",  Rome,  1910;  Mullooly,  "St.  Clement,  Pope 
and  Martyr,  and  his  Basilica  in  Rome",  Rome, 
1873;  Nolan,  "The  BasiUca  of  St.  Clement  in  Rome", 
Rome,  1910;  Brown,  "The  Dominican  Church  of 
Santa  Maria  Novella  at  Florence,  An  historical, 
architectural  and  artistic  study",  Edinburgh,  1902; 
Berthier,  "L'^glise  de  la  Minerve  k  Rome",  Rome, 
1910;  Marchese,  "San  Marco  convento  dei  Padri 
Predicatori  in  Firenze",  Florence,  1853;  Malaguzzi, 
"La  chiesa  e  il  convento  di  S.  Domenico  a  Bologna 


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secondo  nuove  richerche"  in  "  Repertorium  fiir 
Kunstwisscnschaft",  XX,  1897,  174;  Caffi,  "Delia 
chiesa  di  Sant'  Eustorgio  in  Milanc",  Milan,  1841; 
Valle,  "8.  Domenico  Maggiore  di  Napoli",  Naples, 
1854;  Milanese,  "Le  Chiesa  monumentale  dl  S. 
Nioolo  in  Treviso",  Treviso,  1889;  Mortier,  "Notre 
Dame  de  la  Gueroia",  Paris,  1904;  Ital.  tr.  Ferretti, 
Florence,  1904;  Orlandini,  "Descrizione  storica 
della  chiesa  di  S.  Domenico  di  Perugia",  Perugia, 
1798;  Biebrach,  "Die  holzgedeckten  Franziskaner 
und  Dominikanerkirchen  in  Umbrien  und  Toskana", 
Berlin,  1908). 

France  followed  in  Italy's  footsteps.  Here  men- 
tion must  be  made  of  the  Jacobins  of  Toulouse 
(Carriere,  "Les  Jacobins  de  Toulouse",  2nd  ed., 
Toulouse,  s.  d.);  St.  Jacques  de  Paris  (Millin, 
"Antiquites  nationales",  Paris,  1790,  III,  1);  St. 
Maximin  in  Provence  (Rostan,  "Notice  sur  I'eglise 
de  Saint-Maximiu",  Brignolcs,  1859);  Notre-Dame- 
de-Confort  at  Lyons  (Cormier,  "L'ancien  convent  des 
Dominicains  de  Lyon",  Lyons,  1898).  A  compre- 
hensive account  of  the  architectural  work  of  the 
Dominicans  in  France  may  be  found  in  the  magnifi- 
cent publication  of  Rohault  de  Fleury,  "Gallia 
Dominioana,  Les  couvents  de  Saint-Dominique  en 
France  au  moj-on-dge"  (Paris,  1903,  2  vols,  in  4°). 
Spain  was  also  covered  with  remarkable  monuments: 
St.  Catherine  of  Barcelona  and  St.  Thomas  of  Madrid 
were  destroyed  by  fire;  S.  Esteban  at  Salamanca, 
S.  Pablo  and  S.  Gregorio  at  ValladoUd,  Santo  Tomas 
at  Avila,  San  Pablo  at  Se\'ille  and  at  Cordova.  S. 
Cruz  at  Granada,  Santo  Domingo  at  Valencia  and 
Saragossa  (Martinez-Vigil,  "La  orden  de  Predica- 
dores",  Barcelona,  1886).  Portugal  also  had  beau- 
tiful buildings.  The  church  and  convent  of  Batalha 
are  perhaps  the  most  splendid  ever  dwelt  in  by  the 
order  (Murphy,  "Plans,  elevations,  sections  and  views 
of  the  Church  of  Batalha",  London,  1795;  de  Con- 
deixa,  "O  mosteiro  de  Batalha  em  Portugal",  Paris, 
1X02;  Vascoucellos,  "Batalha.  Convento  de  Santa 
Maria  da  Victoria",  Porto,  1905).  Germany  had 
beautiful  churches  and  convents,  usually  remarkable 
for  their  simphcity  and  the  purity  of  their  lines 
(Scherer,  "Kircheu  und  Kloster  der  Franziskaner 
und  Dominikaner  in  Thuringen",  Jena,  1910; 
Schneider,  "Die  Kirchen  der  Dominikaner  und 
Karmehten"  in  "MittelalterUche  Ordensbauten  in 
Mainz",  Klainz,  1879;  "Zur  Wiederherstellung  der 
Dominikanerkirche  in  Augsburg"  in  "Augsburger 
Postzeitung",  12  Nov.,  1909;  "Das  Dominikaner- 
kloster  in  Eisenach",  Eisenach,  1857;  Ingold, 
"Notice  sur  I'eglise  et  le  convent  des  Dominicains  de 
Colmar",  Colmar,  1894;  Burckhardt-Riggenbach, 
"Die  Dominikaner  Klosterkirche  in  Basel",  Basle, 
1855;  Stammler,  "Die  ehemalige  Predigerkirche  in 
Bern  und  ihre  Wandmalerein "  in  "Bemer  Kunst- 
denkmaler".  III,  Bern,  1908). 

"Whatever  may  be  said  to  the  contrary  the  Domini- 
cans as  well  as  other  mendicant  orders  created  a 
special  architectural  art.  They  made  use  of  art  as 
they  found  it  in  the  course  of  their  history  and  adapted 
it  to  their  needs.  They  adopted  Gothic  art  and 
assisted  in  its  diffusion,  but  they  accepted  the  art  of 
the  Renaissance  when  it  had  supplanted  the  ancient 
forms.  Their  churches  varied  in  dimensions  and 
richness,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  place. 
They  built  a  number  of  churches  with  double  naves 
and  a  larger  number  with  open  roofs.  The  distinct 
characteristic  of  their  churches  resulted  from  their 
sumptuary  legislation  which  excluded  decorated  archi- 
tectural work,  save  in  the  choir.  Hence  the  pre- 
dominance of  single  lines  in  their  buildings.  'This 
exclusivism,  which  often  went  as  far  as  the  suppres- 
sion of  capitals  on  the  columns,  gives  great  lightness 
and  elegance  to  the  naves  of  their  churches.  While 
we  lack  direct  information  concerning  most  of  the 
architects  of  these  monuments,  there  is  no  doubt  that 


many  of  the  men  who  supervised  the  construction 
of  its  churches  and  convents  were  members  of  the 
order  and  they  even  assisted  in  works  of  art  outside 
of  the  order.  Thus  we  know  that  Brother  Diemar 
built  the  Dominican  church  of  Ratisbon  (1273-77) 
(Sighart,  "Gesch.  d.  bildenden  Kiinste  im  Kgn. 
Baycrn",  Munich,  1862).  Brother  Volmar  exer- 
cised his  activity  in  Alsace  about  the  same  time  and 
especially  at  Colmar  (Ingold,  op.  cit.).  Brother 
Humbert  was  the  architect  of  the  church  and  con- 
vent of  Bonn,  as  well  as  of  the  stone  bridge  across 
the  Aar,  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  most  beautiful  in  the 
city  (Howald,  "Das  Dominikaner-Kloster  in  Bern 
von  1269-1400",  Bern,  1857).  In  Italy  architects 
of  the  order  are  known  to  fame,  especially  at  Florence, 
where  they  erected  the  church  and  cloisters  of  S. 
Maria  Novella,  which  epitomize  the  whole  history  of 
Florentine  art  (Davidsohn,  "Forschungen  zur  Gesch. 
von  Florenz",  Berlin,  1898,  466;  Marchese,  "Me- 
morie  dei  piii  insigni  pittori,  scultori  e  architetri 
domenicani",  Bologna,  1S78,  I).  At  first  the  order 
endeavoured  to  banish  sculpture  from  its  churches, 
but  eventually  accepted  it  and  set  the  example  by 
the  construction  of  the  beautiful  tomb  of  St.  Dom- 
inic at  Bologna,  and  of  St.  Peter  of  ^'erona  at 
the  Church  of  St.  Eustorgius  at  Milan.  A  Domini- 
can, William  of  Pisa,  worked  on  the  former  (Berthicr, 
"Le  tombeau  de  St.  Dominique",  Paris,  1895; 
Beltrani,  "La  cappella  di  S.  Pietro  Martire  presso  la 
Basilica  ch  Sant  Eustorgio  in  Milano"  in  "Archivio 
storico  dell'  arte",  V,  1892).  Brother  Paschal  of 
Rome  executed  interesting  sculptural  works,  e.  g. 
his  sphinx  of  Viterbo,  signed  and  dated  (1286),  and 
the  paschal  candlestick  of  Sta.  Maria  in  Cosmedin, 
Rome  ("Romische  Quartalschrift",  1893,  29). 

There  were  many  miniaturists  and  painters  among 
the  Preachers.  As  early  as  the  thirteenth  century 
Hugh  Ripelin  of  Strasburg  (d.  1268)  was  renowned 
as  a  painter  (Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  SS.,  X^TI,  233). 
But  the  lengthy  Hst  is  dominated  by  two  masters 
who  overshadow  the  others.  Era  Angelico  and 
Era  Bartolommeo.  The  work  of  Era  Giovanni 
Angelico  da  Fiesole  (d.  1455)  is  regarded  as 
the  highest  embodiment  of  Christian  inspiration 
in  art  (Marchese,  "iNIemorie",  I,  245;  Tumiati, 
"Frate  Angehco",  Florence,  1897;  Supino,  "Beato 
Angelico",  Florence,  1898;  Langton  Douglas,  "Fra 
Angelico",  London,  1900;  ^Vurm,  "Meister  und 
Schiilerarbeit  in  Fra  Angelicos  Werk",  Strasburg, 
1907;  Cochin,  "Le  Bienheureux  Era  Giovanni 
Angelico  da  Fiesole",  Paris,  1906;  Schottmuller, 
"Fra  Angelico  da  Fiesole",  Stuttgart  and  Leipzig, 
1911  (Fr.  ed.,  Paris,  1911).  Fra  Bartolommeo  be- 
longs to  the  golden  age  of  the  Italian  Renaissance. 
He  is  one  of  the  great  masters  of  drawing.  His  art 
is  scholarly,  noble,  and  simple  and  imbued  with  a 
tranquil  and  restrained  piety  (Marchese,  "Memorie", 
II,  1;  Franz,  "Fra  Bartolommeo  della  Porta", 
Ratisbon,  1879;  Gruyer,  "Fra  Bartolommeo  della 
Porta  et  Mariotto  Albertinelli",  Paris-London,  s.  d.; 
Knapp,  "Fra  Bartolommeo  della  Porta  und  die 
Schule  von  San  Marco",  Halle,  1903).  The  order 
also  produced  remarkable  painters  on  glass:  James 
of  Ulm  (d.  1491),  who  worked  chiefly  at  Bologna  and 
William  of  Marcillat  (d.  1529),  who  in  the  opinion 
of  his  first  biographer  was  perhaps  the  greatest 
painter  on  glass  who  ever  lived  (Marchese, 
"Memorie",  II;  Mancini,  "Guglielmo  de  Marcillat 
francese  insuperato  pittore  sul  vetro",  Floreiicc, 
1909).  As  early  as  the  fourteenth  century  Domini- 
can churches  and  convents  began  to  be  covered  with 
mural  decorations.  Some  of  these  edifices  became 
famous  sanctuaries  of  art,  such  as  S.  Maria  Novella 
and  S.  Marco  of  Florence.  But  the  phenomenon 
was  general  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
thus  the  order  received  some  of  the  works  of  the  great- 
est artists,   as  for  instance  the   "Last  Supper"   of 


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Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1497-98)  in  the  refectory  of  S. 
Maria  delle  Grazie  at  Milan  (Bossi,  "Del  cenaeolo 
di  Leonardo  da  Vinci",  Milan,  1910;  Sant'  Ambrogio, 
"Note  epigrafiche  ed  artistiche  intorno  alia  sala  del 
Cenaeolo  ed  al  tempio  di  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie 
in  Milano"  in  "Archivio  Storico  Lombardo",  1892). 
The  Preachers  exercised  a  marked  influence  on 
painting.  The  order  infused  its  apostolic  zeal  and 
theological  learning  into  the  objects  of  art  under  its 
control,  thus  creating  what  may  be  called  theological 
painting.  The  decoration  of  the  Campo  Santo  of 
Pisa,  Orcagna's  frescoes  in  the  Strozzi  chapel  and  the 
Spanish  chapel  at  S.  Maria  Novella,  Florence,  have 
long  been  famous  (Michel,  "Hist,  de  I'art  depuis 
les  premiers  temps  Chretiens  jusqu'^  nos  jours", 
Paris,  II,  1908;  Hettner,  "Die  Dominikaner  in  der 
Kunstgesch.  des  1-t.  und  15.  Jahrhunderts"  in  "Italien- 
ische  Studien  zur  Gesch.  der  Renaissance",  Bruns- 
wick, 1879,  99;  "Renaissance  und  Dominikaner 
Kunst"  in  "Hist.-polit.  Blatter",  LXXXXIII,  1884; 
Perate,  "Un  Triomphe  de  la  Mort  de  Pietro  Loren- 
zetti",  Paris,  1902;  Bacciochi,  "II  chiostro  verde  e 
la  cappella  degli  Spagnuoh",  Florence ;  Endres,  "Die 
Verherrhchung  des  Dominikanerordens  in  der  Span- 
ischen  Kapelle  an  S.  Maria  Novella  zu  Florenz"  in 
"Zeitschr.  f.  Christhche  Kunst",  1909,  p.  323). 
To  the  same  causes  were  due  the  numerous  triumphs 
of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (Hettner,  op.  cit.;  Berthier, 
"Le  triomphe  de  Saint  Thomas  dans  la  chapelle  des 
Espagnols  a  Florence",  Fribourg,  1897;  UceUi,  "Dell' 
iconografia  di  s.  Tommaso  d' Aquino",  Naples,  1867). 
The  influence  of  Savonarola  on  the  artists  and  the  art 
of  his  time  was  profound  (Gruyer,  "Les  illustrations 
des  ecrits  de  J&ome  Savonarole  et  les  paroles  de 
Savonarole  sur  I'art",  Paris,  1879;  Lafenestre,  "Saint 
Frangois  d' Assise  et  Savonarole  inspirateurs  de  I'art 
Italien",  Paris,  1911).  The  Dominicans  also  fre- 
quently fm:nished  libretti,  i.  e.  dogmatic  or  symbolic 
themes  for  works  of  art.  They  also  opened  up  an 
important  source  of  information  to  art  with  their 
sanctoriaux  and  their  popularizing  writings.  Artistic 
works  such  as  the  dances  of  death  and  sybils  allied 
with  the  prophets  are  greatly  indebted  to  them 
(Neale,  "L'art  religieux  du  Xllle  siecle",  Paris, 
1910;  Idem,  "L'art  religieux  de  la  fin  du  moyen-age 
en  France",  Paris,  1910).  Even  the  mystical  life 
of  the  order,  in  its  way,  exercised  an  influence  on 
contemporary  art  (Peltzer,  "Deutsche  Mystik  und 
deutsche  Kunst",  Strassburg,  1899;  Hintze,  "Der 
Einfluss  des  mystiken  auf  die  altere  Kolner  Maler- 
schule",  Breslau,  1901).  Its  saints  and  its  con- 
fraternities, especially  that  of  the  Rosary,  inspired 
many  artists  (Neuwbarn,  "Die  Verherrhchung  des 
hi.  Dominions  in  der  Kunst",   1906). 

(h)  The  Preachers  and  the  Roman  Church. — The 
Order  of  Preachers  is  the  work  of  the  Roman  Church. 
She  found  in  St.  Dominic  an  instrument  of  the  first 
rank.  But  it  was  she  who  inspired  the  establishment 
of  the  order,  who  loaded  it  with  privileges,  directed 
its  general  activity,  and  protected  it  against  its  ad- 
versaries. From  Honorius  III  (1216)  tiU  the  death 
of  Honorius  IV  (1287)  the  papacy  was  most  favourable 
to  the  Preachers.  Innocent  IV's  change  of  attitude 
at  the  end  of  his  pontificate  (10  May,  12.54),  caused 
by  the  recriminations  of  the  clergy  and  perhaps  also 
by  the  adhesion  of  Arnold  of  Trier  to  Frederick 
II's  projects  of  anti-ecclesiastical  reform,  was  speedily 
repaired  by  Alexander  IV  [22  Dec,  12.54;  ("Chart. 
Univ.  Paris",  I,  263,  276;  Winokelmann,  "Fratns 
Arnoldi  Ord.  Praed.  De  correctione  Eoclesiae  Epis- 
tola",  1863;  "Script.  Ord.  Prasd.",  II,  821  b)].  But 
as  a  general  thing  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  the  popes  remained  much  attached  to  the 
order,  displaying  great  confidence  in  it,  as  is  made 
manifest  by  the  "Buflarium"  of  the  Preachers. 
No  other  religious  order,  it  would  seem,  ever  received 
eulogies  from  the  papacy  like  those  addressed  to  it 
XII.— 23^ 


by  Alexander  IV,  23  May,  1257  (Potthast,  op.  cit., 
16,847).  The  order  co-operated  with  the  Church 
in  every  way,  the  popes  finding  in  its  ranks  assistants 
who  were  both  competent  and  devoted.  Beyond 
doubt  through  its  own  activity,  its  preaching  and  in 
instruction,  it  was  already  a  powerful  agent  of  the 
papacy;  nevertheless  the  popes  requested  of  it  a 
universal  co-operation.  Matthew  Paris  states  in 
1250:  "The  Friars  Preachers,  impelled  by  obedience, 
are  the  fiscal  agents,  the  nuncios  and  even  the  legates 
of  the  pope.  They  are  the  faithful  collectors  of  the 
pontifical  money  by  their  preaching  and  their  crusades 
and  when  they  have  finished  they  begin  again. 
They  assist  the  infirm,  the  dying,  and  those  who  make 
their  wills.  Diligent  negotiators,  armed  with  powers 
of  every  kind,  they  turn  all  to  the  profit  of  the 
pope"  (Matthew  Paris,  "Hist.  Angl.",  Ill,  317,  m 
"Rer.  Brit.  Med.  My.  Script.").  But  the  commis- 
sions of  the  Church  to  the  Preachers  far  exceeded 
those  enumerated  by  Matthew  Paris,  and  among 
the  weightiest  must  be  mentioned  the  visitation  of 
monasteries  and  dioceses,  the  administration  of  a 
large  number  of  convents  of  nuns  and  the  inquisi- 
torial office. ,  The  order  attempted  to  withdraw  from 
its  multifarious  occupations,  which  distracted  it  from 
its  chief  end.  Gregory  IX  partially  yielded  to  their 
demands  (25  Oct.,  1239;  cf.  Potthast,  op.  cit., 
10,804),  but  the  order  never  succeeded  in  wholly 
winning  its  cause  (Fontana,  "Sacrum  Theatrum 
Dominicanum",  pt.  II,  De  S.  R.  Ecolesiae  Officialibus, 
Rome,  1666;  "Bull.  Ord.  Prted.",  I-II,  passim; 
Potthast,  "Regest.  Pont.  Rom.",  Papal  Register 
of  the  XIII  cent,  in  "Bib.  des'Ecoles  Frangaises 
d'Athenes  et  de  Rome"). 

The  Dominicans  gave  to  the  Church  many  noted 
personages:  among  them  during  the  Middle  Ages 
were  two  popes.  Innocent  V  (1276)  and  Benedict  XI 
[1303-4;  (Mothon,  "Vie  du  B.  Innocent  V",  Rome, 
1896;  Fietta,  "Nicold  Boccasino  di  Trevigi  e  il  suo 
tempo",  Padua,  1875;  Funk,  "Papst  Benedikt  XI", 
Mtinster,  1891;  Grandjean,  "Benolt  XI  avant  son 
pontificat "  (1240-1303)  in  "  Melanges  archiv.-Hist.  de 
L'^cole  frangaise  de  Rome",  VIII,  219;  Idem, 
"Recherches  sur  I'administration  financi^re  du  pape 
Benolt  XI",  loo.  cit..  Ill,  1883,  47;  Idem,  "La  date 
de  la  mort  de  Benolt  XI",  loo.  cit.,  XIV,  1894,  241; 
Idem,  "Registre  de  Benott  XI",  Paris,  1885)].  There 
were  twenty-eight  Dominican  cardinals  during  the 
first  three  centuries  of  the  order's  existence.  Some 
of  them  were  noted  for  exceptional  services  to  the 
papacy.  The  earliest  of  them,  Hugh  of  Saint  Cher, 
had  the  delicate  mission  of  persuading  Germany  to 
accept  William  of  HoUand  after  the  deposition  of 
Frederick  II  (Sassen,  "Hugh  von  St.  Cher  em  Seine 
Tatigkeit  als  Kardinal,  1244r-1263",  Bonn,  1908). 
Cardinal  Latino  Malabranca  is  famous  for  his  lega- 
tions and  his  pacification  of  Florence  (1280;  David- 
sohn,  "Gesch.  von  Florenz",  II,  Berlin,  1908,  p.  152; 
Idem,  "Forsch.  zur  Gesch  von  Florenz",  IV,  1908, 
p.  226).  Nicholas  Albertini  of  Prato  (1305-21)  also 
undertook  the  pacification  of  Florence  (1304;  Ban- 
dini,  "Vita  del  Cardinale  Nicol6  da  Prato",  Leghorn, 
1757;  Fineschi,  "Supplemento  alia  vitta  del  Cardinale 
Nicold  da  Prato",  Lucca,  1758;  Perrens,  "Hist,  de 
Florence",  Paris,  III,  1877,  87).  Cardinal  Giovanni 
Dominici  (1408-19)  was  the  staunchest  defender  of 
the  legitimate  pope,  Gregory  XII,  at  the  end  of  the 
Great  Schism;  and  in  the  name  of  his  master  resigned 
the  papacy  at  the  Council  of  Constance  (Rossler, 
"Cardinal  Johannes  Dominici,  O.Pr.,  1357-1419", 
Freiburg,  1893;  Mandonnet,  "Beitrage  zur.  Gesch. 
des  Kardinals  Giovanni  Dominici"  in  "Hist.  Jahr- 
buch.",  1900;  HoUerbach,  "Die  Gregorianische 
Partei,  Sigismund  und  das  Konstanzer  Konzfl"  in 
"Romische  Quartalsohrift",  XXIII-XXIV,  1909- 
10).  Cardinal  John  de  Torquemada  (Turrecremata, 
1439-68),  an  eminent  theologian  ,was  one  of  the  strong- 


PREACHERS 


368b 


PREACHERS 


est  defenders  of  the  pontifioal  rights  at  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Basle  (Lederer,  "  Johann  von  Torquemada, 
sein  Lcben  und  seine  Schriften",  Freiburg,  1879; 
Hefele,  "Conoiliengesch.",  VIII). 

Many  important  officials  were  furnished  to  the 
Church:  Masters  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (Catalamus, 
"De  magistro  sacri  palatii  apostolici",  Rome,  1751); 
pontifical  penitentiaries  (Fontana,  "Sacr.  Theatr. 
Dominic",  470;  631;  "Bull.  O.  P.",  VIII,  76.5,  Pceni- 
tentiarii;  Goller,  "Die  papstliche  Ponitentiarii  von 
ihrem  Ursprung  bis  zu  ihrer  Umgestaltung  unter 
Pius  VII",  Rome,  1907-11);  and  especially  pontifioal 
inquisitors.  The  defence  of  the  Faith  and  the  re- 
pression of  heresy  is  essentially  an  apostolic  and 
pontifical  work.  The  Preachers  also  furnished  many 
delegate  judges  holding  their  powers  either  from  the 
bishops  or  from  the  pope,  but  the  order  as  such  had 
no  mission  properly  so  called,  and  the  legislation 
for  the  repression  of  heresy  was  in  particular  absolutely 
foreign  to  it.  The  extreme  dangers  run  by  the 
Church  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
owing  to  the  progress  of  the  Albigensians  and  Cathari, 
impelled  the  papacy  to  labour  for  their  repression. 
It  first  urged  the  bishops  to  act,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  synodal  witnesses  was  destined  to  make  their 
mission  more  effective,  but  the  insufficiency  of  this 
arrangement  induced  Gregory  IX  to  advise  the 
bishops  to  make  use  of  the  Preachers  and  finally, 
doubtless  owing  to  the  lack  of  zeal  displayed  by  many 
bishops,  to  create  inquisitorial  judges  by  pontifical 
delegation.  The  Preachers  were  not  chosen  de  jure, 
but  de  facto  and  successively  in  the  various  provinces 
of  the  order.  The  pope  usually  charged  the  Domini- 
can provincials  with  the  nomination  of  inquisitorial 
officers  whose  jurisdiction  ordinarily  coincided  with 
the  territory  of  the  Dominican  province.  In  their 
office  the  inquisitors  were  removed  from  the  authority 
of  their  order  and  dependent  only  on  the  Holy  See. 
The  first  pontifical  inquisitors  were  invariably  chosen 
from  the  Order  of  Preachers,  the  reason  being  the 
scarcity  of  educated  and  zealous  clerics.  The 
Preachers,  being  vowed  to  study  and  preaching,  were 
alone  prepared  for  a  ministry,  which  required  both 
learning  and  courage.  The  order  received  this, 
like  many  other  pontifical  commissions,  only  with 
regret.  The  master  general,  Humbert  of  Romans, 
declared  that  the  friars  should  flee  all  odious  offices  and 
especially  the  Inquisition  (Opera,  ed.  Berthier,  II,  36). 

The  same  solicitude  to  remove  the  order  from  the 
odium  of  the  inquisitorial  office  impelled  the  provin- 
cial chapter  of  Cahors  (1244)  to  forbid  that  anything 
should  accrue  to  the  friars  from  the  administration 
of  the  Inquisition,  that  the  order  might  not  be 
slandered.  The  provincial  chapter  of  Bordeaux 
(1257)  even  forbade  the  religious  to  eat  with  the  in- 
quisitors in  places  where  the  order  had  a  convent 
(Douais,  "Les  FrSres  Precheurs  en  Gascogne",  Paris- 
Auch,  1885,  p.  64).  In  countries  where  heresy  was 
powerful,  for  instance  in  the  south  of  France  and  the 
north  of  Italy,  the  order  had  much  to  endure,  pifiage, 
temporary  expulsion,  and  assassination  of  the  in- 
quisitors. After  the  putting  to  death  of  the  in- 
quisitors at  Avignonet  (28  May,  1242)  and  the  assas- 
sination of  St.  Peter  of  Verona  (29  April,  1242) 
("Vitse  fratrum'',  ed.  Reichart,  231;  Perein,  "Monu- 
menta  Conventus  Tolosani",  Toulouse,  1693,  II, 
198;  Acta  SS.,  29  April)  the  order,  whose  adminis- 
tration had  much  to  suffer  from  this  war  against 
heresy,  immediately  requested  to  be  relieved  of  the 
inquisitorial  office.  Innocent  IV  refused  (10  April, 
1243;  Potthast,  11,083),  and  the  following  year  the 
bishops  of  the  south  of  France  petitioned  the  pope 
that  he  would  retain  the  Preachers  in  the  Inquisition 
("Hist.  g&.  du  Languedoc",  III,  ed.  in  folio,  proof 
CCLIX,  Vol.  CCCCXLVI).  Nevertheless  the  Holy 
See  understood  the  desire  of  the  Preachers;  several 
provinces  of  Christendom  ceased  to  be  administered 


by  them  and  were  confided  to  the  Friars  Minor,  viz., 
the  Pontifical  States,  Apulia,  Tuscany,  the  March 
of  Trevisa  and  Slavonia,  and  finally  Provence  (Pott- 
hast, 11,993,  15,330,  15,409,  15,410,  18,895,  20,169; 
Tanon,  "Hist,  des  tribunaux  de  I'inquisition  en 
France"  Paris,  1893;  Idem,  "Documents  pour  servir 
a  I'hist.  de  I'inquisition  dans  le  Languedoc",  Paris, 
1900;  Vacandard,  "L 'Inquisition",  Paris,  1907; 
Lea,  "Hist,  of  the  Inquisition  in  the  Middle  Ages", 
New  York-London,  1888,  French  tr.,  Paris,  1900; 
Fredericq,  "Corpus  documentorum  Inquisitionis 
haereticaepravitatisNeerlandicse",  Ghent,  1900;  Ama- 
bile,  "II  santo  officio  della  Inquizione  in  Napoli", 
Citta  di  Castello,  1892;  Canzons,  "Hist,  de  I'in- 
quisition en  France",  Paris,  1909;  Jordan,  "La  re- 
sponsabiUtd  de  I'Egfise  dans  la  repression  de  l'h6- 
r&ie  au  moyen-&ge"  in  "Annales  de  Philosophie 
chr6t.",  CLIV,  1907,  p.  225).  The  suppression  of 
heresy  which  had  been  especially  active  in  certain 
more  affected  parts  of  Christendom,  diminished 
notably  in  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  particular  conditions  prevailing  in  Spain  brought 
about  the  re-establishment  of  the  Inquisition  with 
new  duties  for  the  inquisitor  general.  These  were 
exercised  from  1483  to  1498  by  Thomas  of  Torque- 
mada, who  reorganized  the  whole  scheme  of  sup- 
pression, and  by  Diego  de  Deza  from  1498  to  1507. 
These  were  the  first  and  last  Dominican  inquisitors 
general  in  Spain  (Lea,  "Hist,  of  the  Inquisition  of 
Spain",  New  York,  1906;  Cotarelo  y  Valledor, 
"Fray  Diego  de  Deza",  Madrid,  1905). 

(i)  The  Friars  Preachers  and  the  Secular  Clergy. — 
The  Preachers,  who  had  been  constituted  from  the 
beginning  as  an  order  of  clerics  vowed  to  ecclesias- 
tical duties  with  a  view  to  supplementing  the  in- 
sufficiency of  the  secular  clergy,  were  universally 
accepted  by  the  episcopate,  which  was  unable  to 
provide  for  the  pastoral  care  of  the  faithful  and  the 
instruction  of  clerics.  It  was  usually  the  bishops 
who  summoned  the  Preachers  to  their  dioceses. 
The  conflicts  which  broke  out  here  and  there  during 
the  thirteenth  century  were  not  generally  due  to  the 
bishops  but  to  the  parochial  clergy  who  considered 
themselves  injured  in  their  temporal  rights  because 
of  the  devotion  and  generosity  of  the  faithful  towards 
the  order.  As  a  general  thing  compromises  were 
reached  between  the  convents  and  the  parishes  in 
which  they  were  situated  and  peaceful  results  fol- 
lowed. The  two  great  contests  between  the  order  and 
the  secular  clergy  broke  out  in  France  during  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  first  took  place  at  the 
University  of  Paris,  led  by  WiUiam  of  Saint-Amour 
(1252-59),  and  was  complicated  by  a  scholastic 
question.  The  episcopate  had  no  share  in  this, 
and  the  church  supported  with  all  its  strength  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  the  order,  which  emerged 
victorious  (Mandonnet,  "Siger  de  Brabant",  I, 
70,  90;  Perrod,  "Etude  sur  la  vie  et  les  oeuvres  de 
Guillaume  de  Saint-Amour"  in  "MSmoires  de  la 
80ci6t6  d'6mulation  de  Jura'',  Lons-le-Saunier,  1902, 
p.  61;  Seppelt,  "Der  Kampf  der  Bettelorden  an  der 
Universitat  Paris  in  der  Mitte  des  13.  Jahrhunderts  " 
in  "  Kirchengeschichtliche  Abhandlungen",  Breslau, 

III,  1905;  VII,  1909).  The  strife  broke  out  anew 
in  the  north  of  France  after  the  privilege  of  Martin 

IV,  "Ad  fructus  uberes"  (13  Dec,  1281),  and  lasted 
until  the  Council  of  Paris  in  1290.  It  was  to  a  large 
extent  conducted  by  Guillaume  de  Flavacourt, 
Bishop  of  Amiens,  but  in  this  instance  also  the  two 
great  mendicant  orders  triumphed  over  their  adver- 
saries, thanks  to  the  energetic  assistance  of  two  cardinal 
legates  (Denifle-Chatelain,  "Chart.  Univ.  Paris", 
I,  passim;  Finke,  "Das  Pariser  National  Konzil 
1290"  in  "Romische  Quartalschrift",  1895,  p.  171; 
Paulus,  "Welt  und  Ordensclerus  beim  Ausgange  des 
XIII .  Jahrhunderts  in  Kampf  e  um  die  Pf  arr-Rechte  ", 
Essen-Ruhr,  1900). 


PREACHERS 


368  c 


PREACHERS 


The  order  gave  many  of  its  members  to  the  epis- 
copate, but  endeavoured  to  prevent  this.  Sts. 
Dominic  and  Francis  seem  to  have  disapproved  of 
the  accession  of  their  religious  to  ecclesiastical  digni- 
ties ("Speculum  perfectionis",  ed.  Sabatier,  Paris, 
1898,  p.  75;  Thomas  of  Celano,  "Legenda  seounda 
S.  Franoisci",  III,  Ixxxvi).  Jordanus  of  Saxony, 
the  immediate  successor  of  St.  Dominic,  forbade  all 
acceptance  of  election  or  postulation  to  the  episcopate, 
under  pain  of  excommunication,  without  special  per- 
mission of  the  pope,  the  general  chapter,  and  the 
master  general  ("Acta  Cap.  Gen.",  ed.  Reichert,  4). 
During  his  administration  he  resisted  with  all  his 
strength  and  declared  that  he  would  rather  see  a 
friar  buried  than  raised  to  the  episcopate  ("Vitee 
Fratrum",  ed.  Reichert,  141,  143,  209).  Everyone 
knows  the  eloquent  letter  which  Humbert  of  Romans 
wrote  to  Albertus  Magnus  to  dissuade  him  from  ac- 
cepting the  nomination  to  the  See  of  Ratisbon 
(1260;  Peter  of  Prussia,  "Vita  B.  Alberti  Magni", 
Antwerp,  1621,  p.  2.53).  But  all  this  opposition 
could  not  prevent  the  nomination  of  a  great  many 
to  high  ecclesiastical  dignities.  The  worth  of  many 
religious  made  them  so  prominent  that  it  was  im- 
possible that  they  should  not  be  suggested  for  the 
episcopate.  Princes  and  nobles  who  had  sons  or 
kinsmen  in  the  order  often  laboured  for  this  result 
with  interested  motives,  but  the  Holy  See  especially 
saw  in  the  accession  of  Dominicans  to  the  episcopate 
the  means  of  infusing  it  with  new  blood.  From  the 
accession  of  Gregory  IX  the  appointment  of  Domini- 
cans to  dioceses  and  archdioceses  became  an  ordinary 
thing.  Hence  until  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
about  fifteen  hundred  Preachers  were  either  appointed 
or  translated  to  dioceses  or  archdioceses,  among 
them  men  remarkable  for  their  learning,  their  com- 
petent administration,  their  zeal  for  souls,  and  the 
holiness  of  their  hves.  (Eubel,  "Hierarchia 
catholica",  I-II;  "Bull  Ord.  Prsed.",  I-IV;  "Script. 
Ord.  Prsed.",  I,  p.  xxi;  Cavalieri,  "Galleria  de'  sommi 
Pontefici,  Patriarchi,  Aroivescovi,  e  Vescovi  dell' 
ordine  de'  Predicatori",  Benevento,  1696;  Vigna, 
"I  vescovi  domenicani  Liguri  owero  in  Liguria", 
Genoa,  1887.) 

(j)  The  Preachers  and  Civil  Society. — During  the 
Middle  Ages  the  Preachers  influenced  princes  and 
communities.  Princes  found  them  to  be  prudent 
advisers,  expert  ambassadors,  and  enlightened  con- 
fessors. The  French  monarchy  was  much  attached 
to  them.  As  early  as  1226  Jordanus  of  Saxony  was 
able  to  write,  in  speaking  of  Blanche  of  Castile: 
"The  queen  tenderly  loves  the  friars  and  she  has 
spoken  with  me  personally  and  familiarly  about  her 
affairs"  (Bayonne,  "Lettres  du  B.  Jourdain  de  Saxe", 
Paris-Lyons,  1865,  p.  66).  No  prince  was  more 
devoted  to  the  order  than  St.  Louis,  nor  did  any  grant 
it  more  favours.  The  French  monarchy  sought  most 
of  its  confessors  during  the  Middle  Ages  from  the 
Order  of  Preachers  (Chapotin,  "A  travers  I'histoire 
dominicaine:  "Les  princes  fran5ais  du  Moyen  Age 
et  I'ordre  de  Saint  Dominique",  Paris,  1903,  p.  207; 
Idem,  "Etudes  historiques  sur  la  province  domini- 
caine de  France",  Paris,  1890,  p.  128).  It  wasthe 
entrance  of  Humbert  II,  Dauphin  of  Vienna,  into 
the  order,  which  gained  Dauphiny  for  France  (Guif- 
frey,  "Hist,  de  la  reunion  du  Dauphin^  k  la  France", 
Paris,  1878).  The  Dukes  of  Burgundy  also  sought 
their  confessors  from  the  order  (Chapotin,  op.  cit., 
190).  The  kings  of  England  did  likewise  and  fre- 
quently employed  its  members  in  their  service 
(Palmer,  "The  Kings'  Confessors"  in  "The  Anti- 
quary", London,  1890,  p.  114;  Tarett,  "Friars  Con- 
fessors of  the  Enghsh  Kings"  in  "The  Home  Coun- 
ties Magazine",  XII,  1910,  p.  100).  Several  Ger- 
man emperors  were  much  attached  to  the  order, 
nevertheless  the  Preachers  did  not  hesitate  to  enter 
into  conflict  with  Frederick  II  and  Louis  of  Bavaria 


when  these  princes  broke  with  the  Church  (Opladen, 
"Die  Stellung  der  deutschen  Konige  zu  den  Orden 
im  dreizethnten  Jahrhundert",  Bonn,  1908;  Paulus, 
"Thomas  von  Strassburg  und  Rudolph  von  Sachsen. 
Ihre  Stellung  zum  Interdikt"  in  "Hist.  Jahrbuch.", 
XIII,  1892,  1;  "Neues  Archiv.  der  Geschellschaft 
fiir  altere  deutsche  Geschictskunde",  XXX,  1905, 
447).  The  kings  of  Castile  and  Spain  invariably 
chose  their  confessors  from  among  the  Preachers 
("Catalogo  de  los  religiosos  dominicos  qui  han  servido 
a  los  Sefiores  de  Castilla,  de  Aragon,  y  de  Andalucia, 
en  el  empleo  de  sus  Confessores  de  Estado",  Madrid, 
1700).  The  kings  of  Portugal  likewise  sought  their 
directors  from  the  same  source  (de  Sousa,  "Historia 
de  S.  Domingos  particulor  de  Reino,  e  conquistas 
de  Portugal",  Lisbon,  1767;  Gr^goire,  "Hist,  dea 
confesseurs  des  empereurs,  des  rois  et  d'autres 
princes",  Paris,  1824). 

The  first  to  be  established  in  the  centres  of  cities, 
the  Dominicans  exercised  a  profound  influence  on 
municipal  life,  especially  in  Italy.  A  witness  at  the 
canonization  of  St.  Dominic  in  1233  expresses  the 
matter  when  he  says  that  nearly  all  the  cities  of 
Lombardy  and  the  Marches  placed  their  affairs  and 
their  statutes  in  the  hands  of  the  Preachers,  that  they 
might  arrange  and  alter  them  to  their  taste  and  as 
seemed  to  them  fitting.  The  same  was  true  of  the 
extirpation  of  wars,  the  restoration  of  peace,  restitu- 
tion for  usury,  hearing  of  confessions  and  a  multi- 
tude of  benefits  which  would  be  too  long  to  enumerate 
("Annales  Ord.  Praed.",  Rome,  1756,  append.,  col. 
128).  About  this  time  the  celebrated  John  of  Vi- 
cenza  exercised  powerful  influence  in  the  north  of 
Italy  and  was  himself  podest^  of  Verona  (Sutter, 
"Johann  von  Vicenza  und  die  italienische  Friedens- 
bewegung  im  Jahre  1233",  Freiburg,  1891;  Ital.  tr., 
Vicenza,  1900;  Vitali,  "I  Domenicani  nella  vita 
itaUana  del  secolo  XIII",  Milan,  1902;  Hefele,  "Die 
Bettelorden  und  das  religiose  Volksleben  Ober-und 
Mittehtaliens  im XIII.  Jahrhundert",  Leipzig-Berlin, 
1910).  An  idea  of  the  penetration  of  the  order  into 
all  social  classes  may  be  formed  from  the  declaration 
of  Pierre  Dubois  in  1300  that  the  Preachers  and  the 
Minors  knew  better  than  anyone  else  the  condition 
of  the  world  and  of  all  social  classes  ("De  recupera^ 
tione  Terre  Sancte",  ed.  Langlois,  Paris,  1891,  pp. 
51,  74,  84).  The  part  played  by  Catherine  of  Siena 
in  the  pacification  of  the  towns  of  Central  Italy  and 
the  return  of  the  papacy  from  Avignon  to  Rome  is 
well  known.  "She  was  the  greatest  figure  of  the 
second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  an  Italian, 
not  only  a  saint,  a  mystic,  a  miracle-worker,  but  a 
statesman,  and  a  great  statesman,  who  solved  for 
the  welfare  of  Italy  and  all  Christendom  the  most 
difficult  and  tragic  question  of  her  time"  (Gebhart, 
"Une  sainte  homme  d'fitat,  Ste  Catherine  de  Sienne" 
in  "Revue  Hebdomadaire",  16  March,  1907,  257). 
It  was  the  Dominican  Bishop  of  Geneva,  AdSmar  de 
la  Roche,  who  granted  that  town  its  liberties  and 
franchise  in  1387  (Mallet,  "Liberty,  franchises, 
immunity,  us  et  coutumes  de  la  ville  de  Geneve 
promulg^s  par  I'^vfique  Ad^mar  Fabri  le  23  Mai, 
1387"  in  "M^moires  et  documents  de  la  soci6t6 
d'histoire  et  d'arch^ologie  de  Geneve",  Geneva,  II, 
1843,  p.  270).  Finally  reference  must  be  made  to  the 
profound  influence  exercised  by  Girolamo  Savonarola 
(1498)  on  the  political  life  of  Florence  during  the  last 
years  of  the  fifteenth  century  (Vilari,  "La  Storia  di 
Girolamo  Savonarola  e  d6  suoi  tempi",  Florence, 
1887;  Luotto,  "II  vero  Savonarola",  Florence,  1897). 

(k)  The  Preachers  and  the  Faithful. — During  the 
thirteenth  century  the  faithful  were  almost  without 
pastoral  care  and  preaching.  The  coming  of  the 
Preachers  was  an  innovation  which  won  over  the 
people  eager  for  rehgious  instruction.  What  a 
chronicler  relates  of  Thuringia  was  the  case  almost 
everywhere:     "Before    the    arrival    of    the    Friars 


PREACHERS 


368  D 


PREACHERS 


Preachers  the  word  of  God  was  rare  and  precious  and 
very  rarely  preached  to  the  people.  The  Friars 
Preachers  preached  alone  in  every  section  of  Thurin- 
gia  and  in  the  town  of  Erfurt  and  no  one  hindered 
them"  (Koch,  "Graf  Elger  von  Holmstein",  Gotha, 
1865,  pp.  70,  72).  About  1267  the  Bishop  of  Amiens, 
Guillaume  de  Flavaoourt,  in  the  war  against  heresy 
already  mentioned,  declared  that  the  people  refused 
to  hear  the  word  of  God  from  any  save  the  Preachers 
and  Minors  (Bibl.  de  Grenoble,  MR.  639,  fol.  119). 
The  Preachers  exercised  a  special  influence  over  the 
piously  inclined  of  both  sexes  among  the  masses,  so 
numerous  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  they  induced  to 
penance  and  continence  a  great  many  people  Uving 
in  the  world,  who  were  commonly  called  Beguins, 
and  who  lived  either  alone  or  in  more  or  less  populous 
communities.  Despite  the  order's  attraction  for 
this  devout,  half-lay,  half-religious  world,  the  Preach- 
ers refused  to  take  it  under  their  jurisdiction  in  order 
not  to  hamper  their  chief  activity  nor  distort  their 
ecclesiastical  ideal  bv  too  close  contact  with  lay  piety. 
The  General  Chapters  of  1228  and  1229  forbade  the 
religious  to  give  the  habit  to  any  woman  or  to  re- 
ceive her  profession,  or  to  give  spiritual  direction 
to  any  community  of  women  not  strictly  subject  to 
some  authority  other  than  that  of  the  order  ("Archiv. 
f.  Litt.  a  Kirchengesch.",  I,  27;  Bayonne,  "Lettres 
du  B.  Jourdain  de  Saxe",  110).  But  the  force  of  cir- 
cumstances prevailed,  and,  despite  everything,  these 
chents  furnished  the  chief  elements  of  the  Peniten- 
tial Order  of  St.  Dominic,  who  received  their  own 
rule  in  1285,  and  of  whom  more  has  been  said  above 
(Mosheim,  "De  Beghardis  et  Beguiniabus",  Leipzig, 
1720;  Le  Grand,  "Les  B^guincs  de  Paris",  1893; 
Kimal,  "Les  Beguinages",  Nivelles,  1908).  The 
Order  especially  encouraged  congregations  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  and  the  saints,  which  developed 
greatly,  especially  in  Italy.  Many  of  them  had  their 
headquarters  in  convents  of  the  Preachers,  who  ad- 
ministered them  spiritually.  After  the  Penitential 
movement  of  1260  confraternities  were  formed  com- 
monly called  Disciplinati,  Battuti,  etc.  Many  of 
them  originated  in  Dominican  churches  (there  is  no 
general  historical  work  on  this  subject).  In  127-1:, 
during  the  Council  of  Lyons,  Gregory  X  confided  to 
the  Dominicans  the  preaching  of  the  Holy  Name  of 
Jesus,  whence  arose  confraternities  of  that  name 
(Bull.  Ord.  Prted.,  VHI,  524).  Finally  the  second 
half  of  the  fifteenth  century  saw  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  confraternities  of  the  Holy  Rosary  under 
the  influence  of  the  Preachers  ("Acta  Sanctae  Sedis 
nee  non  magistrorum  et  capitulorum  generalium  sacri 
ordinis  Praedicatorum  pro  Societate  SS.  Rosarii", 
Lyons,  1890).  With  the  object  of  developing  the 
piety  of  the  faithful  the  Preachers  allowed  them  to 
be  buried  in  the  habit  of  the  order  (Cantimpratanus, 
"De  bono  universah  apum",  lib.  II,  viii,  n.  8). 
From  the  time  of  Jordanus  of  Saxony  they  issued  let- 
ters of  participation  in  the  spiritual  goods  of  the  order. 
The  same  general  established  at  Paris  the  custom  of 
the  evening  sermon  (collatio)  for  the  students  of  the 
University,  in  order  to  turn  them  aside  from  dissipa- 
tion, which  custom  passed  to  all  the  other  universi- 
ties ("Vita  fratmm",  ed.  Reichert,  327). 

(1)  The  Preachers  and  the  Foreign  Missions. — 
During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Order  of  Preachers  ex- 
ercised considerable  activity  within  the  boundaries 
of  Christendom  and  far  beyond.  The  evangehzation 
of  heathen  countries  was  confided  to  the  nearest 
Dominican  pro\'inces.  At  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century  the  missions  of  Asia  became  a  special 
group,  the  congregation  of  Friars  Pilgrims  for  Christ. 
Some  of  the  remote  provinces,  especially  those  of 
Greece  and  the  Holy  Land,  were  recruited  from 
volunteers  throughout  the  order.  Besides  the  work 
of  evangelization  the  religious  frequently  assumed  the 
mission  of   ambassador  or  agent   to   schismatic   or 


pagan  princes,  and  Friars  Preachers  frequently 
occupied  sees  in  partibus  infidelium.  A  number  of 
them,  faithful  to  the  order's  doctrinal  vocation,  com- 
posed works  of  all  kinds  to  assist  their  apostolate, 
to  defend  the  Christian  Faith,  to  inform  the  Roman 
Church  or  Latin  princes  concerning  the  condition 
of  the  East,  and  to  indicate  measures  to  be  taken 
against  the  dangers  threatening  Christianity.  Finally 
they  frequently  shed  their  blood  in  these  inhospitable 
and  unfruitful  countries.  The  province  of  Spain 
laboured  for  the  conversion  of  the  Arabs  of  the 
Peninsula,  and  in  1256  Humbert  of  Romans  described 
the  satisfactory  results  (H.  de  Romanis,  "Opera",  ed. 
Berthier,  II,  502).  In  1225  the  first  Spanish  Domini- 
cans evangehzed  Morocco  and  the  head  of  the  mission, 
Brother  Dominic,  was  consecrated  in  that  year  first 
Bishop  of  Morocco  (Analecta  Ord.  Praed.,  Ill,  374 
sqq.).  Some  years  later  they  were  already  est  ablished  at 
Tunis  ["Mon.  Ord.  Praed.:  Hist.",  IV  (Barmusidiana), 
fasc.  II,  29].  In  1256  and  the  ensuing  years  Alexan- 
der IV,  at  the  instance  of  St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort, 
gave  a  vigorous  impulse  to  this  mission  (Potthast, 
16,438;  17,187;  17,929). 

In  the  north  of  Europe  the  province  of  England 
or  that  of  Dacia  carried  its  establishments  as  far  as 
Greenland  (Teli6,  "  L'6vangeUzation  de  I'Am^rique 
avant  Christophe  Colomb"  in  "Compte  rendu  du 
congrfes  sclent,  intern,  des  Catholiques",  1891,  sect, 
hist.,  1721).  As  early  as  1233  the  province  of  Ger- 
many promoted  the  crusade  against  the  Prussians 
and  the  heretical  Stedingers,  and  brought  them  to  the 
Faith  (Schomberg,  "Die  Dominikaner  im  Erzbistum 
Bremen",  Brunswick,  1910,  14;  "Bull.  Ord.  Pned.", 
I,  61;  H.  de  Romanis,  "Opera",  II,  502).  The 
province  of  Poland,  founded  by  St.  Hyacinth  (1221), 
extended  its  apostolate  by  means  of  this  saint  as  far 
as  Kieff  and  Dantizig.  In  1246  Brother  Alexis  re- 
sided at  the  Court  of  the  Duke  of  Russia,  and  in 
1258  the  Preachers  evangelized  the  Ruthenians 
(Abraham,  "Powstanie  organizacyi  Koioio  laci6s- 
kiego  na  Rusi",  Lemberg,  1904;  Rainaldi,  "Annal. 
eccL",  ad  ann.  1246,  n.  30;  Potthast,  17,186;  Baraoz, 
"Rys  dziej6w  Zakonn  Kaznodzie  jskiego  w  Polsce", 
Lemberg,  1861;  Comtcsse  de  Flavigny,  "Saint 
Hyacinthe  et  ses  compagnons",  Paris,  1899).  The 
province  of  Hungary,  founded  in  1221  by  Bl.  Paul 
of  Hungary,  evangelized  the  Cumans  and  the  people 
of  the  Balkans.  As  early  as  1235-37  Brother 
Richard  and  his  companions  set  out  in  quest  of 
Greater  Hungary — the  Hungarian  pagans  still 
dwelling  on  the  Volga  ("  Vitae  Fratrum",  ed.  Reichert, 
305;  "De  inventa  Hungaria  Magna  tempore  Gre- 
gorii  IX",  ed.  Endlicher,  in  "Rerum  Hungaricarum 
Monumenta",  248;  Ferrarius,  "De  rebus  Hungaricae 
Provincial  S.  Ord.  Prad.",  Vienna,  1637). 

The  province  of  Greece,  founded  in  1228,  occupied 
those  territories  of  the  empire  of  the  East  which  had 
been  conquered  by  the  Latins,  its  chief  centre  of 
activity  being  Constantinople.  Here  also  the 
Preachers  laboured  for  the  return  of  the  schismatics 
to  ecclesiastical  unity  ("Script.  Ord.  Praed.",  I,  pp. 
i,  xii,  102,  136,  156,  911;  Potthast,  3198;  "Vitae 
fratrum",  1218).  The  province  of  the  Holy  Land, 
established  in  1228,  occupied  all  the  Latin  conquest 
of  the  Holy  Land  besides  Nicosia  and  Tripoli.  Its 
houses  on  the  Continent  were  destroyed  one  after  the 
other  with  the  defeat  of  the  Christians,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  province  was 
reduced  to  the  three  convents  on  the  Island  of 
Cyprus  ("Script.  Ord.  Praed.",  I,  pp.  i,  xii;  Balme, 
"La  Province  dominicaine  de  Terre-Sainte  de  1277 
k  1280"  in  ",\rchives  de  I'Orient  Latin";  Idem, 
"Les  francisoains  et  les  dominicains  k  Jerusalem  au 
treizieme  et  au  quatorzieme  siecle",  1890,  p.  324). 
The  province  of  the  Holy  Land  was  the  starting  point 
for  the  evangelization  of  Asia  diu'ing  the  thirteenth 
century.     As  early  as   1237  the  provincial,  Philip, 


PREACHERS 


368  E 


PREACHERS 


reported  to  Gregory  IX  extraordinary  results  ob- 
tained by  the  religious;  the  evangelization  reached 
Jacobites  and  Nestorians,  Maronites  and  Saracens 
(Script.  Ord.  Praed.,  I,  104).  About  the  same  time 
the  Friars  established  themselves  in  Armenia  and  in 
Georgia  ("Bull.  Ord.  Prajd.",  I,  108,  "Script.  O. 
P.",  I,  122;  H.  de  Romanis,  "Opera",  II,  502; 
Vine.  Bellovacensis,  "Speculum  historiale",  1.  b. 
XXI,  42;  Tamarati,  "L'Eglise  G^orgienne  dps  ori- 
gines  jusqu'^  nos  jours",  Rome,  1910,  430). 

The  missions  of  Asia  continued  to  develop  through- 
out the  thirteenth  century  and  part  of  the  fourteenth 
and  missionaries  went  as  far  as  Bagdad  and  India 
[Mandonnet,  "Fra  Riooldo  de  Monte  Croce"  in 
"Revue  bib.",  I,  1893;  Balme,  "  Jourdain  Cathala  de 
S(5v6rac,  Eveque  de  Coulain"  (Quilon),  Lyons,  1886]. 
In  1312  the  master  general,  Boranger  de  Landore,  or- 
ganized the  missions  of  Asia  into  a  special  congrega- 
tion of  "Friars  Pilgrims",  with  Franco  of  Perugia  as 
vicar  general.  As  a  base  of  evangelization  they  had 
the  convent  of  Pera  (Constantinople),  Capha,  Treb- 
izond,  and  Negropont.  Thence  they  branched  out 
into  Armenia  and  Persia.  In  1318  John  XXII 
appointed  Franco  of  Perugia  Archbishop  of  Sultanieh, 
with  six  other  Dominicans  as  suffragans.  During  the 
first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Preachers  oc- 
cupied many  sees  in  the  East.  When  the  missions 
of  Persia  were  destroyed  in  1349,  the  Preachers  pos- 
sessed fifteen  monasteries  there,  and  the  United 
Brethren  (see  below)  eleven  monasteries.  In  1358 
the  Congregation  of  Pilgrims  still  had  two  convents 
and  eight  residences.  This  movement  brought  about 
the  foundation,  in  1330,  of  the  United  Brethren  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator.  It  was  the  work  of  Bl. 
Bartolommeo  Petit  of  Bologna,  Bishop  of  Maragha, 
assisted  by  John  of  Kerni.  It  was  formed  by 
Armenian  religious  who  adopted  the  Constitution  of 
the  Dominicans  and  were  incorporated  with  the  order 
after  1356.  Thirty  years  after  their  foundation  the 
United  Brethren  had  in  Armenia  alone  50  monas- 
teries with  700  religious.  This  province  still  existed 
in  the  eighteenth  century  [Eubel,  "Die  wahrend  des 
14.  Jahrhunderts  im  Missionsgebiet  dor  Dominikaner 
und  Franziskaner  errichteten  Bisttimcr"  in  "Ferst- 
chrift  des  deutschen  Campo  Santo  in  Rom",  Frei- 
burg i.  Br.,  1897,  170;  Heyd,  "Die  Kolonien  der 
romischen  Kirche,  welche  die  Dominikaner  und 
Franziskaner  im  13.  und  14.  Jahrhundert  in  dem  von 
der  Tataren  beherrschten  Landern  Asiens  und 
Europas  gregriindet  haben"  in  "Zeitschrift  ftir  die 
historische  Theologie",  1858;  Tournebize,  "Hist, 
politique  et  religieuse  de  I'Armenie",  Paris,  s.  d. 
(1910),  320;  Andr^-Marie,  "Missions  dominicaines 
dans  I'Extreme  Orient",  Lyons  and  Paris,  1865; 
Mortier,  "Hist,  des  maitres  g^n&aux  de  I'ordre  des 
Freres  Preoheurs",  I,  IV]. 

(m)  The  Preachers  and  Sanctity. — It  is  characteris- 
tic of  Dominican  sanctity  that  its  saints  attained 
holiness  in  the  apostolate,  in  the  pursuit  or  promotion 
of  learning,  administration,  foreign  missions,  the 
papacy,  the  cardinalate,  and  the  episcopate.  Until 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  order  m  its 
three  branches  gave  to  the  Church  nine  canonized 
saints  and  at  least  seventy-three  blessed.  Of  the 
first  order  (the  Preachers)  are  St.  Dommic,  St.  Peter 
of  Verona,  martyr,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  St.  Raymond 
of  Pennafort,  St,  Vincent  Ferrer,  St.  Antoninus  of 
Florence.  Among  the  Dominican  samts  m  general 
there  is  a  predominance  of  the  intellectual  over  the 
emotional  qualities;  their  mystical  life  is  more  sub- 
jective than  objective;  and  asceticism  plays  a  strong 
part  in  their  holiness.  Meditation  on  the  sufferings 
of  Christ  and  His  love  was  common  among  them. 
Mystic  states,  with  the  phenomena  which  accompany 
them  were  ordinary,  especially  in  convents  of  women 
in  German  countries.  Many  received  the  stigmata 
in  various  forms.     St.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  Meister 


Eckhart  were,  from  different  standpoints,  the  greatest 
medieval  theorists  concerning  the  mystical  state 
(Giffre  de  Reohac,  "Les  vies  et  actions  mSmorables 
des  saints  canonises  de  I'ordre  des  Freres  Precheurs  et 
de  plusieurs  bienheureux  et  illustres  personnages  du 
meme  ordre",  Paris,  1647;  Marchese,  "Sagro  diario 
domenioano",  Naples,  1668,  6  vols,  in  fol.;  Manoel 
de  Lima,  "Agiologio  dominico",  Lisbon,  1709-54, 
4  vols,  in  fol.;  "Ann(5e  dominicaine",  Lyons,  1883- 
1909,  12  vols,  in  4;  Imbert-Gourbeyre,  "La  Stigma- 
tisation",  Clermont-Ferrand,  1894;  Thomas  de 
Vallgormera,  "Mystica  theologia  D.  Thomee", 
Barcelona,   1662;    Turin,   1911,  re-ed.  Berthier). 

(2)  Modem  Period. — The  modern  period  consists 
of  the  three  centuries  between  the  religious  revolu- 
tion at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  (Prot- 
estantism) and  the  French  Revolution  with  its  con- 
sequences. The  Order  of  Preachers,  like  the  Church 
itself,  felt  the  shock  of  these  destructive  revolutions, 
but  its  vitality  enabled  it  to  withstand  them  success- 
fully. At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
the  order  was  on  the  way  to  a  genuine  renaissance 
when  the  Revolutionary  upheavals  occurred.  The 
progress  of  heresy  cost  it  six  or  seven  provinces  and 
several  hundreds  of  convents,  but  the  discovery  of 
the  New  World  opened  up  a  fresh  field  of  activity. 
Its  gains  in  America  and  those  which  arose  as  a  con- 
sequence of  the  Portuguese  conquests  in  Africa  and 
the  Indies  far  exceeded  the  losses  of  the  order  in 
Europe,  and  the  seventeenth  century  saw  its  highest 
numerical  development.  The  sixteenth  century  was 
a  great  doctrinal  century,  and  the  movement  lasted 
beyond  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth.  In  modern 
times  the  order  lost  much  of  its  influence  on  the  polit- 
ical powers,  which  had  universally  fallen  into  ab- 
solutism and  had  little  sympathy  for  the  democratic 
constitution  of  the  Preachers.  The  Bourbon  Courts 
of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  were 
particularly  unfavourable  to  them  until  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  there  were  numerous  attempts  at  reform 
which  created,  especially  in  France,  geographical  con- 
fusion in  the  administration.  During  the  eighteenth 
century  the  tjrrannical  spirit  of  the  European  Powers 
and,  still  more,  the  spirit  of  the  age  lessened  the  num- 
ber of  recruits  and  the  fervour  of  religious  life.  The 
French  Revolution  ruined  the  order  in  France,  and 
the  crises  which  more  or  less  rapidly  followed  consider- 
ably lessened  or  wholly  destroyed  numerous  provinces. 

(a)  Geographical  Distribution  and  Statistics. — 
The  modern  period  saw  a  great  change  in  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  provinces  and  the  number  of 
religious  in  the  order.  The  establishment  of  Protes- 
tantism in  Anglo-Saxon  countries  brought  about, 
during  the  sixteenth  century,  the  total  or  partial 
disappearance  of  certain  provinces.  The  provinces 
of  Saxony,  Dacia,  England,  and  Scotland  com- 
pletely disappeared;  that  of  Teutonia  was  mutilated; 
that  of  Ireland  sought  refuge  in  various  houses  on  the 
Continent.  The  discovery  and  evangelization  of 
America  opened  up  vast  territories,  where  the  first 
Dominican  missionaries  established  themselves  as 
early  as  1510.  The  first  province,  with  San  Domingo 
and  the  neighbouring  islands  for  its  territory,  was 
erected,  under  the  name  of  the  Holy  Cross,  in  1530. 
Others  followed  quickly — among  them  St.  James  of 
Mexico  (1532),  St.  John  Baptist  of  Peru  (1539), 
St.  Vincent  of  Chiapa  (1551),  St.  Antoninus  of  New 
Granada  (1551),  St.  Catherine  of  Quito  (1580), 
St.  Lawrence  of  Chile  (1592).  In  Europe  the  order 
developed  constantly  from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  till  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth.  New 
provinces  or  congregations  were  formed.  Under  the 
government  of  Serafino  Cavalli  (1571-78)  the  order 
had  thirty-one  provinces  and  five  congregations. 
In  1720  it  had  forty-nine  provinces  and  four  con- 
gregations.    At  the  former  date  there  were  about 


PREACHERS 


368  F 


PREACHERS 


900  convents;  at  the  latter,  1200.  During  Cavalli's 
time  the  order  had  14,000  rehgious,  and  in  1720  more 
than  20,000.  It  seems  to  have  reached  its  greatest 
numerical  development  during  the  seventeenth 
century.  Mention  is  made  of  30,000  and  40,000 
Dominicans;  perhaps  these  figures  include  nuns; 
it  does  not  seem  probable  that  the  number  of  Preach- 
ers alone  ever  exceeded  25,000.  The  secularization 
in  Austria-Hungary  under  Joseph  II  began  the  work 
of  partial  suppression  of  convents,  which  was  con- 
tinued in  France  by  the  Committee  of  Regulars 
(1770)  until  the  Convention  (1793)  finally  destroyed 
all  religious  life  in  that  country.  The  Napoleonic 
conquest  overthrew  many  provinces  and  houses  in 
Europe.  IMost  of  them  were  eventually  restored; 
but  the  Revolution  destroyed  partially  or  wholly 
the  provinces  of  Portugal  (1834),  Spain  (1834),  and 
Italy  (1870).  The  political  troubles  brought  about 
by  the  revolt  of  Latin  America  from  the  mother- 
country  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
partially  or  wholly  destroyed  several  provinces'of  the 
New  World  ("Script.  Ord.  Praed.",  II,  p.  I;  "Analecta 
Ord.  Pried.",  I  sqq.;  "Dominicanus  orbis  descrip- 
tus";  JNIortier,  "Hist,  des  maitres  gen^raux",  V 
sqq.;  Chapotin,  "Le  dernier  prieur  du  dernier 
couvent",  Paris,  1893;  Rais,  "Historia  de  la  prov- 
incia  de  Arag6n,  orden  de  Predicadores,  desde  le 
ano  1803  hasta  el  de  1818",  Saragossa,  1819;    1824). 

(b)  Administration  of  the  Order. — During  the  mod- 
ern period  the  Preachers  remained  faithful  to  the 
spirit  of  their  organization.  Some  modifications  were 
necessitated  by  the  general  condition  of  the  Church 
and  civil  society.  Especially  noteworthy  was  the 
attempt,  in  1569,  of  St.  Pius  V,  the  Dominican  pope, 
to  restrict  the  choice  of  superiors  by  inferiors  and  to 
constitute  a  sort  of  administrative  aristocracy  (Acta 
Cap.  Gener.,  \,  94).  The  frequent  intervention  of 
popes  in  the  government  of  the  order  and  the  pre- 
tensions of  civil  powers,  as  well  as  its  great  develop- 
ment, diminished  the  frequency  of  general  chapters; 
the  rapid  succession  of  masters  general  caused  many 
chapters  to  be  convened  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury; in  the  eighteenth  century  chapters  again 
became  rare.  The  effective  administration  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  general  assisted  by  pontifical 
decrees.  During  these  three  centuries  the  order 
had  many  heads  who  were  remarkable  for  their  energy 
and  administrative  ability,  among  them  Thomas  de 
Vio  (1508-18),  Garcia  de  Loaysa  (1518-24),  Vincent 
Giustiniani  (1558-70),  Nicolo  Ridolfi  (1629-44), 
Giovanni  Battista  de'  Marini  (1650-69),  Antonin 
Cloche  (1686-1720),  Antonin  Brdmond  (1748-55), 
John  Thomas  de  Boxadors  (Mortier,  "Hist,  des 
maitres  g6n&aux",  V  sq. ;  "Acta  cap.  gen,",  IV 
sq.;  "Chronicon  magistrorum  generalium";  "Re- 
gQla  S.  Augustini  et  Constitutiones  Ord.  Praed.", 
Rome,  1695;  Paichelli,  "Vita  del  Rmo  p.  F.  Giov. 
Battista  de'  Marini",  Rome,  1670;  Messin,  "Vita 
del  R<^o  P.  F.  Antonino  Cloche",  Benevento,  1721; 
"Vita  Antonini  Bremondii"  in  "Annales  Ord.  Praed.", 
Rome,  1756,  I,  p.  LIX). 

(c)  Scholastic  Organization. — The  scholastic  or- 
ganization of  the  Dominicans  during  this  modern 
period  tended  to  concentration  of  studios.  The 
conventual  school  required  by  the  Constitutions  dis- 
appeared, at  least  in  its  essentials,  and  in  each  prov- 
ince or  congregation  the  studies  were  grouped  in 
particular  convents.  The  studia  generalia  multi- 
plied, as  well  as  convents  incorporated  with  uni- 
versities. The  General  Chapter  of  1551  designates 
27  convents  in  university  towns  where,  and  where 
only,  the  religious  might  take  the  degree  of  Master 
in  Theology.  Through  the  generosity  of  Dominicans 
in  high  ecclesiastical  offices  large  colleges  for  higher 
education  were  also  established  for  the  benefit  of 
certain  provinces.  Among  the  most  famous  of  these 
were  the  College  of  St.  Gregory  at  Valladolid,  founded 


in  1488  by  Alonzo  of  Burgos,  adviser  and  confessor 
of  the  kings  of  Castile  (Bull.  O.  P.,  IV,  38) ;  that  of 
St.  Thomas  at  Seville,  established  in  1515  by  Arch- 
bishop Diego  de  Deza  ("Historia  del  colegio  major 
de  Ste  Tomas  de  Sevilla",  Seville,  1890).  The 
Preachers  also  established  universities  in  their  chief 
provinces  in  America — San  Domingo  (1538),  Santa 
F6  de  Bogota  (1612),  Quito  (1681),  Havana  (1721)— 
and  even  in  the  Philippines,  where  the  University 
of  Manila  (1645)  is  still  flourishing  and  in  their  hands. 
During  the  sixteenth  and  following  centuries  the 
schedule  of  studies  was  more  than  once  revised,  and 
the  matter  extended  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  times. 
Oriental  studies  especially  received  a  vigorous  im- 
pulse under  the  generalship  of  Antonin  Bremond 
(Fabricy,  "Des  titres  primitifs  de  la  RiSv^lation", 
Rome,  1772,  II,  132;  "Acta.  Cap.  Gen.",  IV-VII; 
"Bull.  O.  P.",  passim;  V.  de  la  Fuente,  "Laensenanza 
Tomistica  en  Espaiia",  Madrid,  1874;  Contarini, 
"Notizie  storiche  circa  gli  publici  professori  nello 
studio  di  Padova  scelti  dall'  ordine  di  San  Domenico", 
Venice,  1769). 

(d)  Doctrinal  Activity. — The  doctrinal  activity 
of  the  Preachers  continued  during  the  modern  period. 
The  order,  closely  connected  with  the  events  of  the 
Reformation  in  German  countries,  faced  the  rev- 
olutionary movement  as  best  it  could,  and  by  preach- 
ing and  writing  deserved  what  Dr.  Paulus  has  said 
of  it:  "It  may  well  be  said  that  in  the  difficult  con- 
flict through  which  the  Catholic  Church  had  to  pass 
in  Germany  in  the  sixteenth  century  no  other  reli- 
gious order  furnished  in  the  literary  sphere  so  many 
champions,  or  so  well  equipped,  as  the  Order  of  St. 
Dominic"  ("Die  deutschen  Dominikaner  in  Kampfe 
gegen  Luther,  1518-1563",  Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1903). 
The  order  was  conspicuous  by  the  number  and  in- 
fluence of  the  Dominican  bishops  and  theologians 
who  took  part  in  the  Council  of  Trent.  To  a  certain 
extent  Thomistic  doctrine  predominated  in  the  dis- 
cussions and  decisions  of  the  council,  so  that  Clement 
VII,  in  1593,  could  say,  when  he  desired  the  Jesuits 
to  follow  St.  Thomas,  that  the  council  approved  and 
accepted  his  works  (Astrain,  "Historia  de  la  Com- 
pania  de  J&us  en  la  asistencia  de  Espana",  III, 
Madrid,  1909,  580).  The  "Catechismus  ad  Par- 
ochos",  the  composition  of  which  had  been  or- 
dered by  the  council,  and  which  was  published  at  the 
command  of  Pius  V  (1566),  is  the  work  of  Dominican 
theologians  (Reginaldus,  "De  catechismi  romani 
auctoritate  dissertatio",  Naples,  1765).  The  Spanish 
Dominican  School  of  the  sixteenth  century,  inau- 
gurated by  Francisco  de  Vitoria  (d.  1540),  produced 
a  series  of  eminent  theologians:  Melchior  Cano 
(1560),  the  celebrated  author  of  "De  locis  theolo- 
gicis";  Domingo  Soto  (1500);  Bartolom^  de  Medina 
(1580);  Domingo  Baiiez.  This  line  of  theologians 
was  continued  by  Tomds  de  Lemos  (1629);  Diego 
Alvarez  (1635);  Juan  de  S.  Tomas  (1644);  ["Script. 
O.  P.",  II,  s.  w.;  P.  Getino,  "Historia  de  un  con- 
vento"  (St.  Stephen  of  Salamanca),  Vergara,  1904; 
Ehrle,  "Die  Vatikanischen  Handschriften  der  Sala- 
manticenser  Theologen  des  sechszehnten  Jahrhun- 
derts"  in  "Der  Katholik",  64-65,  1884-85;  L.  G. 
Getino,  "El  maestro  Fr.  Francisco  de  Vitoria" 
in  "La  Ciencia  tomista",  Madrid,  I,  1910,  1;  Cabal- 
lero,  "Vida  del  Illmo.  dr.  D.  Fray  Melchor  Cano", 
Madrid,  1871;  Alvarez,  "Santa  Teresa  y  el  P. 
Banez",  Madrid,  1882]. 

Italy  furnished  a  contingent  of  Dominican  theo- 
logians of  note,  of  whom  Thomas  de  Vio  Cajetan 
(d.  1534)  was  incontestably  the  most  famous  (Cossio, 
"II  cardinale  Gaetano  e  la  riforma",  Cividale,  1902). 
Francesco  Silvestro  di  Ferrara  (d.  1528)  left  a  valuable 
commentary  on  the  "Summa  contra  Gentiles" 
(Script.  O.  P.,  II,  59).  Chrysostom  Javelli,  a  dis- 
senter from  the  Thomistic  School,  left  very  remark- 
able writings  on  the  moral  and   political   sciences 


PREACHERS 


368  G 


PREACHERS 


(op.  cit.,  104).  Catharinus  (1553)  is  a  famous  polem- 
icist, but  an  unreliable  theologian  (Sohweizer, 
"Ambrosius  Catharinus  Pol'tus,  1484-1553,  ein 
Theologe  des  Reformations-zeitalters",  Miinster, 
1910).  France  likewise  produced  excellent  theolo- 
gians— Jean  Nicolai  (d.  1673) ;  Vincent  de  Contenson 
(d.  1674) ;  Antoine  Reginald  (d.  1676) ;  Jean-Baptiste 
Gonet  (d.  1081);  Antoine  Gondin  (d.  1695);  Antonin 
Manouli6  (d.  1706);  Noel  Alexandre  (Natalis  Alexan- 
der) (d.  1724);  Hyacinthe  de  Graveson  (d.  1733); 
HyacintheSerry(d.  1738)  ("Script.  O.  P.", II;  Hurter, 
" Nomenclator  ,  IV;  H.  Serry,  "Opera  omnia",  I, 
Lyons,  1770,  p.  5) .  Prom  the  sixteenth  century  to  the 
eighteenth  the  Thomistic  School  upheld  by  the  author- 
ity of  Dominican  general  chapters  and  theolo- 
gians, the  official  adhesion  of  new  religious  orders 
and  various  theological  faculties,  but  above  all  by 
the  Holy  See,  enjoyed  an  increasing  and  undisputed 
authority. 

The  disputes  concerning  moral  theology  which  dis- 
turbed the  Church  during  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries,  originated  in  the  theory  of  probability 
advanced  by  the  Spanish  Dominican  Bartolom6  de 
Medina  in  1577.  Several  theologians  of  the  order 
adopted,  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  theory  of  moral  probability;  but  in  consideration 
of  the  abuses  which  resulted  from  these  doctrines, 
the  General  Chapter  of  1656  condemned  them,  and 
after  that  time  there  were  no  more  Probabilista 
among  the  Dominicans.  The  condemnations  of 
Alexander  VII  (1665,  1667),  the  famous  Decree  of 
Innocent  XI,  and  various  acts  of  the  Roman  Church 
combined  to  make  the  Preachers  resolute  opponents 
of  Probabilism.  The  publication  of  Concina's 
"Storia  del  probabilismo "  in  1743  renewed  the  con- 
troversy. He  displayed  enormous  activity,  and  his 
friend  and  disciple,  Giovanni  Vicenzo  Patuzzi  (d. 
1769),  defended  him  in  a  series  of  vigorous  writings. 
St.  Alphonsus  Liguori  felt  the  consequences  of  these 
disputes,  and,  in  consideration  of  the  position  taken 
by  the  Holy  See,  greatly  modified  his  theoretical  sys- 
tem of  probability  and  expressed  his  desire  to  adhere 
to  the  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (Mandonnet, 
"Le  decret  d'Innocent  XI  contre  le  probabilisme", 
in  "Revue  Thomiste"  1901-03;  Ter  Haar,  "Das 
Decret  des  Papstes  Innocenz  XI  uber  den  Probabilis- 
mus",  Paderborn,  1904;  Concina,  "Delia  storia  del 
Probabilismo  e  del  Rigorismo",  Lucca,  1743;  Mon- 
dius, ' '  Studio  storioo-critico  sul  sistema  morale  di  S .  Al- 
fonsoM.  de  Liguori",  Monza,  1911;  Dollinger-Reusch, 
"Gesch.  der  Moralstreitigkeiten",  Nordlingen,  1889). 

(e)  Scientific  productions. — The  literary  activity 
of  the  Preachers  of  the  sixteenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  was  not  confined  to  the  theological  move- 
ment noticed  above,  but  shared  in  the  general  move- 
ment of  erudition  in  the  sacred  sciences.  Among  the 
most  noteworthy  productions  were  the  works  of 
Pagnini  (d.  1541)  on  the  Hebrew  text  of  Scripture; 
his  lexicons  and  grammars  were  famous  in  their  day, 
and  exercised  a  lasting  influence  (Script.  O.  P.,  II, 
114);  Sixtus  of  Siena  (d.  1569),  a  converted  Jew, 
created  the  science  of  introduction  to  the  Sacred 
Books  with  his  "Bibliotheca  Sancta"  (Venice,  1566; 
op.  cit.,  206) ;  Jacques  Goar,  liturgist  and  Orientalist, 
published  the  "Euohologium  sive  rituale  Graecorum" 
(Paris,  1647),  a  work  which,  according  to  Renaudot, 
was  unsurpassed  by  anything  in  its  time  (Hurter, 
"Nomenclat.  litt.".  Ill,  1211).  Francois  Combefis 
(d.  1679)  issued  editions  of  the  Greek  Fathers  and 
writers  (op.  cit.,  IV,  161).  Michel  le  Quien,  Orien- 
talist, produced  a  monumental  work  in  his  "Oriens 
Christianus"  Vansleb  (d.  1679)  was  twice  sent  by 
Colbert  to  the  Orient,  whence  he  brought  a  large  num- 
ber of  MSS.  for  the  Bibliothfeque  du  Roi  (Pougeois, 
"Vansleb",  Paris,  1869).  Thomas  Mammachi  (d. 
1792)  left  a  large  unfinished  work,  "Origines  et 
Antiquitates  Christianae"  (Rome,  1753-57). 


In  the  historical  field  mention  must  be  made  of 
Bartholomew  de  Las  Casas  (d.  1566)  who  left  a 
valuable  "Historia  de  las  Indias"  (Madrid,  1875). 
Noel  Alexandre  (d.  1724)  left  an  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory which  was  long  held  in  esteem  [Paris,  1676-89; 
(Diet,  de  Theol.  Cath.,  I,  769)].  Joseph  Augustin 
Orsi  (d.  1761)  wrote  an  "Historia  eclesiastica "  which 
was  continued  by  his  confrere  Filippo  Angelo  Bec- 
chctti  (d.  1814).  The  last  edition  (Rome,  1838) 
numbers  50  volumes  (Kirchenlex.,  IX,  1087).  Nico- 
las Coefi'eteau  was,  according  to  Vaugelas,  one  of  the 
two  greatest  masters  of  the  French  language  at  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  (Urbain,  "Nico- 
las Coeffeteau,  dominicain,  6v6que  de  Marseille,  un 
des  fondateurs  de  la  prose  francaise,  1574-1623", 
Paris,  1840).  Thomas  Campanella  (d.  1639)  won 
renown  by  his  numerous  writings  on  philosophy  and 
sociology  as  well  as  by  the  boldness  of  his  ideas  and 
his  eventful  life  (Diet,  de  th^ol.  cath.,  II,  1443). 
Jacques  Barelier  (d.  1673)  left  one  of  the  foremost 
botanical  works  of  his  time,  which  was  edited  by  A. 
de  Jussieu,  "loones  plantarum  per  Galliam,  His- 
paniam  et  Italiam  observatarum  ad  vivum  exhibi- 
tarum"  [Paris,  1714;   (Script.  O.  P.,  II,  645)]. 

(f)  The  Preachers  and  Christian  Society. — During 
the  modern  period  the  order  performed  countless 
services  for  the  Church.  Their  importance  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  during  this  period  it  gave 
to  the  Church  two  popes,  St.  Pius  V  (1566-72)  and 
Benedict  XIII  (1724-30),  forty  cardinals,  and  more 
than  a  thousand  bishops  and  archbishops.  From 
the  foundation  of  the  Roman  Congregations  in  the 
sixteenth  century  a  special  place  was  reserved  for  the 
Preachers;  thus  the  titulars  of  the  Commissariat 
of  the  Holy  Office  and  the  secretary  of  the  Index  were 
always  chosen  from  this  order.  The  title  of  Con- 
suitor  of  the  Holy  Office  also  belonged  by  right  to  the 
master  general  and  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace 
(Gams,  "Series  episcoporum  ecclesiae  catholicse", 
Ratisbon,  1873;  Falloux,  "Histoire  de  Saint  Pie  V", 
Paris,  1858;  Borgia,  "Benedicti  XIII  vita",  Rome, 
1741;  Catalano,  "De  secretario  Indicis",  Rome, 
1751).  The  influence  of  the  Preachers  on  the  political 
powers  of  Europe  was  unequally  exercised  during  this 
period:  they  remained  confessors  of  the  kings  of 
Spain  until  1700;  in  France  their  credit  decreased, 
especially  under  Louis  XIV,  from  whom  they  had 
much  to  suffer  ("Catalogo  de  los  religiosos  domini- 
canos  confessores  de  Estado,  1700";  Chapotin, 
"La  guerre  de  succession  de  Poissy,  1660-1707", 
Paris,  1892). 

(g)  The  Preachers  and  the  Missions. — The  mis- 
sions of  the  Preachers  reached  their  greatest  develop- 
ment during  the  modern  period.  They  were  fostered, 
on  the  one  hand,  by  the  Portuguese  conquests  in 
Africa  and  the  East  Indies  and,  on  the  other,  by  the 
Spanish  conquests  in  America  and  Western  Asia. 
As  early  as  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  Portuguese 
Dominicans  reached  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  and, 
accompanying  the  explorers,  rounded  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  to  settle  on  the  coast  of  East  Africa. 
They  founded  temporary  or  permanent  missions  in 
the  Portuguese  African  settlements  and  went  in 
succession  to  the  Indies,  Ceylon,  Siam,  and  Malacca. 
They  made  Goa  the  centre  of  these  missions  which  in 
1548  were  erected  into  a  special  mission  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  which  had  to  suffer  from  the  British  conquest, 
but  continued  to  flourish  till  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  order  gave  a  great  many 
bishops  to  these  regions  [Joao  dos  Santos,  "Ethiopia 
oriental",  Evora,  1609;  re-edited  Lisbon,  1891; 
Cacegas-de  Sousa,  "Historia  de  S.  Domingo  partidor 
do  reino  e  conquistas  de  Portugal",  Lisbon,  1767 
(Vol.  IV  by  Lucas  de  Santa  Catharina);  Andr6 
Marie,  "Missions  dominicaines  dans  I'extreme 
Orient",  Lyons-Paris,  1865].  The  discovery  of 
America  soon  brought  Dominican  evangelization  in 


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the  footsteps  of  the  conquistador es;  one  of  them, 
Diego  de  Deza,  was  the  constant  defender  of  Chris- 
topher Columbus,  who  declared  (letter  of  21  Dec, 
1504)  that  it  was  to  him  the  Sovereigns  of  Spain  owed 
the  possession  of  the  Indies  (Mandonnet,  "Les 
dominicains  et  la  decouverte  de  I'Am^rique",  Paris, 
1893).  The  first  missionaries  reached  the  New 
World  in  1510,  and  preaching  was  quickly  extended 
throughout  the  conquered  countries,  where  they  or- 
ganized the  various  provinces  already  mentioned  and 
found  in  Bartolom^  de  las  Casas,  who  took  the  habit 
of  the  order,  their  most  powerful  assistant  in  the  de- 
fence of  the  Indians. 

St.  Louis  Bertrand  (d.  1581)  was  the  great  apostle 
of  New  Granada,  and  St.  Rose  of  Lima  (d.  1617)  the 
first  flower  of  sanctity  in  the  New  World  (Remesal, 
"Historia  de  la  provincia  de  S.  Vicente  de  Chiapa 
y  Guatemala",  Madrid,  1619;  Davila  Padilla, 
"Historia  de  la  fundacion  y  discorso  de  la  provincia 
de  Santiago  de  Mexico",  Madrid,  1592;  Brussels, 
1625;  Franco,  "Segunda  parte  de  la  historia  de  la 
provincia  de  Santiago  de  Mexico",  1645,  Mexico; 
re-ed.  Mexico,  1900;  Melendez,  " Tesores  verdaderos 
de  la  Indias  en  la  historia  de  la  gran  provincia  de  S. 
Juan  Bautista  del  Peru",  Rome,  1681;  Alonso  de 
Zamora,  "Historia  de  la  provincia  de  San  Antonio 
del  nuevo  reyno  de  Granada",  Barcelona,  1701; 
Helps,  "Life  of  las  Casas,  the  Apostle  of  the  Indies", 
London,  ISSo;  Gutierrez,  "Fray  Bartolom6  de  las 
Casas  sus  tiempos  y  su  apostolado",  Madrid,  1878; 
Fabie,  "Vida  y  escritos  de  Fray  Bartolom^  de 
las  Casas",  Madrid,  1879;  Wilberforce,  "Life  of 
Louis  Bertrand",  Fr.  tr.  Folghera,  Paris,  1904; 
Masson,  "  Sainte  Rose,  tertiaire  dominicaine,  patronne 
du  Nouveau  Monde",  Lyons,  1898).  Dominican 
evangelization  went  from  America  to  the  Philippines 
(1586)  and  thence  to  China  (1590),  where  Caspar  of 
the  Holy  Cross,  of  the  Portuguese  Congregation  of  the 
Indies,  had  already  begun  to  work  in  1559.  The 
Preachers  established  themselves  in  Japan  (1601),  in 
Tonking  (1676),  and  in  the  Island  of  Formosa.  This 
flourishing  mission  passed  through  persecutions,  and 
the  Church  has  raised  its  numerous  martyrs  to 
her  altars  [Ferrando-Fonseca,  "Historia  de  los  PP. 
Dominicos  a  las  islas  Filipinas,  y  en  sus  misiones  de 
Jap6n,  China,  Tungkin  y  Formosa",  Madrid,  1870; 
Navarrete,  "Tratados  historicos,  politicos,  ethicos  y 
religiosos  de  la  monarquia  de  China",  Madrid,  1676f-- 
1679,  tr.,  London,  1704;  Gentili,  "Memorie  di  un 
missionario  domenicano  nella  Cina",  1887;  Orfanel, 
"Historia  eclesiastica  de  los  succesos  de  la  christian- 
dad  de  Jap6n  desde  1602  que  entr6  en  el  la  orden  de 
Predicadores,  hasta  el  ano  de  1620",  Madrid,  163:i; 
Guglielmotti,  ' '  Memorie  delle  missioni  oattoliche  nel 
regno  del  Tunchino",  Rome,  1844;  Arias,  "El  beato 
Sanz  y  companeros  martires",  Manila,  1893;  "I 
martiri  annamitie  chinesi  (1798-1856)",  Rome,  1900; 
Clementi,  "Gli  otto  martiri  tonchinesi  dell'  ordine  di 
S.  Domenico",  Rome,  1906].  In  1635  the  French 
Dominicans  began  the  evangelization  of  the  French 
Antilles,  Guadaloupe,  ^Martinique  etc.,  which  lasted 
until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  (Du  Tertre, 
"Hist,  g&erale  des  Antilles",  Paris,  1667-71;  Labat, 
"Nouveau  voyage  aux  isles  de  I'Amerique",  Paris, 
1742).  In  1750  the  Mission  of  Mesopotamia  and 
Kurdistan  was  founded  by  the  Italian  religious;  it 
passed  to  the  Province  of  France  (Paris)  in  1856 
(Goormachtigh,  "Hist,  de  la  mission  dominicaine  en 
Mesopotamie  et  Kurdistan",  in  "Analecta  O.  P.", 
Ill,  271). 

(h)  Dominican  Saints  and  Blessed. — From  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  century  members  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Dominic  eminent  for  sanctity  were  the  subjects 
of  twenty-one  canonizations  or  beatifications.  Some 
of  the  beatifications  included  a  more  or  less  large 
number  at  one  time:  such  were  the  Annamite 
martyrs,  who   formed  a  group  of   twenty-six  heati 


canonized  21  May,  1900,  by  Leo  XIII,  and  the 
martyrs  of  Tonking,  who  numbered  eight,  the  last 
of  whom  died  in  1861,  and  who  were  canonized  by 
Pius  X,  28  Nov.,  1905.  Five  saints  were  canonized 
during  this  period;  St.  John  of  Gorkum  (d.  1572), 
martyr;  St.  Pius  V  (d.  1572),  the  last  pope  canonized; 
St.  Louis  Bertrand  (d.  1581),  missionary  in  the  New 
World;  St.  Catherine  de'  Ricci  (d.  1589),  of  the 
second  order,  and  St.  Rose  of  Lima  (d.  1617),  tertiary, 
the  first  American  saint.  (See  general  bibliography 
of  saints  in  section  Middle  Ages  above.) 

(3)  Conte7nporaneous  Period. — The  contempora- 
neous period  of  the  history  of  the  Preachers  begins 
with  the  different  restorations  of  provinces  under- 
taken after  the  revolutions  which  had  destroyed  the 
order  in  several  countries  of  the  Old  World  and  the 
New.  This  period  begins  more  or  less  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  it  cannot  be  traced  down  to 
the  present  day  without  naming  religious  who  are 
still  living  and  whose  activity  embodies  the  present 
life  of  the  order.  The  revolutions  not  having  totally 
destroyed  certain  of  the  provinces,  nor  decimated 
them,  simultaneously,  the  Preachers  were  able  to 
take  up  the  laborious  work  of  restoration  in  countries 
where  the  civil  legislation  did  not  present  insurmount- 
able obstacles.  During  this  critical  period  the  num- 
ber of  Preachers  seems  never  to  have  sunk  below  3500. 
The  statistics  for  1876  give  3748  religious,  but  500 
of  these  had  been  expelled  from  their  convents  and 
were  engaged  in  parochial  work.  The  statistics  for 
1910  give  a  total  of  very  nearly  4472  religious  both 
nominally  and  actually  engaged  in  the  proper  activ- 
ities of  the  order.  They  are  distributed  in  28  prov- 
inces and  5  congregations,  and  possess  nearly  400 
convents  or  secondary  establishments. 

In  the  revival  movement  France  held  a  foremost 
place,  owing  to  the  reputation  and  convincing  power 
of  the  immortal  orator,  Henri-Dominique  Lacordaire 
(1802-61).  He  took  the  habit  of  a  Friar  Preacher 
at  Rome  (1839),  and  the  province  of  France  was 
canonically  erected  in  1850.  From  this  province 
were  detached  the  province  of  Lyons,  called  Occitania 
(1862),  that  of  Toulouse  (1869),  and  that  of  Canada 
(1909).  The  French  restoration  liliewise  furnished 
many  labourers  to  other  provinces,  to  assist  in  their 
organization  and  progress.  From  it  came  the  master 
general  who  remained  longest  at  the  head  of  the  ad- 
ministration during  the  nineteenth  century,  Pere 
Vincent  Jandel  (1850-72) .  Here  should  be  mentioned 
the  province  of  St.  Joseph  in  the  United  States. 
Founded  in  1805  by  Father  Dominic  Fenwick,  after- 
wards first  Bishop  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio  (1821-32), 
this  province  has  developed  slowly,  but  now  ranks 
among  the  most  flourishing  and  active  provinces  of 
the  order.  In  1910  it  numbered  17  convents  or 
secondary  houses.  In  1905  it  established  a  large 
house  of  studies  at  Washington. 

The  province  of  France  (Paris)  has  produced  a  large 
number  of  preachers,  several  of  whom  became  re- 
nowned. The  conferences  of  Notre-Dame-de-Paris 
were  inaugurated  by  Pere  Lacordaire.  The  Domini- 
cans of  the  province  of  France  furnished  most  of  the 
orators:  Lacordaire  (1835-36,  1843-51),  Jacques 
Monsabr^  (1869-70,  1872-90),  Joseph  OUivier  (1871, 
1897),  Thomas  Etourneau  (1898-1902).  Since  1903 
the  pulpit  of  Notre  Dame  has  again  been  occupied 
by  a  Dominican.  P4re  Henri  Didon  (d.  1900)  was 
one  of  the  most  esteemed  orators  of  his  time.  The 
province  of  France  displays  greater  intellectual  and 
scientific  activity  than  ever,  the  chief  centre  being 
the  house  of  studies  at  present  situated  at  Kain, 
near  Tournai,  Belgium,  where  are  published  "L'Annee 
Dominicaine"  (founded  1859),  "La  Revue  des 
Sciences  Philosophiques  et  Th(5ologiques''  (1907),  and 
"La  Revue  de  la  Jeunesse"  (1909). 

The  province  of  the  Philippines,  the  most  populous 
in  the  order,  is  recruited  from  Spain,  where  it  has 


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several  preparatory  houses.  In  the  Phihppines  it 
has  charge  of  the  University  of  Manila,  recognized 
by  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  two  col- 
leges, and  six  establishments;  in  China  it  administers 
the  missions  of  North  and  South  Fo-Kien;  in  the 
Japanese  Empire,  those  of  Formosa  and  Shilcoku, 
besides  establishments  at  New  Orleans,  at  Caracas 
(Venezuela),  and  at  Rome.  The  province  of  Spain  has 
seventeen  establishments  in  the  Peninsula  and  the 
Canaries,  as  well  as  the  missions  of  Urubamba  (Peru) . 
Since  1910  it  has  published  at  Madrid  an  important 
review,  "La  Ciencia  Tomista".  The  provmce  of 
Holland  has  a  score  of  establishments,  and  the 
missions  of  Curasao  and  Porto  Rico.  Other  provinces 
also  have  their  missions.  That  of  Piedmont  has 
establishments  at  Constantinople  and  Smyrna;  that 
of  Toulouse,  in  Brazil;  that  of  Lyons,  in  Cuba;  that 
of  Ireland,  in  Australia  and  Trinidad;  that  of  Bel- 
gium, in  the  Belgian  Congo,  and  so  on. 

Doctrinal  development  has  had  an  important  place 
in  the  restoration  of  the  Preachers.  Several  institu- 
tions besides  those  already  mentioned  have  played 
important  parts.  Such  is  the  Biblical  school  at 
Jerusalem,  open  to  the  religious  of  the  order  and  to 
secular  clerics,  and  which  publishes  the  "Revue 
Biblique",  so  highly  esteemed  in  the  learned  world. 
The  faculty  of  theology  of  the  University  of  Frei- 
burg, confided  to  the  care  of  the  Dominicans  in  1890, 
is  flourishing'  and  has  about  250  students.  The 
Collegium  Angelicum,  established  at  Rome  (1911)  by 
Hyacinth  Connier  (master  general  since  1902),  is 
open  to  regulars  and  seculars  for  the  study  of  the 
sacred  sciences.  To  the  reviews  mentioned  above 
must  be  added  the  "Revue  Thomiste",  founded  by 
Pere  Thomas  Coconnier  (d.  1908),  and  the  "Analecta 
OrdinisProedicatorum"  (1893).  Among  the  numerous 
writers  of  the  order  in  this  period  are:  Cardinals 
Thomas  Zigliara  (d.  1893)  and  Zephirin  Gonzalez 
(d.  1894),  two  esteemed  philosophers;  Father  Alberto 
Guillelmotti  (d.  1893),  historian  of  the  Pontifical 
Navy,  and  Father  Heinrich  Denifie,  one  of  the  most 
famous  writers  on  medieval  history  (d.  1905). 

In  1910  the  order  had  twenty  archbishops  or  bish- 
ops, one  of  whom,  Andreas  Friihwirth,  formerly 
master  general  (1892-1902),  is  Apostolic  nuncio  at 
Munich  (Sanvito,  "Catalogus  omnium  provinciarum 
sacri  ordinisprsedicatorum",  Rome,  1910;  "Analecta 
O.  P.",  Rome,  1893 — ;  "L'Ann^e  Dominicaine", 
Paris,  1859 — ).  In  the  last  two  publications  will  be 
found  historical  and  bibliographical  information  con- 
cerning the  history  of  the  Preachers  during  the  con- 
temporaneous period. 

B.  The  Second  Order.  Dominican  Sisters.— The 
circumstances  under  which  St.  Dominic  established 
the  first  convent  of  nuns  at  Prouille  (1206)  and  the  leg- 
islation given  the  second  order  have  been  related  above. 
As  early  as  1228  the  question  arose  as  to  whether 
the  Order  of  Preachers  would  accept  the  govern- 
ment of  convents  for  women.  The  order  itself  was 
strongly  in  favour  of  avoiding  this  ministry  and 
struggled  long  to  maintain  its  freedom.  But  the 
sisters  found,  even  among  the  Preachers,  such  ad- 
vocates as  the  master  general,  Jordanus  of  Saxony 
(d  1236),  and  especially  the  Dominican  cardinal, 
Hugh  of  St.  Cher  (d.  1263),  who  promised  them  that 
they  would  eventually  be  victorious  (1267).  The 
incorporation  of  monasteries  with  the  order  con- 
tinued through  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth 
and  during  the  next  century.  In  1288  the  papal 
legate  Giovanni  Boccanazzi,  simultaneously  placed 
all  the  Penitent  Sisters  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  m 
Germany  under  the  government  of  the  provincial 
of  the  Preachers,  but  this  step  was  not  final.  The 
convents  of  sisters  incorporated  with  the  order  were 
especially  numerous  in  the  province  of  Germany. 
The  statistics  for  1277  show  58  monasteries  ah-eady 
incorporated,  40  of  which  were  in  the  single  province 
XII.— 24 


of  Teutonia.  The  statistics  for  1303  give  149  con- 
vents of  Dominican  nuns,  and  these  figures  increased 
during  the  succeeding  centuries.  Nevertheless,  a 
certain  number  of  monasteries  passed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  bishops.  In  the  list  of  convents 
drawn  up  during  the  generalship  of  Serafino  Cavalli 
(1571-78)  there  are  only  168  monasteries.  But  the 
convents  of  nuns  are  not  indicated  for  most  provinces, 
and  the  number  should  really  be  much  higher.  The 
Council  of  Trent  placed  all  the  convents  of  nuns 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  but  the  Preachers 
frequently  provided  these  houses  with  chaplains  or 
almoners.  The  statistics  for  1770  give  180  monas- 
teries, but  they  are  incomplete.  The  revolutions, 
which  affected  the  ecclesiastical  situation  in  most 
Catholic  countries  from  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, brought  about  the  suppression  of  a  great  many 
monasteries;  several,  however,  survived  these  dis- 
turbances, and  others  were  re-established.  In  the 
list  for  1895  there  are  more  than  150  monasteries, 
including  some  of  the  Third  Order,  which  are  cloistered 
like  the  Second  Order.  These  monasteries  are  most 
numerous  in  Spain.  In  Germany  the  convents  of 
nuns  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries 
witnessed  the  development  of  an  intense  mystical  life, 
and  several  of  these  houses  have  preserved  accounts 
of  the  life  of  the  sisters,  usually  in  the  vernacular. 

The  Dominican  sisters,  instructed  and  directed 
by  an  order  of  preachers  and  teachers,  were  remark- 
able not  only  for  spiritual  but  also  for  intellectual 
culture.  In  the  course  of  seven  centuries  various 
nuns  have  left  literary  and  artistic  works  which 
bear  witness  to  the  culture  of  some  of  these  monas- 
teries ("Script.  O.  P.",  I,  pp.  i-xv;  II,  pp.  i-xix, 
830;  "Bull.  O.  P.",  passim;  Mortier,  "Hist,  des 
mattres  g^n^raux",  passim;  Danzas,  "Etudes  sur 
les  temps  primitifs  de  I'ordre  de  St.  Dominique", 
IV,  Poitiers-Paris  (1877);  "Analecta  O.  P.",  passim; 
Greith,  "Die  deutsohe  Mystik  im  Prediger  Orden", 
Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1861;  de  Villermont,  "Un  groupe 
mystique  allemand",  Brussels,  1907). 

C.  The  Third  Order. — Neither  St.  Dominic  nor  the 
early  Preachers  wished  to  have  under  their  jurisdic- 
tion— and  consequently  under  their  responsibility — 
either  religious  or  lay  associations.  We  have  seen 
their  efforts  to  be  relieved  of  the  government  of 
nuns  who,  nevertheless,  were  following  the  rule  of 
the  order.  But  numerous  lajrmen,  and  especially 
lay  women,  who  were  leading  in  the  world  a  life  of 
penance  or  observing  continence,  felt  the  doctrinal 
influence  of  the  order  and  grouped  themselves  about 
its  convents.  In  1285  the  need  of  more  firmly 
uniting  these  lay  elements  and  the  idea  of  bringing 
under  the  direction  of  the  Preachers  a  portion  of  the 
Order  of  Penance  led  the  seventh  master  general, 
Munon  de  Zamora,  at  the  instance  of  Honorius  IV, 
to  draw  up  the  rule  known  as  that  of  the  Penance  of 
St.  Dominic.  Inspired  by  that  of  the  Brothers 
of  Penance,  this  rule  had  a  more  ecclesiastical  charac- 
ter and  firmly  subordinated  the  conduct  of  the 
brothers  to  the  authority  of  the  Preachers.  Honorius 
IV  confirmed  the  foundation  by  the  collation  of  a 
privilege  (28  Jan.,  1286).  The  former  master 
general  of  the  Friars  Minor,  Jerome  d'Ascoli,  having 
become  pope  in  1288  under  the  name  of  Nicholas 
IV,  regarded  the  action  of  his  predecessor  and  of 
the  master  general  of  the  Friars  Preachers  as  a  kind 
of  defiance  of  the  Friars  Minor  who  considered  them- 
selves the  natural  protectors  of  the  Brothers  of 
Penance,  and  by  his  letters  of  17  August,  1289,  he 
sought  to  prevent  the  desertion  of  the  Brothers  of 
Penance.  Muii6n  de  Zamora  discharged  his  office 
of  master  general  as  it  had  been  confided  to  him  by 
Martin  IV.  The  Order  of  Preachers  protested  with 
all  its  might  against  what  it  regarded  as  an  injustice. 

These  events  retarded  the  development  of  the 
Dominican  Third  Order,  a  portion  of  the  Preachers 


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PREADAMITES 


remaining  unfavourable  to  the  institution.  Never- 
theless, the  Third  Order  continued  to  exist;  one  of  its 
fraternities,  that  of  Siena,  was  especially  flourishing, 
a  list  of  its  members  from  1311  being  extant.  The 
sisters  numbered  100  in  1352,  among  them  she  who 
was  to  become  St.  Catherine  of  Siena.  They  num- 
bered 92  in  1378.  The  reforming  movement  of 
Raymund  of  Capua,  confessor  and  historian  of  St. 
Catherine,  aimed  at  the  spread  of  the  Third  Order; 
in  this  Thomas  Caffarini  of  Siena  was  especially 
active.  The  Dominican  Third  Order  received  new 
approbation  from  Boniface  IX,  18  January,  1401, 
and  on  27  April  of  the  following  year  the  pope  pub- 
lished its  rule  in  a  Bull,  whereupon  its  development 
received  a  fresh  impetus.  It  never  became  very 
widespread,  the  Preachers  having  sought  quality 
rather  than  number  of  tertiaries.  St.  Catherine 
of  Siena,  canonized  in  1461,  is  the  patroness  of  the 
Third  Order,  and,  following  the  example  of  her  who 
has  been  called  the  Joan  of  Arc  of  the  papacy,  the 
Dominican  tertiaries  have  always  manifested  special 
devotion  to  the  Roman  Church.  Also  in  imitation 
of  their  patroness,  who  wrote  splendid  mystical 
works,  they  endeavoured  to  acquire  a  special  knowl- 
edge of  their  religion,  as  befits  Christians  in- 
corporated with  a  great  doctrinal  order.  The  Third 
Order  has  given  several  blessed  to  the  Church,  be- 
sides St.  Catherine  of  Siena  and  St.  Rose  of  Lima. 
For  several  centuries  there  have  been  regular  con- 
vents and  congregations  belonging  to  the  Third 
Order.  The  nineteenth  century  witnessed  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  large  number  of  regular  congrega- 
tions of  tertiaries  devoted  to  works  of  charity  or 
education.  In  1895  there  were  about  55  congrega- 
tions, with  about  800  establishments  and  20,000 
members.  In  the  United  States  there  are  flourishing 
convents  at  Sinsinawa  (Wisconsin),  Jersey  City, 
Traverse  (Michigan),  Columbus  (Ohio),  Albany 
(New  York),  and  San  Francisco  (California). 

In  1852  Pere  Lacordaire  founded  in  France  a 
congregation  of  priests  for  the  education  of  youth 
called  the  Third  Teaching  Order  of  St.  Dominic. 
It  is  now  regarded  as  a  special  province  of  the  Order 
of  Preachers,  and  had  flourishing  and  select  colleges 
in  France  at  Oullins  (1853),  Soreze  (1854),  Arceuil 
(1863),  Aroaohon  (1875),  Paris  (Ecole  Lacordaire, 
1890).  These  houses  have  ceased  to  be  directed 
by  Dominicans  since  the  persecution  of  1903.  The 
teaching  Dominicans  now  have  the  College  Lacor- 
daire at  Buenos  Aires,  Champittet  at  Lausanne 
(Switzerland),  and  San  Sebastian  (Spain).  During 
the  Paris  Commune  four  martyrs  of  the  teaching 
order  died  in  company  with  a  priest  of  the  First 
Order,  25  May,  1871.  One  of  them,  Pdre  Louis- 
Raphael  Captier,  was  an  eminent  educator  (Man- 
donnet,  ' '  Les  regies  et  le  gouvernement  de  I'ordo  de 
Pcenitentia  au  XIII^  siecle"  in  "Opuscules  de  cri- 
tique historique",  IV,  Paris,  1902;  Federici, 
"Istoria    de'   Cavalieri    Gaudenti",   Venice,    1787). 

P.  Mandonnet. 

Preaching.     See  Homiletics. 

Preadamites,  the  supposed  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  prior  to  Adam.  Strictly  speaking,  the  ex- 
pression ought  to  be  limited  to  denote  men  who  had 
perished  before  the  creation  of  Adam;  but  commonly 
even  Coadamites  are  called  Preadamites,  provided 
they  spring  from  a,  stock  older  than  Adam.  The 
question  whether  we  can  admit  the  existence  of 
Preadamites  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  i.  e. 
the  existence  of  a  human  race  (or  human  races)  ex- 
tinct before  the  time  of  Adam  or  before  the  Divine 
action  described  in  Gen.,  i,  2  sqq.,  is  as  little  con- 
nected with  the  truth  of  our  revealed  dogmas  as  the 
question  whether  one  or  more  of  the  stars  are  in- 
habited by  rational  beings  resembling  man.     Palmieri 


("De  Creatione",  Prato,  1910,  p.  281,  thes.  xxx) 
does  not  place  any  theological  censure  on  the  opinion 
maintaining  the  past  existence  of  such  Preadamites, 
and  Fabre  d'Envieu  ("Les  Origines  de  la  terre  et 
de  I'homme",  Paris,  1873,  lib.  XI,  prop.  1)  defends 
the  theory  as  probable.  But  the  case  is  quite  dif- 
ferent with  regard  to  the  view  upholding  the  existence 
of  Preadamites  taken  in  the  common  acceptation 
of  the  term.  It  maintains  that  the  men  existing 
before  Adam  continued  to  coexist  with  Adam  and 
his  progeny,  thus  destroying  the  unity  of  the  human 
race.  Palmieri  (loc.  cit.)  brands  it  as  heretical,  and 
Father  Pesch  ("DeDeo  creante  et  elevante",  Frei- 
burg, 1909,  n.  154)  endorses  this  censure;  Esser 
(Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.  Praadamiten)  considers  it  as  only 
theologically  certain  that  there  were  no  Coadamites 
who  were  not  the  progeny  of  Adam  and  Eve.  Ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  arguments  advanced 
in  favour  of  the  heretical  Preadamite  theory,  we  may 
divide  it  into  scientific  and  Scriptural  Preadamism. 

I.  Scientific  Preadamism.  —  There  are  no  scien- 
tific arguments  which  prove  directly  that  the  progeny 
of  a  Preadamite  race  coexisted  with  the  descendants 
of  Adam.  The  direct  conclusion  from  scientific 
premises  is  either  the  great  antiquity  of  the  human 
race  or  its  multiplicity.  In  either  case,  or  even  in 
the  combination  of  both,  the  existence  of  Preadamites 
depends  on  a  new  non-scientific  premise,  which  is  at 
best  only  an  assumption.  From  the  great  number  of 
men,  from  their  racial  varieties,  from  the  difference 
of  languages,  we  cannot  even  infer  that  all  men  can- 
not spring  from  a  common  stock,  while  the  ancient 
national  traditions  of  the  Oriental  nations,  and  the 
palaeontological  finds  do  not  even  show  that  the  human 
race  existed  before  our  Biblical  times;  much  less  do 
these  premises  furnish  any  solid  basis  for  the  Pre- 
adamite theory.  (For  the  unity  of  the  human  race 
and  its  antiquity  see  Race,  Human.) 

II.  Scriptural  Preadamism. — Pesch  (loc.  cit.) 
considers  it  doubtful  whether  Origen  adhered  to  the 
Preadamite  theory,  but  leaves  no  room  for  doubt 
as  to  Julian  the  Apostate.  But  these  opinions  are 
only  a  matter  of  historical  interest.  In  1555,  how- 
ever, Isaac  de  La  Peyrere,  a  Calvinist  of  a  noble 
family  of  Bordeaux  and  a  follower  of  the  Prince  of 
Conde,  published  in  close  succession  two  works: 
"  Prteadamitse,  seu  Exercitationes  super  versibus 
12,  13,  et  14  ep.  Pauli  ad  Romanos'',  and  "Systema 
theologicum  ex  Praeadamitarum  hypothesi.  Pars 
prima".  He  maintained  that  Adam  is  not  the  father 
of  the  whole  human  race,  but  only  of  the  Chosen 
People.  The  Jews  spring  from  Adam  and  Eve, 
while  the  Gentiles  are  the  descendants  of  ancestors 
created  before  Adam.  The  creation  of  these  latter 
took  place  on  the  sixth  day,  and  is  related  in  Gen., 
i,  26  sqq.,  while  Adam  was  formed  after  the  rest  on 
the  seventh  day  as  narrated  in  Gen.,  ii,  7.  Adam 
and  his  progeny  were  to  live  and  develop  in  Paradise, 
but  they  were  to  observe  the  law  of  Paradise.  The  sin 
of  Adam  was  more  grievous  than  the  sins  of  the  Gen- 
tiles: for  he  sinned  against  the  law,  while  the  Gen- 
tiles sinned  only  against  nature.  This  distinction 
the  writer  bases  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
V,  12-14:  "Until  the  law  [given  to  Adam]",  so  La 
PeyrSre  explains  the  passage,  "sin  [committed  by  the 
Gentiles]  was  in  the  world;  but  sin  [of  the  Gentiles] 
was  not  imputed,  when  the  law  was  not  [given  to- 
Adam]".  Again,  those  "who  have  not  sinned  after 
the  similitude  of  the  transgression  of  Adam"  are 
the  Preadamite  Gentiles.  La  PeyrSre  confirmed  his 
hypothesis  by  an  appeal  to  other  Scriptural  passages: 
Cain's  fear  of  being  killed  (Gen.,  iv,  14),  his  flight, 
his  marriage,  his  building  of  a  city  (Gen.,  iv,  15,  16), 
are  pointed  out  as  so  many  indications  of  the  exist- 
ence of  other  men  than  Adam  and  Eve.  The  author 
also  claims  that  ancient  Jewish  and  Mohammedan 
tradition  favours  his  Preadamite  theory. 


PREBEND 


371 


PRECEDENCE 


But  La  Peyrere's  proofs  are  not  solid.  (1)  Scrip- 
ture itself  points  out  that  the  creation  of  man  in 
Gen.,  i,  26  sqq.,  is  identical  with  that  mentioned  in 
Gen.,  ii,  7,  for  according  to  Gen.,  ii,  5,  "there  was  not 
a  man  to  till  the  earth";  according  to  Gen.,  ii,  20, 
"for  Adam  there  was  not  found  a  helper  like  him- 
self"; according  to  iii,  20,  "Adam  called  the  name  of 
his  wife  Eve:  because  she  was  the  mother  of  all  the 
living"  Scripture,  therefore,  knows  of  no  men 
created  before  Adam.  (2)  The  appeal  to  the  inci- 
dents in  the  history  of  Cain  loses  its  force,  if  we  re- 
member that  they  happened  about  130  years  after 
Adam  had  been  driven  from  Paradise:  at  that  time, 
the  progeny  of  Adam  must  have  amounted  to  several 
thousand  souls,  so  that  Cain's  fear  and  flight  and  his 
building  of  a  primitive  city  are  easily  explained.  (3) 
The  difficulty  arising  from  Cain's  marriage  was  satis- 
factorily explained  by  St.  Augustine  ("De  civit. 
dei",  XV,  xvi;  cf.  Epiphanius,  "Haer. ",  xxxix,  6), 
who  points  out  that  necessity  compelled  the  im- 
mediate offspring  of  Adam  and  Eve  to  marry  even 
their  sisters.  (4)  The  conte.xt  renders  La  Peyrere's 
explanation  of  Rom.,  v,  12-14,  impossible.  If  the 
law  mentioned  in  the  passage  refers  to  the  law  given 
to  Adam  in  Paradise,  and  not  to  the  Mosaic  Law,  the 
phrase  "but  death  reigned  from  Adam  unto  Moses" 
is  meaningless,  and  the  whole  force  of  the  Apostle's 
argument  is  destroyed.  (.5)  Finally,  La  Peyrere's 
appeal  to  the  traditions  of  the  KabbaUsts,  Chaldeans 
etc.,  has  been  investigated  and  found  wanting  by 
R.  Simon  ("Lettres  choisies",  II,  Amsterdam,  1730, 
ii,  xxvii).  It  is,  therefore,  not  astonishing  that  La 
Peyrere's  Preadamism  proved  to  be  a  nine  days' 
wonder  and  did  not  survive  its  author.  The  theory 
was  strongly  opposed  from  the  beginning  by  such 
scholars  as  Maresius,  Hoornbeek,  and  Voetius  on  the 
part  of  the  Reformed  Church,  and  by  the  Lutheran 
theologians  Calovius,  Quenstedt,  and  HoUazius. 
The  author  himself  renounced  his  error,  and  became 
a  Catholic,  and  a  member  of  the  Oratory.  In  more 
recent  times  a  political  or  social  Preadamism  has 
been  introduced  by  Dominic  M'Causland  ("Adam  and 
the  Adamite,  or  the  Harmony  of  Scripture  and 
Ethnology",  London,  1864)  and  Reginald  Stuart 
Poole  ("The  Genesis  of  the  Earth  and  of  Man", 
London,  1860),  who  follow  the  ethnological  views  of 
such  authorities  as  Morton,  Nott,  Gliddon,  and 
Agassiz.  They  maintain  that  Adam  is  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  Caucasian  race,  while  the  other  races 
descend  from  Preadamite  ancestry,  having  either 
a  common  or  various  parentage.  The  pro-slavery 
sentiment  prevalent  in  certain  parts  of  America  in- 
directly supported  such  Preadamite  theories.  But 
their  truth  must  be  judged  in  the  light  of  what  has 
been  said  about  scientific  and  Scriptural  Preadamism. 

Natalis  Alexander,  Hist,  eccles.,  I  (Bingen,  1785),  103  sqq., 
diss,  iii,  De  Adam  et  Eva.  As  to  Scriptural  Preadamism,  see  the 
various  dogmatic  treatises  on  Creation  (Pesch,  Palmiehi, 
Perrone  etc.),  where  they  treat  of  the  unity  of  the  human  race. 
For  scientific  Preadamism  see  Gla.  Repertorium  der  kalhol. 
theol.  Literatur,  I,  i  (Paderborn,  ISflS).  218  sqq.;  tor  Preadamism 
in  the  strictsense:  Reusch,  Bihel  u.  NatuTHth  ed.,Bonn,  1876), 
4.37;  Rxvcjl,  Einheit  des  MenschengeschlecHes  (Augsi'^^S,  1873); 
Hettin-ger,  Apologie.U,  i  (4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1872),  221-304; 
WiNCHELL,  Preadamites,  or  a  Demonstration  of  Existence  of  Men 
before  Adam  (Chicago,  1880). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Prebend,  the  right  of  a  member  of  a  chapter  to 
his  share  in  the  revenues  of  the  cathedral;  also  the 
share  to  which  he  is  entitled;  in  general,  any  portion 
of  the  cathedral  revenues  set  aside  for  the  support 
of  the  clergy  attached  to  it  (semi-prebends)  even  for 
those  who  are  not  members  of  the  chapter.  They 
are  regarded  as  benefices  (q.  v.)  and  governed  by  the 
same  laws.    (See  Chapter.) 

Precaria  {Preces,  prayers)  is  a  contract  granting 
to  a  petitoner  the  use  and  usufruct  of  a  revenue-bear- 
ing ecclesiastical  property  for  a  specified  time,  or  dur- 


ing the  life  of  the  grantee,  and  principally  for  services 
rendered  the  Church.  This  contract  (tit.  XIV,  lib. 
Ill  of  the  Decretals)  is  based  on  the  "precarium"  of 
the  Roman  Law  (De  precario,  XLIII,  xxvi);  it 
differed  from  it  inasmuch  as  the  "precarium"  could 
have  for  its  object  either  moveable  or  fixed  goods 
and  was  revocable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  proprietor. 
Both  contracts  left  to  the  owner  the  proprietorship  of 
the  goods.  This  contract,  beside  depriving  the 
Church  of  its  revenues,  threatened  the  extinction  of 
her  proprietary  rights,  especially  when  she  was  com- 
pelled to  grant  the  precaria,  at  royal  request,  or 
rather  order  {precaria  verba  regis).  The  Council  of 
Meaux  (825)  prescribed  for  this  reason  the  renewal  of 
these  concessions  every  five  years.  It  ceased  at  the 
death  of  the  grantee,  or  at  the  expiration  of  the  allot- 
ted period,  after  which  it  could  be  revoked  at  the 
desire  of  the  grantor. 

See  Franks;  Laicization;  Property,  Ecclesiastical;  also 
the  canonists  on  De  Precario,  lib.  Ill,  tit.  xiv. 

A.    BOUDINHON. 

Precedence  (Lat.  prcBcedere,  to  go  before  another) 
signifies  the  right  to  enjoy  a  prerogative  of  honour 
before  other  persons;  e.  g.  to  have  the  most  dis- 
tinguished place  in  a  procession,  a  ceremony,  or  an 
assembly,  to  have  the  right  to  express  an  opinion,  cast 
a  vote,  or  append  a  signature  before  others,  to  perform 
the  most  honourable  offices.  Questions  of  precedence 
sometimes  give  rise  to  controversies.  In  both  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  legislation  they  are  regulated  by  laws  and 
rules.  In  canon  law  the  general  rule  is  that  precedence 
is  determined  by  rank  in  the  hierarchy  both  of  juris- 
diction and  of  order.  Where  rank  is  equal  it  is  deter- 
mined by  priority  of  foundation :  Qui  prior  est  tempore, 
potior  est  jure  (Regula  juris  54,  in  VI  ).  With  regard 
to  colleges  (collegia),  precedence  is  determined  by  the 
quality  of  the  person  to  whom  the  college  is  attached. 
The  order  of  precedence  is  regulated  as  follows:  the 
pope  always  takes  first  rank,  after  him  come  cardinals, 
patriarchs,  archbishops,  exempt  bishops,  suffragan 
bishops,  titular  bishops,  and  prelates  nullius.  In 
these  categories  priority  of  ordination  and  promo- 
tion determines  precedence,  among  bishops  or  arch- 
bishops the  date  of  their  first  promotion  to  the  epis- 
copal or  archiepiscopal  dignity.  Custom  or  privilege 
may  derogate  from  this  rule.  A  Decree  of  Propaganda 
(15  Aug.,  1858)  grants  to  the  Archbishop  of  Baltimore 
the  right  of  precedence  in  the  United  States  (CoUeotio 
Lacensis,  III,  572).  In  their  own  diocese  bishops 
have  precedence  before  strange  bishops  and  arch- 
bishops, but  not  before  their  own  metropolitan. 
Metropohtan  chapters  have  precedence  before  cathe- 
dral chapters,  and  the  latter  before  collegiate  chapters. 
The  secular  clergy  according  to  the  importance  of  their 
office  or  the  date  of  their  ordination  precede  the  regu- 
lar clergy.  Canons  regular  take  the  first  place  among 
the  regular  clergy,  then  come  clerics  regular,  the 
monastic  orders,  and  the  mendicant  orders.  Among 
the  mendicants  the  Dominicans  take  first  place  out- 
side of  processions ;  in  processions,  the  acquired  right 
of  precedence  or  that  appertaining  to  priority  of  estab- 
lishment in  a  town  must  be  respected.  This  last  rule 
appUea  also  to  confraternities,  but  in  processions  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  the  Confraternity  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  has  precedence.  The  Third  Orders 
have  precedence  of  confraternities.  Questions  of 
precedence  at  funerals  have  given  rise  to  numerous 
decisions  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  (see  "Decreta 
S.  S.  Rituum  Congregationis",  Rome,  1901,  V,  Index 
generalis,  V°  Proecedentia) .  The  provisory  solution  of 
questions  of  precedence  in  processions  arising  between 
regulars  belongs  to  the  diocesan  bishop.  The  Con- 
gregation of  Rites  decides  concerning  those  with  re- 
gard to  liturgical  ceremonies;  the  Congregatio  Csere- 
monialis  regulates  the  precedence  of  the  papal  court. 

Ferraris,  Prompia  Bibliotheca  (Paris,  1861),  V°  Prcecedentia, 
VI,  559  sq. ;  HiNSCHius,  System  d.  kath.  Kirchenrechts,  II  (BerUn, 


PRECENTOR 


372 


PRECIOUS 


1869-95),  376;  Santi.  PrcelecHones  juris  canonici,  I  (Ratisbon, 
1S93),  378-80;  Chahwaneus,  Catologus  glorice  mundi,  excellentiaa 
et  prcEeminenlias  omnium  fere  statuum  continens  (Paris,  1527) ; 
Crusius,  De  preeemiaentia,  sessione,  pracedentia  (Bremen,  1665) ; 
Baart,  Legal  Formulary  (New  York,  1898);  Taunton,  The  Law 
of  the  Church  (London,  1906). 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Precentor  (L.  Prmcentor,  from  ■prm,  before-canior, 
singer),  a  word  describing  sometimes  an  ecclesiastical 
dignitary,  sometimes  an  administrative  or  ceremonial 
officer.  Anciently,  the  precentor  had  various  duties: 
he  was  the  first  or  leading  chanter,  who  on  Sundays  and 
greaterf  easts  intoned  certain  ant  iphons, psalms,  hymns, 
responsories  etc.;  gave  the  pitch  or  tone  to  the  bishop 
and  dean  at  Mass  (the  succentor  performing  a  similar 
office  to  the  canons  and  clerks);  recruited  and  taught 
the  choir,  directed  its  rehearsals  and  supervised  its 
official  functions;  interpreted  the  rubrics  and  explained 
the  ceremonies,  ordered  in  a  general  way  the  Divine 
Office  and  sometimes  composed  desired  hjrmns,  se- 
quences, and  lessons  of  saints.  He  was  variously 
styled  capiscol  {caput  scholce,  head  of  the  choir-school) , 
prior  scholcB,  magister  scholce,  and  primicerius  (a  word 
of  widely  different  implications).  Victor  of  St.  Hugo 
tells  us  that  in  the  care  of  the  primicerius  were  placed 
the  acolytes,  exorcists,  lectors,  and  psalmists  (chant- 
ers) .  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  principal  dignitaries  of 
cathedrals,  collegiate  chapters,  and  monastic  orders, 
imitated  the  example  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  in  acting 
as  directors  of  chant-schools.  The  schola  was  always 
in  attendance  when  the  bishop  officiated  in  his  cathe- 
dral, and  to  the  precentor  was  assigned  a  place  near 
the  bishop  and  high  in  dignity.  His  office  was  ob- 
viously one  demanding  much  learning  and  executive 
ability,  and  his  dignity  corresponded  with  his  duties. 

In  the  cathedrals  of  England,  France,  Spain,  and  Ger- 
many, he  ranked  sometimes  next  to  the  dean,  some- 
times next  to  the  archdeacon.  In  some  instances  his 
sphere  of  activity  was  much  broader,  including  the 
duty  of  installing  deans,  canons,  and  other  dignitaries; 
and  in  some  monasteries,  the  duties  of  librarian  and 
registrar.  But  from  the  fourteenth  century  his  title 
and  dignity  were  largely  handed  over  to  incumbents 
whose  musical  knowledge  did  not  fit  them  for  the 
duties  to  which  the  name  of  precentor  owed  its  origin; 
the  dignities  remained,  but  the  duties  became  ob- 
scured. "In  France,  some  eliapters  retain  traces  of 
the  dignity  of  Precentor,  and  one  may  see  sometimes 
an  archdeacon,  sometimes  a  titular  or  honorary  canon, 
carrying  the  baton  cantoral,  the  insignia  of  his  office" 
(Migne,  "Diet,  de  Droit  Canon",  s.  v.  Chantre).  This 
"baton  cantoral"  is  a  silver  or  white  stafi^.  "In  the 
dioceses  of  Aix,  Carcassonne,  Coutances,  Dijon,  Metz, 
Orleans,  the  dignity  of  Precentor  is  still  the  highest 
in  the  chapter.  .  .  .  Some  chapters  have  sub-chant- 
ers, those  of  Arras  being  among  the  honorary  resident 
canons"  (Migne,  "Diet,  de  Jurisprudence",  s.  v. 
Grand  Chantre,  where  also  the  quoted  statutes  of  the 
Bishop  of  Dijon  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  modern 
idea  of  the  office  of  precentor:  "The  Prccenteur  or 
Grand  Chantre  is  the  head  of  the  choir  and 
brings  the  antiphon  to  the  bishop  when  officiating 
pontifically.  Sacristans,  chanters,  choir-boys,  and 
employes  of  the  Cathedral  are  placed  under  his  sur- 
veillance. He  will  also  preserve  order  and  silence  in 
the  sacristy  ") .  In  the  Anghcan  Church  the  precentor 
directs  the  choir,  his  stall  in  the  cathedral  correspond- 
ing with  that  of  the  dean. 

CuRWEN,  Studies  in  Worship  Music  (London,  1888),  141-8, 
170-2,  gives  interesting  details  of  the  duties  of  precentor  in  the 
Scotch  Presbyterian  Churches;  for  Prsecentrix,  Prsecentorissa, 
etc.,  see  Du  Canoe,  Glo&sarium,  s.  v.  Prcecentor;  Venables  in 
Diet.  Christ.  Antiq.,  8.  v. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Precept  (Lat.  proeceptum  from  prcecipere,  to  com- 
mand). Canonical,  in  its  common  acceptation,  is 
opposed  to  counsel,  inasmuch  as  the  former  imposes 
an  obligation,  while  the  latter  is  a  persuasion.     In 


ecclesiastical  jurisprudence,  the  word  precept  is  used: 
(1)  In  opposition  to  law. — A  law  is  always  binding, 
even  after  the  death  of  the  legislator,  until  it  is  re- 
voked; a  precept  is  obligatory  only  during  the  life- 
time or  office  of  the  precipient.  A  law  directly  affects 
the  territory  of  the  legislator,  and  thence  passes  to  the 
subjects  dwelling  in  it;  a  precept  directly  affects  the 
persons  of  the  inferiors  and  is  independent  of  locality. 
Finally,  a  law  is  promulgated  for  a  whole  community, 
present  and  future,  while  a  precept  is  directed  to  indi- 
viduals and  ceases  with  them.  (2)  As  a  term  in  extra- 
judicial processes. — When  a  grave  fault  has  been  com- 
mitted by  a  cleric,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  bishop,  after 
making  an  informal  inquiry  into  the  matter,  to  give 
the  delinquent  two  successive  monitions  or  warn- 
ings. If  he  does  not  thereupon  amend,  the  bishop 
proceeds  to  the  issuance  of  a  canonical  precept,  as 
directed  by  the  Decree  "Cum  Magnopere"  (1884). 
The  precept,  under  pain  of  nulUty,  must  be  in  writing, 
state  plainly  what  is  to  be  done  or  avoided  by  the 
delinquent,  and  mention  the  specific  punishment  to  be 
infhcted  if  the  precept  go  unheeded.  The  accused  is 
then  cited  before  the  chancellor  of  the  episcopal  court, 
and  the  latter,  in  presence  of  the  vicar-general  or  two 
witnesses,  ecclesiastical  or  lay,  must  serve  the  precept 
upon  him.  An  official  record  of  this  fact  is  then  to  be 
drawn  up  and  signed  by  all  concerned,  including  the 
delinquent  if  he  so  wishes.  The  witnesses  may  be 
bound  by  oath  to  observe  secrecy  as  to  the  proceed- 
ings. If  the  accused  contumaciously  refuses  to  ap- 
pear, the  precept  may  be  served  upon  him  by  a  trust- 
worthy person  or  sent  by  registered  mail.  If  even 
these  measures  are  not  possible,  the  precept  may  be 
posted  publicly  as  an  intimation  to  the  delinquent.  If 
he  fails  to  amend  after  receiving  the  precept,  a  formal 
trial  may  then  be  instituted. 

Smith,  Elements  of  Ecclesiastical  Law,  III  (New  York,  1888) ; 
Ferraris,  Bibliotheca  Canonica,  V  (Rome,  1889),  s.  v.  Lex,  art.  1: 
Baart,  Legal  Formulary  (New  York,  1898). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Precepts  of  the  Church.  See  Commandments 
OF  THE  Church. 

Precious  Blood,  the  blood  of  our  Divine  Saviour. 
Jesus,  at  the  Last  Supper,  ascribes  to  it  the  same  life- 
giving  power  that  belongs  to  His  flesh  (see  Eucha- 
rist). The  Apostles,  St.  Peter  (I  Peter,  i,  2,  19), 
St.  John  (I  John,  i,  7;  Apoc.  i,  5  etc.),  and  above  all 
St.  Paul  (Rom.,  iii,  25;  Eph.,  i,  7;  Hebr.,  ix,  x) 
regard  it  as  synonymous  with  Jesus's  Passion  and 
Death,  the  source  of  redemption.  The  Precious 
Blood  is  therefore  a  part  of  the  Sacred  Humanity 
and  hypostatically  united  to  the  Second  Person  of 
the  Blessed  Trinity.  In  the  fifteenth  century  some 
theologians,  with  a  view  of  determining  whether  the 
blood  shed  by  the  Saviour  during  His  Passion  re- 
mained united  to  the  Word  or  not,  raised  the  point 
as  to  whether  the  Precious  Blood  is  an  essential  part 
or  only  a  concomitant  of  the  Sacred  Humanity.  If 
an  essential  part,  they  argued,  it  could  never  be  de- 
tached from  the  Word;  if  a  concomitant  only,  it 
could.  The  Dominicans  held  the  first  view,  and  the 
Franciscans  the  second.  Pius  II,  in  whose  presence 
the  debate  took  place,  rendered  no  doctrinal  decision 
on  the  point  at  issue.  However,  chiefly  since  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIII,  c.  3)  called  the  body 
and  blood  of  Jesus  "partes  Christi  Domini",  the 
trend  of  theological  thought  has  been  in  favour  of  the 
Dominican  teaching.  Suarez  and  de  Lugo  look 
askance  at  the  Franciscans'  view,  and  Faber  writes: 
"It  is  not  merely  a  concomitant  of  the  flesh,  an  in- 
separable accident  of  the  body.  The  blood  itself, 
as  blood,  was  assumed  directly  by  the  Second  Person 
of  the  Blessed  Trinity"  (Precious  Blood,  i).  The 
blood  shed  during  the  triduum  of  the  Passion  was 
therefore  reunited  to  the  body  of  Christ  at  the  Res- 
urrection, with  the  possible  exception  of  a  few  par- 


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tides  which  instantly  lost  their  union  to  the  Word 
and  became  holy  relics  to  be  venerated  but  not 
adored.  Some  such  particles  may  have  adhered  and 
yet  adhere  to  the  instruments  of  the  Passion,  e.  g. 
nails,  scourging  pillar,  Scala  Sancta.  Several  places 
like  Saintes,  Bruges,  Mantua  etc.  claim,  on  the 
strength  of  ancient  traditions,  to  possess  relics  of 
the  Precious  Blood,  but  it  is  often  difficult  to  tell 
whether  the  traditions  are  correct.  Viewed  as  a 
part  of  the  Sacred  Humanity  hypostatically  united 
to  the  Word,  the  Precious  Blood  deserves  latreutioal 
worship  or  adoration.  It  may  also,  like  the  Heart 
or  the  \\'ounds  from  which  it  flowed,  be  singled  out 
for  special  honour,  in  a  way  that  special  honour  was 
rendered  it  from  the  beginning  by  St.  Paul  and  the 
Fathers  who  so  eloquently  praised  its  redeeming 
virtue  and  rested  on  it  the  Christian  spirit  of  self- 
sacrifice.  As  Faber  remarks,  the  lives  of  the  saints 
are  replete  with  devotion  to  the  Precious  Blood. 
In  due  course  of  time  the  Church  gave  shape  and 
sanction  to  the  devotion  by  approving  societies  like 
the  Missionaries  of  the  Precious  Blood;  enriching 
confraternities  like  that  of  St.  Nicholas  in  Carcere, 
in  Rome,  and  that  of  the  London  Oratory;  attaching 
indulgences  to  prayers  and  scapulars  in  honour  of 
the  Precious  Blood;  and  establishing  commemora- 
tive feasts  of  the  Precious  Blood,  Friday  after  the 
fourth  Sunday  in  Lent  and,  since  Pius  IX,  the  first 
Sunday  of  July. 

Benedict  XIV,  De  servorum  Dei  Beatijicatione,  II,  30;  IV, 
ii.  10,  de  Festis,  I,  8  (Rome,  1747);  Fabeb,  The  Precious  Blood 
(Baltimore,  s.  d.);  Hunter,  Outlines  of  Dogm.  TheoL  (New  York, 
1896) ;  lox.  Die  Reliquien  des  Kostb.  Blutes  (Luxemburg,  1880) ; 
Bebinger,  Die  Abldsse  (12th  ed.,  Paderborn,  1900). 

J.    F.    SOLLXBR. 

Feast  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood.— For  many 
dioceses  there  are  two  days  to  which  the  Oifice  of  the 
Precious  Blood  has  been  assigned,  the  office  being 
in  both  cases  the  same.  The  reason  is  this:  the  office 
was  at  first  granted  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Most 
Precious  Blood  only.  Later,  as  one  of  the  offices  of  the 
Fridays  of  Lent,  it  was  assigned  to  the  Friday  after 
the  fourth  Sunday  in  Lent.  In  many  dioceses  these 
offices  were  adopted  alsobythefourth  Provincial  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore  (1840) .  When  Pius  IX  went  into  exile 
at  Gaeta  (1849)  he  had  as  his  companion  the  saintly 
Don  Giovanni  Merlini,  third  superior  general  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood.  Arrived  at 
Gaeta,  Merlini  suggested  that  His  Holiness  make  a 
vow  to  extend  the  feast  of  the  Precious  Blood  to  the 
entire  Church,  if  he  would  again  obtain  possession 
of  the  papal  dominions.  The  pope  took  the  matter 
under  consideration,  but  a  few  days  later  sent  his 
domestic  prelate  Jos.  Stella  to  Merlini  with  the  mes- 
sage: "The  pope  does  not  deem  it  expedient  to  bind 
himself  by  a  vow;  instead  His  Holiness  is  pleased  to 
extend  the  feast  immediately  to  all  Christendom" 
This  was  30  June,  1849,  the  day  the  French  con- 
quered Rome  and  the  republicans  capitulated.  The 
thirtieth  of  June  had  been  a  Saturday  before  the  first 
Sunday  of  July,  wherefore  the  pope  decreed  (10 
August  1849)  that  henceforth  every  first  Sunday 
of  July  should  be  dedicated  to  the  Most  Precious 

Blood.  ^    ,, 

Ulrich  F.  Mueller. 

Precious  Blood,  Archconfraternity  of  the 
Most  —Confraternities  which  made  it  their  special 
object  to  venerate  the  Blood  of  Christ  first  arose  m 
Spain  In  the  life  of  the  Carmelite  lay  brother, 
Francis  of  the  Infant  Jesus  (d.  1601),  mention  is  made 
of  such  a  confraternity  as  existing  m  Valencia.  A 
few  years  later  they  must  have  been  quite  numerous, 
for  it  is  said  of  the  Carmelite  Anna  of  St.  Augustine 
(d  1624)  that  "she  received  with  hospitahty  those 
who  went  about  collecting  alms  for  the  confraternities 
of   the   Precious   Blood   erected   m   many   places 


Ravenna,  Italy,  possessed  one  at  a  very  early  date. 
Another  was  erected  in  Rome  under  Gregory  XIII  and 
confirmed  by  Sixtus  V,  but  merged  later  on  with  the 
Gonfalour.  The  archconfraternity  as  it  now  exists 
owes  its  origin  to  Mgr  Albertini,  then  priest  at  San 
Nicola  in  Carcere,  Rome,  where  since  1708  devotions 
in  honour  of  the  Precious  Blood  had  been  held. 
Deeply  moved  by  the  temporal  and  spiritual  misery 
caused  by  the  French  Revolution,  he  united,  8  Decem- 
ber, 1808,  into  a  society  such  as  were  willing  to  medi- 
tate frequently  on  the  Passion  and  to  offer  up  to 
the  Divine  Father  the  Blood  of  His  Son,  in  expiation 
of  their  sins,  for  the  conversion  of  sinners,  for  the  great 
wants  of  the  Church,  and  the  souls  in  purgatory. 
He  composed  for  them  the  "Chaplet  of  the  Precious 
Blood"  which  they  were  to  recite  during  his  daily 
Mass.  The  confraternity  was  canonically  erected  by 
Pius  VII  through  his  cardinal  vicar,  27  February, 
1809,  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  archconfraternity,  26 
September,  1815,  and  enriched  with  numerous  indul- 
gences. Pius  IX  increased  the  privileges,  19  January, 
1850,  and  30  September,  1852.  In  England  it  was 
erected  in  the  church  of  St.  Wilfrid,  Staffordshire, 
1847,  but  was  transferred  to  the  church  of  the  London 
Oratory  (12  August,  1850).  Previous  to  this  it  had 
been  introduced  into  America  by  the  Passionists,  and 
canonically  erected  in  the  numerous  houses  and  par- 
ishes founded  by  them  after  their  arrival  (1844).  As 
a  rule,  they  enroll  such  as  desire  it  at  the  end  of  their 
missions. 

Seeberger,  Key  to  the  Spiritual  Treasure  (Collegeville,  Ind.), 
1-11,  372-80,  462;  Behringeh,  Die  AbMsse  (Paderborn),  607-10. 

Ulrich  F.  Mueller. 

Precious  Blood,  Congregation  of  the  Most, 
an  association  of  secular  priests  living  in  community, 
whose  principal  aim  is  to  give  missions  and  retreats. 
The  members  take  no  vows  but  are  held  together  by 
the  bond  of  charity  only  and  by  a  promise  "not  to 
leave  the  community  without  permission  of  the  lawful 
superior"  The  congregation  was  founded  at  the 
desire  of  Pius  VII  after  his  return  from  exile  by 
Blessed  Gaspare  del  Bufalo.  Distressed  at  the 
spiritual  condition  of  Rome,  the  pope  determined 
that  missions  should  be  held  throughout  the  Papal 
States  and  selected  del  Bufalo  and  a  few  other  zealous 
priests  to  undertake  the  task  (1814),  assigning  to 
them  the  convent  of  San  Felice  at  Giano,  where  a 
foundation  was  made  15  Aug.,  1815.  New  houses 
were  opened,  and  in  1820  six  missions  were  estabhshed 
in  the  Campagna  for  the  conversion  of  the  banditti. 
The  growth  of  the  society  was  checked  at  the  election 
of  Leo  XII  (1823),  who,  misinformed  as  to  the  work 
of  the  congregation  and  its  founder,  was  unfavourable. 
He  objected  to  the  proposed  name,  "Congregation 
of  the  Most  Precious  Blood",  as  a  novelty;  but  the 
society  was  finally  cleared  of  all  accusations  and  P. 
Betti  justified  the  name  from  Scripture  and  the 
Fathers.  Blessed  Gaspare  was  succeeded  by  Don 
Biagio  Valentini,  a  member  of  the  society  since  1817. 
His  successor,  the  Ven.  Giovanni  Merlini  (the  process 
of  whose  beatification  has  been  begun  in  Rome),  was 
a  native  of  Spoleto  and  a  friend  of  Pius  IX,  whose  exile 
at  Gaeta  he  shared.  Through  the  influence  of  the 
pope,  several  new  houses  were  opened  in  Italy,  and 
one  each  in  Alsace  and  Bavaria.  The  mother-house 
was  established  in  the  convent  of  the  Crooiferi,  Maria 
in  Trivio.  Merlini  died  13  January,  1873,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Don  Enrico  Rizzoli.  IJndef  his  rule  the 
Italian  Government  (1860,  1866,  1870)  confiscated, 
among  others,  Maria  in  Trivio,  since  when  the  fathers 
who  are  in  charge  of  this  church  have  to  rent  a  few 
rooms  in  their  own  house.  In  the  convent  garden  a 
Methodist  church  was  erected,  but  owing  to  the 
scanty  attendance  it  was  soon  closed  and  is  now 
used  as  a  theatre.  The  Government  confiscated  the 
revenues  of  the  seminary  at  Albano  and  suppressed 


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374 


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altogether  twenty-five  houses.  The  Kulturkampf 
closed  the  houses  in  Alsace  and  Bavaria.  Rizzoli  was 
succeeded  by  Mgr  Caporali,  in  1890  consecrated 
Archbishop  of  Otranto;  Mgr  Salvatore  Palmieri,  to 
whom  the  Government  refused  the  exequatur  when  he 
was  named  Archbishop  of  Rossano,  but  later  ac- 
quiesced in  his  preconization  as  Archbishop  of 
Brindisi  (1893);  Aloysius  Biaschelli;  the  present  gen- 
eral is  Very  Rev.  Hyaointhe  Petroni. 

The  congregation  was  introduced  into  America 
(1844)  at  the  request  of  Bishop  Purcell  of  Cincin- 
nati, by  Rev.  Francis  de  S.  Brunner  (q.  v.).  It  con- 
ducts a  college  (CoUegeville,  Ind.)  and  parishes  in 
Ohio  (Dioceses  of  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Toledo),  In- 
diana (Diocese  of  Fort  A^'ayne),  Missouri  (Diocese  of 
St.  Joseph  and  Kansas  City),  Illinois  (Archdiocese  of 
Chicago),  Nebraska  (Diocese  of  Lincoln).  The  chief 
work  of  the  order  is  the  giving  of  missions  and  assist- 
ing the  secular  parish  clergy  on  occasions  such  as  tridua, 
Forty  Hours  devotions,  retreats  etc.  The  novitiate 
is  at  Burkettsville,  Ohio. 

In  America  candidates  pass  through  a  year  of  pro- 
bation, after  which  they  are  admitted  either  as  brothers, 
and  then  take  the  promise  of  fidelity,  or  as  students, 
to  follow  a  six  years'  course  in  classical  studies.  Such 
of  the  students  as  receive  the  degree  A.B.  enter  the 
seminary,  and  after  the  first  year  of  philosophy  give 
the  promise  of  fidelity.  After  five  years  more  of  study, 
they  are  ordained,  and  a  year  later  become  eligible  to 
full  membership.  If  the  ballot  is  favourable,  they  are 
admitted  and  invested  with  the  missionary's  insignia 
(a  large  ebony  crucifix  with  brass  figure  and  brass 
chain,  worn  over  the  heart).  In  Europe  the  method 
of  adopting  members  is  somewhat  different,  since  there 
none  are  admitted  before  they  are  at  least  students 
of  philosophy;  often  priests  join  the  congregation. 

The  present  statistics  for  the  congregation  are: 
Italy,  3  provinces,  1.5  houses,  the  principal  ones  being 
at  Rome  (Santa  Maria  in  Trivio),  Albano,  and  San 
Paolo;  Spain,  1  province,  2  houses;  North  America,  1 
province  with  a  seminary  at  Carthagena,  Ohio,  seat  of 
the  provincial;  a  college  at  CoUegeville,  Ind.,  with  300 
students;  novitiate  at  Burkettsville,  Ohio;  parishes 
and  missions:  Ohio,  19;  Indiana,  4;  Missouri,  6; 
Nebraska,  2.  The  house  at  Shellenberg  (Liechten- 
stein) belongs  to  the  American  province.  There  are 
in  the  American  province  110  priests,  20  seminarians, 
75  collegians,  70  lay-brothers,  35  novices,  17  convents, 
and  44  missions  and  stations. 

PRECions  Blood,  Knights  of  the. — At  Mantua 
in  1608  a  knight-order  of  the  Precious  Blood,  which 
received  the  approval  of  Paul  V,  was  founded  by 
Vincente  del  Gonzaga,  Duke  of  Mantua.  Its  aim  was 
to  protect  the  sacred  relic  of  the  Precious  Blood.  The 
members  wore  on  a  golden  ribbon  a  remonstrance, 
representing  two  angels  holding  up  a  vase  containing 
three  drops  of  blood.  The  Dukes  of  Mantua  were 
grandmasters,  until  Emperor  Joseph  I  declared  the 
dukedom  abolished ;  the  order  was  then  dissolved.  The 
sacred  relic  is  said  to  have  disappeared  since  1848. 

There  is  no  bibliography  for  the  European  provinces;  for 
America:  Brunxer,  Wo  sind  sie,  welche  in  die  KloHier  nach 
Amtrika  ausgewandt:Tt  sind?  (Tiibingen,  1S.56):  Lebenund  Wirken 
des  P.  F.  S.  Brunner,  II  (Carthagena,  1.S82).  As  to  the  Uves  of 
some  of  tlie  early  members  in  Italy,  Brevi  Cenni  sulla  vita  e  le 
virtii  di  alcuni  Membri  delta  Congregazione  del  Prezioso  Sangue 
(ISSO);  on  the  activity  of  the  American  priests,  Xuntius  Aulce, 
I-X. 

Ulrich  F.  Mueller. 

Precious  Blood,  Congregations  of  the. — I.  Ber- 
NADiNES  OF  THE  PRECIOUS  Blood,  a  Congregation 
of  nuns,  no  longer  in  existence,  founded  by  Mother 
Ballou  with  the  assistance  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  as 
an  offshoot  of  the  reformed  Cisterciancsses. 

II.  Daughters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  were 
founded  by  Maria  Seraphina  Spiehermans  at  Sittard, 
Holland,  lSii2,  and  approved  by  a  Decree  of  Leo  XIII, 
12  July,  1890.    Their  main  object  is  the  education  of 


girls,  and  the  care  of  the  sick.  They  wear  a  red  girdle, 
and  on  a  red  ribbon  a  cross  with  the  initials  F.  P.  S. 
(Filia  Pretiosi  Sanguinis — daughter  of  the  Precious 
Blood).  Leo  XIII  appointed  Cardinal  Mazzella  as 
their  cardinal  protector.  The  mother-house  is  in 
Koningbosoh,  Diocese  of  Roermond.  They  assist  es- 
pecially the  Missionary  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in 
German  East  Africa.  As  yet  they  have  made  no 
foundation  in  the  United  States. 

Ulrich  F.  Mueller. 

III.  Sisters  Adorers  of  the  Precious  Blood,  a 
congregs.tion  of  nuns  established,  14  September,  1861, 
by  Right  Rev.  Joseph  La  Rocque,  then  Bishop  of  St. 
Hyacinthe  (Prov.  Quebec,  Canada),  with  the  co-oper- 
ation of  Mgr.  J.  S.  Raymond,  then  superior  of  the 
seminary  of  St.  Hyacinthe.  The  foundress,  M^re 
Catherine-Aurelie  du  Pr^cieux  Sang,  commonly  called 
Mere  Caouette  or  Mother  Catherine,  died,  6  July, 
1905,  at  the  mother-house  in  St.  Hyacinthe,  of  which 
she  was  then  superioress.  The  object  of  the  institu- 
tion is  two-fold :  the  glorification  of  the  Precious  Blood, 
and  the  salvation  of  souls.  "To  adore,  to  repair,  to 
suffer",  is  the  watch-word  given  to  the  sisters  by  the 
foundress.  She  was  joined  by  Sister  Euphrasie  de 
Joseph,  her  cousin.  Sister  Sophie  de  1' Incarnation, 
niece  of  Monsignor  Raymond,  and  Sister  Elizabeth  de 
I'Immaculee  Conception,  a  convert.  The  constitutions 
of  the  institute  were  approved  by  Leo  XIII,  20  Octo- 
ber, 1896.  The  order  is  contemplative,  and  the  sisters 
maintain  perpetual  adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment. The  Office  is  recited  daily:  on  Thursday,  the 
Office  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament^  which  is  also  chanted 
when  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  exposed;  every  first 
Sunday  of  the  month,  and  during  the  Forty-Hours 
devotion,  which  by  a  special  privilege  of  Pius  IX  is  held 
four  times  yearly.  On  Saturday  the  Office  of  the 
Blessed  Mrgin  is  said,  and  on  all  other  days  that  of  the 
Precious  Blood.  Matins  and  Lauds  are  recited  at 
midnight.  The  institute  is  governed  by  the  mother 
superior,  aided  by  her  councillors,  and  in  certain  cases 
by  the  chapter  of  the  community.  The  councillors 
and  the  mother  superior  are  elected  for  a  term  of  five 
years.  Houses  are  independent  of  one  another  in 
government,  recruiting,  and  training  their  members. 
The  novitiate  lasts  two  years.  The  choir  and  lay 
sisters  make  perpetual  vows;  the  tourieres  (out- 
sisters)  pronounce  their  vows  for  a  year  only,  being 
allowed  to  renew  them  afterwards  on  the  Feast  of  the 
Precious  Blood.  The  choir  sisters  dress  in  white, 
with  a  red  scapular  and  cincture  on  which  are  painted 
in  white  the  instruments  of  the  Passion;  for  Com- 
munion, and  before  the  Blessed  Sacrament  when  ex- 
posed, they  wear  a  white  mantle.  Hence  their  popu- 
lar name,  ' '  the  white  nuns ' '  -  The  lay  sisters  have  the 
same  costume,  but  the  dress  is  black.  The  costume 
of  the  tourieres  is  all  black,  as  their  functions  call 
them  out  of  the  cloister.  The  institute  subsists  on 
alms  and  on  the  work  of  some  of  the  sisters,  who  make 
everything  requisite  for  the  service  of  the  altar,  and 
other  pious  articles.  The  institute  also  directs  the 
Confraternity  and  the  Guard  of  Honour  of  the  Pre- 
cious Blood,  and  spiritual  retreats  for  ladies. 

From  the  mother-house  at  St.  Hyacinthe  have 
sprung  many  branches:  Toronto  (Ontario,  Canada), 
1867;  Montreal  (Quebec,  Canada),  1874;  Ottawa 
(Canada),  1887;  Three  Rivers  (Quebec,  Canada), 
1889;  Brooklyn  (New  York),  1890;  Portland  (Oregon), 
1891;  Sherbrooke  (Quebec,  Canada),  1895;  Nicolet 
(Quebec,  Canada),  1896;  Manchester  (N.  H.),  1898; 
Havana  (Cuba),  1902;  Levis  (Quebec,  Canada),  1906; 
and  Joliette  (Quebec,  Canada),  1907. 

Sister  Aim^e  de  Marie. 

IV.  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  a  congrega- 
tion of  nuns  founded  at  Gurtweil,  Baden.  In  1857 
Rev.  Herman  Kessler,  the  pastor,  who  had  long  desired 


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375 


PRECIPIANO 


to  establish  a  home  for  destitute  children  and  a  nor- 
mal school  for  the  training  of  religious  teachers,  asked 
for  six  members  of  the  community  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Precious  Blood  from  Ottmarsheim,  Alsace.  They 
responded  and  began  their  work  with  twelve  poor  chil- 
dren under  the  direction  of  Father  Kessler.  Under  the 
auspices  of  Archbishop  von  Vicari  of  Freiburg,  a 
novitiate  and  normal  school  were  established;  the  lat- 
ter was  affiliated  with  the  educational  department  of 
Karlsruhe.  Other  schools  and  academies  were  opened. 
In  1869  Bishop  Junker  of  Alton,  111.,  asked  for  sisters 
for  his  diocese.  In  1S70  a  number  of  sisters  sailed  for 
Belle  Prairie  (now  Piopolis)  in  the  Diocese  of  Alton. 
Meantime  Bishop  Baltes  succeeded  Bishop  Junker;  he 
entrusted  to  them  several  parochial  schools  and  prom- 
ised further  assistance  on  condition  that  the  commu- 
nity should  establish  itself  permanently  in  his  diocese 
subject  to  his  authority.  Mother  Augustine,  suoerior 
of  the  mother-house  at  Gurtweil,  apprehended  a  pre- 
mature separation  from  Gurtweil,  and  was  also  op- 
posed to  limiting  the  sisters'  activity  to  one  diocese 
only.  She  went  to  St.  Louis  where  through  the  efforts 
of  Father  Muehlsiepen,  Vicar-General  of  St.  Louis,  the 
Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  were  received  into  the 
Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis  (1872)  and  obtained  charge 
of  a  number  of  schools  in  Missouri  and  Nebraska.  In 
1873  the  Kulturkampf  had  reached  its  climax  and  the 
entire  community  was  expelled;  some  went  to  Rome, 
others  settled  in  Bosnia,  Hungary,  while  the  greater 
number  joined  their  sisters  in  America.  A  mother- 
house  was  established  in  O'Fallon,  St.  Charles  County, 
Mo.,  completed  in  1875.  News  arrived  that  Mother 
Clementine,  mistress  of  novices,  with  a  few  professed 
sisters  and  the  entire  novitiate  had  resolved  to  follow 
the  dictates  of  Bishop  Baltes  and  establish  a  mother- 
house  in  his  diocese.  Consequently  a  new  novitiate 
was  begun  in  O'Fallon.  The  novitiate  of  Mother 
Clementine's  branch  was  established  at  Ruma  in  1876. 
They  conduct  schools  in  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis, 
the  Diocesesof  Alton,  Belleville,  Oklahoma,  St.  Joseph, 
and  Wichita.  They  number  (1911):  professed  sisters, 
230;  novices,  20;  candidates,  30;  schools,  51;  orphans, 
150;  pupils,  49,430.  The  O'Fallon  community  was 
incorporated  (1878)  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of 
Missouri  with  the  right  of  succession,  under  the  legal 
title  of  St.  Mary's  Institute  of  O'Fallon,  Mo.  The 
sisters  conduct  schools  in  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis, 
and  in  the  Dioceses  of  Alton,  Kansas  City,  Lincoln, 
and  Omaha,  i'hey  number  (1911):  professed  sisters, 
179;  novices,  17;  candidates,  11;  academy,  1; 
schools,  20;  pupils,  2943. 

UlEICH   F.    MtTELLEB. 

V.  Sisters  or  the  Precious  Blood,  founded  in 
the  canton  of  Orisons,  Switzerland,  in  1833,  by  Maria 
Anna  Brunner,  and  her  son  Rev.  Francis  de  Sales 
Brunner  (q.  v.).  They  were  inspired  to  the  undertak- 
ing by  a  visit  to  Rome,  during  which  they  were  much 
impressed  by  the  devotion  to  the  Most  Precious  Blood 
as  practised  by  the  congregation  of  Blessed  Gaspare 
del  Bufalo.  The  rule  was  founded  on  that  of  St.  Bene- 
dict and  approved  by  the  Bishop  of  Chur,  the  object 
of  the  community  being  the  adoration  of  the  Most 
Precious  Blood  and  the  education  of  youth,  including 
the  care  of  orphans  and  homeless  or  destitute  girls. 
The  sisters  became  affiliated  with  the  Society  of 
Priests  of  the  Precious  Blood,  of  which  Father  Brun- 
ner was  a  member,  and  on  his  being  sent  to  America 
to  establish  his  congregation  there  he  enabled  the 
sisters  also  to  make  a  foundation,  first  at  St.  Alphon- 
Bus,  near  Norwalk,  and  permanently  at  New  Riegel, 
Ohio.  In  1886  Archbishop  Elder  found  it  advisable 
to  revise  the  rule  drawn  up  by  Father  Brunner  in  order 
to  adapt  it  to  altered  conditions,  and  this  revision,  be- 
sides extending  the  time  of  adoration  through  the  day 
as  well  as  the  night,  increased  the  teaching  force  of  the 
community,  who  were  thus  enabled  to  take  charge  of  a 


larger  number  of  parochial  schools.  In  this  year,  also, 
the  sisters  were  separated  from  the  society  of  priests, 
with  which  it  had  hitherto  been  affiliated,  and  made  a 
separate  congregation  with  a  superior  general  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cincinnati.  The 
present  mother-house  is  at  Maria  Stein,  Ohio.  They 
conduct  schools  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Cincinnati,  and 
in  the  Dioceses  of  Cleveland,  Ft.  Wayne,  Kansas  City, 
Nashville,  St.  Joseph,  and  Tucson.  The  statistics  for 
1911  are:  professed  sisters,  592;  novices,  48;  postu- 
lants, 26;  pupils,  6954. 

Heimbucher,  Die  Orden  u.  Kongregaiionen  der  katkol.  Kirche, 
III  (Paderborn,  1908),  399,  476. 

Sister  Mary  Victoria. 

Precipiano,  Humbert-Guillatjme  de.  Count, 
b.  at  Besangon,  1626;  d.  at  Brussels,  7  June,  1711. 
Having  studied  the  classics  at  Constance,  philosophy 
in  his  native  town,  and  theology  in  the  Jesuit  college, 
Louvain,  he  graduated  as  Licenciate  in  Law  and  Doc- 
tor of  Theology  at  the  University  of  D61e.  He  was 
named  successively  canon,  archdeacon,  and  dean  of 
the  metropolitan  chapter  of  Besaneon;  commenda- 
tory Abbot  of  Bellevaux  in  Burgundy;  and  was  then 
appointed  ecclesiastical  councillor  at  the  Court  of 
D61e  by  Philip  IV  of  Spain,  La  Franche-Comtfi 
being  a  Spanish  dependency.  In  1667  Philip  sent 
him  to  the  imperial  Diet  of  Ratisbon  as  plenipoten- 
tiary for  Burgundy.  After  1672  he  resided  at  Madrid 
as  chief  councillor  for  the  affairs  of  the  Netherlands 
and  Burgundy.  Ten  years  later  he  was  raised  to 
the  See  of  Bruges,  and  consecrated  on  21  March, 
1683.  For  seven  years  he  laboured  zealously  to 
maintain  the  purity  of  the  Faith  and  the  rights  of  the 
Church,  and  to  check  the  spread  of  Jansenism.  In 
1690  he  was  offered  the  Archbishopric  of  Mechlin, 
which  he  accepted  only  upon  the  express  order  of  the 
pope.  At  Mechlin  his  life  was  a  constant  struggle 
against  the  doctrines  which  were  being  actively 
disseminated  by  the  French  refugees,  Arnauld, 
Quesnel,  and  others  (see  Jansenius  and  Jansenism). 
In  union  with  his  suffragans,  the  archbishop  began 
by  insisting  on  the  oath  formulated  by  Alexander 
VII  as  a  necessary  condition  for  admission  to  Holy 
orders,  benefices,  and  ecclesiastical  positions.  Three 
episcopal  assemblies  held  under  his  presidency  at 
Brussels  in  1691,  1692,  and  1697,  confirmed  this 
regulation.  The  second  (1692)  moreover,  to  prevent 
all  subterfuges  regarding  the  distinction  of  law  and 
fact,  had  made  certain  additions  to  the  formulary. 
Through  Dr.  Hennebel,  the  Jansenists  lodged  a  pro- 
test at  Rome,  and  succeeded  in  having  their  claim 
upheld  by  Innocent  XII.  The  pope  ordered  the 
adoption  of  the  precise  words  of  the  Alexandrine 
oath,  as  being  quite  sufficient  since  it  condemned 
the  five  propositions  "in  the  obvious  sense  which  the 
words  of  the  propositions  express,  and  which  our 
predecessors  condemned".  Thereupon,  men  of  bad 
faith  declared  that  the  Constitution  of  Alexander  VII 
and  the  obligations  it  imposed  had  been  changed, 
and  that  it  was  no  longer  necessary  to  reject  the 
propositions  "in  sensu  auctoris".  The  bishops  com- 
municated with  Rome  to  obtain  a  more  drastic  and 
efficacious  remedy;  and  the  pope,  now  better  in- 
formed, authorized  them  to  proceed,  not  only  in 
virtue  of  their  own  authority  but  also  as  delegates 
of  the  Holy  See,  against  all  who  by  word  or  writing 
opposed  the  well-known  decisions  of  the  sovereign 
authority.  The  archbishop  at  once  censured  and 
prohibited  seventy-one  defamatory  pamphlets  of 
Jansenistic  origin;  but,  as  the  propaganda  in  favour 
of  the  "Augustinus"  continued  and  moral  suasion 
proved  entirely  ineffectual,  he  sought  the  interven- 
tion of  the  secular  power.  Quesnel,  Gerberon,  and 
Brigode,  the  distributor  of  their  writings,  were  ar- 
rested at  Brussels,  by  order  of  Philip  V,  and  con- 
fined to  the  archiepiscopal  palace  (1703).  Quesnel 
escaped  to  Holland,  but  his  vast  correspondence  was 


PRECONIZATION 


376 


PREDESTINARIANISM 


seized  and  judicial  proceedings  against  him  begun. 
All  the  documents  connected  therewith  were  publish- 
ed under  the  title  "Causa  Quesnelliana"  (Brussels, 
1705).  They  form  one  of  the  most  valuable  sources 
of  the  authentic  history  of  Jansenism.  In  1705, 
the  T^chbishop  of  Mechlin  was  one  of  the  first  to 
publish  in  his  diocese  the  Bull  "Vineam  Domini 
Sabbaoth",  in  which  Clement  XI  condemned  the 
theory  of  respectful  silence  (see  Jansenius  and 
Jansenism),  and  his  action  elicited  the  congratula- 
tions of  the  sovereign  pontiff.  At  Mechlin  as  at 
Bruges,  Precipiano  had  to  fight  in  defence  of  the  right 
of  asylum  attached  to  certain  places  or  religious 
houses,  and  at  Mechlin  his  efforts  were  at  first  com- 
pletely thwarted  by  the  civil  power.  As  a  last  resort 
he  was  forced  to  excommunicate  the  procurator- 
general  and  the  members  of  the  Grand  Conseil;  the 
magistrates  replied  by  imposing  on  him  an  enormous 
fine,  and  the  heavy  penalty  of  "aquae  et  ignis  in- 
terdictio"  Through  the  personal  intervention  of 
Philip  V,  who  esteemed  the  prelate  highly,  the  quarrel 
was  ended  without  encroachment  on  the  rights  of  the 
Church,  or  dishonour  to  their  doughty  champion. 

De  Ram,  Synodicujn  Belgicum,  I  (Mechlin,  1828) ;  De  Schrevel 
Bioffr.nat.de  Belgique,  XVIII  (Brussels,  1905);  Claessenb,  Hist, 
des  archevSques  de  Malines  (Louvain,  1881);  Proost,  Hist,  du 
droit  d'asile  en  Belgique  (Ghent,  1870). 

J.  Forget. 

Preconization  (Lat.  prceconizare,  to  publish,  from 
prmco,  herald,  public  crier).  This  word  means:  (1)  in 
its  strict  juridical  sense  the  ratification  in  a  public  con- 
sistory of  the  choice  made  by  a  third  person  of  a  titular 
of  a  consistorial  benefice,  for  example  a  bishopric. 
The  pope  approves  the  election  or  postulation  of  the 
titular  made  by  a  chapter,  or  ratifies  the  presentation 
of  a  candidate  made  by  the  civil  power.  This  precon- 
ization is  preceded  by  an  informative  process,  which 
according  to  the  present  discipline  is  raised  by  the 
Consistorial  Congregation  for  the  countries  not  under 
Congregation  of  Propaganda,  but  the  information  is 
furnished  by  the  Secretary  of  State  if  the  question  at 
hand  refers  to  sees  situated  outside  of  Italy;  (2)  some 
authors  define  preconization  as  the  report  made  in  the 
above-mentioned  informative  process  by  the  cardinals 
at  the  consistory  (Bargilliat,  " Praelectionas  juris  ca- 
nonici",  I, Paris,  1907,  467);  (3)  again,  preconization 
is  considered  the  announcement  to  the  pope  that  in  an 
approaching  consistory  a  cardinal  will  propose  in  the 
name  of  the  head  of  a  State  the  candidate  whom  the 
latter  himself  has  designated  for  a  see  (Andr^,  "Cours 
de  droit  canon",  c.  v.  Preconization,  V,  Paris,  1860, 
340) ;  (4)  finally,  preconization  is  also  the  act  by  which 
the  pope  ratifies,  in  a  consistory,  a  nomination  of  a 
bishop  which  has  been  made  previously  by  a  decree  of 
the  Consistorial  Congregation.  According  to  a  Decree 
of  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  8  June,  1910  ("Acta 
Apostolica;  Sedis",  1910,  586)  the  date  of  the  anni- 
versary of  the  election  of  a  bishop  is  no  longer  that  of 
his  preconization  in  the  consistory,  but  that  of  the  de- 
cree or  letter  by  which  he  is  appointed. 

Saqmuller,  Lehrbuch  des  katholischen  Kirrhenrechts  (Frei- 
burg, 1900),  264;  HiNSCHius,  System  des  kalolischen  Kirch- 
enrechts,  II  (Berlin,  1878),  673;  and  canonists  generally,  apropos 
of  the  nomination  of  bishops. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Precursor,  The.    See  John  the  Baptist,  Saint. 

Predella.     See  Altar,  sub-title.  Altar-steps. 

Predestinarianism  is  a  heresy  not  unfrequently 
met  with  in  the  course  of  the  centuries  which  reduces 
the  eternal  salvation  of  the  elect  as  well  as  the  eter- 
nal damnation  of  the  reprobate  to  one  cause  alone, 
namely  to  the  sovereign  will  of  God,  and  thereby  ex- 
cludes the  free  co-operation  of  man  as  a  secondary 
factor  in  bringing  about  a  happy  or  unhappy  future 
in  the  life  to  come. 

I.  Character  and  Origin. — The  essence  of  this 
heretical  prede.stinariani^pi  may  be  expressed  in  these 


two  fundamental  propositions  which  bear  to  each 
other  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect :  (a)  the  absolute 
will  of  God  as  the  sole  cause  of  the  salvation  or  damna- 
tion of  the  individual,  without  regard  to  his  merits 
or  demerits;  (b)  as  to  the  elect,  it  denies  the  freedom 
of  the  will  under  the  influence  of  efficacious  grace 
while  it  puts  the  reprobate  under  the  necessity  of 
committing  sin  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of 
grace.  The  system  in  its  general  outlines  may  thus 
be  described :  the  question  why  some  are  saved  while 
others  are  damned  can  only  be  answered  by  assuming 
an  eternal,  absolute,  and  unchangeable  decree  of  God. 
The  salvation  of  the  elect  and  the  damnation  of  the 
reprobate  are  simply  the  effect  of  an  unconditional 
Divine  decree.  But  if  those  who  are  predestined  for 
eternal  life  are  to  attain  this  end  with  metaphysical 
necessity,  and  it  is  only  such  a  necessity  that  can 
guarantee  the  actual  accomplishment  of  the  Divine 
will,  God  must  give  them  during  their  lifetime  ef- 
ficacious graces  of  such  a  nature  that  the  possibility 
of  free  resistance  is  systematically  excluded,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  will,  under  the  influence  of 
grace,  is  borne  along  without  reluctance  to  do  what 
is  right  and  is  forced  to  persevere  in  a  course  of 
righteousness  to  the  hour  of  death.  But  from  all 
eternity  God  has  also  made  a  decree  not  less  absolute 
whereby  he  has  positively  predestined  the  non-elect 
to  eternal  torments.  God  can  accomplish  this  design 
only  by  denying  to  the  reprobate  irresistibly  ef- 
ficacious graces  and  impelling  their  will  to  sin  con- 
tinually, thereby  leading  them  slowly  but  surely  to 
eternal  damnation.  As  it  is  owing  to  the  will  of 
God  alone  that  heaven  is  to  be  filled  with  saints, 
without  any  regard  to  their  merits,  so  also  it  is  owing 
to  that  same  will  of  God  that  hell  is  to  be  filled  with 
the  reprobate,  without  any  regard  to  their  foreseen 
sins  and  demerits  and  with  such  only  as  God  has 
eternally,  positively,  and  absolutely  destined  for 
this  sad  lot.  In  any  case  sin  is  the  most  efficacious 
means  of  infallibly  bringing  to  hell,  with  some  appear- 
ance of  justice,  those  who  are  positively  destined  for 
reprobation.  In  its  further  development  Predes- 
tinarianism admits  of  a  harsher  and  of  a  milder  form 
according  as  its  adherents  by  insisting  exclusively 
on  the  salvific  will  of  God  push  positive  reprobation 
into  the  background  or  endeavour  to  hide  under  a 
pious  phraseology  what  is  most  offensive  in  their 
doctrine,  i.  e.  God's  supposed  relation  towards  sin. 
And  yet  this  element  forms  the  keystone  of  the  whole 
system.  For  the  all-important  question  is:  Can 
God  the  all  just  absolutely  and  positively  predestine 
anyone  to  hell?  Can  the  all  holy  incite  and  force 
anyone  to  sin  with  the  intention  of  consigning  him 
to  eternal  damnation?  The  denial  of  the  uni- 
versality of  the  salvific  will  of  God  and  the  restriction 
of  the  merits  of  Christ's  passion  to  the  elect  are  only 
natural  consequences  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  this  heresy. 

The  history  of  dogma  shows  that  the  origin  of 
heretical  Predestinarianism  must  be  traced  back  to 
the  misunderstanding  and  misinterpretation  of  St. 
Augustine's  views  relating  to  eternal  election  and 
reprobation.  But  it  was  only  after  the  death  of  this 
great  doctor  of  the  Church  (430)  that  this  heresy 
sprang  up  in  the  Church  of  the  TVest,  whilst  that  of 
the  East  was  preserved  in  a  remarkable  manner  from 
these  extravagances.  Beginning  from  the  anony- 
mous author  of  the  second  part  of  the  so-called 
"Praedestinatus"  (see  below)  up  to  Calvin,  we  find 
that  all  the  adherents  of  this  heresy  have  taken  ref- 
uge behind  the  stout  shield  of  Augustinism.  The 
question  therefore  to  be  answered  at  present  is  this: 
Did  St.  Augustine  teach  this  heresy?  ^^'e  do  not 
wish  to  gainsay  that  St.  Augustine  in  the  last  years 
of  his  life  fell  a  victim  to  an  increased  rigorism 
which  may  find  its  psychological  explanation  in  the 
fact  that  he  was  called  to  be  the  champion  of  Chris- 


PREDESTINARIANISM 


377 


PREDESTINARIANISM 


tian  grace  against  the  errors  of  Pelagianism  and  Semi- 
pelagianism.  Still  the  point  at  issue  is  whether  he, 
in  order  to  establish  the  predestination  of  the  just, 
gave  up  his  former  position  and  took  refuge  in  the  so- 
called  "irresistible  grace"  (gratia  irresislibilis)  which 
in  the  jusf  and  in  those  who  persevere  destroys  free 
will.  Not  only  Protestant  historians  of  dogma  (as 
Harnack)  but  also  a  few  Catholic  scholars  (Rott- 
manner,  Kolb)  even  up  to  the  present  time  have 
thought  that  they  found  in  his  works  evident  indica- 
tions of  such  a  strange  view.  But  among  most  of  the 
modern  students  of  St.  Augustine  the  conviction  is 
constantly  gaining  ground  that  the  African  Doctor 
at  no  time  of  his  life,  not  even  shortly  before  his  death, 
embraced  this  dangerous  view  of  grace  which  Jansen- 
ism claims  to  have  inherited  from  him.  Even  the 
Protestant  writer  E.  F.  K.  Miiller  emphasizes  the 
fact  that  St.  Augustine,  with  regard  to  the  liberty  of 
the  will  in  all  conditions  of  life,  "never  renounced 
his  repudiation  of  Manichajism,  a  step  which  had 
caused  him  so  severe  a  struggle"  (Realencyk.  fiir 
prot.  Theologie,  Leipzig,  1904,  XV,  590). 

The  only  ambiguous  passage  containing  the  ex- 
pressions "unavoidable  and  invincible "  (Decorrept.  et 
gratia  XII,  xxxviii:  indeclinabiliter  et  insuperabiliter) 
does  not  refer,  as  is  clear  from  the  context,  to  Divine 
grace  but  to  the  weak  will  which  by  means  of  grace 
is  made  invulnerable  against  all  temptations,  even 
to  the  point  of  being  unconquerable,  without,  however, 
thereby  losing  its  native  freedom.  Other  difficult 
passages  must  likewise  be  explained  in  view  of  the 
general  fundamental  principles  of  the  saint's  teaching 
and  especially  of  the  context  and  the  logical  connex- 
ion of  his  thoughts  (cf.  J.  Mausbach,  "Die  Ethik  des 
hi.  Augustinus",  II,  25  sq.;  Freiburg,1909).  Hence 
St.  Augustine,  when  towards  the  end  of  his  life  he 
wrote  his  "Retractations",  did  not  take  back  any- 
thing in  this  matter,  nor  had  he  any  reason  for  doing 
so.  But  as  to  God's  relation  to  sin,  nothing  was 
further  from  the  thoughts  of  the  great  doctor  than 
the  idea  that  the  Most  Holy  could  in  any  way  or 
for  any  purpose  force  the  human  will  to  commit  sin. 
It  is  true  that  God  foresees  sin,  but  He  does  not  will 
it;  for  He  must  of  necessity  hate  it.  St.  Augustine 
draws  a  sharp  distinction  between  prcescire  and 
proedestinare,  and  to  him  the  infallible  foreknowledge 
of  sin  is  by  no  means  synonymous  with  a  necessi- 
tating predestination  to  sin.  Thus  he  says  of  the 
fall  of  Adam  (De  corrept.  et  gratia,  12,  37),  "Deo 
quidem  prsesciente,  quid  esset  Adam  facturus  in- 
juste;  praesciente  tamen,  non  ad  hoc  cogente"  (cf. 
Mausbach,  ibid.  208  sq.).  The  question  whether 
and  in  how  far  St.  Augustine  assumed,  in  connexion 
with  the  absolute  predestination  of  the  elect,  what 
was  later  on  known  as  the  negative  reprobation  of  the 
damned,  is  quite  distinct  from  our  present  question 
and  has  nothing  to  do  with  heretical  Predestinarianism. 

II.  The  Work  "Prjedestinatus". — That  the 
Pelagians  after  their  condemnation  by  the  Church 
had  a  great  interest  in  exaggerating  to  their  ultimate 
heretical  consequences  those  ideas  of  St.  Augustine 
which  may  easily  be  misunderstood,  that  thereby  they 
might  under  the  mask  of  orthodoxy  be  enabled  to  com- 
bat more  effectually  not  only  the  ultra-Augustinian 
but  also  the  whole  Catholic  doctrine  on  grace,  is 
clearly  proved  by  a  work  written  by  an  anonymous 
author  of  the  fifth  century.  This  work,  edited  by 
Sirmond  for  the  first  time  in  1643  in  Paris  under  the 
title  of  "Prffidestinatus"  (P.  L.,  LIII,  579  sq.),  is 
divided  into  three  parts.  The  first  part  contains  a 
catalogue  of  ninety  heresies  (from  Simon  Magus  to 
the  Hceresis  Prcedestinatorum)  and  is  nothing  less  than 
a  barefaced  plagiarism  from  St.  Augustine's  work 
"De  Hasresibus"  and  original  only  in  those  passages 
where  the  writer  touches  on  personal  experiences  and 
Roman  local  traditions  (cf.  A.  Faure,  "Die  Wider- 
legung  der  Haretiker  im  I.  Buch  des  Praedestinatus   , 


Leipzig,  1903).  The  second  part  is  according  to  the 
assertion  of  the  author  of  the  work  a  treatise  circulat- 
ed (though  falsely)  under  the  name  of  St.  Augustine 
which  fell  into  his  hands;  this  treatise,  under  the 
form  of  a  violent  polemic  against  the  Pelagians,  puts 
forward  ultra-Augustinian  views  on  predestination 
and  thus  affords  a  welcome  opportunity  to  a  Pela- 
gian to  attack  both  the  one-sided  exaggerations  of  the 
pseudo-Augustine  and  the  Catholic  doctrine  on  grace 
of  the  true  St.  Augustine.  As  a  matter  of  fact  this 
favourable  opportunity  is  seized  upon  by  the  author 
in  the  third  and  last  part,  where  he  reveals  his  real 
purpose.  Adhering  closely  to  the  text  of  the  second 
part  he  subtlely  endeavours  to  refute  not  only  Pre- 
destinarianism but  also  (and  this  is  the  main  point), 
St.  Augustine's  doctrine  on  grace,  although  for  the 
sake  of  appearances  and  to  protect  himself  from  at- 
tack, Pelagianism  is  nominally  condemned  in  four 
anathemata  (P.  L.,  LIII,  665).  All  the  older 
literature  concerning  this  inferior  compilation  may 
now  be  considered  as  superseded  by  the  recent 
scholarly  work  of  Schubert,  "Der  sog.  Praedestinatus, 
ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschiohte  des  Pelagianismus  "  (Leip- 
zig, 1903).  We  need  not,  however,  entirely  accede  to 
the  opinion  of  Schubert  that  the  whole  pseudo- 
Augustine  produced  in  the  second  part  is  nothing 
but  a  clumsy  forgery  of  the  anonymous  Pelagian 
author  himself,  who  put  up  a  straw  man  in  order  the 
more  easily  to  overthrow  him.  But  there  can  be  no 
doubt  as  to  the  meaning,  the  spirit,  and  purpose  of 
this  manoeuvre.  We  have  to  do  with  a  skilful  de- 
fence of  Pelagianism  against  the  doctrine  on  grace 
as  taught  by  St.  Augustine.  And  the  authorship 
points  rather  to  Rome  than  to  southern  Gaul  (per- 
haps Arnobius  the  Younger).  This  work,  written 
probably  about  a.d.  440,  emanated  from  the  group 
of  Pelagians  closely  associated  with  Julian  of  Eclanum. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  a  friend  of  Julian  living  in 
Rome  conceived  the  hope  of  making  the  pope  more 
favourable  to  Pelagianism  by  means  of  this  work. 

III.  LuciDus  AND  GoTTSCHALK. — Toward  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century  heretical  Predestinarian- 
ism in  its  harshest  form  was  defended  by  Lucidus, 
a  priest  of  Gaul,  about  whose  life  in  all  other  respects 
history  is  silent.  According  to  his  view  God  posi- 
tively and  absolutely  predestined  some  to  eternal 
death  and  others  to  eternal  life,  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  latter  have  not  to  do  anything  to  secure 
their  eternal  salvation,  since  Divine  grace  of  itself 
carries  them  on  to  their  destiny.  As  the  non-elect 
are  destined  for  hell,  Christ  did  not  die  for  them. 
When  Faustus,  Bishop  of  Riez,  ordered  Lucidus  to 
retract,  he  abandoned  his  scandalous  propositions 
and  even  notified  the  Provincial  Synod  of  Aries 
(c.  473)  of  his  submission  (cf.  Mansi,  "Concil.  Col- 
lect.", VII,  1010).  It  seems  that  within  half  a  cen- 
tury the  Predestinarian  heresy  had  completely  died 
out  in  Gaul,  since  the  Second  Synod  of  Orange  (529), 
although  it  solemnly  condemns  this  heresy,  still 
speaks  only  hypothetically  of  its  adherents;  "si 
sunt,  qui  tantum  malum  credere  velint"  (cf.  Den- 
zinger,  "Enchirid.",  tenth  ed.,  Freiburg,  1908,  n. 
200).  The  controversy  was  not  renewed  till  the 
ninth  century  when  Gottschalk  of  Orbais,  appealing 
to  St.  Augustine,  aroused  a  long  and  animated  dis- 
pute on  predestination,  which  affected  the  whole 
Prankish  Empire.  Rabanus  Maurus  (about  840) 
wrote  a  refutation  of  Gottschalk's  teaching  and  clear- 
ly summed  it  up  in  the  following  proposition  (P. 
L.,  CXII,  1530  sqq.):  As  the  elect,  predestined  by 
the  Divine  foreknowledge  and  absolute  decree,  are 
saved  of  necessity,  so  in  the  same  way  the  eternally 
reprobate  become  the  victims  of  predestination  to 
hell. 

Through  the  efforts  of  Hincmar,  Archbishop  of 
Reims,  the  Synod  of  Quierzy  (849)  compelled  Gotts- 
chalk, whose  enforced  stay  in  the  Order  of  St.  Bene- 


PREDESTINATION 


378 


PREDESTINATION 


diet  had  cost  him  dearly,  to  burn  his  writings  with  his 
own  hand,  and  silenced  him  by  imprisoning  him 
for  life  in  the  monastery  of  Hautvilliers  near  Reims. 
At  the  present  time,  however,  scholars,  because  of 
two  extant  professions  of  faith  (P.  L.,  CXXI,  347 
sq.),  are  inclined  to  free  the  eccentric  and  obscure 
Gottschalk  from  the  charge  of  heresy,  and  to  in- 
terpret in  an  orthodox  sense  his  ambiguous  teaching 
on  "double  predestination"  {gemina  pradestinatio) . 
It  was  an  unhappy  thought  of  Hincmar  to  ask  the 
pantheistic  John  Scotus  Eriugena  to  write  a  refutation 
of  Gottschalk,  as  this  only  served  to  sharpen  the  con- 
troversy. To  the  great  sorrow  of  Charles  the  Bald 
the  whole  western  part  of  the  Frankish  Empire  re- 
sounded with  the  disputes  of  bishops,  theologians, 
and  even  of  some  synods.  The  Canons  of  the  Pro- 
vincial Synod  of  Valence  (855)  may  be  taken  as  an 
expression  of  the  then  prevaiUng  views  on  this  sub- 
ject; they  emphasize  the  fact  that  God  has  merely 
foreseen  from  eternity  and  not  foreordained  the  sins 
of  the  reprobate,  although  it  remains  true  that  in 
consequence  of  their  foreseen  demerits  he  has  de- 
creed from  eternity  the  eternal  punishment  of  hell 
(cf.  Denzinger,  loc.  cit.,  nn.  320-25).  It  was  es- 
sentially on  this  basis  that  the  bishops  of  fourteen 
ecclesiastical  provinces  finally  came  to  an  agreement 
and  made  peace  in  the  Synod  of  Tousy  held  in  860 
(of.  Schrors,  "Hinkmar  von  Reims",  66  sq.,  Freiburg, 
1884).  The  teaching  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  generally 
characterized  on  the  one  hand  by  the  repudiation  of 
positive  reprobation  for  hell  and  of  predestination  for 
sin,  on  the  other  by  the  assertion  of  Divine  predestina- 
tion of  the  elect  for  heaven  and  the  co-operation  of 
free  will;  this  teaching  was  only  for  a  short  time  ob- 
scured by  Thomas  Bradwardine,  and  the  so-called 
precursors  of  the  Reformation  (Wyclif,  Hus,  Jerome 
of  Prague,  John  \^'esel). 

IV.  The  Reformation.  —  Heretical  Predestinari- 
anism  received  a  new  and  vigorous  impulse  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Reformation.  Luther  having  denied 
the  freedom  of  the  will  in  sinful  man  as  also  freedom 
in  the  use  of  grace,  logically  placed  the  eternal  destiny 
of  the  individual  solely  and  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
God,  who  without  any  regard  to  merit  or  demerit 
metes  out  heaven  or  hell  just  as  He  pleases.  Zwingli 
endeavoured  to  obviate  the  grave  consequences  that 
this  principle  necessarily  produces  in  the  moral  order 
by  the  "vain  excuse  that  "just  as  God  incited  the 
robber  to  commit  murder,  so  also  He  forces  the  judge 
to  impose  the  penalty  of  death  on  the  murderer" 
(De  provid.  Dei,  in  "Opera",  ed.  Schuler,  IV,  113). 
Melanchthon  taught  expressly  that  the  treason  of 
Judas  was  just  as  much  the  work  of  God  as  was  the 
vocation  of  St.  Paul  (cf .  Trident.,  Sess.  VI,  can.  vi,  in 
Denzinger,  n.  816).  Calvin  is  the  most  logical  ad- 
vocate of  Predestinarianism  pure  and  simple.  Ab- 
solute and  positive  predestination  of  the  elect  for 
eternal  life,  as  well  as  of  the  reprobate  for  hell  and 
for  sin,  is  one  of  the  chief  elements  of  his  whole  doc- 
trinal system  and  is  closely  connected  with  the  all- 
pervading  thought  of  "the  glory  of  God".  Strongly 
religious  by  nature  and  with  an  instinct  for  sys- 
tematizing, but  also  with  a  harsh  unyielding  character, 
Calvin  was  the  first  to  weave  the  scattered  threads 
which  he  thought  he  had  found  in  St.  Paul,  St. 
Augustine,  Wyclif,  Luther,  and  Bucer,  into  a  strong 
network  which  enveloped  his  entire  system  of  prac- 
tical and  theoretical  Christianity.  Thus  he  became 
in  fact  the  systematizer  of  the  dread  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination. Although  Calvin  does  not  deny  that 
man  had  free  will  in  paradise,  still  he  traces  back  the 
fall  of  Adam  to  an  absolute  and  positive  decree  of 
God  (Instit.,  I,  15,  S;  III,  23,  8). 

Original  sin  completely  destroyed  the  freedom  of 
will  in  fallen  man;  nevertheless,  it  is  not  the  motive 
of  the  decretum  hornbile,  as  he  himself  calls  the  de- 
cree or  reprobation.     Calvin  is  an  uncompromising 


Supralapsarian.  God  for  His  own  glorification,  and 
without  any  regard  to  original  sin,  has  created  some 
as  "vessels  of  mercy",  others  as  "vessels  of  wrath" 
Those  created  for  hell  He  has  also  predestined  for 
sin,  and  whatever  faith  and  righteousness  they  may 
exhibit  are  at  most  only  apparent,  since  all  graces 
and  means  of  salvation  are  efficacious  only  in  those 
predestined  for  heaven.  The  Jansenistic  doctrine  on 
redemption  and  grace  in  its  principal  features  is  not 
essentially  different  from  Calvinism.  The  unbear- 
able harshness  and  cruelty  of  this  system  led  to  a 
reaction  among  the  better-minded  Calvinists,  who 
dreaded  setting  the  "glory  of  God"  above  his 
sanctity.  Even  on  so  strictly  Calvinistic  a  soil  as 
Holland,  Infralapsarianism,  i.  e.  the  connexion  of 
reprobation  with  original  sin,  gained  ground.  Eng- 
land also  refused  to  adhere  to  the  strictly  Calvinistic 
Lambeth  Articles  (1595),  although  in  later  years  their 
essential  features  were  embodied  in  the  famous 
Westminster  Confession  of  1647,  which  was  so  stren- 
uously defended  by  the  EngUsh  Puritans.  On  the 
other  hand  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  has  endeavoured  to  mitigate  the  undeniable 
harshness  of  Calvinism  in  its  revision  of  its  Con- 
fession in  May,  1903,  in  which  it  also  emphasizes 
the  universality  of  the  Divine  love  and  even  does  not 
deny  the  salvation  of  children  who  die  in  infancy. 

Besides  works  already  quoted,  cf.  Weizsackeh,  Das  Dogma 
von  deT  gottlichen  Vorherbestimmung  im  9.  Jahrhundert  in 
JahrbUcher  fiir  deutsche  Theologie  (1859),  527  sq.;  Dieckhoff, 
Zur  Lehre  von  der  Bekehrung  und  von  der  Pr&destination  (Rostock, 
1883):  Jacqtjin,  La  question  de  la  predestination  au  V^  et 
Vh  sikcle  in  Revue  de  I'histoire  ecc^esiasiigwe  (1904),  265  sq.,  725 
sq. :  (1906),  269  sq.  KoSTLlN,  Luthers  Theologie  (2nd  ed., 
Leipzig,  1901) ;  Dieckhoff,  Der  missourische  Prddestinianismus 
und  die  Concordienformel  (Rostock,  1885);  Scheibe,  Calvins 
Prddestinationslehre  (Halle,  1897) ;  van  Oppenraaij,  La  pre- 
destination de  I'eglise  reformie  des  Pays-Bas  (Louvain,  1906); 
MtJLLEE,  Die  Bekenntnisschriften  der  reformierten  Kirchen, 
B.  V.  ErwtLhlung  (Leipzig,  1903);  for  further  references  see 
Realencyklopddie  fiir  prot.  Theol.,  XV,  586  sq.  (Leipzig,  1904); 
Grisar,  Luther,  I  (Freiburg,  1911),  149  sq. 

J.    POHLB. 

Predestination  (Lat.  prce,  destinare),  taken  in  its 
widest  meaning,  is  every  Divine  decree  by  which  God, 
owing  to  His  infallible  prescience  of  the  future,  has 
appointed  and  ordained  from  eternity  all  events  occur- 
ring in  time,  especially  those  which  directly  proceed 
from,  or  at  least  are  influenced  by,  man's  free  will.  It 
includes  all  historical  facts,  as  for  instance  the  appear- 
ance of  Napoleon  or  the  foundation  of  the  United 
States,  and  particularly  the  turning-points  in  the  his- 
tory of  supernatural  salvation,  as  the  mission  of  Moses 
and  the  Prophets,  or  the  election  of  Mary  to  the  Divine 
Motherhood.  Taken  in  this  general  sense,  predestina- 
tion clearly  coincides  with  Divine  Providence  and  with 
the  government  of  the  world,  which  do  not  fall  within 
the  scope  of  this  article  (see  Providence,  Divine). 

I.  Notion  op  Predestination. — Theology  re- 
stricts the  term  to  those  Divine  decrees  which  have 
reference  to  the  supernatural  end  of  rational  beings, 
especially  of  man.  Considering  that  not  all  men  reach 
their  supernatural  end  in  heaven,  but  that  many  are 
eternally  lost  through  their  own  fault,  there  must  exist 
a  twofold  predestination :  (a)  one  to  heaven  for  all  those 
who  die  in  the  state  of  grace;  (b)  one  to  the  pains  of 
hell  for  all  those  who  depart  in  sin  or  under  God's  dis- 
pleasure. However,  according  to  present  usage,  to 
which  we  shall  adhere  in  the  course  of  the  article,  it  is 
better  to  call  the  latter  decree  the  Divine  "reproba- 
tion", so  that  the  term  predestination  is  reserved  for 
the  Divine  decree  of  the  happiness  of  the  elect. 

A.  The  notion  of  predestination  comprises  two 
essential  elements:  God's  infallible  foreknowledge 
(proescientia) ,  and  His  immutable  decree  {decretum)  of 
eternal  happiness.  The  theologian  who,  following  in 
the  footsteps  of  the  Pelagians,  would  limit  the  Divine 
activity  to  the  eternal  foreknowledge  and  exclude  the 
Divine  will,  would  at  once  fall  into  Deism  (q.  v.), 
which  asserts  that  God,  having  created  all  things, 


PREDESTINATION 


379 


PREDESTINATION 


leaves  man  and  the  universe  to  their  fate  and  refrains 
from  all  active  interference.  Though  the  purely  nat- 
ural gifts  of  God,  as  descent  from  pious  parents,  good 
education,  and  the  providential  guidance  of  man's  ex- 
ternal career,  may  also  be  called  effects  of  predestina- 
tion, still,  strictly  speaking,  the  term  implies  only  those 
blessings  which  lie  in  the  supernatural  sphere,  as  sanc- 
tifying grace,  all  actual  graces,  and  among  them  in  par- 
ticular those  which  carry  with  them  final  perseverance 
and  a  happy  death.  Since  in  reality  only  those  reach 
heaven  who  die  in  the  state  of  justification  or  sanctify- 
ing grace,  all  these  and  only  these  are  numbered  among 
the  predestined,  strictly  so  called.  From  this  it  fol- 
lows that  we  must  reckon  among  them  also  all  children 
who  die  in  baptismal  grace,  as  well  as  those  adults  who, 
after  a  life  stained  with  sin,  are  converted  on  their 
death-beds.  The  same  is  true  of  the  numerous  pre- 
destined who,  though  outside  the  pale  of  the  true 
Church  of  Christ,  yet  depart  from  this  life  in  the  state 
of  grace,  as  catechumens,  Protestants  in  good  faith, 
schismatics,  Jews,  Mahommedans,  and  pagans.  Those 
fortunate  Catholics  who  at  the  close  of  a  long  life  are 
still  clothed  in  their  baptismal  innocence,  or  who  after 
many  relapses  into  mortal  sin  persevere  till  the  end, 
are  not  indeed  predestined  more  firmly,  but  are  more 
signally  favoured  than  the  last-named  categories  of 
persons. 

But  even  when  man's  supernatural  end  alone  is 
taken  into  consideration,  the  term  predestination  is 
not  always  used  by  theologians  in  an  unequivocal 
sense.  This  need  not  astonish  us,  seeing  that  predesti- 
nation may  comprise  wholly  diverse  things.  If  taken 
in  its  adequate  meaning  {prcedestinatio  adcequata  or 
completa) ,  then  predestination  refers  to  both  grace  and 
glory  as  a  whole,  including  not  only  the  election  to 
glory  as  the  end,  but  also  the  election  to  grace  as  the 
means,  the  vocation  to  the  faith,  justification,  and 
final  perseverance,  with  which  a  happy  death  is  insep- 
arably connected.  This  is  the  meaning  of  St.  Augus- 
tine's words  (De  dono  persever.,  xxxv) : "  Praedestinatio 
nihil  est  aliud  quam  prsescientia  et  praeparatio  bene- 
ficiorum,  quibus  certissime  liberantur  [i.  e.  salvantur], 
quicunque  liberantur"  (Predestination  is  nothing  else 
than  the  foreknowledge  and  foreordaining  of  those 
gracious  gifts  which  make  certain  the  salvation  of  all 
who  are  saved).  But  the  two  concepts  of  grace  and 
glory  may  be  separated  and  each  of  them  be  made  the 
object  of  a  special  predestination.  The  result  is  the 
so-called  inadequate  predestination  {■prcedestinatio 
inadcEquata  or  incompleta),  either  to  grace  alone  or  to 
glory  alone.  Like  St.  Paul,  Augustine,  too,  speaks  of 
an  election  to  grace  apart  from  the  celestial  glory  (loc. 
cit.,  xix) :  "  Prsedestinatio  est  gratiae  praeparatio,  gratia 
vero  jam  ipsa  donatio."  It  is  evident,  however,  that 
this  (inadequate)  predestination  does  not  exclude  the 
possibility  that  one  chosen  to  grace,  faith,  and  justifi- 
cation goes  nevertheless  to  hell.  Hence  we  may  dis- 
regard it,  since  it  is  at  bottom  simply  another  term  for 
the  universality  of  God's  salvific  will  and  of  the  distri- 
bution of  grace  among  all  men  (see  Grace)  .  Similarly 
eternal  election  to  glory  alone,  that  is,  without  regard 
to  the  preceding  merits  through  grace,  must  be  desig- 
nated as  (inadequate)  predestination.  Though  the 
possibility  of  the  latter  is  at  once  clear  to  the  reflectmg 
mind,  yet  its  actuality  is  strongly  contested  by  the 
majority  of  theologians,  as  we  shall  see  further  on 
(under  sect.  III).  From  these  explanations  it  is  plain 
that  the  real  dogma  of  eternal  election  is  exclusively 
concerned  with  adequate  predestination,  which  eni- 
braces  both  grace  and  glory  and  the  essence  of  which 
St.  Thomas  (I,  Q.  xxiii,  a.  2)  defines  as:  "Praparatio 
gratis  in  prssenti  et  glorije  in  futuro  "  (the  foreordina- 
tion  of  grace  in  the  present  and  of  glory  in  the  future). 

In  order  to  emphasize  how  mysterious  and  unap- 
proachable is  Divine  election,  the  Council  of  Trent 
calls  predestination  a  "hidden  mystery"  That  pre- 
destination is  indeed  ^  sublime  mystery  appears  not 


only  from  the  fact  that  the  depths  of  the  eternal  coun- 
sel cannot  be  fathomed,  it  is  even  externally  visible 
in  the  inequality  of  the  Divine  choice.  The  unequal 
standard  by  which  baptismal  grace  is  distributed 
among  infants  and  efficacious  graces  among  adults 
is  hidden  from  our  view  by  an  impenetrable  veil. 
Could  we  gain  a  glimpse  at  the  reasons  of  this  inequal- 
ity, we  should  at  once  hold  the  key  to  the  solution  of 
the  mystery  itself.  Why  is  it  that  this  child  is  bap- 
tized, but  not  the  child  of  the  neighbour?  Why  is  it 
that  Peter  the  Apostle  rose  again  after  his  fall  and 
persevered  till  his  death,  while  Judas  Iscariot,  his 
fellow-Apostle,  hanged  himself  and  thus  frustrated  his 
salvation?  Though  correct,  the  answer  that  Judas 
went  to  perdition  of  his  own  free  will,  while  Peter 
faithfully  co-operated  with  the  grace  of  conversion 
offered  him,  does  not  clear  up  the  enigma.  For  the 
question  recurs:  Why  did  not  God  give  to  Judas  the 
same  efficacious,  infallibly  successful  grace  of  con- 
version as  to  St.  Peter,  whose  blasphemous  denial  of 
the  Lord  was  a  sin  no  less  grievous  than  that  of  the 
traitor  Judas?  To  all  these  and  similar  questions  the 
only  reasonable  reply  is  the  word  of  St.  Augustine 
(loc.  cit.,  21):  " Inscrutabilia  sunt  judicia  Dei"  (the 
judgments  of  God  are  inscrutable). 

B.  The  counterpart  of  the  predestination  of  the 
good  is  the  reprobation  of  the  wicked,  or  the  eternal 
decree  of  God  to  cast  all  men  into  hell  of  whom  He 
foresaw  that  they  would  die  in  the  state  of  sin  as  his 
enemies.  This  plan  of  Divine  reprobation  may  be 
conceived  either  as  absolute  and  unconditional  or  as 
hypothetical  and  conditional,  according  as  we  con- 
sider it  as  dependent  on,  or  independent  of,  the 
infallible  foreknowledge  of  sin,  the  real  reason  of 
reprobation.  If  we  understand  eternal  condemnation 
to  be  an  absolute,  unconditional  decree  of  God,  its 
theological  possibility  is  affirmed  or  denied  according 
as  the  question  whether  it  involves  a  positive,  or  only 
a  negative,  reprobation  is  answered  in  the  affirmative 
or  in  the  negative.  The  conceptual  difference  be- 
tween the  two  kinds  of  reprobation  lies  in  this,  that 
negative  reprobation  merely  implies  the  absolute  will 
not  to  grant  the  bliss  of  heaven,  while  positive  repro- 
bation means  the  absolute  will  to  condemn  to  hell. 
In  other  words,  those  who  are  reprobated  merely 
negatively  are  numbered  among  the  non-predestined 
from  all  eternity :  those  who  are  reprobated  positively 
are  directly  predestined  to  hell  from  all  eternity  and 
have  been  created  for  this  very  purpose.  It  was 
Calvin  who  elaborated  the  repulsive  doctrine  that  an 
absolute  Divine  decree  from  all  eternity  positively 
predestined  part  of  mankind  to  hell  and,  in  order  to 
obtain  this  end  effectually,  also  to  sin.  The  Catholic 
advocates  of  an  unconditional  reprobation  evade  the 
charge  of  heresy  only  by  imposing  a  twofold  restric- 
tion on  their  hypothesis:  (a)  that  the  punishment  of 
hell  can,  in  time,  be  inflicted  only  on  account  of  sin, 
and  from  all  eternity  can  be  decreed  only  on  account 
of  foreseen  malice,  while  sin  itself  is  not  to  be  regarded 
as  the  sheer  effect  of  the  absolute  Divine  will,  but 
only  as  the  result  of  God's  permission;  (b)  that  the 
eternal  plan  of  God  can  never  intend  a  positive 
reprobation  to  hell,  but  only  a  negative  reprobation, 
that  is  to  say,  an  exclusion  from  heaven.  These  re- 
strictions are  evidently  demanded  by  the  formulation 
of  the  concept  itself,  since  the  attributes  of  Divine 
sanctity  and  justice  must  be  kept  inviolate  (see  God). 
Consequently,  if  we  consider  that  God's  sanctity  will 
never  allow  Him  to  will  sin  positively  even  though 
He  foresees  it  in  His  permissive  decree  with  infallible 
certainty,  and  that  His  justice  can  foreordain,  and  in 
time  actually  inflict,  hell  as  a  punishment  only  by 
reason  of  the  sin  foreseen,  we  understand  the  definition 
of  eternal  reprobation  given  by  Peter  Lombard  (I, 
Sent.,  dist.  40):  "Est  praescientia  iniquitatis  quorun- 
dam  et  praeparatio  damnationis  eorundem"  (it  is  the 
foreknowledge  of  the  wickedness  of  some  men  and  the 


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380 


PREDESTINATION 


foreordaining  of  tiieir  damnation).  Cf.  Scheeben, 
"Mysterien  des  Christentums "  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg, 
1898),  98-103. 

II.  The  C.vTHOLic  Dogma. — Reserving  the  theo- 
logical controversies  for  the  next  section,  we  deal  here 
only  with  those  articles  of  faith  relating  to  predestina- 
tion and  reprobation,  the  denial  of  which  would  involve 
heresy. 

A.  The  Predestination  o/  the  Elect. — He  who  would 
place  the  reason  of  predestination  either  in  man  alone 
or  in  God  alone  would  inevitably  be  led  into  heretical 
conclusions  about  eternal  election.  In  the  one  case 
the  error  concerns  the  last  end,  in  the  other  the  means 
to  that  end.  Let  it  be  noted  that  we  do  not  speak  of 
the  "cause"  of  predestination,  which  would  be  either 
the  efficient  cause  (God),  or  the  instrumental  cause 
(grace),  or  the  final  cause  (God's  honour),  or  the  pri- 
mary meritorious  cause,  but  of  the  reason  or  motive 
which  induced  God  from  all  eternity  to  elect  certain 
definite  individuals  to  grace  and  glory.  The  principal 
question  then  is:  Does  the  natural  merit  of  man  exert 
perhaps  some  influence  on  the  Divine  election  to  grace 
and  glory?  If  we  recall  the  dogma  of  the  absolute 
gratuity  of  Christian  grace,  our  answer  must  be  out- 
right negative  (see  Grace).  To  the  further  question 
whether  Divine  predestination  does  not  at  least  take 
into  account  the  supernatural  good  works,  the  Church 
answers  with  the  doctrine  that  heaven  is  not  given  to 
the  elect  by  a  purely  arbitrary  act  of  God's  will,  but 
that  it  is  also  the  reward  of  the  personal  merits  of  the 
justified  (see  Mekit).  Those  who,  like  the  Pelagians, 
seek  the  reason  for  predestination  only  in  man's 
naturally  good  works,  evidently  misjudge  the  nature 
of  the  Christian  heaven,  which  is  an  absolutely  super- 
natural destiny.  As  Pelagianism  puts  the  whole  econ- 
omy of  salvation  on  a  purely  natural  basis,  so  it  re- 
gards predestination  in  particular  not  as  a  special 
grace,  much  less  as  the  supreme  grace,  but  only  as  a 
reward  for  natural  merit. 

The  Semipelagians,  too,  depreciated  the  gratuity 
and  the  strictly  supernatural  character  of  eternal  hap- 
piness by  ascribing  at  least  the  beginning  of  faith 
{initium  fidei)  and  final  perseverance  [donum  per- 
severantice)  to  the  exertion  of  man's  natural  powers, 
and  not  to  the  initiative  of  preventing  grace.  This  is 
one  class  of  heresies  which,  slighting  God  and  His 
grace,  makes  all  salvation  depend  on  man  alone.  But 
no  less  grave  are  the  errors  into  which  a  second  group 
falls  by  making  God  alone  responsible  for  everything, 
and  abolishing  the  free  co-operation  of  the  will  in 
obtaining  eternal  happiness.  This  is  done  by  the 
advocates  of  heretical  Predestinarianism  (q.  v.),  em- 
bodied in  its  purest  form  in  Calvinism  and  Jansenism. 
Those  who  seek  the  reason  of  predestination  solely  in 
the  absolute  Will  of  God  are  logically  forced  to  admit 
an  irresistibly  efficacious  grace  (gratia  irresislibilis) , 
to  deny  the  freedom  of  the  will  when  influenced  by 
grace  and  wholly  to  reject  supernatural  merits  (as 
a  secondary  reason  for  eternal  happiness).  And  since 
in  this  system  eternal  damnation,  too,  finds  its  only 
explanation  in  the  Divine  will,  it  further  follows  that 
concupiscence  acts  on  the  sinful  will  with  an  irresist- 
ible force,  that  there  the  will  is  not  really  free  to  sin, 
and  that  demerits  cannot  be  the  cause  of  eternal 
damnation. 

Between  these  two  extremes  the  Catholic  dogma  of 
predestination  keeps  the  golden  mean,  because  it  re- 
gards eternal  happiness  primarily  as  the  work  of  God 
and  His  grace,  but  secondarily  as  the  fruit  and  reward 
of  the  meritorious  actions  of  the  predestined.  The 
process  of  predestination  consists  of  the  following  five 
steps:  (a)  the  first  grace  of  vocation,  especially  faith 
as  the  beginning,  foundation,  and  root  of  justification; 
(b)  a  number  of  additional,  actual  graces  for  the  suc- 
cessful accomplishment  of  justification;  (c)  justifica- 
tion itself  as  the  beginning  of  the  state  of  grace  and 
love;  (d)  final  perseverance  or  at  least  the  grace  of  a, 


happy  death;  (e)  lastly,  the  admission  to  eternal  bliss. 
If  it  is  a  truth  of  Revelation  that  there  are  many  who, 
following  this  path,  seek  and  find  their  eternal  sal- 
vation with  infallible  certainty,  then  the  existence  of 
Divine  predestination  is  proved  (cf.  Matt.,  xxv,  34; 
Apoc,  XX,  15).  St.  Paul  says  quite  explicitly  (Rom., 
viii,  28  sq.):  "we  know  that  to  them  that  love  God, 
all  things  work  together  unto  good,  to  such  as,  accord- 
ing to  his  purpose,  are  called  to  be  saints.  For  whom 
he  foreknew,  he  also  predestinated  to  be  made  con- 
formable to  the  image  of  his  Son;  that  he  might  be  the 
first  born  amongst  many  brethren.  And  whom  he 
predestinated,  them  he  also  called.  And  whom  he 
called,  them  he  also  justified.  And  whom  he  justified, 
them  he  also  glorified."  (Cf.  Eph.,  i,  4^11.)  Besides 
the  eternal  "foreknowledge"  and  foreordaining,  the 
Apostle  here  mentions  the  various  steps  of  predestina- 
tion: "vocation",  "justification",  and  "glorifica- 
tion". This  belief  has  been  faithfully  preserved  by 
Tradition  through  all  the  centuries,  especially  since 
the  time  of  Augustine. 

There  are  three  other  qualities  of  predestination 
which  must  be  noticed,  because  they  are  important 
and  interesting  from  the  theological  standpoint:  its 
immutability,  the  definiteness  of  the  number  of  the 
predestined,  and  its  subjective  uncertainty. 

(1)  The  first  quality,  the  immutability  of  the 
Divine  decree,  is  based  both  on  the  infallible  fore- 
knowledge of  God  that  certain,  quite  determined  in- 
dividuals will  leave  this  life  in  the  state  of  grace,  and 
on  the  immutable  will  of  God  to  give  precisely  to  these 
men  and  to  no  others  eternal  happiness  as  a  reward 
for  their  supernatural  merits.  Consequently,  the 
whole  future  membership  of  heaven,  down  to  its 
minutest  details,  with  all  the  different  measures  of 
grace  and  the  various  degrees  of  happiness,  has  been 
irrevocably  fixed  from  all  eternity.  Nor  could  it  be 
otherwise.  For  if  it  were  possible  that  a  predestined 
individual  should  after  all  be  cast  into  hell  or  that  one 
not  predestined  should  in  the  end  reach  heaven,  then 
God  would  have  been  mistaken  in  his  foreknowledge 
of  future  events;  He  would  no  longer  be  omniscient. 
Hence  the  Good  Shepherd  says  of  his  sheep  (John,  x, 
28) :  "And  I  give  them  life  everlasting;  and  they  shall 
not  perish  forever,  and  no  man  shall  pluck  them  out 
of  my  hand. "  But  we  must  beware  of  conceiving  the 
immutability  of  predestination  either  as  fatalistic  in 
the  sense  of  the  Mahommedan  kismet  or  as  a  con- 
venient pretext  for  idle  resignation  to  inexorable  fate. 
God's  infallible  foreknowledge  cannot  force  upon  man 
unavoidable  coercion,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  is 
at  bottom  nothing  else  than  the  eternal  vision  of  the 
future  historical  actuality.  God  foresees  the  free 
activity  of  a  man  precisely  as  that  individual  is  will- 
ing to  shape  it.  Whatever  may  promote  the  work 
of  our  salvation,  whether  our  own  prayers  and  good 
works,  or  the  prayers  of  others  in  our  behalf,  is  eo  ipso 
included  in  the  infallible  foreknowledge  of  God  and 
consequently  in  the  scope  of  predestination  (cf.  St. 
Thomas,  I,  Q.  xxiii,  a.  8).  It  is  in  such  practical 
considerations  that  the  ascetical  maxim  (falsely 
ascribed  to  St.  Augustine)  originated:  "Si  non  es 
praedestinatus,  fac  ut  prEedestineris"  (if  you  are  not 
predestined,  so  act  that  you  may  be  predestined). 
Strict  theology,  it  is  true,  cannot  approve  this  bold 
saj'ing,  except  in  so  far  as  the  original  decree  of  pre- 
destination is  conceived  as  at  first  a  hypothetical 
decree,  which  is  afterwards  changed  to  an  absolute 
and  irrevocable  decree  by  the  prayers,  good  works, 
and  perseverance  of  him  who  is  predestined,  according 
to  the  words  of  the  Apostle  (II  Pet.,  i,  10):  "Where- 
fore, brethren,  labour  the  more,  that  by  good  works 
you  may  make  sure  your  calling  and  election." 

God's  unerring  foreknowledge  and  foreordaining  is 
designated  in  the  Bible  by  the  beautiful  figure  of  the 
"Book  of  Life"  {liher  vitas,  ri  ^i/3X£o>  t^s  fu^s). 
This  book  of  life  is  a  list  which  contains  the  names  of 


PREDESTINATION 


381 


PREDESTINATION 


all  the  elect  and  admits  neither  additions  nor  erasures. 
From  the  Old  Testament  (cf.  Ex.,  xxxii,  32;  Ps.  Ixviii, 
29)  this  symbol  was  taken  over  into  the  New  by  Christ 
and  His  Apostle  Paul  (cf.  Luke,  x,  20;  Heb.,  xii,  23), 
and  enlarged  upon  by  the  Evangelist  John  in  his 
Apocalypse  [of.  Apoc,  xxi,  27:  "There  shall  not 
enter    into    it    anything    defiled  .  but    they 

that  are  written  in  the  book  of  life  of  the  Lamb  "(of. 
Apoc,  xiii,  S;  xx,  15)].  The  correct  explanation  of  this 
symbolic  book  is  given  by  St.  Augustine  (De  civ.  Dei, 
XX,  xiii) :  "  Praescientia  Dei,  qu£e  non  potest  falli,  liber 
vitae  est"  (the  foreknowledge  of  God,  which  cannot 
err,  is  the  book  of  life).  However,  as  intimated  by 
the  Bible,  there  exists  a  second,  more  voluminous 
book,  in  which  are  entered  not  only  the  names  of  the 
elect,  but  also  the  names  of  all  the  faithful  on  earth. 
Such  a  metaphorical  book  is  supposed  wherever  the 
possibilitj-  is  hinted  at  that  a  name,  though  entered, 
might  again  be  stricken  out  [cf.  Apoc,  iii,  5:  "and 
I  will  not  blot  out  his  name  out  of  the  book  of  life" 
(cf.  Ex.,  xxxii,  33)].  The  name  will  be  mercilessly 
cancelled  when  a  Christian  sinks  into  infidelity  or 
godlessness  and  dies  in  his  sin.  Finally  there  is  a 
third  class  of  books,  wherein  the  wicked  deeds  and  the 
crimes  of  individual  sinners  are  written,  and  by  which 
the  reprobate  will  be  judged  on  the  last  day  to  be  cast 
into  hell  (cf.  Apoc,  xx,  12):  "and  the  books  were 
opened;  .  .  .  and  the  dead  were  judged  by  those 
things  which  were  written  in  the  books,  according  to 
their  works".  It  was  this  grand  symbolism  of  Divine 
omniscience  and  justice  that  inspired  the  soul-stirring 
verse  of  the  Dies  tree,  according  to  which  we  shall  all 
be  judged  out  of  a  book:  "Liber  scrip tus  proferetur: 
in  quo  totum  continetur".  Regarding  the  book  of 
life,  cf.  St.  Thomas,  I,  Q.  xxiv,  a.  1-3,  and  Heinrich- 
Gutberlet,  "Dogmat.  Theologie",VIII  (Mainz,  1897), 
§453. 

(2)  The  second  quality  of  predestination,  the  defi- 
niteness  of  the  number  of  the  elect,  follows  naturally 
from  the  first.  For  if  the  eternal  counsel  of  God  re- 
garding the  predestined  is  unchangeable,  then  the 
number  of  the  predestined  must  likewise  be  unchange- 
able and  definite,  subject  neither  to  additions  nor  to  can- 
cellations. Anything  indefinite  in  the  number  would 
eo  ipso  imply  a  lack  of  certitude  in  God's  knowledge 
and  would  destroy  His  omniscience.  Furthermore, 
the  very  nature  of  omniscience  demands  that  not  only 
the  abstract  number  of  the  elect,  but  also  the  indi- 
viduals with  their  names  and  their  entire  career  on 
earth,  should  be  present  before  the  Divine  mind  from 
all  eternity.  Naturally,  human  curiosity  is  eager 
for  definite  information  about  the  absolute  as  well  as 
the  relative  number  of  the  elect.  How  high  should  the 
absolute  number  be  estimated?  But  it  would  be  idle 
and  useless  to  undertake  calculations  and  to  guess  at 
so  and  so  many  millions  or  billions  of  predestined.  St. 
Thomas  (I,  Q.  xxiii,  a.  7)  mentions  the  opinion  of 
some  theologians  that  as  many  men  will  be  saved  as 
there  are  fallen  angels,  while  others  held  that  the 
number  of  predestined  will  equal  the  number  of  the 
faithful  angels. 

Lastly,  there  were  optimists  who,  combmmg  these 
two  opinions  into  a  third,  made  the  total  of  men  saved 
equal  to  the  unnumbered  myriads  of  created  spirits. 
But  even  granted  that  the  principle  of  our  calculation 
is  correct,  no  mathematician  would  be  able  to  figure 
out  the  absolute  number  on  a  basis  so  vague,  since  the 
number  of  angels  and  demons  is  an  unknown  quantity 
to  us.  Hence,  "the  best  answer",  rightly  remarks  St. 
Thomas,  "is  to  say:  God  alone  knows  the  number  of 
his  elect"-  By  relative  number  is  meant  the  numeri- 
cal relation  between  the  predestined  and  the  reprobate. 
Will  the  majority  of  the  human  race  be  saved  or  will 
they  be  damned?  Will  one-half  be  damned,  the  other 
half  saved?  In  this  question  the  opinion  of  the  rigor- 
ists  is  opposed  to  the  milder  view  of  the  optimists. 
Pointing  to  several  texts  of  the  Bible  (Matt.,  vii,  14; 


xxii,  14)  and  to  sayings  of  great  spiritual  doctors,  the 
rigorists  defend  as  probable  the  thesis  that  not  only 
most  Christians  but  also  most  Catholics  are  doomed  to 
eternal  damnation.  Almost  repulsive  in  its  tone  is 
Massillon's  sermon  on  the  small  number  of  the  elect. 
Yet  even  St.  Thomas  (loc.  cit.,  a.  7)  asserted:  "Pauci- 
ores  sunt  qui  salvantur"  (only  the  smaller  number  of 
men  are  saved).  And  a  few  years  ago,  when  the  Jesuit 
P.  Castelein  ("Le  rigorisme,  le  nombre  des  61us  et  la 
doctrine  du  salut",  2nd  ed.,  Brussels,  1899)  impugned 
this  theory  with  weighty  arguments,  he  was  sharply 
opposed  by  the  Redemptorist  P.  Godts  ("De  pauci- 
tate  salvandorum  quid  docuerunt  sancti",  3rd  ed., 
Brussels,  1899).  That  the  number  of  the  elect  cannot 
be  so  very  small  is  evident  from  the  Apocalypse  (vii,  9). 
When  one  hears  the  rigorists,  one  is  tempted  to  repeat 
Dieringer's  bitter  remark:  "Can  it  be  that  the  Church 
actually  exists  in  order  to  people  hell?"  The  truth  is 
that  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  can  be  proved  from 
Scripture  or  Tradition  (cf.  Heinrich-Gutberlet,  "Dog- 
mat.  Theologie",  Mainz,  1897,  VIII,  363  sq.).  But 
supplementing  these  two  sources  by  arguments  drawn 
from  reason  we  may  safely  defend  as  probable  the 
opinion  that  the  majority  of  Christians,  especially  of 
Catholics,  will  be  saved.  If  we  add  to  this  relative 
number  the  overwhelming  majority  of  non-Christians 
(Jews,  Mahommedans,  heathens) ,  then  Gener  ("Theol. 
dogmat.  scholast.",  Rome,  1767,  II,  242  sq.)  is 
probably  right  when  he  assumes  the  salvation  of  half 
of  the  human  race,  lest  "it  should  be  said  to  the  shame 
and  offence  of  the  Divine  majesty  and  clemency  that 
the  [future]  Kingdom  of  Satan  is  larger  than  the  King- 
dom of  Christ  (cf.  W.  Schneider,  "Das  andere 
Leben",  9th  ed.,  Paderborn,  1908,  476  sq.). 

(3)  The  third  quality  of  predestination,  its  subjec- 
tive uncertainty,  is  intimately  connected  with  its 
objective  immutability.  We  know  not  whether  we  are 
reckoned  among  the  predestined  or  not.  All  we  can 
say  is:  God  alone  knows  it.  When  the  Reformers, 
confounding  predestination  with  the  absolute  cer- 
tainty of  salvation,  demanded  of  the  Christian  an 
unshaken  faith  in  his  own  predestination  if  he  wished 
to  be  saved,  the  Council  of  Trent  opposed  to  this  pre- 
sumptuous belief  the  canon  (Sess.  VI,  can.  xv) :  "S.  q. 
d.,  hominem  renatum  et  justificatum  teneri  ex  fide  ad 
credendum,  se  certo  esse  in  numero  praedestinatorum, 
anathema  sit"  (if  any  one  shall  say  that  the  regener- 
ated and  justified  man  is  bound  as  a  matter  of  faith  to 
believe  that  he  is  surely  of  the  number  of  the  predes- 
tined, let  him  be  anathema).  In  truth,  such  a  pre- 
sumption is  not  only  irrational,  but  also  unscriptural 
(cf.  I  Cor.,  iv,  4;  ix,  27;  x,  12;  Phil.,  ii,  12).  Only  a 
private  revelation,  such  as  was  vouchsafed  to  the  peni- 
tent thief  on  the  cross,  could  give  us  the  certainty  of 
faith:  hence  the  Tridentine  Council  insists  (loc  cit., 
cap.  xii):  "Nam  nisi  ex  speciali  revelatione  scirinon 
potest,  quos  Deus  sibi  elegerit "  (for  apart  from  a  special 
revelation,  it  cannot  be  known  whom  God  has  chosen). 
However,  the  Church  condemns  only  that  blasphemous 
presumption  which  boasts  of  a  faithlike  certainty  in 
matters  of  predestination.  To  say  that  there  exist 
probable  signs  of  predestination  which  exclude  all 
excessive  anxiety  is  not  against  her  teaching.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  criteria  set  down  by  the 
theologians:  purity  of  heart,  pleasure  in  prayer,  pa- 
tience in  suffering,  frequent  reception  of  the  sacra- 
ments, love  of  Christ  and  His  Church,  devotion  to  the 
Mother  of  God,  etc. 

B.  The  Reprobation  of  the  Damned. — An  uncondi- 
tional and  positive  predestination  of  the  reprobate  not 
only  to  hell,  but  also  to  sin,  was  taught  especially  by 
Calvin  (Instit.,  Ill,  u.  xxi,  xxiii,  xxiv).  His  followers 
in  Holland  split  into  two  sects,  the  Supralapsarians 
and  the  Infralapsarians  (q.  v.),  the  latter  of  whom 
regarded  original  sin  as  the  motive  of  positive  con- 
demnation, while  the  former  (with  Calvin)  disregarded 
this  factor  and  derived  the  Divine  decree  of  reproba- 


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382 


PREDESTINATION 


tion  from  God's  inscrutable  will  alone.  Infralapsa- 
rianism  was  also  held  by  Jansenius  (De  gratia  Christi, 
1.  X,  c.  ii,  xi  sq.),  who  taught  that  God  had  preor- 
dained from  the  massa  damnata  of  mankind  one  part 
to  eternal  bliss,  the  other  to  eternal  pain,  decreeing  at 
the  same  time  to  deny  to  those  positively  damned  the 
necessary  graces  by  which  they  might  be  converted 
and  keep  the  commandments;  for  this  reason,  he 
said,  Christ  died  only  for  the  predestined  (cf .  Denzin- 
ger,  "  Enchiridion  ",n.  1092-6).  Against  such  blasphe- 
mous teachings  the  Second  Synod  of  Orange  in  529  and 
again  the  Council  of  Trent  had  pronounced  the  eccle- 
siastical anathema  (cf.  Denzinger,  nn.  200,  827).  This 
condemnation  was  perfectly  justified,  because  the 
heresy  of  Predestinarianism,  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
clearest  texts  of  Scripture,  denied  the  universality  of 
God's  salvific  will  as  well  as  of  redemption  through 
Christ  (cf.  Wis.,  xi,  24  sq.;  I  Tim.,  ii,  1  sq.),  nullified 
God's  mercy  towards  the  hardened  sinner  (Ezech., 
xxxiii,  11;  Rom.,  ii,  4;  II  Pet.,  iii,  9),  did  away  with 
the  freedom  of  the  will  to  do  good  or  evil,  and  hence 
with  the  merit  of  good  actions  and  the  guilt  of  the 
bad,  and  finally  destroyed  the  Divine  attributes  of 
wisdom,  justice,  veracity,  goodness,  and  sanctity. 
The  very  spirit  of  the  Bible  should  have  sufficed  to 
deter  Calvin  from  a  false  explanation  of  Rom.,  ix,  and 
his  successor  Beza  from  the  exegetical  maltreatment 
of  I  Pet.,  ii,  7-8.  After  weighing  all  the  Biblical  texts 
bearing  on  eternal  reprobation,  a  modern  Protestant  ex- 
egete  arrives  at  the  conclusion :  ' '  There  is  no  election  to 
hell  parallel  to  the  election  to  grace:  on  the  contrary, 
the  judgment  pronounced  on  the  impenitent  supposes 
human  guilt.  .     .     It  is  only  after  Christ's  salva- 

tion has  been  rejected  that  reprobation  follows" 
("Realencyk.  ftir  prot.  Theol.",  XV,  586,  Leipzig, 
1904).  As  regards  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  there 
is  only  St.  Augustine  who  might  seem  to  cause  diffi- 
culties in  the  proof  from  Tradition.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  he  has  been  claimed  by  both  Calvin  and  Jansenius 
as  favouring  their  view  of  the  question.  This  is  not 
the  place  to  enter  into  an  examination  of  his  doctrine 
on  reprobation;  but  that  his  works  contain  expres- 
sions which,  to  say  the  least,  might  be  interpreted  in 
the  sense  of  a  negative  reprobation,  cannot  be  doubted. 
Probably  toning  down  the  sharper  words  of  the  master, 
his  "best  pupil",  St.  Prosper,  in  his  apology  against 
Vincent  of  Lerin  (Resp.  ad  12  obj.  Vincent.),  thus 
explained  the  spirit  of  Augustine:  "Voluntate  exierunt, 
voluntate  ceciderunt,  et  quia  prjesciti  sunt  casuri, 
non  sunt  prsedestinati ;  essent  autem  prsedestinati,  si 
essent  reversuri  et  in  sanctitate  remansuri,  ac  per  hoc 
praedestinatio  Dei  multis  est  causa  standi,  nemini  est 
causa  labendi"  (of  their  own  will  they  went  out;  of 
their  own  will  they  fell,  and  because  their  fall  was  fore- 
known, thej'  were  not  predestined;  they  would  how- 
ever be  predestined  if  they  were  going  to  return  and 
persevere  in  holiness;  hence,  God's  predestination  is 
for  many  the  cause  of  perseverance,  for  none  the  cause 
of  falling  away).  Regarding  Tradition  cf.  Petavius, 
"De  Deo",  X,  7  sq.;  Jacquin  in  "Revue  de  I'histoire 
eccl6siastique",  1904,  266  sq.;  1906,  269  sq.;  725  sq. 
We  may  now  briefly  summarize  the  whole  Catholic 
doctrine,  which  is  in  harmony  with  our  reason  as  well 
as  our  moral  sentiments.  According  to  the  doctrinal 
decisions  of  general  and  particular  synods,  God  infalli- 
bly foresees  and  immutably  preordains  from  eternity 
all  future  events  (cf.  Denzinger,  n.  178-1),  all  fatalistic 
necessity,  however,  being  barred  and  human  liberty 
remaining  intact  (Denz.,  n.  607) .  Consequently  man  is 
free  whether  he  accepts  grace  and  does  good  or  whether 
he  rejects  it  and  does  evil  (Denz.,  n.  797).  Just  as  it  is 
God's  true  and  sincere  will  that  all  men,  no  one  ex- 
cepted, shall  obtain  eternal  happiness,  so,  too,  Christ 
has  died  for  all  (Denz.,  n.  794),  not  only  for  the  predes- 
tined (Denz.,  n.  1096),  or  for  the  faithful  (Denz.,  n. 
1294),  though  it  is  true  that  in  reality  not  all  avail 
t  hemselves  of  the  benefits  of  redemption  (Denz., n. 795). 


Though  God  preordained  both  eternal  happiness  and 
the  good  works  of  the  elect  (Denz.,  n.  322),  yet,  on  the 
other  hand,  He  predestined  no  one  positively  to  hell, 
much  less  to  sin  (Denz.,  nn.  200, 816) .  Consequently, 
just  as  no  one  is  saved  against  his  will  (Denz.,  a.  1363), 
so  the  reprobate  perish  solely  on  account  of  their 
wickedness  (Denz.,  nn.  318,  321).  God  foresaw  the 
everlasting  pains  of  the  impious  from  all  eternity,  and 
preordained  this  punishment  on  account  of  their  sins 
(Denz.,  n.  322),  though  He  does  not  fail  therefore  to 
hold  out  the  grace  of  conversion  to  sinners  (Denz.,  n. 
807),  or  pass  over  those  who  are  not  predestined 
(Denz.,  n.  827).  As  long  as  the  reprobate  live  on 
earth,  they  may  be  accounted  true  Christians  and 
members  of  the  Church,  just  as  on  the  other  hand  the 
predestined  may  be  outside  the  pale  of  Christianity 
and  of  the  Church  (Denz.,  nn.  628,  631).  Without 
special  revelation  no  one  can  know  with  certainty  that 
he  belongs  to  the  number  of  the  elect  (Denz.,  nn. 
805  sq.,  825  sq.). 

III.  Theological  Controversies. — Owing  to  the 
infallible  decisions  laid  down  by  the  Church,  every 
orthodox  theory  on  predestination  and  reprobation 
must  keep  within  the  limits  marked  out  by  the  follow- 
ing theses:  (a)  At  least  in  the  order  of  execution  in 
time  (in  ordine  execuiionis)  the  meritorious  works  of 
the  predestined  are  the  partial  cause  of  their  eternal 
happiness;  (b)  hell  cannot  even  in  the  order  of  inten- 
tion {in  ordine  intentionis)  have  been  positively  de- 
creed to  the  damned,  even  though  it  is  inflicted  on 
them  in  time  as  the  just  punishment  of  their  misdeeds; 
(c)  there  is  absolutely  no  predestination  to  sin  as  a 
means  to  eternal  damnation.  Guided  by  these  prin- 
ciples, we  shall  briefly  sketch  and  examine  three 
theories  put  forward  by  Catholic  theologians. 

A.  The  Theory  of  Predestination  ante  prcevisa  merila. 
— This  theory,  championed  by  all  Thomists  and  a 
few  Molinists  (as  Bellarmine,  Suarez,  Francis  de  Lugo), 
asserts  that  God,  by  an  absolute  decree  and  without 
regard  to  any  future  supernatural  merits,  predestined 
from  all  eternity  certain  men  to  the  glory  of  heaven, 
and  then,  in  consequence  of  this  decree,  decided  to  give 
them  all  the  graces  necessary  for  its  accomplishment. 
In  the  order  of  time,  however,  the  Divine  decree  is 
carried  out  in  the  reverse  order,  the  predestined  re- 
ceiving first  the  graces  preappointed  to  them,  and 
lastly  the  glory  of  heaven  as  the  reward  of  their  good 
works.  Two  qualities,  therefore,  characterize  this 
theory:  first,  the  absoluteness  of  the  eternal  decree, 
and  second,  the  reversing  of  the  relation  of  grace  and 
glory  in  the  two  different  orders  of  eternal  intention 
{ordo  intentionis)  and  execution  in  time  (ordo  execu- 
iionis). For  while  grace  (and  merit),  in  the  order  of 
eternal  intention,  is  nothing  else  than  the  result  or 
effect  of  glory  absolutely  decreed,  yet,  in  the  order  of 
execution,  it  becomes  the  reason  and  partial  cause  of 
eternal  happiness,  as  is  required  by  the  dogma  of  the 
meritoriousness  of  good  works  (see  Merit).  Again, 
celestial  glory  is  the  thing  willed  first  in  the  order  of 
eternal  intention  and  then  is  made  the  reason  or 
motive  for  the  graces  offered,  while  in  the  order  of 
execution  it  must  be  conceived  as  the  result  or  effect 
of  supernatural  merits.  This  concession  is  important, 
since  without  it  the  theory  would  be  intrinsically  im- 
possible and  theologically  untenable. 

But  what  about  the  positive  proof?  The  theory  can 
find  decisive  evidence  in  Scripture  only  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  predestination  to  heavenly  glory  is  unequivo- 
cally mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  the  Divine  motive 
for  the  special  graces  granted  to  the  elect.  Now,  al- 
though there  are  several  texts  (e.  g.  Matt.,  xxiv,  22 
sq.;  Acts,  xiii,  48,  and  others)  which  might  without 
straining  be  interpreted  in  this  sense,  yet  these 
passages  lose  their  imagined  force  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  other  explanations,  of  which  there  is  no  lack,  are 
either  possible  or  even  more  probable.  The  ninth 
chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  in  particular  is 


PREDESTINATION 


383 


PREDESTINATION 


claimed  by  the  advocates  of  absolute  predestination 
as  that  "classical"  passage  wherein  St.  Paul  seems  to 
represent  the  eternal  happiness  of  the  elect  not  only 
as  the  work  of  God's  purest  mercy,  but  as  an  act  of  the 
most  arbitrary  will,  so  that  grace,  faith,  justification 
must  be  regarded  as  sheer  effects  of  an  absolute, 
Divine  decree  (of.  Rom.,  ix,  18;  "Therefore  he  hath 
mercy  on  whom  he  will;  and  whom  he  will,  he  hard- 
eneth").  Now,  it  is  rather  daring  to  quote  one  of  the 
most  difficult  and  obscure  passages  of  the  Bible  as  a 
"classical  text"  and  then  to  base  on  it  an  argument 
for  bold  speculation.  To  be  more  specific,  it  is  im- 
possible to  draw  the  details  of  the  picture  in  which  the 
Apostle  compares  God  to  the  potter  who  hath  "power 
over  the  clay,  of  the  same  lump,  to  make  one  vessel 
unto  honour,  and  another  unto  dishonour"  (Rom.,  ix, 
21),  without  falling  into  the  Calvinistic  blasphemy 
that  God  predestined  some  men  to  hell  and  sin  just  as 
positively  as  he  pre-elected  others  to  eternal  life.  It 
is  not  even  admissible  to  read  into  the  Apostle's 
thought  a  negative  reprobation  of  certain  men.  For 
the  primary  intention  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
is  to  insist  on  the  gratuity  of  the  vocation  to  Christian- 
ity and  to  reject  the  Jewish  presumption  that  the 
possession  of  the  Mosaic  Law  and  the  carnal  descent 
from  Abraham  gave  to  the  Jews  an  essential  prefer- 
ence over  the  heathens.  But  the  Epistle  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  speculative  question  whether  or  not  the 
free  vocation  to  grace  must  be  considered  as  the  neces- 
sary result  of  eternal  predestination  to  celestial  glory 
[cf.  Franzelin,  "De  Deo  uno",  thes.  Ixv  (Rome,  1883)]. 

It  is  just  as  difficult  to  find  in  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers  a  solid  argument  for  an  absolute  predestina- 
tion. The  only  one  who  might  be  cited  with  some 
semblance  of  truth  is  St.  Augustine,  who  stands,  how- 
ever, almost  alone  among  his  predecessors  and  suc- 
cessors. Not  even  his  most  faithful  pupils,  Prosper 
and  Fulgentius,  followed  their  master  in  all  his  exag- 
gerations. But  a  problem  so  deep  and  mysterious, 
which  does  not  belong  to  the  substance  of  Faith  and 
which,  to  use  the  expression  of  Pope  Celestine  I  (d. 
432),  is  concerned  with  profundiores  dijflcilioresque 
partes incurrentiumqiwestionum  (cf.  Denz.,  n.  142),  can- 
not be  decided  on  the  sole  authority  of  Augustine. 
Moreover,  the  true  opinion  of  the  African  doctor  is  a 
matter  of  dispute  even  among  the  best  authorities,  so 
that  all  parties  claim  him  for  their  conflicting  views 
[cf.  O.  Rottmanner,  "Der  Augustinismus "  (Munich, 
1892);  Pfulf,  "Zur  Pradestinationslehre  des  hi.  Au- 
gustinus"  in  "Innsbrucker  Zeitschrift  fiir  kath. 
Theologie",  1893,  483  sq.].  As  to  the  unsuccessful 
attempt  made  by  Gonet  and  Billuart  to  prove  absolute 
predestination  ante  prcevisa  merila  "by  an  argument 
from  reason",  see  Pohle,  "Dogmatik",  II,  4th  ed., 
Paderborn,  1909,  443  sq. 

B.  The  Theory  of  the  Negative  Reprobation  of  the 
Damned. — What  deters  us  most  strongly  from  em- 
bracing the  theory  just  discussed  is  not  the  fact  that 
it  cannot  be  dogmatically  proved  from  Scripture  or 
Tradition,  but  the  logical  necessity  to  which  it  binds 
us,  of  associating  an  absolute  predestination  to  glory, 
with  a  reprobation  just  as  absolute,  even  though  it  be 
but  negative.  The  well-meant  efforts  of  some  theo- 
logians (e.  g.  Billot)  to  make  a  distinction  between  the 
two  concepts,  and  so  to  escape  the  evil  consequences 
of  negative  reprobation,  cannot  conceal  from  closer 
inspection  the  helplessness  of  such  logical  artifices. 
Hence  the  earlier  partisans  of  absolute  predestination 
never  denied  that  their  theory  compelled  them  to 
assume  for  the  wicked  a  parallel,  negative  reprobation 
— that  is,  to  assume  that,  though  not  positively  pre- 
destined to  hell,  yet  they  are  absolutely  predestined 
not  to  go  to  heaven  (cf.  above,  I,  B).  While  it  was 
easy  for  the  Thomists  to  bring  this  view  into  logical 
harmony  with  their  proemotio  physica,  the  few  Molin- 
ists  were  put  to  straits  to  harmonize  negative  reproba- 
tion with  their  scientia  media.    In  order  to  disguise  the 


harshness  and  cruelty  of  such  a  Divine  decree,  the 
theologians  invented  more  or  less  palliative  expres- 
sions, saying  that  negative  reprobation  is  the  absolute 
will  of  God  to  "pass  over"  a  priori  those  not  predes- 
tined, to  "overlook"  them,  "not  to  elect"  them,  "by 
no  means  to  admit"  them  into  heaven.  Only  Gonet 
had  the  courage  to  call  the  thing  by  its  right  name: 
"exclusion  from  heaven"  {exclusio  a  gloria). 

In  another  respect,  too,  the  adherents  of  negative 
reprobation  do  not  agree  among  themselves,  namely, 
as  to  what  is  the  motive  of  Divine  reprobation.  The 
rigorists  (as  Alvarez,  Estius,  Sylvius)  regard  as  the 
motive  the  sovereign  will  of  God  who,  without  taking 
into  account  possible  sins  and  demerits,  determined  a 
priori  to  keep  those  not  predestined  out  of  heaven, 
though  He  did  not  create  them  for  hell. 

A  second  milder  opinion  (e.  g.  de  Lemos,  Gotti, 
Gonet),  appealing  to  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  the 
massa  damnata,  finds  the  ultimate  reason  for  the  ex- 
clusion from  heaven  in  original  sin,  in  which  God 
could,  without  being  unjust,  leave  as  many  as  He 
saw  fit.  The  third  and  mildest  opinion  (as  Goudin, 
Graveson,  Billuart)  derives  reprobation  not  from  a 
direct  exclusion  from  heaven,  but  from  the  omission 
of  an  "effectual  election  to  heaven";  they  represent 
God  as  having  decreed  ante  prcevisa  merila  to  leave 
those  not  predestined  in  their  sinful  weakness,  without 
denying  them  the  necessary  sufficient  graces;  thus 
they  would  perish  infallibly  (cf.  "Innsbrucker 
Zeitschrift  fur  kath.  Theologie",  1879,  203  sq.). 

Whatever  view  one  may  take  regarding  the  internal 
probability  of  negative  reprobation,  it  cannot  be 
harmonized  with  the  dogmatically  certain  universality 
and  sincerity  of  God's  salvifio  will.  For  the  absolute 
predestination  of  the  blessed  is  at  the  same  time  the 
absolute  will  of  God  "not  to  elect"  a  priori  the  rest  of 
mankind  (Suarez),  or  which  comes  to  the  same,  "to 
exclude  them  from  heaven"  (Gonet),  in  other  words, 
not  to  save  them.  While  certain  Thomists  (as  Bafiez, 
Alvarez,  Gonet)  accept  this  conclusion  so  far  as  to 
degrade  the  "voluntas  salvifica"  to  an  ineffectual 
"velleitas",  which  conflicts  with  evident  doctrines  of 
revelation,  Suarez  labours  in  the  sweat  of  his  brow  to 
safeguard  the  sincerity  of  God's  salvific  will,  even 
towards  those  who  are  reprobated  negatively.  But 
in  vain.  How  can  that  will  to  save  be  called  serious 
and  sincere  which  has  decreed  from  all  eternity  the 
metaphysical  impossibility  of  salvation?  He  who  has 
been  reprobated  negatively,  may  exhaust  all  his  efforts 
to  attain  salvation:  it  avails  him  nothing.  Moreover, 
in  order  to  realize  infallibly  his  decree,  God  is  com- 
pelled to  frustrate  the  eternal  welfare  of  all  excluded  a 
priori  from  heaven,  and  to  take  care  that  they  die  in 
their  sins.  Is  this  the  language  in  which  Holy  Writ 
speaks  to  us?  No;  there  we  meet  an  anxious,  loving 
father,  who  wills  not  "that  any  should  perish,  but 
that  all  should  return  to  penance"  (II  Pet.,  iii,  9). 
Lessius  rightly  says  that  it  would  be  indifferent  to  him 
whether  he  was  numbered  among  those  reprobated 
positively  or  negatively;  for,  in  either  case,  his  eternal 
damnation  would  be  certain.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  in  the  present  economy  exclusion  from  heaven 
means  for  adults  practically  the  same  thing  as  damna- 
tion. A  middle  state,  a  merely  natural  happiness,  does 
not  exist. 

C.  The  Theory  of  Predestination  post  prcevisa 
merila. — This  theory,  defended  by  the  earlier  Scho- 
lastics (Alexander  of  Hales,  Albertus  Magnus),  as  well 
as  by  the  majority  of  the  Molinists,  and  warmly 
recommended  by  St.  Francis  de  Sales  "as  the  truer 
and  more  attractive  opinion",  has  this  as  its  chief  dis- 
tinction, that  it  is  free  from  the  logical  necessity  of 
upholding  negative  reprobation.  It  differs  from  pre- 
destination ante  prcevisa  merila  in  two  points :  first,  it 
rejects  the  absolute  decree  and  assumes  a  hypothetical 
predestination  to  glory;  secondly,  it  does  not  reverse 
the  succession  of  grace  and  glory  in  the  two  orders  of 


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384 


PREFACE 


eternal  intention  and  of  execution  m  time,  but  makes 
glory  depend  on  merit  in  eternity  as  well  as  in  the 
order  of  time.  This  hypothetical  decree  reads  as 
follows:  Just  as  in  time  eternal  happiness  depends  on 
merit  as  a  condition,  so  I  intended  heaven  from  all 
eternity  only  for  foreseen  merit. — It  is  only  by  reason 
of  the  infallible  foreknowledge  of  these  merits  that  the 
hypothetical  decree  is  changed  into  an  absolute:  These 
and  no  others  shall  be  saved. 

This  view  not  only  safeguards  the  universality  and 
sincerity  of  God's  salvific  will,  but  coincides  admirably 
with  the  teachings  of  St.  Paul  (cf.  II  Tim.,  iv,  8),  who 
knows  that  there  "is  laid  up"  (reposita  est,  dirixeiTai) 
in  heaven  "a  crown  of  justice",  which  "the  just  judge 
will  render"  (reddet,  dTroSiicrei)  to  him  on  the  day  of 
judgment.  Clearer  still  is  the  inference  drawn  from 
the  sentence  of  the  universal  Judge  (Matt.,  xxv,  34 
sq.):  "Come,  ye  blessed  of  my  Father,  possess  you 
the  kingdom  prepared  for  you  from  the  foundation  of 
the  world.  For  I  was  hungry,  and  you  gave  me  to 
eat"  etc.  As  the  "possessing"  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Heaven  in  time  is  here  linked  to  the  works  of  mercy  as 
a  condition,  so  the  "preparation"  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Heaven  in  eternity,  that  is,  predestination  to  glory  is 
conceived  as  dependent  on  the  foreknowledge  that 
good  works  will  be  performed.  The  same  conclusion 
follows  from  the  parallel  sentence  of  condemnation 
(Matt.,  xxv,  41  sq.):  "Depart  from  me,  you  cursed, 
into  everlasting  fire  which  was  prepared  for  the  devil 
and  his  angels.  For  I  was  hungry,  and  you  gave  me 
not  to  eat"  etc.  For  it  is  evident  that  the  "everlast- 
ing fire  of  hell"  can  only  have  been  intended  from  all 
eternity  for  sin  and  demerit,  that  is,  for  neglect  of 
Christian  charity,  in  the  same  sense  in  which  it  is  in- 
flicted in  time.  Concluding  a  pari,  we  must  say  the 
same  of  eternal  bliss.  This  explanation  is  splendidly 
confirmed  by  the  Greek  Fathers.  Generally  speaking, 
the  Greeks  are  the  chief  authorities  for  conditional 
predestination  dependent  on  foreseen  merits.  The 
Latins,  too,  are  so  unanimous  on  this  question  that  St. 
Augustine  is  practically  the  only  adversary  in  the 
Occident.  St.  Hilary  (In  Ps.  Ixiv,  n.  5)  expressly 
describes  eternal  election  as  proceeding  from  "the 
choice  of  merit"  (ex  meriti  delectu),  and  St.  Ambrose 
teaches  in  his  paraphrase  of  Rom.,  viii,  29  (De  fide, 
V,  vi,  83):  "Non  enim  ante  praedestinavit  quam 
prsescivit,  sed  quorum  merita  prEescivit,  eorum  praemia 
prsedestinavit "  (He  did  not  predestine  before  He  fore- 
knew, but  for  those  whose  merits  He  foresaw.  He  pre- 
destined the  reward).  To  conclude:  no  one  can  accuse 
us  of  boldness  if  we  assert  that  the  theory  here  pre- 
sented has  a  firmer  basis  in  Scripture  and  Tradition 
than  the  opposite  opinion. 

Besides  the  works  quoted,  cf.  Peter  Lombard,  Sent.,  I,  dist. 
40-41:  St.  Thomas,  I,  Q.  xxiii;  Hviz,  De  pr(sdest.  et  reprobations 
(Lyons,  1628);  RamIrez,  De  pra;d.  et  reprob.  (2  vols.,  AlcaJa, 
1702);  Petavius,  £"6  Deo,  IX-X;  Idem,  Z)e  incama/ione,  XIII; 
Lessius,  De  perfectionibus  moribusque  divinis,  XIV,  2;  Idem, 
De  prfed.  et  reprob.,  Opusc.  II  (Paris,  1878);  Tournelt,  De 
Deo,  qq.  22-23;  Schrader,  Commentarii  de  prcedestinatione 
(Vienna,  1865);  Hosse,  De  notionibus  promdentim  prcedestinu- 
tionisque  in  ipsa  Sacra  Scriptura  exhibitis  (Bonn,  1868) ;  Baltzer, 
Des  hi.  Augu.?tinu.^  Lehre  iiber  Prddestination  und  Reprobation 
(Vienna,  1871) ;  Mannens,  De  volunlale  Dei  sahifica  et  prcedes- 
tinatione  (Louvain,  1883);  Weber,  Kritische  Gesch.  der  Exegese 
des  9  Kap.  des  Romerbriefes  (Wurzburg,  1889).  Besides  these 
monographs  cf.  FranzeliN,  De  Deo  uno  (Kome,  1883) ;  Oswald, 
Die  Lehre  von  der  Gnade,  d.  i.  Gnade,  Rechtfertigung,  Gnadenwahl 
(Paderborn,  1885);  Simar,  Dogmatik,  II,  §126  (Freiburg,  1899); 
Tepb,  Institut.  theol..  Ill  (Paris,  1896);  Scheeben-Atzberger, 
Dogmatik,  IV  (Freiburg,  1903) ;  Pesch,  Proil.  Dogmat.,  II  (Frei- 
burg, 1906) ;  VAN  Noort,  De  gratia  Christi  (Amsterdam,  1908) ; 
PoHLE,  Dogmatik,  II  (Paderborn,  1909). 

J.   POHLB. 

Preface  (Lat.  Prmfatio),  the  first  part  of  the  Eu- 
charistic  prayers  (Anaphora  or  Canon)  in  all  rites, 
now  separated  from  the  rest  by  the  singing  of  the 
"Sanctus" 

I.  History. — According  to  the  idea  of  thanksgiving 
which,  after  the  example  of  the  Last  Supper  (Matt., 
xxvi,  27;  Mark,  xiv,  23;  Luke,  xxii,  17, 19;  I  Cor.,  xi, 


24),  forms  a  fundamental  element  of  the  Eucharistic 
service,  all  liturgies  begin  the  Anaphora,  the  consecra- 
tion-prayer, by  thanking  God  for  His  benefits.  Al- 
most every  account  we  have  of  the  early  liturgy 
mentions  this  (Didache  ix,  2-3 ;  x,  2-4;  xiv,  1;  Justin, 
"  I  Apol.",  LXV,  iii,  5;  LXVII,  v).  Clement  of  Rome 
quotes  a  long  example  of  such  a  thanksgiving-prayer 
(I  Cor.,  Ix-lxi).  So  prominent  was  this  idea  that  it 
has  supplied  the  usual  name  for  the  whole  service 
(Eucharist,  eixapicrTla).  The  thanksgiving-prayer 
enumerated  the  benefits  for  which  we  thank  God, 
beginning  generally  with  the  creation,  continuing 
through  the  orders  of  nature  and  grace,  mentioning 
much  of  Old  Testament  history,  and  so  coming  to  the 
culminating  benefit  of  Christ's  Incarnation,  His  life 
and  Passion,  in  which  the  story  of  the  Last  Supper 
brings  us  naturally  to  the  words  of  institution.  In 
most  of  the  earliest  liturgies  this  enumeration  is  of 
considerable  length  (e.  g.  Apost.  Const.,  VIII;  XII, 
iv-xxxix;  Alexandria,  see  Brightman,  infra,  125-33; 
Antioch,  ibid.,  50-2).  It  is  invariably  preceded  by 
an  invitation  to  the  people:  "Lift  up  your  hearts' , 
and  then:  "Let  us  give  thanks  to  the  Lord",  or  some 
such  formula.  The  people  having  answered:  "It  is 
right  and  just",  the  celebrant  continues,  taking  up 
their  word:  "It  is  truly  right  and  just  first  of  all  to 
praise  [or  to  thank]  thee"  ;  and  so  the  thanksgiving 
begins. 

Such  is  the  scheme  everywhere.  It  is  also  universal 
that  at  some  moment  before  the  recital  of  the  words 
of  institution  there  should  be  a  mention  of  the  angels 
who,  as  Isaias  said,  praise  God  and  say:  "Holy,  holy, 
holy"  etc.,  and  the  celebrant  stops  to  allow  the  people 
to  take  up  the  angels'  words  (so  already  Clem.,  "I 
Cor.",  xxxiv,  6-7,  and  all  liturgies).  He  then  con- 
tinues his  thanksgiving-prayer.  But  the  effect  of  this 
interruption  is  to  cut  oH  the  part  before  it  from 
the  rest.  In  the  Eastern  rites  the  separation  is  less 
marked;  the  whole  prayer  is  still  counted  as  one  thing 
— the  Anaphora.  In  the  West  the  Sanctus  has  cut  the 
old  Canon  completely  in  two;  the  part  before  it,  once 
counted  part  of  the  Canon  (see  Canon  of  the  Mass), 
is  now,  since  about  the  seventh  century  (Ord. 
Rom.,  I,  16),  considered  a  separate  prayer,  the 
Preface.  The  dislocation  of  the  rest  of  the  Canon 
which  no  longer  continues  the  note  of  thanksgiving, 
but  has  part  of  its  Intercession  {Te  igitur)  imme- 
diately after  the  Sanctus,  and  its  silent  recital,  whereas 
the  Preface  is  sung  aloud,  have  still  more  accentuated 
this  separation.  Nevertheless,  historically  the  Preface 
belongs  to  the  Canon;  it  is  the  first  part  of  the  Eu- 
charistic prayer,  the  only  part  that  has  kept  clearly 
the  idea  of  giving  thanks.  The  name  "Praefatio" 
(from  prcefari)  means  introduction,  preface  (in  the 
usual  sense)  to  the  Canon.  In  the  Leonine  and  Gela- 
sian  books  this  part  of  the  Canon  has  no  special 
title.  It  is  recognized  by  its  first  words:  "Vere  dig- 
num"  (Leonine)  or  the  initials  "V.  D."  (Gelasian). 
In  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary  it  is  already  consid- 
ered a  separate  prayer  and  is  headed  "Praefatio". 
Walafrid  Strabo  calls  it  "praefatio  actionis"  ("actio" 
for  Canon;  "De  eccl.  rerum  exord.  et  increm."  in 
P.  L.,  CXIV,  948).  Sicardus  of  Cremona  says  it 
is  "sequentis  canonis  praelocutio  et  praeparatio" 
(Mitrale  in  P.  L.,  CCXIII,  122).  Durandus  writes 
a  whole  chapter  about  the  Preface  (De  div.  off., 
IV,  xxxiii).  He  explains  its  name  as  meaning  that 
it  "precedes  the  principal  sacrifice" 

The  first  Roman  Prefaces  extant  are  those  in  the 
Leonine  Sacramentary.  They  already  show  the  two 
characteristic  qualities  that  distinguish  the  Roman 
Preface  from  the  corresponding  part  of  other  rites,  its 
shortness  and  changeableness.  The  old  thanksgiving 
(before  the  Sanctus)  contained  a  long  enumeration  of 
God's  benefits,  as  in  Clement  of  Rome  and  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions.  It  is  so  still  in  the  Eastern  rites. 
At  Rome,  before  the  Leonine  book  was  written,  this 


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385 


PREFACE 


enumeration  was  ruthlessly  curtailed.  Nothing  is  left 
of  it  but  a  most  general  allusion:  "always  and  every- 
where to  thank  thee"  But  the  mention  of  the  angels 
which  introduces  the  Sanctus  had  to  remain.  This, 
comparatively  detailed,  still  gives  the  Roman  Preface 
the  character  of  a  prayer  chiefly  about  the  angels  and 
makes  it  all  seem  to  lead  up  to  the  Sanctus,  as  the 
medieval  commentators  notice  (e.  g.  Durandus,  ibid.). 
The  corresponding  prayer  in  Apost.  Const.  (VIII) 
contains  two  references  to  the  angels,  one  at  the  begin- 
ning where  they  occur  as  the  first  creatures  (VIII,  viii), 
the  other  at  the  end  of  the  commemoration  of  Old 
Testament  history  (originally  written  in  connexion 
with  Isaias's  place  in  it)  where  they  introduce  the 
Sanctus  (XII,  xxvii).  It  seems  probable  that  at  Rome 
with  the  omission  of  the  historical  allusions  these  two 
references  were  merged  into  one.  The  "Et  ideo"  then 
would  refer  to  the  omitted  list  of  favours  in  the  Old 
Testament  (at  present  it  has  no  special  point) .  So  we 
should  have  one  more  connexion  between  the  Roman 
Rite  and  the  Apost.  Const,  (see  Mass,  Liturgy  of). 

The  other  special  note  of  our  Preface  is  its  change- 
ableness.  Here,  too,  the  East  is  immovable,  the  West 
changes  with  the  calendar.  The  Preface  was  origi- 
nally as  much  part  of  the  variable  Proper  as  the  Col- 
lect. The  Leonine  book  supplies  Prefaces  all  through 
for  the  special  Masses;  it  has  267.  The  Gelasian  has 
64;  the  Gregorian  has  10  and  more  than  100  in  its 
appendix.  In  these  varied  Prefaces  allusions  to  the 
feast,  the  season,  and  so  on,  take  the  place  of  the  old 
list  of  Divine  favours. 

The  preface  after  the  ekphonesis  of  the  Secret  (Per 
omnia  smcula  soeculorum — here  as  always  merely  a 
warning)  begins  with  a  little  dialogue  of  which  the 
versicles  or  equivalent  forms  are  found  at  this  place  in 
every  liturgy.  First  "Dominus  vobisoum"  with  its 
answer.  The  Eastern  rites,  too,  have  a  blessing  at 
this  point.  "Sursum  corda"  is  one  of  the  oldest 
known  liturgical  formulas  (St.  Cyprian  quotes  it  and 
its  answer,  "De  Orat.  Dom.",  xxxi,  in  "P.  L.",  IV, 
639;  Apost.  Const.: 'A.va  rbv  vovv).  It  is  an  invita- 
tion to  the  people  eminently  suitable  just  before  the 
Eucharistio  prayer  begins.  Brightman  (infra,  556) 
quotes  as  its  source  Lam.,  iii,  41.  Equally  old  and  uni- 
versal is  the  people's  answer:  "Habemus  [corda]  ad 
Dominum",  a  Greek  construction:  "Exoi^v  irpbs  rbv 
Kiptof,  meaning:  "we  have  them  [have  placed  them] 
before  the  Lord"  Then  follows  the  invitation  to  give 
thanks,  which  very  early  included  the  technical  idea 
of  "  making  the  Euch  arist " :  "  Gratias  agamus  Domino 
Deo  nostro".  So  with  verbal  variations  in  all  rites. 
The  Jewish  form  of  grace  before  meals  contains  the 
same  form:  "Let  us  give  thanks  to  Adonai  our  God" 
(in  the  Mishna,  "Berachoth",  6).  The  people  answer 
with  an  expression  that  again  must  come  from  the 
earliest  age:  "Dignum  et  iustum  est".  This,  too,  is 
universal  (Apost.  Const.:  "A|io»  Kal  Ukmov).    Its  redu- 

Ehcation  suggests  a  Hebrew  parallelism.  The  cele- 
rant  takes  up  their  word  and  begins  the  Preface  al- 
ways: "Vere  dignum  et  iustum  est"  (Apost.  Const.: 
"Aliox  is  dXueOs  Kal  SUaiov).  The  beginning  of  the 
Roman  Preface  is  approached  among  the  others  most 
nearly  by  Alexandria.  Our  present  common  Preface 
represents  the  simplest  type,  with  no  allusions;  all  the 
old  hst  of  benefits  is  represented  by  the  words  per 
Christum  Dominum  nostrum ' '  only.  This  is  the  Pref- 
ace given  in  the  Canon  of  the  Gelasian  book  (ed.  Wil- 
son p  234).  Most  of  the  others  are  formed  by  an  in- 
tercalation after  these  words.  But  there  are  three 
types  of  Preface  distinguished  by  their  endings.  ^The 
first  and  commonest  introduces  the  angels  thus:  per 
quern  maiestatem  tuam  laudant  angeU";  the  second 
(e  g.  for  Christmas,  Epiphany,  Easter,  Ascension, 
Apostles)  begins  that  clause:  "et  ideo  cum  angelis  ; 
the  third  and  rarest  (now  only  the  Whit-Sunday  Pref- 
ace) has:  "Quapropter  .  .  sed  et  supernae  virtu- 
tes"  The  Trinity  Preface  ("quam  laudant  angeh  ) 
XIL— 25 


is  a  variant  of  the  first  form.  All  end  with  the  word: 
"dicentes"  (which  in  the  first  and  second  form  refers 
to  us,  in  the  third  form  to  the  angels),  and  the  people 
(choir)  continue  the  sentence:  "Sanctus,  Sanctus, 
Sanctus",  etc. 

There  are  many  prayers  for  other  occasions  (chiefly 
blessings  and  consecrations)  formed  on  the  model  of 
the  Preface,  with  the  "Sursum  corda"  dialogue,  be- 
ginning "Vere  dignum"  etc.  From  their  form  one 
would  call  them  Prefaces,  though  not  Eueharistic  ones. 
Such  are  the  ordination  prayers,  two  at  the  consecra- 
tion of  a  church,  the  blessing  of  the  font,  of  palms  (but 
this  was  once  a  Mass  Preface),  part  of  the  praconium 
paschale.  They  are  imitations  of  the  Eueharistic  Pref- 
ace, apparently  because  its  solemn  form  (perhaps  its 
chant)  made  it  seem  suitable  for  other  specially  solemn 
occasions  too.  The  Leonine,  Gelasian,  and  Gregorian 
Sacramentaries  have  our  ordination  prayers,  but  not 
yet  cast  into  this  Preface  form.  But  through  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  the  Preface  form  was  very  popular,  and  a 
great  number  of  blessings  are  composed  in  it.  This  is 
only  one  more  case  of  the  common  medieval  practice 
of  modelling  new  prayers  and  services  on  others  al- 
ready well-known  and  popular  (compare  the  hymns 
written  in  imitation  of  older  ones,  etc.). 

II.  The  Preface  in  Other  Rites. — The  name 
"Praefatio"  is  peculiar  to  Rome  and  to  Milan,  which 
has  borrowed  it  from  Rome.  In  no  other  rite  is  there  a 
special  name;  it  is  simply  the  opening  clauses  of  the 
Anaphora.  In  the  Syrian-Byzantine-Armenian  group, 
though  this  part  of  the  Eueharistic  prayer  is  still 
longer  than  the  Roman  Preface  and  has  kept  some  list 
of  benefits  for  which  we  thank  God,  it  is  comparatively 
short.  The  Byzantine  Liturgy  of  St.  Basil  has  a  fairly 
long  form.  As  usual,  there  is  a  much  shorter  form  in 
that  of  St.  Chrysostom.  The  Armenian  form  is  the 
shortest  and  mentions  only  the  Incarnation.  But  in 
the  Egyptian  group  of  liturgies  the  whole  Intercession 
prayer  is  included  in  what  we  should  call  the  Preface, 
so  that  this  part  is  very  long.  This  is  the  most  con- 
spicuous characteristic  of  the  Alexandrine  type.  The 
prayer  begins  in  the  usual  way  with  a  list  of  favours 
(creation  of  the  world  and  of  man,  the  Prophets, 
Christ).  Then  abruptly  the  Intercession  begins 
("And  we  pray  and  entreat  thee  .  .  ");  joined  to  it 
are  the  memory  of  the  saints  and  the  diptychs  of  the 
dead,  and  then,  equally  abruptly,  the  thanksgiving  is 
resumed  and  introduces  the  Sanctus  (Brightman,  125- 
132) .  It  is  clear  that  this  represents  a  later  amalgama- 
tion; the  two  quite  different  prayers  are  joined  awk- 
wardly, so  that  the  seams  are  still  obvious.  In  all 
Eastern  rites  the  Preface,  or  rather  what  corresponds 
to  it,  is  said  silently  after  the  first  dialogue,  ending 
with  an  ekphonesis  to  introduce  the  Sanctus  (the  Alex- 
andrine Liturgy  has  another  ekphonesis  in  its  Interces- 
sion). This  accounts  for  its  being  less  important  an 
element  of  the  service  than  in  the  West. 

TheGallican  Rite  had  a  great  number  of  Prefaces  for 
feasts  and  seasons.  Even  more  than  in  the  old  Roman 
Liturgy  this  prayer  was  part  of  the  Proper,  like  the 
Collects  and  Lessons.  But  it  was  not  called  a  Preface. 
Its  heading  in  the  Galilean  books  was  "  Contestatio  " 
or  "Immolatio";  the  Mozarabic  title  is  "Inlatio". 
These  names  really  apply  to  the  whole  Eueharistic 
prayer  and  correspond  to  our  name  Canon  (Inla- 
tio— '  A.va<t>opi.) .  But  as  later  parts  had  special  names 
("Vere  Sanctus",  "Post  sanctus",  "Post  pridie", 
etc.),  these  general  titles  were  eventually  understood 
as  meaning  specially  the  part  before  the  Sanctus. 
Now  the  Mozarabic  "Inlatio"  may  be  taken  as  equiv- 
alent to  the  Roman  "Prsefatio"  The  Ambrosian  Rite 
has  adopted  the  Roman  name.  Both  Mozarabic  and 
Ambrosian  Rites  keep  the  Galilean  peculiarity  of  a  vast 
number  of  Prefaces  printed  each  as  part  of  the  Proper. 
III.  Present  Use.— The  Roman  Missal  now  con- 
tains eleven  Prefaces.  Ten  are  in  the  Gregorian  Sac- 
ramentary,  one   (of  the  Blessed  Virgin)  was  added 


PREFECT 


386 


PRELATE 


under  Urban  II  (1088-99).  The  pope  himself  is  re- 
ported to  have  composed  this  Preface  and  to  have 
sung  it  first  at  the  Synod  of  Guastalla  in  1094.  The 
Prefaces  form  a  medium  between  the  unchanging  Or- 
dinary and  the  variable  Proper  of  the  Mass.  They 
vary  so  little  that  they  are  printed  in  the  Ordinary, 
first  with  their  solemn  chants,  then  with  the  ferial 
chants,  and  lastly  without  notes  for  Low  Mass.  The 
appendix  of  the  new  (Vatican)  Missal  gives  a  third 
"more  solemn"  chant  for  each,  merely  a  more  ornate 
form  of  the  solemn  chant,  to  be  used  ad  libitum. 
Otherwise  the  solemn  chant  is  to  be  used  for  semi- 
doubles  and  all  days  above  that,  the  simple  chant  for 
simples,  ferias,  and  requiems.  The  Preface  is  chosen 
according  to  the  usual  rule  for  all  proper  parts  of  the 
Mass.  If  the  feast  has  one,  that  is  used;  otherwise  one 
takes  that  of  the  octave  or  season.  All  days  that  do 
not  fall  under  one  of  these  classes  have  the  common 
Preface,  except  that  Sundays  that  have  no  special 
Preface  have  that  of  the  Holy  Trinity  (so  the  decree  of 
Clement  XIII,  3  .Ian.,  1759).  Requiems  have  the 
common  Preface,  as  also  votive  Masses,  unless  these 
latter  come  under  a  category  that  has  a  proper  one  (e. 
g.,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Holy  Ghost,  etc.).  Votive 
Masses  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  like  Corpus  Christi, 
have  the  Christmas  Preface.  There  are  other  exten- 
sions of  use  (the  Preface  of  the  Holy  Cross  for  the  Sa- 
cred Heart,  etc.),  all  of  which  are  noted  in  the  Propers 
of  the  Missal  and  in  the  Calendar. 

At  High  Mass  after  the  last  Secret  the  celebrant  at 
the  middle  of  the  altar,  resting  his  hands  on  it,  sings: 
"Per  omnia  ssecula  sseculorum"  etc.;  the  choir  an- 
swers each  versicle.  He  lifts  up  the  hands  at  "  Sursum 
corda";  at  "Gratias  agamus"  he  joins  them,  and  at 
"Deo  nostro"  looks  up  and  then  bows.  At  "Vere  dig- 
num"  he  lifts  the  hands  again  and  so  sings  the  Preface 
through.  After  "dicentes"  he  joins  them  and  bowing 
says  the  Sanctus  in  a  low  voice,  while  the  choir  sings  it. 
The  deacon  and  subdeacon  stand  in  line  behind  him 
all  the  time,  bow  with  him  at  the  words  "Deo  nostro ", 
and  come  to  either  side  to  say  the  Sanctus  with  him. 
At  Low  Mass  all  is  said,  the  server  answering  the  dia- 
logue at  the  beginning. 

Brightman,  Eastern  Liturgies  (Oxford,  1896) ;  Feltoe,  Sacra- 
mentarium  Leonianum  (CarabridgR,  1896) ;  Wilson,  The  Gelasian 
Sacramentary  (Oxford,  1.S94) ;  Sacramentum  Gregorianum  and 
Ordines  Romani  in  P.  L.,  LXXVIII;  GlHR,  Das  heilige  Messopfer 
(Freiburg,  1897),  pp.  513-524;  Ribtschel,  Lehrbuch  der  Liturgik, 
I  (Berlin,  1900),  378-380;  Le  Vavasseur,  Manuel  de  Ldturgie,  I 
(Paris,  1910),  297-298;  467-468. 

Adrian  FoRTESctrE. 

Prefect  Apostolic  (Lat.  prcefectus,  one  put 
over  or  in  charge  of  something).  During  the  last 
few  centuries  it  has  been  the  practice  of  the  Holy 
See  to  govern  either  through  prefects  Apostolic, 
or  through  vicars  Apostolic  (q.  v),  many  of  the 
territories  where  no  dioceses  with  resident  bishops 
exist.  These  territories  are  called  respectively  pre- 
fectures Apostolic  and  vicariates  Apostolic.  This 
had  been  done  by  the  Holy  See  when,  owing  to 
local  circumstances,  such  as  the  character  and  cus- 
toms of  the  people,  the  hostility  of  the  civil  powers 
and  the  like,  it  was  doubtful  whether  an  episcopal 
see  could  oe  permanently  established.  The  es- 
tablishing of  a  mere  prefecture  Apostolic  in  a  place 
supposes  that  the  Church  has  attained  there  only 
a  small  development.  A  fuller  development  leads 
to  the  foundation  of  a  vicariate  Apostolic,  i.  e.,  the 
intermediate  stage  between  a  prefecture  and  a 
diocese.  A  prefect  Apostolic  is  of  lower  rank  than  a 
vicar;  his  powers  are  more  hmited,  nor  has  he,  as  a 
rule,  the  episcopal  character,  as  is  ordinarily  the 
case  with  a  vicar  Apostolic.  The  duties  of  a  prefect 
Apostolic  consist  in  directing  the  work  of  the  mission 
entrusted  to  his  care;  his  powers  are  in  general 
those  necessarily  connected  with  the  ordinary  ad- 
ministration of  such  an  office,  as,  for  instance,  the 
assigning  of  missionaries,  the  making  of  regulations 


for  the  good  management  of  the  affairs  of  his  mis- 
sion, and  the  like.  Moreover,  he  has  extraordinary 
faculties  for  several  cases  reserved  otherwise  to  the 
Apostolic  See,  such  as,  for  instance,  absolutions 
from  censures,  dispensations  from  matrimonial  im- 
pediments. He  has  also  the  faculty  of  consecrat- 
ing chalices,  patens,  and  portable  altars,  and  some 
prefects  Apostolic  have  the  power  to  administer 
Confirmation.  The  prefects  Apostolic  we  have 
described  so  far  have  independent  territories  and  are 
subject  only  to  the  Holy  See.  Sometimes,  when  a 
vicariate  or  a  diocese  extends  over  a  very  large 
territory,  in  which  the  Catholic  population  is  un- 
equally distributed,  the  Holy  See  places  a  portion 
of  such  territory  in  charge  of  a  prefect  Apostolic; 
in  which  case  the  faculties  of  the  prefect  are  more 
limited,  and  in  the  exercise  of  his  office  he  depends 
on  the  vicar  Apostolic  or  the  bishop,  whose  consent 
he  needs  for  the  exercise  of  many  of  his  functions, 
and  to  whose  supervision  his  administration  is 
subject.  With  a  view  to  still  better  protecting  the 
authority  of  the  local  vicar  Apostolic  or  bishop,  it 
was  proposed  in  the  Vatican  Council  to  abolish  this 
second  class  of  prefects  Apostolic  having  jurisdic- 
tion over  districts  within  the  limits  of  a  vicariate  or 
diocese  of  the  Latin  Rite;  but  the  existing  order 
remained  unchanged  owing  to  the  interruption  of 
that  Council.  As  to  the  same  class  of  prefects 
Apostolic  within  the  limits  of  territories  subject  to 
Oriental  Churches,  Leo  XIII  abolished  them  by  a 
Decree  of  the  Propaganda  (12  Sept.,  1896),  and  sub- 
stituted superiors  with  special  dependence  on  the 
delegates  Apostolic  (q.  v.)  of  the  respective  places. 
There  are  (1911)  66  prefectures  Apostolic:  Europe, 
5;  Asia,  17;  North  America,  3;  South  America,  11; 
Africa,  23;    Oceania,  7. 

Baart,  The  Roman  Court  (New  York),  nn.  357-8;  Bouix, 
De  curia  romana  (Paris,  1880),  648;  Collectanea  S.  Conor,  de  Prop. 
Fide  (Rome,  1893),  nn.  15,  243-60;  Gerarchia  cattolica  (Rome, 
1911);  Putzeh,  Comment,  in  facult.  apost.  (New  York,  1898),  n. 
245;  Schneemann,  Coll.  Lacensis,  VII  (Freiburg,  1870-90),  684. 
693;   Zitelli,  Apparat.  jur.  eccl.  (Rome,  18SS),  138. 

Hector  Papi. 

Prelate,  real,  the  incumbent  of  a  prelature,  i.e., 
of  an  ecclesiastical  office  with  special  and  stable 
jurisdiction  in  foro  externa  and  with  special  prece- 
dence over  other  ecclesiastical  offices ;  or,  honorary,  with 
distinctions  of  this  ecclesiastical  dignity  without  the 
corresponding  office.  The  original  prelates  are  the 
bishops  as  possessors  of  jurisdiction  over  the  members 
of  the  Church  based  on  Divine  institution.  Apart 
from  the  bishops,  the  real  prelates  include:  (1)  those 
who  have  quasi-episcopal,  independent  jurisdiction 
over  a  special  territory  separated  from  the  territory 
of  a  diocese  {prcelatus  nullius,  sc.  dioeceseos) ,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  abbeys  and  provostships  of  monasteries 
(Monte  Cassino,  Einsiedeln,  St.  Maurice  in  the  Can- 
ton of  Wallis,  etc.) ;  (2)  those  who  have  offices  in  the 
administration  of  dioceses,  and  enjoy  an  independent 
and  proper  jurisdiction  (e.g.,  the  earlier  archdeacons, 
the  provosts  and  deans  of  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches,  in  so  far  as  these  still  exercise  a  regular,  per- 
sonal jurisdiction;  (3)  abbots  and  provosts  of  mon- 
asteries, even  when  they  administer  no  territory  with 
episcopal  powers,  but  have  merely  the  permanent, 
supreme  distinction  of  the  monastery;  (4)  titular 
bishops,  both  those  who  in  the  vicariates  Apostolic 
and  other  territories  have  supreme  ecclesiastical  ad- 
ministration, and  those  who  have  simply  received  epis- 
copal consecration  without  jurisdiction  over  a  special 
district,  such  as  certain  officials  in  Rome,  consecrating 
bishops,  etc.;  (5)  the  highest  officials  of  the  Roman 
offices,  who,  in  addition  to  the  cardinals,  have  a  prom- 
inent share  in  the  direction  of  the  Roman  Church,  and 
thus  have  a  special  relation  to  the  person  of  the  pope. 
In  consequence  of  the  extent  of  the  government  of  the 


PR&MARE 


387 


FREMONSTRATENSIAN 


Church,  prelates  are  especially  numerous  in  Rome. 
The  most  important  real  prelates  of  the  papal  curia 
are:  the  three  highest  officials  of  the  Camera  Apos- 
tolica  (vice-camerlengo,  general  auditor,  and  treas- 
urer) and  the  Majordomo  of  the  Vatican,  who  are 
called  prelati  di  fiocchetti;  the  secretaries  of  the  con- 
gregations of  cardinals,  the  regent  of  the  papal  chan- 
cery, the  regent  of  the  Apostolic  Penitentiary,  and 
certain  other  high  officials  of  the  congregations  of 
the  Curia;  the  members  of  the  College  of  Prothono- 
taries  ApostoUc  de  numero  partidpantium,  the  audi- 
tors of  the  Rota,  the  clerics  of  the  Apostolic  Chamber, 
the  referendaries  of  the  Signatura  jmtitioe.  In  the 
Constitution  "Inter  ceteras"  of  11  June,  1659,  Alex- 
ander VII  laid  down  the  conditions  under  which  these 
real  prelatures  might  be  accepted.  The  dignity 
granted  by  the  pope  with  mention  of  these  conditions 
is  called  "praelatura  justitise";  when  the  conditions 
are  not  imposed  in  the  granting  of  the  dignity,  the 
latter  is  called  "praelatura  gratiae"-  To  the  real  prel- 
ates belong,  therefore,  although  no  jurisdiction  in 
foro  extemo  is  attached  to  their  offices,  all  the  high- 
est palace  officials,  who  perform  a  constant  service 
in  the  retinue  of  the  pope  and  in  the  offices  created 
for  that  purpose.  The  appointment  to  these  offices 
confers  of  itself  the  prelature.  Such  officials  are  the 
Papal  Almoner,  the  Secretary  of  Latin  Briefs  and 
Briefs  to  the  Princes,  the  substitute  of  the  Cardinal 
Secretary  of  State,  the  four  real  Privy  Chamberlains, 
the  real  Privy  Chaplains  of  the  Pope. 

A  second  class  of  prelates  are  those  on  whom  the 
title  and  rank  of  the  prelature  are  conferred  with  the 
corresponding  dress  and  privileges,  but  without  the 
office  or  court  service  otherwise  attached  to  it.  These 
are:  (1)  the  prothonotaries  Apostolic  other  than  the 
real  ones  (see  Prothonotary  Apostolic);  (2)  the 
papal  domestic  prelates  {Antistes  urbanus,  Praelatus 
urbanus,  Prcdatus  domesticus) ,  who  are  appointed  to 
this  dignity  by  papal  Brief.  They  have  the  right  of 
wearing  the  garb  of  a  prelate  and  of  using  in  Solemn 
High  Mass  the  special  candle  (palmatoria) ,  but  not 
the  other  episcopal  insignia  (Motu  Proprio  "Inter 
multiphces"  of  PiusX,  21  February,  1905,  in  "Acta  S. 
Sedis",  XXXVII,  491,  sq.);  (3)  the  supernumerary 
privy  chamberlains  {Camerieri  segreti  sopra-numer- 
arii),  honorary  chamberlains  and  chaplains,  who  may 
on  special  occasions  wear  the  same  garb  as  the  offi- 
ciating chamberlains  of  the  pope.  All  prelates  have 
the  title  "Monsignore"  and  a  special  costume  (purple) 
corresponding  to  their  rank;  the  higher  prelates  en- 
joy in  addition  other  special  privileges. 

Tambhrini,  De  iure  ahhatum  et  alioruTn  prcdatorum  tarn  regula- 
rium  quam  scEcuUiTiuTn  episcopis  inferiorum  (3  vols.,  Lyons,  1640) ; 
Bangen,  Die  Rti-mische  Kurie,  ihre  gegenwdrtige  Zusammensetzung 
u,  ihre  Geschaftsgang  (Munster,  1854) ;  Hilling,  Die  Romische 
Kurie  (Paderborn,  1906) ;  Battandier,  Annitaire  pontifical  catho- 
lique  (Paris,  1898 — );  Trombetta,  De  iuribus  et  privilegiis  prcela- 
torum  Romance  Curi(s  (Sorrento,  1906) ;  Baaht,  The  Roman  Court 
(Milwaukee,  1895) ;  Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London, 
1906). 

J.    P.    KlESCH. 

Prgmare,  Joseph  Henri  Marie  de,  missionary 
and  sinologist,  b.  at  Cherbourg,  17  July,  1666;  d.  at 
Macao,  17  Sept.,  1736,  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus 
17  Sept.,  1683,  and  departed  for  China  in  1698.  He 
laboured  as  missionary  chiefly  in  the  province 
Kwang-si.  When  the  Christian  faith  was  proscribed 
by  Emperor  Yong-tching,  in  January,  1724,  Pr^mare 
was  confined  with  his  colleagues  in  Canton.  A  still 
more  rigorous  edict  banished  him  to  Macao.  In 
his  retirement  he  studied  profoundly  the  language 
and  literature  of  China,  and  in  the  opinion  of  sin- 
ologists he,  of  all  the  older  missionaries,  best  suc- 
ceeded in  grasping  their  peculiarities  and  beauties. 
His  principal  work  is  entitled:  "Notitia  linguae  sini- 
cse";  in  simple  form  it  explains  the  rules  and  usage 
of  the  vulgar  Chinese  language  (siao  shue),  and  the 
style  of  the  written,  literary  language  {wen  tchang). 


The  famous  EngUsh  sinologist,  James  Legge,  calls  it 
"an  invaluable  work,  of  which  it  could  hardly  be  pos- 
sible to  speak  in  too  high  terms".  Father  de  Prfimare 
is  one  of  the  missionaries  who  furnished  Father  Jean- 
Baptiste  du  Halde  with  the  material  for  his  "Descrip- 
tion de  la  Chine"  (Paris,  1735).  We  owe  him,  in  par- 
ticular, the  translation  of  the  maxims  taken  from  the 
Shu-King  (Du  Halde,  II,  298);  of  eight  odes  of  the 
Shi-King  (II,  308);  of  the  "Orphan  of  the  House  of 
Tchao",  a  Chinese  tragedy  (III,  341);  the  notes  on 
the  course  of  study,  literary  degrees  and  examinations 
of  the  Chinese  (II,  251);  etc.  In  "Lettres  Edifiantes 
et  Curieuses"  we  find  many  letters  from  Father 
Pr6mare.  A  much  greater  number  of  his  writings  are 
unedited,  preserved,  chiefly,  at  the  National  Library 
(Paris).  Many  undertake  the  defence  of  figurism, 
the  name  of  a  singular  system  of  interpreting 
ancient  Chinese  books,  the  inventor  of  which  was 
Father  Joachim  Bouvet.  Following  Bouvet,  Prtoare 
thought  he  discovered  in  the  Chinese  King  (see 
China)  suggestions  of  Christian  doctrines  and  allu- 
sions to  the  mysteries  of  Christianity.  The  written 
Chinese  words  and  characters  are  to  him  but  symbols 
that  hide  profound  senses.  The  three  or  four  mission- 
aries who  adopted  these  ideas  of  Bouvet  were  never 
authorized  to  publish  them  in  book  form.  The  most 
important  work  which  Father  de  Pr^mare  wrote  in 
their  defence  has  only  recently  appeared,  translated 
from  the  Latin  by  M.  Bonnetty,  director  of  the 
"Annales  de  philosophie  ohr^tienne",  aided  by  Abb6 
Perny,  formerly  missionary  to  China.  It  is  entitled: 
"Vestiges  choisis  des  prinoipaux  dogmes  de  la  religion 
chr^tienne,  extraits  des  anciens  livres  chinois"  (Paris, 
1878). 

De  Backee-Sommebvogel,  Bibliothique  des  Scrivains  de  la 
Compagnie  de  Jisus,  VI,  1196-1201;  IX,  784;  Cobdiek,  Biblio- 
theca  Sinica,  1;  Brucker,  Etudes  religieuses,  6  ser..  Ill,  425 
(1877). 

Joseph  Brucker. 

Premonstratensian  Canons  (Canonici  Regu- 
LARES  Pr^monstratensbs),  founded  in  1120  by 
St.  Norbert  at  PremontrS,  near  Laon,  France.  At 
first  they  were  not  bound  by  any  fixed  rule,  charity 
being  the  bond  of  their  union,  and  the  example  of 
their  founder  their  rule  of  life.  After  a  while  Norbert 
unfolded  his  mind  to  his  disciples  on  the  special  regu- 
lations which  they  should  adopt.  He  told  them  that 
he  had  already  consulted  learned  bishops  and  holy 
abbots;  that  by  some  he  was  advised  to  lead  an 
eremitical  life,  by  others  a  monastic  life,  or  else  to 
join  the  Cistercian  Order.  He  added  that,  if  he  had 
to  follow  his  own  inclinations,  he  preferred  the  canoni- 
cal life  of  the  Apostles,  but  that,  before  all,  they  must 
pray  to  know  and  do  the  will  of  God.  It  was  then 
that  St.  Augustine,  Bishop  of  Hippo,  appeared  to  him 
and  gave  him  his  rule,  saying:  "I  am  Augustine, 
Bishop  of  Hippo;  behold  here  the  rule  which  I  have 
written;  if  your  fellow-brethren,  my  sons,  shall  have 
observed  it  well,  they  shall  stand  without  fear  in  the 
presence  of  Christ  on  the  terrible  day  of  the  last  judg- 
ment". As  all  agreed  to  the  choice  of  a  canonical 
institute,  Norbert  composed  a  formulary  of  their  pro- 
fession, which  they  pronounced  on  the  Feast  of 
Christmas,  1121.  To  this  formulary  St.  Norbert 
added  fastings,  abstinence,  and  other  works  of  morti- 
fication, together  with  some  pious  customs  and  prac- 
tices pecufiar  to  monastic  orders,  whereby  his  order 
became,  as  it  were,  monastico-canonical. 

The  fivfe  particular  ends  of  the  Norbertine  Order 
are:  Laus  Dei  in  choro  (the  singing  of  the  Divine 
Oflfice);  Zelus  animarum  (zeal  for  the  salvation  of 
souls);  Spiritus  jugis  pcenitentice  (the  spirit  of  habitual 
penance);  CuUus  EucharisHcus  (a  special  devotion  to 
the  Holy  Eucharist);  Cullus  Marianus  (a  special  de- 
votion to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  mostly  to  her  Immacu- 
late Conception) .  The  two  first  arise  from  the  nature 
of  a  canonical  order,  which  is  both  contemplative  and 


PREMONSTRATENSIAN 


388 


PREMONSTRATENSIAN 


active.  The  third  is  taken  from  monastic  orders. 
The  fourth  and  fifth  are  characteristic  of  the  Nor- 
bertine  Order,  to  which  these  special  devotions  were 
bequeathed  by  the  founder.  The  title  of  the  first 
chapter  of  the  "Statuta",  "Dc  tremcndo  altaris  Sac- 
ramento", seems  to  indicate  that  devotion  to  the 
Holy  Eucharist  as  a  sacrifice  and  sacrament  should 
have  the  first  place  in  the  heart  of  a  son  of  St.  Norbert. 
St.  Norbert  wrote  an 
Office  in  honour  of 
the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception which  con- 
tained these  words : 
"Ave,  Virgo  quae  Spi- 
ritu  Sancto  prseser- 
vante,  de  tanto  primi 
parentis  peccato  tri- 
umphasti  innoxia ! ' ' 
The  third  chapter  of 
the  "Statuta"  begins 
with  these  words : 
"Horse  Deiparae  Vir- 
ginis  Mariae,  candidi 
ordinis  nostri  patro- 
nae  singularis,  etc." 
Guerenus  writes  in  his 
commentaries  on  the 
Canticle  of  Canticles : 
"St.  Norbert,  with 
his  holy  Order,  was 
raised  up  by  Divine  Providence  to  render  conspicuous 
in  his  day  two  mysteries,  the  Blessed  Sacrament  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist  and  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
Our  Lady" 

As  to  the  second  end,  zeal  for  souls,  the  preface  to 
the  "Statuta"  says:  "Our  order  is  the  propagation  of 
God's  glory;  it  is  zeal  for  souls,  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments,  service  in  the  Church  of  God.  Our 
order  is  to  preach  the  Gospel,  to  teach  the  ignorant, 
to  have  the  direction  of  parishes,  to  perform  pastoral 
duties,  etc."  At  the 
time  of  St.  Norbert 
the  clergy  were  not 
numerous,  often  badly 
prepared  for  their 
ministry,  and  disso- 
lute. Besides,  there 
were  numerous  vil- 
lages without  church 
or  priest.  What  was 
needed  was  clerical 
training  to  impart 
piety  and  learning. 
The  order  has  had  its 
share  in  the  carrjdng 
out  of  this  good  work, 
and  the  Norbertine 
Abbeys  have  been 
called,  by  popes  and 
bishops,  seminaries  of 
missionaries  and  par- 
ish priests.  From  its  beginning  the  order  has  accepted 
parishes  which  were,  and  are  still,  in  many  cases  ad- 
ministered by  Norbertine  priests.  That  the  Order  of 
Pr^montriS  may  obtain  benefices  and  administer  par- 
ishes was  again  decided  by  Benedict  XIV  by  the 
Bull  "Oneroso"  of  1  Sept.,  1750. 

Composition  of  the  Order. — The  order  is  com- 
posed of  three  classes:  (1)  priests  and  clerics  under  an 
abbot  or  provost;  (2)  nuns  who  embrace  the  Rule  of 
St.  Norbert;  (3)  members  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Norbert.  Both  priests  and  nuns  have  a  two  years' 
novitiate  and  make  solemn  vows.  In  some  countries 
Norbertine  nuns  are  now  bound  by  simple  vows  only. 
In  the  monasteries  there  are  laybrothers  and  lay- 
sisters  who  likewise  make  their  vows.  The  members 
of  the  Third  Order,  originally  called /ra(res  et  sorores  ad 


Abbey  of  Mondaye,  France 


Abbey  of  Tepl,  Bohemia 


succurrendum,  wear  the  white  scapular  under  their 
secular  dress  and  have  certain  prayers  to  say.  The 
spirit  of  the  Third  Order  must  evidently  be  the  spirit 
of  the  order  itself.  The  members  should  possess  zeal 
for  souls,  love  mortification,  and  practise  and  pro- 
mote an  enlightened  devotion  to  the  Holy  Eucharist 
and  to  the  Immaculate  Conception.  As  a  modem 
author  (Duhayon,  S.J.,  "La  Mine  d'or",  c.  v)  says: 

"By  the  institution 
of  the  Third  Order  in 
the  midst  of  the 
stream  of  temporal 
anxieties  St.  Norbert 
has  introduced  the  re- 
ligious life  into  the 
family  circle.  No- 
body before  St.  Nor- 
bert had  conceived 
the  idea  of  realizing 
in  the  Church  a  state 
of  life  which  should 
be  midway  between 
the  cloister  and  the 
world,  or  in  other 
words  a  religious  or- 
der which  should  pen- 
etrate into  the  Chris- 
tian homes.  .  .  . 
After  his  death  it  was 
imitated  by  other 
founders,  especially  by  St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominic". 
Propagation  of  the  Order. — The  order  increased 
very  rapidly  and,  in  the  words  of  Adrian  IV,  it  spread 
its  branches  from  sea  to  sea.  Before  the  death  of 
Hugh  of  Fosse,  the  first  abbot  general,  a  hundred 
and  twenty  abbots  were  present  at  the  general  chap- 
ter. Of  the  first  disciples,  nearly  all  became  abbots 
of  new  foundations,  and  several  were  raised  to  the 
episcopal  dignity.  Development  was  chiefly  effected 
through  the  foundation  of  new  abbeys,  but  several 

religious  communities 
already  in  existence 
wished  to  adopt  the 
constitutions  of  Pr6- 
montr6  and  were  affil- 
iated to  and  incorpo- 
rated with  the  order. 
We  have  already 
mentioned  the  names 
of  abbeys  founded  in 
France,  Belgium,  and 
Germany,  but  colo- 
nies of  the  sons  of  St. 
Norbert  were  sent  to 
nearly  every  country 
of  Europe  and  even 
to  Asia.  In  1130  King 
Stephen  gave  them 
his  castle  on  the  River 
Keres,  and  thus  was 
founded  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Stephen,  the  first  of  numerous  monasteries  in  Hun- 
gary. Almaric,  who  had  shared  in  St.  Norbert's  apos- 
tolate,  a  famous  preacher  in  aid  of  the  Crusades,  was 
requested  by  Innocent  II  to  preach  in  Palestine.  At 
the  head  of  a  chosen  band  of  Norbertines  he  set  out  in 
1136  for  the  Holy  Land,  where  he  was  hospitably  re- 
ceived by  Fulco  of  Anjou,  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  by 
William,  Patriarch  of  the  Holy  City.  In  the  following 
year  Almaric  founded  the  Abbey  of  St.  Abacuc. 
Henry  Zdik,  Bishop  of  Olmiitz,  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem.  He  visited  St.  Abacuc  and  was  so  much 
touched  by  what  he  saw  that  he  asked  to  be  received 
into  the  order.  Having  obtained  some  religious,  he 
returned  to  Bohemia  and  founded  the  Abbey  of  Mount 
Sion  at  Strahov,  Prague.  This  abbey  flourished  so 
much  that  it  was  called  the  seminary  of  bishops,  hav- 


PREMONSTRATENSIAN 


389 


PREMONSTRATENSIAN 


mg  given  eight  bishops  to  Prague,  ten  to  Olmiitz,  and 
some  to  other  dioceses;  a  patriarch  (John  of  Luxem- 
burg) to  Aquileia,  and  a  cardinal  (John  of  Prague)  to 
the  Church.  In  1141  the  Abbey  of  St.  Samuel,  near 
Jerusalem,  was  founded,  and  in  1145  another  at  Beth- 
lehem. The  abbeys  were  destroyed  in  1187,  when 
many  of  the  religious  were  put  to  the  sword  or  perished 
in  the  fire.  Those  who  escaped  founded  a  new  com- 
munity at  Acre;  but 
in  1291  this  place,  the 
last  stronghold  of  the 
Christians  in  the  Holy 
Land,  was  taken  by 
the  Sultan  Saraf ,  who 
cut  to  pieces  the  ab- 
bot, Egide  de  Marie, 
and  put  the  religious, 
twenty-six  in  num- 
ber, to  death. 

In  1147  Abbot  Wal- 
ter of  Laon  led  a  col- 
ony to  Portugal  and 
founded  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Vincent,  near  Lis- 
bon. Two  young 
Spanish  noblemen, 
Sanchez  de  Assures 
and  Dominic,  while 
travelling  in  France, 
had  heard  of  St.  Norbert.  They  went  to  Premontr6 
and  were  admitted  to  the  order  by  St.  Norbert.  Or- 
dained priests,  they  were  sent  to  preach  in  Spain,  and 
having  obtained  a  few  religious  from  La  Case-Dieu, 
an  abbey  in  Gascony,  they  founded  in  1143  the  Abbey 
of  Retorta,  the  first  in  Spain.  In  1149  the  mother- 
house  sent  some  of  its  religious  to  found  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Samuel  at  Barletta,  in  ApuUa,  Italy.  At  the 
same  time  sons  of  St.  Norbert  went  forth  from  one 
abbey  or  another  to  found  new  houses  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  Poland,  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
even  Riga  on  the  Bal- 
tic Sea.  In  addition, 
sixteen  cathedral 
chapters  were  com- 
posed of  Norbertine 
canons,  under  a 
bishop  elected  by 
them.  One  of  these 
was  Candida  Casa  or 
Whithorn,  in  Scot- 
land. Itisimpossible 
to  give  the  exact  num- 
ber of  abbeys,  priories, 
and  convents  of  nuns, 
so  much  do  the  vari- 
ous lists  differ  from 
one  another.  Perhaps 
the  oldest  list  known 
is  that  which  was 
made  for  the  general  chapter  of  1320,  and  given  by  Le 
Paige.  The  most  complete  has  been  compiled  by 
Hugo,  the  annalist  of  the  order.  Some  authors  say 
that  there  were  1300  abbeys  and  500  convents  of  nuns, 
without  counting  the  smaller  residences,  but  these  fig- 
urea  seem  to  be  much  exaggerated.  However,  what- 
ever these  lists  may  mean,  they  show  the  prodigious 
fecundity  of  the  order  during  the  first  two  centuries  of 
its  existence. 

Organization. — The  highest  authority  of  the  order 
is  centred  in  the  general  chapter.  The  abbot  general 
presides  over  it,  but  he  owes  obedience  to  it.  The 
abbot  general  has  the  power  to  make  the  canonical 
visitation  of  any  abbey,  but  his  abbey  is  visited  by  the 
three  principal  abbots  of  the  order,  viz.  by  the  Abbots 
of  Laon,  Floreffe,  and  Cuissy.  The  abbots  are  elected 
for  life  in  a  manner  prescribed  by  the  "Statuta". 
The  abbot  names  his  prior  and  other  officials  of  hia 


Abbey  of  Tongerloo,  Belqium 


'    k 

9Ef  [ 

'^^^Sl^B\ 

Abbey  op  Lelebz,  North  Eastern  Hungary 


abbey.  In  certain  matters  he  has  to  obtain  the  con 
sent  of  the  majores  de  domo.  The  abbeys  were  divide( 
into  circaries  (provinces),  named  after  the  countries  ii 
which  they  were  situated.  Each  circary  had  a  visitor 
and  the  most  important  had  also  a  vicar-genera 
named  by  the  abbot  general.  Hugo  in  his  "Annales' 
gives  the  name  of  each  abbey  and  convent  and  of  th 
circary  to  which  they  belonged.    The  four  large  vol 

umes  of  the  "Amiales' 
give  a  description  am 
an  historical  notice  o 
each  abbey  and  henci 
they  supply  very  im 
portant  informatioi 
to  the  student  of  tht 
history  of  the  order 
Hugo  had  also  pre- 
pared and  nearly  com- 
pleted, when  he  diec 
in  1739,  two  mort 
volumes,  the  first  oi 
which  was  to  treat  ol 
learned  persons  of  the 
order  and  of  the  books 
they  had  written;  the 
second  was  to  give 
the  lives  of  sons  and 
daughters  of  St.  Nor- 
bert who  had  been 
canonized  or  beatified,  or  who  were  deemed  to  have 
had  the  note  of  sanctity.  The  Rev.  Leo  Goovaerts,  of 
the  Norbertine  Abbey  of  Averbode,  Belgium,  has  since 
published  a  "Dictionnaire  bio-bibliographique",  in 
which  he  gives  the  names  of  over  three  thousand  au- 
thors, a  notice  of  their  lives,  and  a  description  of  the 
books  they  had  written.  George  Lienhardt,  Abbot  of 
Roggensburg,  gives  in  his  "Hagiologia"  the  names  of 
hundreds  of  persons  whose  holiness  of  life  constitutes 
the  brightest  ornament  of  the  Order  of  St.  Norbert. 
Loss  OP  First  Fervour;  Causes  and  Remedies. — 

The  spiritual  fervour, 
so  remarkable  and 
edifying  in  the  first 
two  centuries,  had 
gradually  been  grow- 
ing cold.  A  numbei 
of  religious  communi- 
ties were  no  longei 
animated  by  the  spirit 
of  St.  Norbert.  With 
the  gradual  disap- 
pearance of  manual 
labour,  intellectual 
activity,  and  certain 
observances,  spiritual 
progress  was  retarded 
and  even  a  kind  of 
spiritual  stagnation 
set  in,  to  the  great 
detriment  of  these  communities.  AfHuence  was  an- 
other cause  of  this  weakness.  The  first  religious  had 
cleared  part  of  the  forests,  and  by  making  the  land 
more  productive  had  created  more  resources,  while  the 
charity  of  benefactors  had  also  increased  the  revenues, 
and  with  this  affluence  arose  also  a  spirit  of  worldliness; 
but  another  evil  was  that  this  affluence  excited  the 
rapacity  of  covetous  men  in  Church  and  State.  The 
superiors  of  some  houses  had  become  more  lax  in 
abolishing  abuses,  and  so  irregularities  had  gradually 
crept  in.  Owing  to  the  distance  of  many  houses  from 
the  mother-house  at  Prtoontr^  and  also  to  national 
aspirations,  cohesion,  the  strength  of  any  society,  had 
been  weakened  in  the  order;  already  in  Saxony,  Eng- 
land, and  Spain  a  tendency  was  observed  to  form  sepa- 
rate congregations  with  regulations  of  their  own.  With 
the  approval  of  the  popes  the  austere  rule,  especially 
with  regard  to  perpetual  abstinence  from  flesh  meat. 


PREMONSTRATENSIAN 


390 


PREMONSTRATENSIAN 


was  mitigated  first  in  1290,  then  in  the  constitutions 
ot  1505,  and  again  in  those  of  1630,  but  in  spite  of  these 
mitigations,  the  "  Statuta"  composed  and  approved  in 
the  time  of  St.  Norbert  have  remained  substantially 
the  same  as  they  were  in  the  beginning.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century  a  new  spirit  seemed 
to  animate  the  whole  order,  but  especially  in  Lorraine, 
where  the  venerable  Abbot  Lairvelz  succeeded  in  re- 
forming forty  abbeys  and  in  introducing  into  them  the 
observances  of  the  primitive  constitutions.  It  was 
seen  that  the  order  was  full  of  vitahty  and  doing  good 
and  useful  work.  To  encourage  the  studies  of  their 
religious,  colleges  were  estabhshed  near  some  univer- 
sity, as  at  Rome,  Louvain,  Paris,  Cologne,  Prague, 
Madrid,  Salamanca,  and  elsewhere.  To  these  colleges 
and  universities  young  religious  were  sent.  After  the 
completion  of  their  studies  they  returned  to  the  abbey, 
where  they  taught  philosophy  and  theology. 

Commendatory  Abbots. — To  speak  of  one  country 
only,  the  concordat  between  Leo  X  and  Francis  I  in 
1516,  which  gave  power  to  the  King  of  France  to  nomi- 
nate bishops,  abbots,  and  other  Church  dignitaries, 
was  abused  to  such  an  extent  that,  with  reference  to 
abbeys  alone,  bishops,  secular  priests,  and  even  laymen 
were  put  at  the  head  of  an  abbey,  and  sometimes  of 
two  or  more  abbeys.    They  took  possession  of  all  the 
temporalities,   and 
frequently  cared  noth- 
ing for  the  material 
and  spiritual  welfare 
of  the  abbey.     And 
all  this  was  done  when 
Lutherans  and  Cal- 
vinists  were  making 
the    fiercest    attacks 
on  the  Catholic  reli- 
gion, and  when  ear- 
nest men  were  plead- 
ing  for  reform   in 
Catholic  institutions. 
Hugo,  the  annalist  of 
the  order,  who  gives 
the    hsts    of    abbeys 

and    of    the    abbots  Abbey  of  Csobna 

elected  by  the  order 


or  commendatory,  shows  how  far  the  evil  had  pre- 
vailed for  more  than  two  hundred  years.  Tai6e  (vol. 
II,  195)  in  his  "Etude  sur  Pr6montr6"  (Laon,1874), 
writes  that  in  1770,  of  the  92  Norbertine  abbeys  and 
priories  in  France,  67  were  given  in  commendam  and 
only  25  had  abbots  or  priors  of  the  order. 

Loss  OF  Abbeys. — Owing  to  a  decree  of  the  general 
chapter  numerous  convents  of  nuns  had  already  dis- 
appeared before  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  As  to 
abbeys  and  priories  the  continuous  wars  in  many 
countries,  and  in  the  East  the  invasions  of  Tatars  and 
Turks,  made  community  life  almost  impossible  and 
ruined  many  abbeys.  The  wars  and  the  heresies  of 
Hus  and  Luther  destroyed  several  abbeys.  The 
Abbey  of  Episcopia  in  the  Isle  of  Cyprus  was  taken 
by  Islam  in  1571.  The  Hussites  took  possession  of 
several  houses  in  Moravia  and  Bohemia;  the  Luther- 
ans, in  Saxony,  Prussia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden;  the 
Calvinists,  in  Holland;  and  Henry  VIII  in  England 
and  Ireland.  In  Hungary  many  were  destroyed  by 
Solyman.  With  all  these  losses  the  order  had  still  in 
1627  twenty-two  provinces  or  circaries,  and  Lienhardt 
gives  a  list  of  240  houses  still  in  existence  in  1778. 
Joseph  II  of  Austria  suppressed  many  houses  and  put 
others  under  commendatory  abbots,  but  Leopold, 
Joseph's  successor,  restored  nine  abbeys  and  with  these 
he  incorporated  others.  The  French  Revolution  sup- 
pressed in  1790  all  rehgious  houses  in  France,  in  1796 
in  Belgium,  and  afterwards  all  those  in  the  occupied 
provinces  of  the  Rhine.  Only  a  few  houses  were  still 
existing  (9  in  the  Austrian  Empire,  3  in  Russian 
Poland,  and  15  in  Spain),  but  the  abbeys  in  Spain  were 


suppressed  by  the  revolution  which  convulsed  that 
country  in  1833.  The  dispersed  religious  of  the  Bel- 
gian Province  had  long  wished  to  reassemble  and  form 
new  communities,  but  they  were  not  allowed  to  do  so 
under  the  Dutch  Government  (1815-30).  When  Bel- 
gium was  separated  from  Holland  and  made  into  a 
separate  kingdom,  freedom  of  religion  was  granted, 
and  the  surviving  religious,  now  well  advanced  in 
years,  revived  community  life  and  reconstituted  five 
Norbertine  houses  in  Belgium  (see  Backx). 

The  rehgious  of  the  confiscated  abbey  of  Berne  in 
Holland  founded  a  new  abbey  at  Heeswijk.  The 
Abbey  of  Berne-Heeswijk  has  founded  St.  Norbert' a 
Priory  at  West  De  Pere,  Wisconsin,  U.  S.  A. 
To  the  priory  is  attached  a  flourishing  classical  and 
commercial  college.  The  Abbey  of  Grimbergen  in 
Belgium  obtained  possession  of  the  former  Norbertine 
Abbey  of  Mondaye  in  France,  and  founded  a  new 
abbey.  Mondaye  in  turn  founded  the  priories  of  St. 
Joseph  at  Balarin  (Department  of  Gers)  and  of  St. 
Peter  at  Nantes.  The  Abbey  of  Tongerloo  has  founded 
three  priories  in  England,  viz. :  Crowle,  Spalding,  and 
Manchester.  The  same  abbey  has  also  sent  mission- 
aries to  Belgian  Congo,  Africa,  where  the  Prefecture  of 
Ouell6  (Well6)  has  been  confided  to  them.  The  pre- 
fecture has  four  chief  centres :  Ibembo,  Amadi,  Gom- 

bari,  and  Djabir,  with 
many  stations  served 
from  each  centre. 
The  Abbey  of  Aver- 
bode  founded  three 
Priories  in  Brazil 
(Pirapora,  Jaguarao, 
and  Petropolis),  with 
a  college  attached  to 
each  priory.  The  Ab- 
bey of  the  Park,  near 
Louvain,  has  also  sent 
to  Brazil  several 
priests  who  have 
charge  of  parishes 
and  do  missionary 
work.  The  Abbey  of 
Grimbergen  founded 
a  house  of  the  order 
at  Wetaskiwin,  in  Alberta,  Canada.    The  Priory  of 


Hungary 


West  De  Pere  has  been  made  independent,  with  a 
novitiate  of  its  own.  The  other  priories  are  attached 
to  the  abbey  by  which  they  were  founded. 

In  1856  a  new  congregation  of  Norbertine  canons, 
since  incorporated  with  the  order,  was  formed  at 
Frigolet.  Frigolet  founded  Conques  and  St-Jean 
de  Cole  in  France,  and  Storrington  and  Weston- 
Bed worth  in  England.  The  abbeys  in  Hungary  have 
jointly  founded  at  Budapest  a  college  where  young 
religious  of  these  abbeys  study  under  Norbertine  pro- 
fessors, and  also  follow  the  university  lectures  in  order 
to  obtain  the  diploma  required  to  become  professors 
in  one  of  the  six  colleges  conducted  by  these  abbeys. 
The  order  also  possesses  a  college  in  Rome  (Via  di 
Monte  Tarpeo)  for  Norbertine  students  at  the  Grego- 
rian University.  The  procurator  of  the  order  resides  at 
this  college,  of  which  he  is  also  the  rector.  At  the 
death  of  L6cuy  in  1834,  the  last  Abbot  General  of 
Pr6montr6,  the  order  was  left  without  a  spiritual  head. 
In  1867  Jerome  Zeidler,  Abbot  of  Strahov,  was  elected, 
but  he  died  in  Rome  during  the  Vatican  Council.  At 
a  general  chapter  held  in  Vienna  in  1883  Sigismond 
Stary,  Abbot  of  Strahov,  was  elected.  At  his  death 
he  was  succeeded  by  Norbert  Schachinger,  Abbot  of 
Schlagl,  in  Austria. 

Statistics. — The  following  statistics  show  the  pres- 
ent state  of  the  order  in  each  circary.  Particulars  are 
also  given  having  reference  to  some  convents  of  nuns 
who,  though  no  longer  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
order,  are  or  have  been  related  to  it.  The  figures  have 
been   taken   from   printed   catalogues  pubhshed  in 


PREMONSTRATENSIAN 


391 


PREMONSTRATENSIAN 


December,  1910,  or  from  letters  since  received.  When 
the  desired  information  had  not  arrived  in  time,  a 
catalogue  of  a  former  year  has  been  consulted. 

Circary  of  Brabant  (Belgium  and  Holland). — Aver- 
bode  Abbey:  priests,  82;  clerics  and  novices,  20;  lay 
brothers,  36;  of  these,  27  priests  and  21  lay  brothers 
have  been  sent  to  Brazil,  and  2  priests  and  3  lay  broth- 
ers to  Veile  in  Denmark.  Grimbergen  Abbey:  priests, 
37;  clerics,  5;  lay  brothers,  7;  of  these,  4  priests  are 
in  Canada.  Park-Lou  vain  Abbey:  priests,  44;  cler- 
ics, 4;  of  these,  8  priests  in  Brazil.  Postel  Abbey: 
priests,  25;  clerics,  2;  of  these,  1  priest  in  Belgian 
Congo,  and  1  in  Brazil.    Tongerloo  Abbey:   priests, 


Bohemia:  priests,  82;  clerics,  13;  the  college  of  Pilsen 
is  conducted  by  the  abbey  (professors,  10;  students, 
380).  Wilten  Abbey,  Tyrol:  priests,  45;  clerics,  3; 
lay  brothers,  3. 

Circary  of  Hungary. — Csorna  Abbey:  priests,  38; 
clerics,  12;  the  abbey  conducts  and  supplies  professors 
to  the  gymnasium  of  Keszthely  (15  professors,  325 
students),  Szombathely  (15  professors,  400  students). 
Jaszo  Abbey:  priests,  73;  clerics,  37;  the  abbey  con- 
ducts the  following  gymnasia  and  supplies  the  pro- 
fessors: Kassa,  50  students;  another  at  Kassa,  460 
students;  Grosswardein  (Nagy-Vdrad),  550  students; 
Rozsnyo,  200  students.     These  two  abbeys  have  a 


PsiMONTR^  AbBBY,   NEAE  tiOISSONB    tin  1636) 


77;  clerics,  19;  lay  brothers,  29;  of  these,  14  priests 
and  5  lay  brothers  are  in  England;  10  priests  and  10 
lay  brothers  in  Belgian  Congo.  Beme-Heeswijk 
Abbey:  priests,  41;  clerics,  12;  lay  brothers,  9;  a 
flourishing  college  with  100  students  is  attached  to  the 
abbey.  St.  Norbert's  Priory,  West  De  Pere,  Wiscon- 
sin, U.  S.  A.:  priests,  19;  clerics,  3;  lay  brothers,  4; 
and  a  college  conducted  by  the  fathers. 

Circary  of  France. — ^The  Abbey  of  Mondaye  and 
other  houses  are  confiscated.  Some  of  the  dispersed 
religious  formed  a  new  house  at  Bois-Seigneur-Isaac, 
near  Nivelles,  Belgium:  priests,  27;  clerics,  7;  lay 
brothers,  4. 

Circary  of  Provence. — The  Abbey  of  Frigolet  and  all 
other  houses  are  confiscated.  The  dispersed  religious 
bought  the  former  Norbertine  Abbey  of  Leffe,  Dinant, 
Belgium:  priests,  38;  clerics,  7;  lay  brothers,  8;  of 
these,  4  priests  in  France;  8  priests  and  2  clerics  in 
England;  and  2  priests  in  Madagascar. 

Circary  of  Austria. — Geras  Abbey:  priests,  26; 
clerics,  4.  Neu-Reisch  Abbey  in  Moravia:  priests, 
11;  clerics,  2.  Schlagl:  priests,  43;  clerics,  3.  Sellau 
Abbey,  Bohemia:  priests,  20;  clerics,  5.  Strahov 
Abbey,  Prague:  priests,  67;   clerics,  8.    Tepl  Abbey, 


college  for  their  religious,  who  study  at  the  University 
of  Budapest:  17  students  are  at  Budapest,  and  six 
clerics  at  the  University  of  Fribourg. 

Convents  of  Norhertine  Nuns  (the  Second  Order). — 
Gosterhout  Priory,  Holland,  48  nuns.  Neerpelt 
Priory,  Belgium,  23  nuns.  Bonlieu  Abbey,  nuns  ex- 
pelled from  France,  reassembled  at  Grimbergen, 
Belgium,  36  nuns.  Le  Mesnil-St-Denis  Priory,  Seine 
et  Oise,  France,  31  nuns.  Abbey  of  St.  Sophia,  Toro, 
Spain,  22  nuns.  Abbey  of  St.  Maria  near  Zamora, 
Villoria  de  Orbigo,  Spain,  16  nuns.  Zwierzynieo,  near 
Cracow,  Austrian  Poland,  47  nuns.  Imbramowice 
Abbey,  Russian  Poland;  for  a  great  many  years  the 
nuns  were  not  allowed  to  admit  novices,  but  some 
years  ago  leave  was  given  with  great  restrictions  by 
the  Russian  government  to  admit  a  few.  The  Abbey 
of  Czerwinsko,  where  there  were  only  six  very  old 
nuns,  was  suppressed  and  the  nuns  sent  to  Imbra- 
mowice. Several  novices  were  admitted,  and  at  pres- 
ent there  are  at  this  convent  9  nuns.  Priory  of  Berg 
Sion,  near  Utznach,  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Gall,  Swit- 
zerland, 30  nuns.  Convent  of  Norbertine  Nuns, 
Third  Order,  St.  Joseph's  at  Heiligenberg,  near  01- 
miitz,  with  branch  house  St.  Norbert's,  at  Prague. 


PREMONSTRATENSIANS 


392 


PRESBYTERIANISM 


Congregation  of    Norbertine   Sisters;    mother-house 
at  Duffel,  Belgium,  with  branch  houses. 

Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kongregationen  (Paderborn,  1907) . 

F.  M.  Geudens. 

Premonstratensians.  See  Premonstbatensian 
Canons. 

Premontre,  Abbey  op,  about  twelve  miles  west  of 
Laon,  Department  of  Aisne,  France;  founded  by  St. 
Norbert.  The  land  had  belonged  to  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Vincent,  to  whom  it  had  been  given  by  a  former 
Bishop  of  Laon.  Religious  of  St.  Vincent's  had  tried 
in  vain  to  cultivate  it.  As  shown  in  the  charter  of 
donation  the  place  was  called  Proemonsiratus,  or 
pratum  monstratum,  Pre-montre,  probably  from  a 
clearing  made  in  the  forest,  but  the  name  has  easily 
lent  itself  to  the  adapted  meaning  of  locus  prcemon- 
stralus,  a  place  foreshown,  as  for  example  in  the  life 
of  St.  Godfrey,  one  of  St.  Norbert's  first  disciples 
(1127):  "Venit  ad  locum  vere  juxta  nomen  suum,  a 
Domino  prsemonstratum,  electum  et  prsedestinatum" 
(Acta  SS.,  II  January).  A  venerable  tradition  says 
that  the  Bishop  of  Laon  and  St.  Norbert  visited 
Pr6montr6  about  the  middle  of  January  and  that  the 
bishop  gave  the  white  habit  to  St.  Norbert  on  25 
January,  the  feast  of  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  Council  of  Liege  (1131),  Inno- 
cent II  and  St.  Norbert  came  to  Laon  and  remained 
with  Bishop  Bartholomew.  They  also  visited  the 
Abbey  of  Pr6montr6  and  were  rejoiced  to  see  some 
five  hundred  religious — priests,  clerics,  and  lay- 
brothers — all  united  in  the  observance  of  their  duties 
under  Abbot  Hugh  of  Fosse.  In  the  general  chapter 
of  1141  it  was  decided  to  remove  the  convents  of  nuns 
to  at  least  one  league's  distance  from  the  abbeys  of 
men.  Hugh  died  on  10  Feb.,  1161,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Phihp,  then  Abbot  of  Belval  in  Argonne.  John  II 
founded  in  1252  a  college  or  house  of  studies  for  Nor- 
bertine clerics  at  the  University  of  Paris. 

At  the  death  of  Virgilius,  forty-third  Abbot  General 
of  Pr6montr6,  Cardinal  Francis  of  Pisa  had  intrigued 
so  much  at  the  Court  of  Rome  that  he  succeeded  in 
being  named  commendatory  Abbot  of  Premontr^,  and 
in  1535  took  possession  of  the  abbey  and  all  its  rev- 
enues. Cardinal  Francis  was  succeeded  by  Cardinal 
d'Este,  the  pope's  legate  in  France,  who  held  the  ab- 
bey in  commendam  until  he  died  in  1572.  Tai(5e 
("Etude  sur  Pr6montr6",  Laon,  1874,  210)  calls  these 
two  cardinals  les  fleaux  de  Premontre.  After  the 
death  of  Cardinal  d'Este  a  free  election  was  held  and 
Jean  Des  Pruets,  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  an  earnest 
and  zealous  priest,  was  elected,  and  his  election  con- 
firmed by  Gregory  XIII,  14  Dec,  1572.  With  ad- 
mirable zeal  and  prudence  Des  Pruets  undertook  the 
difficult  task  of  repairing  the  financial  losses  and  of 
promoting  conventual  discipline  at  Pr^montrS  and 
other  houses  of  the  order.  He  died  15  May,  1596, 
and  was  succeeded  by  two  zealous  abbots,  Longpri 
and  Gosset;  but  the  latter  was  succeeded  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  as  commendatory  abbot.  The  last  abbot 
general,  L'Ecuy,  was  elected  in  1781.  At  the  French 
Revolution  the  confiscated  Abbey  of  PremontrS  was 
bought  by  a  certain  Cagnon,  who  demolished  several 
buildings  and  sold  the  material.  Having  passed 
through  several  hands,  the  property  was  bought  by 
Mgr  de  Garsignies,  Bishop  of  Laon  and  Soissons, 
whose  successor  sold  it  to  the  Department  of  Aisne, 
by  whom  the  buildings  were  converted  into  an  asylum. 
Of  the  old  abbey  as  it  was  from  the  twelfth  to  the  six- 
teenth century  hardly  anything  remains,  but  three 
large  buildings  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
ncnturies  are  still  standing.  A  part  of  one  of  these 
buildings  is  used  as  a  church,  dedicated  to  St.  Norbert. 

Hugo,  Annales  PrcEmonBtratenses  (Nancy):  Madelaine, 
Histoire  de  St-Norbert  (Lille,  1886) ;  Geudens,  Life  of  St.  Norbert 
(London,  1886);  Ta)I^e,  PremontrS,  Etude  sur  VAbbaye  (Laon, 
1872) :  Madelaine,  L'Abbaye  de  PremontrS  en  1882  (Caen) ; 
Valissant,  Histoire  de  Pr&montri  (Laon,  1876). 

F.  M.  Geudens. 


Prendergast,  Edmund.  See  Philadelphia,  Arch- 
diocese OF. 

Preparation,  Day  op.    See  Parascevb. 

Presanctified,  Mass  op  the.  See  Good  Friday; 
Holy  Week. 

Presbyterianism  in  a  wide  sense  is  the  system 
of  rhurch  government  by  representative  assemblies 
called  presbyteries,  in  opposition  to  government  by 
bishops  (episcopal  system,  prelacy),  or  by  congrega- 
tions (Congregationalism,  independency).  In  its 
strict  sense,  Presbyterianism  is  the  name  given  to  one 
of  the  groups  of  ecclesiastical  bodies  that  represent 
the  features  of  Protestantism  emphasized  by  Calvin. 
Of  the  various  churches  modelled  on  the  Swiss  Ref- 
ormation, the  Swiss,  Dutch,  and  some  German  are 
known  as  the  Reformed;  the  French  as  Huguenots 
(q.  v.);  those  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary  by  their 
national  names;  the  Scotch,  English,  and  derived 
churches  as  Presbyterian.  There  is  a  strong  family 
resemblance  between  all  these  churches,  and  many  of 
them  have  given  their  adherence  to  an  "  Alliance  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  throughout  the  World  holding 
the  Presbyterian  System",  formed  in  1876  with  the 
special  view  of  securing  interdenominational  co- 
operation in  general  church  work. 

I.  Distinctive  Principles. — The  most  important 
standards  of  orthodox  Presbyterianism  are  the  "West- 
minster Confession  of  Faith"  and  "Catechisms" 
of  1647  (see  Faith,  Protestant  Confessions  of). 
Their  contents,  however,  have  been  more  or  less 
modified  by  the  various  churches,  and  many  of  the 
formulas  of  subscription  prescribed  for  church  officials 
do  not  in  practice  require  more  than  a  qualified  ac- 
ceptance of  the  standards.  The  chief  distinctive 
features  set  forth  in  the  Westminster  declarations 
of  belief  are  Presbyterian  church  government, 
Calvinistic  theology,  and. absence  of  prescribed  forms 
of  worship. 

A.  Polity. — Between  the  episcopal  and  congrega- 
tional systems  of  church  government,  Presbyterianism 
holds  a  middle  position,  which  it  claims  to  be  the 
method  of  church  organization  indicated  in  the  New 
Testament.  On  the  one  hand,  it  declares  against 
hierarchical  government,  holding  that  all  clergymen 
are  peers  one  of  another,  and  that  church  authority 
is  vested  not  in  individuals  but  in  representative 
bodies  composed  of  lay  (ruling)  elders  and  duly 
ordained  (ruling  and  teaching  elders).  On  the  other 
hand,  Presbyterianism  is  opposed  to  Congregational 
independency  and  asserts  the  lawful  authority  of  the 
larger  church.  The  constitutions  of  most  of  the 
churches  provide  for  four  grades  of  administrative 
courts:  the  Session,  which  governs  the  congregation; 
the  Presbytery,  which  governs  a  number  of  congrega- 
tions within  a  limited  territory;  the  Synod,  which 
governs  the  congregations  within  a  larger  territory; 
and  the  General  Assembly,  which  is  the  highest  court. 
Generally  the  church  officers  include,  bewides  the 
pastor,  ruling  elders  and  deacons.  These  officers 
are  elected  by  the  congregation,  but  the  election  of 
the  pastor  is  subject  to  the  fipproval  of  the  presbytery. 
The  elders  with  the  pastor  as  presiding  officer  form 
the  session  which  supervises  the  spiritual  affairs  of 
the  congregation.  The  deacons  have  charge  of  cer- 
tain temporalities,  and  are  responsible  to  the  session. 

B.  Theology. — The  Westminster  Confession  gives 
great  prominence  to  the  question  of  predestination,  and 
favours  the  infralapsarian  view  of  reprobation.  It 
teaches  the  total  depravity  of  fallen  man  and  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  non-elect  from  the  benefits  of  Christ's 
atonement.  But  within  the  last  thirty  years  there 
has  been  a  tendency  to  mitigate  the  harsher  features 
of  Calvinistic  theology,  and  nearly  all  the  important 
Presbyterian  churches  have  officially  disavowed  the 
doctrines  of  total  depravity  and  limited  redemption. 


PRESBYTERIANISM 


393 


PRESBYTERIANISM 


Some  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  state  a  belief  that 
all  who  die  in  infancy  are  saved.  Such  passages  of 
the  standards  as  proclaim  the  necessity  of  a  union 
between  Church  and  State  and  the  duty  of  the  civil 
magistrate  to  suppress  heresy  have  also  to  a  great  ex- 
tent been  eliminated  or  modified.  In  its  doctrine 
on  the  Sacraments  the  Presbyterian  Church  is 
thoroughly  Calvinistic.  It  holds  that  baptism  is 
necessary  to  salvation  not  as  a  means  {necessitate 
medii),  but  only  as  something  that  has  been  com- 
manded (necessitate  prcecepti).  It  teaches  that 
Christ  is  present  in  the  Lord's  Supper  not  merely 
Bymbollioally,  as  Zwingli  held,  nor,  on  the  other  hand, 
substantially,  but  dynamically  or  effectively  and  for 
believers  only. 

C.  Worship. — No  invariable  forms  are  recognized 
in  the  conduct  of  public  services.  Directories  of  wor- 
ship have  been  adopted  as  aids  to  the  ordering  of  the 
various  offices  but  their  use  is  optional.  The  ser- 
vices are  generally  characterized  by  extreme  sim- 
plicity and  consist  of  hymns,  prayers,  and  readings 
from  the  Scriptures.  In  some  of  the  churches  in- 
strumental music  is  not  allowed  nor  the  use  of  any 
other  songs  than  those  contained  in  the  Book  of 
Psalms.  The  communion  rite  is  administered  at 
stated  intervals  or  on  days  appointed  by  the  church 
officers.  Generally  the  sermon  is  the  principal  part 
of  the  services.  In  Europe  and  in  some  American 
churches  the  minister  wears  a  black  gown  while  in 
the  pulpit.  Of  recent  years  certain  Presbyterian 
missionary  societies  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
have  used  a  form  Of  Mass  and  other  services  accord- 
ing to  the  Greek  liturgy  in  their  missions  for  Ruthe- 
nian  immigrants 

II.  History. — The  Presbyterian,  like  the  Refonned 
churches,  trace  their  origin  to  Calvin.  The  claims 
to  historical  continuity  from  the  Apostles  through  the 
Waldenses  and  the  Scotch  Culdees  have  been  refuted 
by  Presbyterian  scholars.  It  was  in  the  ecclesiaetical 
republics  of  Switzerland  that  the  churches  holding  the 
Presbyterian  polity  were  first  established.  John 
Knox  (q.  v.),  who  had  lived  with  Calvin  at  Geneva, 
impressed  upon  the  Scottish  Reformation  the  ideas 
of  his  master,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  father  of 
Presbyterianism  as  distinct  from  the  Reformed 
churches.  In  1560  a  Confession  of  Faith  which  he 
drew  up  was  sanctioned  by  the  Scotch  Parliament, 
which  also  ratified  the  jurisdiction  exercised  by  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  Kirk  or  the  Scotch  Establish- 
ment. There  have  been  many  divisions  among  the 
Presbyterians  of  Scotland,  but  to-day  nearly  all  the 
elements  of  Presbyterianism  in  that  country  have 
been  collected  into  two  great  churches:  the  Es- 
tablished Church  and  the  United  Free  Church  (see 
Scotland,  Established  Church  of).  After  Scot- 
land the  important  centres  of  Presbyterianism  are 
England,  Ireland,  Wales,  the  British  colonies,  and 
the  United  States. 

A.  England. — There  was  a  strong  Presbyterian 
tendency  among  certain  English  Reformers  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  For  a  time  men  like  Cranmer, 
Latimer,  and  Hooper  would  have  reconstructed  the 
church  after  the  manner  of  Geneva  and  Zurich,  but 
during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  "prelatical"  system 
triumphed  and  was  firmly  maintained  by  the  sover- 
eign. This  policy  was  opposed  by  the  Puritans  who 
included  both  Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists. 
Towards  the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  Presby- 
terians secretly  formed  an  organization  out  of  which 
grew  in  1572  the  first  English  presbytery.  During 
the  reigns  of  James  I  and  Charles  I  the  struggle  be- 
tween the  Established  Church  and  Presbyterianism 
continued.  In  1647  the  Long  Parliament  abolished 
the  prelacy  and  Presbyterianism  was  established 
as  the  national  religion.  In  the  same  year  the  West- 
minster Assembly  of  divines  presented  to   Parha- 


ment  its  Confession  of  Faith.  With  the  restoration 
of  the  monarchy  (1660),  the  State  Church  became 
once  more  episcopal.  English  Presbyterianism  now 
began  to  decline.  Its  principle  of  government  was 
quite  generally  abandoned  for  independent  adminis- 
tration, and  during  the  eighteenth  century  most  of 
its  churches  succumbed  to  rationalism.  But  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  a 
revival  of  Presbyterianism  in  England.  Those  who 
belonged  to  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Scotland  coalesced  in  1876  with  the  English  Presby- 
terian Synod  (an  independent  organization  since  the 
Scotch  disruption  of  1843),  forming  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  England,  which  is  a  very  active  body. 

B.  Wales.— The  "Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist 
Church"  had  its  origin  prior  to,  and  independent  of, 
English  Methodism.  Its  first  organization  was  ef- 
fected in  1736,  and  it  shared  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
Methodists  of  England  under  the  Wesleys,  but  dif- 
fered from  them  in  doctrine  and  polity,  the  English 
being  Arminian  and  episcopal,  the  Welsh,  Calvinis- 
tic and  presbyterian.  A  Confession  of  Faith  adopted 
in  1823  follows  the  Westminster  Confession,  but  is 
silent  as  to  election  and  the  asperities  of  the  Cal- 
vinistic doctrine  of  reprobation.  In  1864  a  General 
Assembly  was  organized.  The  Welsh  Presbyterians 
give  great  attention  to  home  and  foreign  missions. 

C.  Ireland. — The  history  of  Presbyterianism  in 
Ireland  dates  from  the  Ulster  plantation  during  the 
reign  of  James  I.  The  greater  part  of  Ulster  had 
been  confiscated  to  the  crown,  and  thither  emigrated 
a  large  number  of  Scotch  Presbyterians.  At  first 
they  received  special  consideration  from  the  Govern- 
ment, but  this  policy  was  reversed  whilst  William 
Laud  was  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  indepen- 
dent life  of  Presbyterianism  in  Ireland  began  with  the 
formation  of  the  Presbytery  of  Ulster  in  1642,  but  i^s 
growth  was  checked  for  a  time  after  the  Stuart  res- 
toration in  1660.  During  the  eighteenth  and  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  a  general 
departure  from  the  old  standards  and  Unitarian 
tendencies  caused  various  dissensions  among  the 
Ulster  Presbyterians.  There  are  still  two  Presby- 
terian bodies  in  Ireland  that  are  Unitarian.  The 
disruption  in  the  Scottish  churches  and  other  causes 
produced  further  divisions,  and  to-day  there  are,  ex- 
clusive of  the  two  mentioned  above,  five  Presby- 
terian bodies  in  Ireland,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland. 

D.  Colonial  and  Missionary  Churches. — Presby- 
terianism in  Canada  dates  its  origin  from  1765,  when 
a  military  chaplain  began  regular  ministrations  in 
Quebec.  There  was  very  little  growth,  however, 
until  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when 
British  immigration  set  in.  Before  1835  there  were 
six  independent  organizations.  The  disruption  of 
1843  in  Scotland  had  its  echo  in  Canada,  and  seces- 
sionist bodies  were  formed,  but  during  the  sixties 
four  organic  unions  prepared  the  way  for  the  con- 
solidation in  1875  of  all  the  important  bodies  into  one 
denomination,  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada. 
There  remain  only  two  small  organizations  not  af- 
filiated with  this  main  body.  The  Canadian  Church 
maintains  many  educational  institutions  and  carries 
on  extensive  mission  work.  Its  doctrinal  standards 
are  latitudinarian.  Canada  has  the  largest  of  the 
colonial  churches,  but  there  are  important  Presby- 
terian organizations  in  the  other  British  possessions. 
In  Australia  Presbyterianism  may  be  dated  from  the 
formation  of  the  Presbytery  of  New  South  Wales 
in  1826.  There  have  been  several  divisions  since 
then,  but  at  present  all  the  churches  of  the  six  prov- 
inces are  federated  in  one  General  Assembly.  In 
New  Zealand  the  church  of  North  Island,  an  offshoot 
of  the  Scottish  Kirk,  organized  1856,  and  the  church 
of  South  Island  (founded  by  Scottish  Free  Church- 
men,  1854)  have  consolidated  in  one  General  As- 


PRESBYTERIANISM 


394 


PRESBYTERIANISM 


sembly.  There  is  a  considerable  number  of  Scotch 
and  English  Presbyterians  in  S.  Africa.  In  1909  they 
proposed  a  basis  of  union  to  the  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
Congregationalists,  and  Baptists,  but  thus  far  with- 
out result.  In  Southern  India  a  basis  of  union  was 
agreed  on  by  the  Congregationalists,  Methodists, 
and  Presbyterians  in  July,  1908.  There  are  Presby- 
terian churches  organized  by  British  and  American 
missionaries  in  various  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  Mexico, 
S.  America,  and  the  West  Indies. 

E.  United  States. — In  tracing  the  history  of  Pres- 
byterianism  in  the  United  States,  the  churches  may 
be  di\dded  into  three  groups:  (1)  the  American 
churches,  which  largely  discarded  foreign  influences; 
(2)  the  Scottish  churches,  directly  descended  from 
Presbyterian  bodies  in  Scotland;  (3)  the  Welsh 
church,  a  descendant  of  the  Calvinistic  Methodist 
church  of  Wales. 

(1)  The  American  Churches. — The  earliest  Amer- 
ican Presbyterian  churches  were  established  in  Vir- 
ginia, New  England,  Maryland,  and  Delaware  during 
the  seventeenth  century  and  were  chiefly  of  Eng- 
lish origin.  The  man  who  brou.'Jiht  the  scattered 
churches  into  organic  unity,  and  who  is  considered  as 
the  apostle  of  American  Presb3rterianism,  was  Rev. 
Francis  Makennie  from  the  Presbytery  of  Laggan, 
Ireland.  With  six  other  ministers  he  organized  in 
1706  the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphia,  which  ten  years 
later  was  constituted  a  synod.  Between  1741  and 
1758  the  synod  was  divided  into  two  bodies,  the 
"Old  Side"  and  the  "New  Side",  because  of  disagree- 
ments as  to  the  requirements  for  the  ministry  and 
the  interpretation  of  the  standards.  During  this 
period  of  separation  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  later 
Princeton  University,  was  established  by  the  "New 
Side",  with  Rev.  John  Witherspoon,  afterwards  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  as  first 
president.  In  1788  the  synod  adopted  a  constitu- 
tion, and  a  general  assembly  was  established.  The 
dissolution  of  the  Cumberland  Presbytery  by  the 
Synod  of  Kentucky  led  to  the  formation  in  1810  of 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  From  con- 
troversies regarding  missionary  work  and  doctrinal 
matters  two  independent  branches  resulted  (1S.37), 
the  "Old  School"  and  the  "New  School".  Both 
lost  most  of  their  southern  presbyteries  when  anti- 
slavery  resolutions  were  passed.  The  seceders 
united  to  form  a  southern  church  known  since  1865 
as  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States. 
Fraternal  relations  exist  between  the  northern  and 
the  southern  churches,  who  are  kept  apart  especially 
by  their  different  policies  as  to  the  races.  In  the 
Cumberland  church  the  coloured  members  were  or- 
ganized into  a  separate  denomination  in  1869.  That 
same  year  the  "Old  School"  and  the  "New  School" 
reunited,  forming  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  the  largest  and  most  in- 
fluential of  the  Presbyterian  bodies  in  America. 
Since  then  its  harmony  has  been  seriously  threatened 
only  by  the  controversy  as  to  the  sources  of  authority 
in  religion,  and  the  authority  and  credibility  of  the 
Scriptures  (1891-4).  This  difficulty  terminated  with 
the  trials  of  Prof.  Charles  A.  Briggs  and  Prof.  H.  P. 
Smith,  in  which  the  court  declared  its  loyalty  to  the 
views  of  the  historic  standards.  In  1903  the  church 
revived  the  Confession  of  Faith,  mitigating  "the 
knotty  points  of  Calvinism"  Its  position  became 
thereby  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  the  Cumber- 
land church  (white),  and  three  years  later  (1906) 
the  two  bodies  entered  into  an  organic  union.  X 
part  of  the  Cumberland  church,  however,  repudiated 
the  action  of  it.s  general  assembly  and  still  under- 
takes to  perpetuate  itself  as  a  separate  denomination. 

(2)  The  Scottish  Churches.— (a)  Seceders.  The 
second  secessionist  body  from  the  established  church 
of  Scotland,  the  Associated  Synod  (Seceders),  or- 
ganized through  its  missionaries  in   1753   the  As- 


Bociate  Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania.  Not  long  after 
another  separatist  body  of  Scotland,  the  Old  Cove- 
nanter Church  (Cameronians),  founded  a  daughter 
church  in  America  known  as  the  Reformed  Presby- 
tery (1774).  In  1782  these  new  seceder  and  covenan- 
ter bodies  united  under  the  name  of  Associate  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church.  Some  members  of  the 
former  body  refused  to  enter  this  union  and  con- 
tinued the  Associate  Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania. 
There  were  secessions  from  the  united  organization 
in  1801,  and  1820.  In  1858  nearly  all  these  various 
elements  were  brought  together  in  the  United  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  North  America.  Two  bodies  that 
remain  outside  this  union  are  the  Associate  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church,  which  since  1821  has  main- 
tained an  independent  existence,  and  the  Associate 
Synod  of  North  America,  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
Associate  Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania,  founded  in 
1858  by  those  who  preferred  to  continue  their  own 
organization  rather  than  enter  into  the  union  effected 
that  year,  (b)  Cameronians  or  Covenanters. — 
The  Reformed  Presbytery,  which  merged  with  the 
Associate  Presbytery  in  1782,  was  renewed  in  an  in- 
dependent existence  in  1798  by  the  isolated  covenan- 
ters who  had  taken  no  part  in  the  union  of  1782. 
This  renewed  presbytery  expanded  into  a  synod  in 
1809.  In  1833  there  was  a  division  into  two  branches, 
the  "Old  Lights"  (synod)  and  the  "New  Lights" 
(general  synod),  caused  by  disagreements  as  to  the 
attitude  the  church  should  take  towards  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States.  In  1840  two  minis- 
ters, dissatisfied  with  what  they  considered  laxity 
among  the  "Old  Lights",  withdrew  from  the  synod, 
and  formed  the  "Covenanted  Reformed  Church" 
which  has  been  several  times  disorganized  and  counts 
only  a  handful  of  members.  In  1883  dissatisfaction 
with  a  disciplinary  decision  of  the  general  synod 
(New  Lights)  caused  the  secession  of  a  small  number 
of  its  members,  who  have  formed  at  Allegheny,  Pa., 
the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Negotiations  for  a  union  of  the 
general  synod  and  the  synod  were  made  in  1890,  but 
were  unsuccessful. 

(3)  The  Welsh  Church. — The  first  organization 
of  a  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  church  in  the  United 
States  was  at  Remsen,  N.  Y.,  in  1824.  Four  years 
later  a  presbytery  was  established,  and  the  growth 
of  the  denomination  has  kept  pace  with  the  increase 
in  the  Welsh  population.  The  English  language  is 
fast  gaining  control  in  the  church  services. 

III.  Statistics.  The  Presbyterian  denomina- 
tion throughout  the  world,  exclusive  of  the  Reformed 
churches,  numbers  over  5,000,000  communicants. 
Of  these  the  United  States  has  1,897,534  (12  bodies); 
Scotland,  1,233,226  (6  bodies);  Canada,  289,556 
(3  bodies);  Wales,  195,000;  Ireland,  112,481  (4 
bodies);  England,  90,808  (2  bodies);  Australia, 
50,000;  New  Zealand,  28,000;  Jamaica,  12,017; 
S.  Africa,  11,323. 

Benson,  Non-Caiholic  Denominations  (New  York,  1910), 
91-117;  Lyon,  A  Study  of  the  Sects  (Boston,  1891),  99-109; 
New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.  of  Religious  Knowledge,  IX  (New  York, 
1911),  s.  V. 

I. — A. — Hodge,  Discussions  in  Church  Polity  (New  York, 
1878):  Idem,  What  is  Presbyterian  Law  as  Defined  by  the  Church 
Courts?  (Philadelphia,  1882);  Thompson,  The  Historic  Epis- 
copate (Philadelphia,  1910).  B. — Schaff,  The  Creeds  of  Chris- 
tendom (New  York,  1905),  I,  669-817;  III,  600-76;  Hodge, 
Systematic  Theology  (3  vols..  New  York,  188.5);  Smith,  The 
Creed  of  the  Presbyterians  (New  York,  1901) ;  Encyc.  of  Religion 
and  Ethics,  III  (New  York,  1911),  see  Confessions.  C. — Baird, 
Eutaxia,  or  the  Presbyterian  Liturgies  (New  York,  1855) ;  Shields, 
Liturgia  Expurgata  (New  York,  1844) ;  The  Book  of  Common 
Worship  (Philadelphia,  1906). 

II. — Kerr,  The  People's  History  of  Presbyterianism  (Rich- 
mond, 1SS8) :  Broadley,  The  Rise  and  Progress  of  Presbyte- 
rianism; Drysdale,  History  of  Presbyterianism  in  England  (Lon- 
don, 1880):  Reid,  a  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland 
(3  vols.,  Belfast,  1867);  Patton,  Popular  History  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  United  States  (New  York,  1900) ;  Thompson, 
A  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  in  the  United  States  (New 
York,  1895)  in  Am.  Church  Hist.  Ser.,  VI,  bibliog.,  xi-xxzi; 
Amer.  Church  Hist.  Ser.,  XI,  145-479. 


PRESBYTERY 


395 


PRESCRIPTION 


III. — Stephens,  The  Presbyterian  Churches  (Philadelphia, 
1910) ;  RoBEKTS,  The  Presbyterian  Handbook  (Philadelphia,  1911). 

J.   A.   McHuGH. 

Presbytery. — The  part  of  the  church  reserved  for 
the  higher  clergy  was  known  in  antiquity  by  various 
names,  among  them  presbyterium,  because  of  its  occu- 
pation during  the  hturgical  functions  by  the  priests  at- 
tached to  a  church,  arranged  in  a  half -circle  round  the 
bishop.  The  presbytery  was  also  known  as  apsis, 
exedra,  concha,  designations  referring  to  its  form; 
benia  from  the  fact  that  it  was  elevated  above  the 
level  of  the  nave  and  in  consequence  reached  by  a 
stairway  of  a  few  steps;  tribuna  because  of  its  location 
and  general  resemblance  to  the  tribunal  in  civil  basil- 
icas whence  the  magistrates  administered  justice. 
These  various  names  were,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  mostly 
superseded  by  the  term  choir,  which  in  turn  yielded  to 
the  modern  term  sanctuary.  The  presbytery  was 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  church  by  rails  (can- 
celli).  Eusebius,  in  his  dedication  oration  at  Tyre 
(H.  E.,  X,  iv),  describes  this  feature  of  the  church  and 
its  objects:  "the  Holy  of  Holies,  the  altar",  he  ex- 
plains, was  inclosed  with  wooden  lattice-work,  accu- 
rately wrought  with  artistic  carving  to  render  it  "  inac- 
cessitjle  to  the  multitude".  In  Constantinople,  as  ap- 
pears from  the  episode  related  by  Theodoret  in  which 
the  actors  were  Theodosius  the  Great  and  St.  Ambrose, 
the  emperor  was  accustomed  to  remain  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  presbytery  during  the  celebration  of  the 
hturgy,  but  in  the  West  this  was  not  permitted  (Theo- 
doret, H.  E.,  V,  17).  The  Council  in  Trullo  (canon 
bdx),  following  an  ancient  tradition,  specifically  ex- 
cepts the  emperor  from  the  general  rule  reserv- 
ing the  presbytery  to  the  clergy.  Fi'om  this  strict 
prohibition  relative  to  the  laity  the  term  adyta 
(inaccessible)  came  to  be  used  of  the  presbytery. 
Presbyterium  also  denoted  a  body  of  priests  taken 
collectively.  In  modern  times  the  house  of  the  clergy 
is  frequently  called  the  presbytery  (vresbytkre). 

Bingham,  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,  V,  III,  b.  8  (Ox- 
ford, 18S5).  Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Prescription  (Lat.  prce,  before,  and  scribere,  to 
write,  in  later  legal  Latin  involving  the  idea  of 
limitation)  is  a  method  created  by  law  for  acquiring 
ownership  or  ridding  oneself  of  certain  burdens  on  the 
fulfilment  of  fixed  conditions.  It  is,  therefore,  either 
acquisitive  or  liberating,  the  former  being  frequently 
termed  usucaption.  Prescription  has  its  origin  in 
enactments  of  the  civil  law  which  have  been  con- 
firmed by  the  canon  law  and  which  so  far  as  the 
principle  underlying  them  is  concerned  are  uni- 
versally acknowledged  to  be  perfectly  valid  in  con- 
science. Pubhc  good  demands  that  provision  should 
be  made  for  security  of  title  to  property  as  well  as 
for  the  prevention  of  litigation  as  much  as  possible. 
Hence  the  State,  using  its  right  of  eminent  domain, 
may  for  grave  reasons  of  the  common  welfare  trans- 
fer ownership  from  one  individual  to  another  or  re- 
lease from  lawful  obligations.  A  person,  therefore, 
who  has  under  the  proper  conditions  acquired  real 
estate  by  prescription  may  retain  it  with  a  safe  con- 
science even  though  the  former  owner  were  to  appear 
and  claim  it.  •  ■      i 

Prescription,  deriving  its  value  from  positive  law, 
presupposes  certain  conditions  in  order  to  produce 
the  effect  attributed  to  it.  Moralists  are  agreed  that 
the  object,  the  ownership  of  which  is  to  pass,  must  be 
open  to  prescription.  It  must  be  something  that  may 
be  made  the  subject  matter  of  private  barter  and  to 
which  it  is  possible  to  gain  a  title  recognized  by  both 
natural  and  positive  law.  Thus  one  could  not  secure 
dominion  over  a  public  highway  on  pretence  that 
prescription  had  operated  in  his  behalf.  The  reason 
is  that  the  authority  of  the  law  cannot  be  invoked, 
without  which  the  process  falls.  _ 

2.  The  beneficiary  must  act  in  good  faith.    The 


civil  codes  are  not  so  explicit  in  demanding  this,  but 
in  conscience  it  is  essential.  This  simply  means  that 
a  man  must  be  honestly  convinced  that  what  he 
has  in  his  possession  really  belongs  to  him.  The 
Fourth  Lateran  Council  requires  this  in  no  uncertain 
terms.  Prescription  cannot  legitimize  theft  or  de- 
tention of  property  known  to  be  that  of  another.  It 
may  be  noted,  however,  that  when  the  scope  of  the 
prescription  is  to  free  one  from  certain  servitudes, 
and  the  attitude  of  him  who  profits  by  it  need  only 
be  passive,  then  "good  faith"  is  interpreted  to  mean 
that  he  should  not  hinder  the  other  party  exercising 
his  right;  he  is  not  bound  to  warn  him  that  prescrip- 
tion is  running  against  him.  This  has  its  applica- 
tion in  rural  districts  and  with  regard  to  such  matters 
as  the  right  to  fish,  to  draw  water,  to  pasture,  and 
the  like.  Bad  faith  on  the  part  of  a  decedent  will 
prevent  his  immediate  and  sole  heir  from  availing 
himself  of  prescription.  The  heir  is  then  juridically 
one  person  with  the  deceased  and  must  take  over  the 
latter's  obligations.  Consequently  he  can  no  more 
benefit  by  it  than  could  his  predecessor.  In  addition 
the  good  faith  which  is  indispensable  for  prescription 
postulates  in  the  possessor  of  a  thing  some  sort  of 
title  to  it.  It  need  not  be  a  true  title  because  then 
there  would  be  no  need  of  prescription.  It  must 
have  the  semblance  of  a  good  title,  such  as  the  pur- 
chase of  something  which  did  not  as  a  matter  of 
fact  belong  to  the  seller,  or  at  least  there  must  be 
valid  ground  for  supposing  the  existence  of  a  title 
as  in  the  case  of  things  acquired  by  inheritance. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  law,  prescription  is 
unintelligible  without  the  fact  of  possession,  whether 
this  last  stand  for  the  holding  of  some  thing  or  the 
enjoyment  of  some  right.  Either  way  the  possession 
referred  to  must  be  accompanied  by  a  veritable 
proprietary  state  of  mind  and  is  not  satisfied  by 
fiduciary  relations  such  as  trusteeship  or  by  those  of 
deposit,  rental,  and  the  like.  Theologians  exact  as 
necessary  qualities  of  this  possession  that  it  should 
be  peaceable,  that  is,  not  assailed  by  lawsuits,  sure, 
uninterrupted,  and  open,  that  is,  not  clandestine. 
Much  stress  is  laid  on  the  fact  of  possession  by  the 
common  law  which  regards  it  as  the  very  foundation 
of  prescription.  Tenure  of  property,  other  requisites 
being  verified,  will  confer  a  right  by  prescription  not 
only  to  the  land  or  buildings  as  the  case  may  be  but 
also  to  such  income  as  may  have  been  derived  from 
them  in  the  meantime. 

The  plea  of  prescription  cannot  be  successfully  ad- 
vanced unless  it  can  be  shown  that  possession  has 
been  had  over  a  period  of  time  stipulated  by  law. 
This  space  is  different  for  different  kinds  of  goods. 
The  canon  law  allows  prescription  of  movables  on 
proof  of  possession  for  three  years  with  at  least  a 
supposed  title;  without  other  title  than  that  they  have 
been  held  a  long  time,  possession  for  thirty  years  is 
required.  Against  immovable  ecclesiastical  property 
prescription  may  be  used  only  after  possession  for 
forty  years,  whilst  a  special  provision  demands  an 
hundred  years  when  the  action  lies  against  the  Roman 
Church.  The  civil  law  in  various  countries  exhibits 
such  substantial  differences  in  fixing  this  require- 
ment that  there  is  no  way  to  summarize  it.  In 
general  a  longer  time  is  required  for  immovable  than 
movable  property.  In  the  United  States  of  America 
many  of  the  States  exact  twenty  years  for  immovables; 
in  Maine  forty  years  are  necessary,  whilst  in  others 
the  time  sinks  to  seven  or  even  five  years  as  in  Cali- 
fornia. In  England  rights  of  common  and  all  other 
profits  from  land  become  absolute  and  indefeasible 
after  sixty  years.  The  same  is  true  of  rights  of  way 
and  easements  in  general  after  forty  years.  More- 
over, prescriptive  rights  may  be  extinguished  and  will 
be  presumed  to  have  lapsed  when  they  have  not  been 
used  for  twenty  years,  or  sometimes  even  less. 

Slater,  Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908) ;  Tauh- 


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TON,  The  Lav  of  the  Church  (London,  1906);  Sabetti,  Com- 
pendium  Iheol.  moral.  (Ratisbon,  1902) ;  Ballehini,  Opus  theol. 
morale  (Prato,  1899).  JOSEPH  F.   DelANY. 

In  Civil  Jtjhisprudence. — Prescription  "in  some 
form  and  under  some  name"  is  said  to  have  existed 
as  a  part  of  the  mmiicipal  law  of  every  civilized  na- 
tion, except  the  Jewish  [Angell,  "A  treatise  on  the 
limitations  of  actions"  (Boston,  1876),  5;  Broom, 
"A  selection  of  legal  maxims"  (London,  1911),  690; 
Domat,  "The  Civil  law  in  its  natural  order",  tr. 
Strahan  (Boston,  1850),  sections  2183,  2184],  and 
Devas,  "Political  Economy"  (London,  1901),  491, 
remarks  that  "the  doctrine  of  prescription  in  econom- 
ics as  well  as  in  politics  is  essential  to  social  wel- 
fare." It  is  in  accord  with  public  policy  that  owner- 
ship of  things  which  the  law  considers  capable  of 
ownership  (Broom,  op.  cit.,  279)  should  not  remain 
forever  uncertain,  and  that  litigation  should  not  be 
immortal,  litigants  themselves  being  mortal  (Voet, 
cited  on  title  page,  Brown,  "The  law  of  limitation 
as  to  real  property,"  London,  1869),  and  their  muni- 
ments of  title  perishable  (Angell,  op.  cit.,  2).  In  the 
old  Roman  law  usucapio  (rem  usu  capio)  was  the 
process  by  which  a  Roman  citizen's  possession  of  a 
corporeal  thing  during  a  length  of  time  defined  by 
law  "ripened  .  .  .  into  full  ownership"  {dominium) 
["The  Institutes  of  Justinian",  tr.  Sandars  (London, 
1898),  II,  tit.  VI;  Pothier,  "Pandectae  Justinianese", 
XLI,  tit.  Ill,  1,  11].  "Fundus",  remarks  Cicero 
(Oratio  pro  Csecina,  26),  "a  patre  relinqui  potest,  at 
usucapio  fundi,  hoc  est,  finis  solicitudinis  ac  periculi 
litium,  nan  a  patre  relinquitur  sed  a  legibus ",  the 
land  is  derived  from  the  ancestor,  but  its  quiet 
enjoyment  from  usucaption.  This  method  of  as- 
surance of  title  was  not  open  to  foreigners  {peregrini) ; 
nor  could  it  be  applied  to  provincial  land  {solum 
provinciate),  for  in  such  land  Roman  law  recognized 
no  right  of  ownership,  but  right  of  possession  only. 
To  supply  these  defects  there  was  provided  under  the 
empire,  in  favour  of  foreigners  and  of  possessors  of 
provincial  land  during  a  defined  time,  a  written 
formula  of  defence  or  exception,  otherwise  called  a 
prcBscriplio,  the  longi  temporis  or  longm  possessionis 
prcBscriptio.  Taken  alone,  the  word  prcescriptio  simply 
signified  a  formula  available  to  defendants  in  a 
legal  action  for  the  purpose  of  limiting  its  inquiry 
("The  Institutes  of  Justinian",  Introduction,  sect. 
104),  and  possession  remained  no  more  than  a  de- 
fence until  a  law  of  Justinian  allowed  a  right  of 
action  founded  on  possession  for  thirty  years  [Girard, 
"Manuel  ^l^montaire  de  droit  romain"  (Paris,  1901), 
300,  298],  the  longissimi  temporis  possessio  [Leage, 
"Roman  Private  Law"  (London,  1906),  142]. 

The  operation  of  usucapio  was  subject  to  some  re- 
strictions similar  to  those  of  canon  law  prescription. 
A  purchaser  in  good  faith  and  for  full  value  from  a  thief 
would  not,  by  usucaption,  acquire  ownership  in  the 
thing  stolen,  nor  would  ownership  thus  accrue  to  one 
who  acquired  possession,  knowing  that  the  thing 
really  belonged  to  another  (Leage,  op.  cit.,  135,  136). 
Nor  could  property  be  gained  by  usucapio  or  right 
of  possession  by  prcescriplio,  in  a  thing  taken  by 
violence  (Girard,  op.  cit,,  298;  cf.  as  to  prcescriplio, 
299,  note  3).  The  law  of  Justinian  just  referred  to 
conferred  ownership  on  a  possessor  in  good  faith, 
but  only  if  no  violence  had  been  used  (Leage,  op.  cit., 
142).  "Length* of  time",  remarks  Domat,  does  not 
secure  unjust  possessors  from  the  guilt  of  sin,  .  . 
on  the  contrary,  their  long  possession  is  only  a  con- 
tinuance of  their  injustice."  But  this  authority  on 
the  modern  civil  law  holds  that  "  civil  policy  does  not 
permit  that  possessors  be  molested  after  a  long  pos- 
session, or  that  they  be  obliged  to  make  good  their 
titles  or  even  to  declare  the  origin  of  their  possession. 
For  the  pretext  of  inquiring  after  unjust  possessors 
would  disturb  the  peace  and  quiet  of  just  and  lawful 
possessors"  (note  to  section  2209). 


In  English  law  the  term  prescription  is  applied  to 
rights  only  which  are  defined  to  be  incorporeal  here- 
ditaments, such  as  a  right  of  way  or  a  common  or  an 
advowson.  "No  prescription",  remarks  Blackstone, 
"can  give  a  title  to  lands  and  other  corporeal  sub- 
stances of  which  more  certain  evidence  may  be  had" 
(Commentaries,  II,  264,  266;   III,  250). 

According  to  English  law  if  a  legal  beginning  be 
possible  [English  Law  Reports,  17  Appeal  cases  (1882), 
648;  Brown,  op.  cit.,  139],  it  will  be  presumed  from 
use  during  the  defined  time,  such  length  of  use  estab- 
lishing a  conclusive  presumption  that  even  a  person 
whose  use  had  commenced  wrongfully  has  procured 
a  legal  title  [Broom,  op.  cit.,  689;  Lightwood,  "A 
treatise  on  possession  of  land"  (London,  1894),  153]. 
But  this  presumption  only  holds  against  a  person  who 
is  deemed  capable  of  asserting  his  rights  and  who  is 
not  under  legal  disability;  for  contra  non  valentem  agere 
nulla  currit  prcescriplio  (Broom,  op.  cit.,  696).  Against 
those  unable  to  act  the  maxim  vigilantibv^  non  dormien- 
tihus  jura  subveniunt — the  law  assists  those  who  are 
vigilant,  not  those  who  sleep  over  their  rights — does  not 
apply  [ibid.,  689;  Wood,  "A  treatise  on  the  limitation 
of  actions"  (Boston,  1901),  416,  417].  The  use  neces- 
sary to  gain  right  by  prescription  must  not  only  be 
long,  but  "without  force,  without  secrecy,  as  of  right 
and  without  interruption"  (Wood,  op.  cit.,  418,  note), 
" nee  vi,  nee  clam  nee  precario"  ("The  Institutes  of 
Justinian",  II,  tit.  iii). 

Until,  as  to  most  instances,  altered  by  modern 
statutes,  the  period  required  to  make  a  prescription 
good  by  English  law  was  "time  whereof  the  memory 
of  man  runneth  not  to  the  contrary",  and  the  law 
deemed  memory  to  run  as  far  back  at  least  as  the 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  Richard  I  (a.  d. 
1189)  [Stephen,  "New  Commentaries  on  the  Laws 
of  England"  (London,  1908),  I,  468,  470;  Hor- 
wood,  "Year  Books  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward 
the  First"  (London,  1866),  136,  426].  In  this  re- 
quirement of  time,  prescription  and  that  other  im- 
memorial right  known  as  custom  were  alike.  But 
prescription  differs  from  custom  in  being  personal, 
while  custom  is  local  and  for  many  persons,  "generally 
as  an  undefined  class  but  of  a  particular  locality" 
(Brown,  op.  cit.,  213).  The  English  law  term  for 
the  acquiring  of  title  to  land  by  long  possession  and 
claim  is  adverse  possession.  In  England,  during  the 
early  Norman  period,  the  discretion  of  the  judges 
regulated  the  time  within  which  possessors  of  land 
might  be  disturbed  in  their  possession.  Afterwards 
by  various  statutes  the  dates  of  certain  important 
events,  such  as  the  return  of  King  John  from  Ireland, 
the  coronation  of  Henry  III,  or,  similarly  to  prescrip- 
tion, the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Richard  I, 
limited  the  commencement  of  various  actions  to 
recover  land  (Lightwood,  op.  cit.,  154,  155).  The 
earliest  statute  defining  a  certain  number  of  years  as 
a  limitation  to  an  action  affecting  land  was  a  statute 
of  32  Henry  8  [Carson,  "Real  property  statutes" 
(London,  1902),  124].  Possession  of  land  neces- 
sary to  gain  title  by  adverse  possession  must  be 
"so  open,  notorious  and  important  as  to  operate  as 
a  notice  to  all  parties  that  it  is  under  a  claim  of 
right";  the  possessor  "must  possess,  use  and  occupy 
the  land  as  owner  and  aa  an  owner  would  do,"  not  as 
would  a  mere  trespasser  (Wood,  op.  cit.,  583,  584). 
Charles  W.  Sloane. 

Presence,  Real.    See  Eucharist. 

Presence  of  God. — Doctrinal. — All  solid  devotion 
and  devotional  practices  must  be  founded  upon  the 
truths  of  faith,  and  these  truths  must  be  borne  in  mind 
when  treating  of  the  presence  of  God  from  an  asceti- 
cal  and  devotional  point  of  view.  First,  it  is  of  faith 
that  God  is  present  by  His  Essence  everywhere  and  in 
all  things  by  reason  of  His  Immensity.  (Creed  of  St. 
Athanasius;  Council  of  Lateran,  c.  "Firmiter";  Vati- 


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397 


PRESENTATION 


can  Council,  Sess.  Ill,  c.  i.)  It  is  also  of  faith  that 
God  is  in  an  especial  manner  really  and  substantially 
present  in  the  souls  of  the  just.  This  indwelling  of 
God  in  the  souls  of  the  just  is  attributed  by  what  the- 
ologians call  appropriation  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  but  in 
reality  it  is  common  to  the  three  Divine  Persons. 

Ascetical. — To  put  ourselves  in  the  presence  of  God, 
or  to  live  in  the  presence  of  God,  as  spiritual  writers 
express  it,  means  to  become  actually  conscious  of  God 
as  present,  or  at  least  so  to  live  as  though  we  were  thus 
actually  conscious.  It  is  a  simple  act  which  involves 
the  impression  of  the  unseen  Being  with  whom  we 
have  immediate  relation  and  familiar  converse,  whose 
goodness  towards  us  is  assured,  and  who  loves  us  with 
an  everlasting  love;  who  exercises  a  particular  provi- 
dence among  us,  who  is  present  everywhere  and 
"who",  in  the  words  of  Cardinal  Newman,  "is  heart- 
reading,  heart-changing,  ever  accessible  and  open  to 
penetration"  (Grammar  of  Assent,  112).  The  simple 
child  as  well  as  the  advanced  contemplative  may  thus 
represent  God  as  present  to  the  mind,  and  live  in  the 
consciousness  of  His  presence.  It  is  only  the  angels 
and  blessed  who  can  behold  the  face  of  God. 

The  servant  of  God  or  the  devout  soul  may  be  mind- 
ful of  His  presence  in  another  way,  namely,  by  the  ex- 
ercise of  reason  directed  by  faith.  He  sees  God  in  the 
earth,  the  sea,  the  air  and  in  all  things;  in  heaven 
where  He  manifests  His  glory,  in  hell  where  He  carries 
out  the  law  of  His  justice.  He  thinks  of  Him  as  pres- 
ent in  all  things  within  us  and  without  us,  and  espe- 
cially as  dwelling  secretly  in  his  innermost  soul,  hidden 
from  all  our  senses,  yet  speaking,  as  it  were,  to  the 
conscience  with  a  voice  that  is  in  us  but  not  of  us;  the 
voice  of  One  who  is  with  us  yet  over  us. 

Devotional. — One  may  therefore  practise  the  devo- 
tion of  living  in  the  presence  of  God:  (1)  by  a  lively 
faith  in  that  Divine  presence,  that  God  is  near  us  and 
within  us  as  Elias  says:  "the  Lord  liveth  ...  in 
whose  sight  I  stand"  (III  Kings,  xvii,  1;  cf.  IV  Kings, 
iii,  14) ;  (2)  when  distracted  the  mind  may  be  easily 
brought  back  to  the  remembrance  of  God's  presence 
by  the  simple  reflection:  "The  Lord  is  here"; "The 
Lord  sees  me";  (3)  when  occupied  with  conversation 
or  business  by  breathing  from  time  to  time  some  secret 
aspiration  or  affection  for  God  and  then  keeping  the 
mind  recollected ;  (4)  in  dereliction  of  spirit,  by  keeping 
God  in  mind  more  faithfully,  knowing  that  nothing 
can  come  between  Him  and  the  soul  but  grave  sin, 
through  which  His  special  operation  in  the  soul  by 
grace  ceases.  Men  may  be  said  to  come  to  God  as 
they  become  more  like  Him  in  goodness,  and  to  with- 
draw from  Him,  when  they  become  unlike  Him  by 
their  wickedness. 

As  the  immediate  preparation  for  mental  prayer,  it 
is  fitting  and  necessary  "to  place  ourselves  in  the  pres- 
ence of  God".  This  is  to  be  done  by  an  act  of  faith  in 
the  Divine  presence,  from  which  should  follow:  (1)  an 
act  of  adoration;  (2)  an  act  of  humility;  (3)  an  act  of 
sorrow  or  contrition;  (4)  an  act  of  petition  for  light  and 
grace.  These  acts  may  be  made  in  the  mterior  of  the 
soul.  . 

Blosius,  InsHlutio  Spiriiualis,  English  version  by  Wilbee- 
FOBCE  CLondon,  1900) ;  Devine,  A  Manual  of  Myshcal  Theology 
(London,  1903);  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  Treatise  onthe  LoveofOod; 
Tyrrell,  Hard  Sayings  CLondon,  1898) ;  Lesbics,  De  perfechont- 
bus  divinis:  de  Immensitate  Dei;  Vallqoneba,  Myshca  llieologm 
Divi  Thomm  (Turin,  1890).  ARTHUR  DeVINE.  . 

Presentation,  Order  op  the,  founded  at  Cork,  Ire- 
land, by  Nano  (Honoria)  Nagle  (see  below).  In  1775 
she  entered  with  some  companions  on  a  novitiate  for 
the  religious  life.  With  them  she  received  the  habit 
29  June,  1776,  taking  the  name  of  Mother  Mary  of  bt. 
John  of  God.  They  made  their  first  annual  vows  24 
June,  1777.  The  foundress  had  begun  the  erection  of 
a  convent  close  to  that  which  she  had  built  for  the 
Ursulines,  and  it  was  opened  on  Christmas  Day,  1777. 
They  adopted  as  their  title  "Sisters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart",  which  was  changed  in  1791  to  that  of     Pres- 


entation Sisters".  Their  habit  was  similar  to  that  of 
the  Ursulines.  The  second  superioress  was  Mother 
Mary  Angela  Collins.  Soon  after  her  succession  a  set 
of  rules,  adapted  from  that  of  St.  Augustine,  was 
drawn  up  by  Bishop  Moylan,  and  approved  by  Pius 
VI  in  Sept.,  1791.  This  congregation  of  teaching 
sisters  was  raised  to  the  status  of  a  religious  order  by 
Pius  VII  in  1800. 

Communities  from  Cork  were  founded  at  Killarney 
in  1793;  Dublin  in  1794;  and  at  Waterford  in  1798. 
A  second  convent  at  Cork  was  established  in  1799, 
by  Sister  M.  Patrick  Fitzgerald;  and  a  convent  at 
Kilkenny  in  1800,  by  Sister  M.  Joseph  McLoughlan. 
At  the  present  day,  there  are  62  convents,  and  about 
1500  sisters.  Each  community  is  independent  of  the 
mother-house,  and  subject  only  to  its  own  superioress 
and  the  bishop  of  its  respective  diocese.  The  schools, 
under  the  British  Government  Board,  have  for  their 
first  object  the  Catholic  and  moral  training  of  the 
young,  which  is  not  interfered  with  by  the  Govern- 
ment. The  secular  system  followed  is  the  "National ", 
superseded,  in  many  cases,  by  the  "Intermediate", 
both  of  which  ensure  a  sound  English  education;  to 
which  are  added  domestic  economy,  Latin,  Irish, 
French,  and  German.  The  average  attendance  of 
children  in  each  of  the  city  convents  of  Dublin,  Cork, 
and  Limerick  is  over  1200;  that  in  the  country  con- 
vents between  300  and  400,  making  a  total  of  22,200 
who  receive  an  excellent  education  gratis.  For  girls 
who  are  obliged  to  earn  a  living,  work-rooms  have 
been  established  at  Cork,  Youghal,  and  other  places, 
where  Limerick  lace,  Irish  point,  and  crochet  are 
taught.  The  first  foreign  country  to  receive  a  Presen- 
tation Convent  was  Newfoundland  in  1829,  when 
Sisters  Josephine  French  and  M.  de  Sales  Lovelock 
went  from  Galway.  There  are  now  fourteen  houses  of 
the  order  on  the  island  and  about  twenty  in  the  United 
States,  the  first  of  which  was  founded  at  San  Francisco 
by  Mother  Xavier  Cronin  from  Kilkenny  in  1854. 

In  1833  a  house  was  founded  by  Mother  Josephine 
Sargeant  from  Clonmel  at  Manchester,  England,  from 
which  sprang  two  more,  one  at  Buxton  and  one  at 
Glossop.  Their  schools  are  well  attended;  the  num- 
ber of  children,  including  those  of  an  orphanage, 
being  about  1400.  India  received  its  first  founda- 
tion in  1841,  when  Mother  Xavier  Kearney  and  some 
sisters  from  Rahan  and  Mullingar  established  them- 
selves at  Madras.  Soon  four  more  convents  in  the 
presidency  were  founded  from  this,  and  in  1891  one 
at  Rawal  Pindi.  Their  schools  are  flourishing,  com- 
prising orphanages,  and  day  and  boarding-schools, 
both  for  Europeans  and  natives.  At  Rawal  Pindi 
the  sisters  do  much  good  work  among  the  Irish 
soldiers,  who  go  to  them  for  religious  instruction.  In 
1866  Mother  Xavier  Murphy  and  some  sisters  left 
Fermoy  for  a  first  foundation  at  Hobart  Town,  Tas- 
mania, under  the  auspices  of  its  first  archbishop.  Dr. 
Murphy.  There  is  a  branch  of  this  house  at  Launces- 
ton.  St.  Kilda,  Melbourne,  received  sisters  from 
Kildare  in  1873,  and  Wagga  Wagga  a  year  later,  with 
Mother  M.  John  Byrne  at  their  head.  From  these 
two  houses  numerous  others  branched  forth  to  all 
parts  of  Australia;  to-day  there  are  over  twenty  con- 
vents, about  500  nuns,  and  thousands  of  children  at- 
tending their  schools.  m.  de  Sales  Whyte. 

Presentation  Order  in  America.' — About  half  a 
century  after  its  establishment,  the  Presentation 
Order  sent  four  sisters  from  the  Galway  convent  to 
Newfoundland,  at  the  request  of  Dr.  Fleming,  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  the  island.  The  mother-house  is  at  St. 
John's;  there  are  now  (1911)  thirteen  convents,  120 
nuns,  and  over  2000  pupils.  In  November,  1854,  some 
Presentation  Nuns  arrived  at  San  Francisco  from  Ire- 
land. Mother  M.  Teresa  Comerford  and  her  sisters 
had  great  initial  difficulties;  but  Archbishop  Alemany 
succeeded  in  interesting  prominent  Catholics  of  the 


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cit}'  in  their  work,  and  in  course  of  time  two  fine  con- 
vents were  built  within  the  city  limits,  besides  con- 
vents at  Sonoma  and  Berkeley.  The  earthquake  of 
1906  destroyed  both  of  their  convents  in  the  city,  with 
practically  their  entire  contents;  but  the  sisters  have 
courageously  begun  their  work  afresh,  and  bid  fair  to 
accomplish  as  much  good  work  as  in  the  past. 

The  Presentation  Convent,  St.  Michael's,  New  York 
City,  was  founded  8  Sept.,  1874,  by  Mother  Joseph 
Hickey,  of  the  Presentation  Convent,  Terenure,  Co. 
Dublin,  with  two  sisters  from  that  convent,  two  from 
Clondalkin,  and  seven  postulants.  Rev.  Arthur  J. 
Donnelly,  pastor  of  St.  Michael's  Church,  on  com- 
pleting his  school  building,  went  to  Ireland  in  1873  to 
invite  the  Presentation  Nuns  to  take  charge  of  the 
girls'  department.  The  consent  of  the  nuns  having 
been  obtained.  Cardinal  CuUen  applied  to  the  Holy 
See  for  the  necessary  Brief  authorizing  the  nuns  to 
leave  Ireland  and  proceed  to  New  York,  which  was 
accorded  by  Pius  IX.  The  work  of  the  nuns  at  St. 
Michael's  has  been  eminently  successful.  From  1874 
to  1910  there  have  been  entered  on  the  school  register 
16,781  names.  In  1884  the  sisters  took  charge  of  St. 
Michael's  Home,  Green  Ridge,  Staten  Island,  where 
over  two  hundred  destitute  children  are  cared  for. 

In  1886  Mother  Magdalen  Keating,  with  a  few  sis- 
ters, left  New  York  at  the  invitation  of  Rev.  P.  J. 
Garrigan,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Sioux  City,  and  took 
charge  of  the  schools  of  St.  Bernard's  Parish,  Fitch- 
burg,  Massachusetts.  The  mission  proved  most  flour- 
ishing, and  has  branch  houses  in  West  Fitchburg  and 
Chnton,  Massachusetts;  Central  Falls,  Rhode  Island; 
and  Berlin,  New  Hampshire.  The  order  was  intro- 
duced into  the  Diocese  of  Dubuque  by  Mother  M. 
Vincent  Hennessey  in  1874.  There  are  now  branch- 
houses  at  Calmar,  Elkader,  Farley,  Key  West,  Lawler, 
^\'aukon,  Clare,  Danbury,  Whittemore,  and  Madison, 
Nebraska.  The  order  came  to  Fargo,  North  Dakota, 
in  1 SSO  under  Mother  Mary  John  Hughes,  and  possesses 
a  free  school,  home,  and  academy.  St.  Colman's, 
\\'atervliet.  New  York,  was  opened  in  1881,  the  sisters 
having  charge  of  the  flourishing  orphanage.  In  1886 
some  sisters  from  Fargo  went  to  Aberdeen,  South 
Dakota,  and  since  then,  under  the  guidance  of  Mother 
M.  Joseph  Butler,  they  have  taken  charge  of  schools  at 
Bridgewater,  Bristol,  Chamberlain,  Elkton,  Jefferson, 
Mitchell,  Milbank,  and  Woonsocket,  besides  two  hos- 
pitals. There  are  in  the  United  States  438  members 
of  the  order,  who  conduct  32  parochial  schools,  at- 
tended by  6909  pupils;  5  academies,  with  416  pupils; 
3  orphanages,  with  519  inmates;  2  hospitals. 

Mother  M.  STANisLAtrs. 

Nagle,  Nano  (Honoria),  foundress  of  the  Presen- 
tation Order,  b.  at  Ballygriffin,  Cork,  Ireland,  1728; 
d.  at  Cork,  20  April,  1784.  After  an  elementary  edu- 
cation in  Ireland,  where  CathoUc  schools  were  then 
proscribed,  she  went  to  France  for  further  studies, 
where  some  of  her  kinsmen  were  hving  in  the  suite  of 
the  exiled  King  James,  and  entered  on  a  brilliant  social 
life  in  the  court  circles  of  the  capital.  One  morning, 
when  returning  from  a  ball,  she  was  struck  by  the 
sight  of  crowds  of  working-men  and  women  waiting 
for  a  church  to  be  opened  for  early  Mass.  A  few  weeks 
later  she  returned  to  Ireland,  and  only  the  stringent 
laws  then  in  force  against  Cathoho  educational  activ- 
ity prevented  her  from  consecrating  herself  at  once  to 
the  Christian  training  of  Irish  children,  who  were 
growing  up  in  ignorance  of  theu-  Faith.  A  short  time 
sjjent  as  a  postulant  at  a  convent  in  France  confirmed 
her  belief  that  her  mission  lay  rather  in  Ireland,  a  con- 
viction strengthened  by  the  advice  of  her  dhectors. 
Her  first  step  on  returning  to  Ireland  was  to  familiarize 
herself  with  the  work  of  some  ladies  who  had  privately 
organized  a  school  in  Dublin,  and,  on  the  death  of  her 
mother  and  sister,  she  went  to  Cork,  where  in  the  face 
of  the  most  adverse  conditions  she  began  her  crusade 


against  the  ignorance  and  vice  there  prevalent.  Her 
first  pupils  were  gathered  secretly,  and  her  part  in  the 
undertaking  having  been  discovered,  it  was  only  after 
a  period  of  opposition  that  she  secured  the  support  of 
her  relatives.  In  less  than  a  year,  however,  she  had 
established  two  schools  for  boys  and  five  for  girls,  with 
a  capacity  for  about  two  hundred.  The  foundress  her- 
self conducted  the  classes  in  Christian  doctrine  and 
instructed  those  preparing  for  First  Communion, 
searching  the  most  abandoned  parts  of  the  city  for 
those  in  need  of  spiritual  and  temporal  help.  Her 
charity  extended  also  to  aged  and  infirm  women,  for 
whom  she  established  an  asylum  at  Cork,  and  espe- 
cially to  working-women,  whose  perseverance  in  faith 
and  virtue  was  a  source  of  soUcitude  to  her.  The  de- 
mands of  her  numerous  charitable  undertakings  proving 
excessive  for  her  resources,  she  solicited  contributions 
from  house  to  house,  at  the  cost  of  much  humiliation. 
For  the  purpose  of  perpetuating  her  work  she  de- 
cided to  found  a  convent;  and  a  community  of  Ursu- 
lines,  young  Irishwomen  trained  especially  for  the 
purpose,  was  sent  to  Cork  in  1771,  although  they  did 
not  venture  to  assume  their  religious  garb  for  eight 
years.  As  the  UrsuUne  Rule,  with  which  Nano  had 
not  thoroughly  acquainted  herself,  did  not  permit 
entire  consecration  to  the  visitation  of  the  sick  and  the 
education  of  poor  children,  she  resolved  to  form  a 
community  more  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  duties  she 
had  taken  up,  while  remaining  a  devoted  friend  of  the 
Ursulines.  In  1775  she  founded  the  Presentation 
Order  (see  above).  She  set  an  example  of  charity  and 
self-abnegation  to  her  community,  giving  seven  hours 
daily  to  the  class-room  and  four  to  prayer,  in  addition 
to  the  demands  of  her  duties  as  superior  and  her  work 
of  visitation.  It  was  said  there  was  not  a  single  garret 
in  Cork  that  she  did  not  know.  Her  austerities  and 
the  persistence  with  which  she  continued  her  labours 
in  the  most  inclement  weather  brought  on  a  fatal  ill- 
ness; she  died  exhorting  her  community  to  spend 
themselves  for  the  poor.  Her  remains  were  interred  in 
the  cemetery  of  the  Ursuline  convent  she  had  built. 
Florence  Ritdge  McGahan. 

Presentation,  RELioiotrs  Congregations  op 
THE. — (1)  Daughters  of  the  Presentation,  founded  in 
1627  by  Nicolas  Sanguin  (b.  1580;  d.  1653),  Bishop 
of  Senlis,  a  prelate  who  was  atoning  by  a  life  of  sanc- 
tity for  the  errors  of  an  ill-spent  youth.  Having  given 
himself  unstintingly  to  the  service  of  the  plague- 
stricken  during  a  pest  which  devastated  Senlis  during 
the  early  years  of  his  episcopate,  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  foundation  of  a  teaching  order  to  combat 
the  prevailing  ignorance  and  the  resulting  vice  in  the 
diocese.  Two  young  women  from  Paris,  Catherine 
Dreux  and  Marie  de  la  Croix,  began  the  work  of 
teaching  in  1626  and  the  following  year  were  formed 
into  a  religious  community,  which  shortly  afterwards 
was  enclosed  under  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.  The 
opposition  of  the  municipal  authorities  gave  way  be- 
fore the  Bull  of  erection  granted  by  Urban  VIII  (4 
Jan.,  1628)  and  letters  patent  of  Louis  XIII  granted 
in  1630,  the  year  in  which  the  first  solemn  profession 
was  held.  In  1632  papal  permission  was  obtained  for 
two  of  Bishop  Sanguin's  sisters  and  a  companion  to 
leave  for  a  time  their  monastery  of  Moncel  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Clare,  to  form  the  new  community  in 
the  rehgious  life.  Seven  years  later  they  were  re- 
ceived as  members  into  the  new  order,  over  which 
they  presided  for  more  than  thirty  years.  The  con- 
gregation did  not  survive  the  Revolution,  although 
under  Bonaparte  one  of  the  former  members  orga- 
nized at  Senlis  a  school  which  was  later  taken  over 
by  the  municipality.  The  habit  was  black  serge  over 
a  robe  of  white  serge,  with  a  white  guimpe,  a  black 
bandeau,  and  veil.  The  original  constitutions  seem  to 
have  been  altered  by  Mgr  Sanguin's  nephew  and  suc- 
cessor in  the  See  of  Senlis,  owing  to  the  frequent  ref- 


PRESENTATION 


399 


PRESENTATION 


erence  made  in  them  to  the  devotion  of  the  Slavery 
of  Our  Lady,  which  was  suppressed  by  the  Church. 

(2)  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
founded  in  1684  by  Ven.  Marie  Poussepin  at  Sain- 
ville  in  the  Diocese  of  Chartres,  for  teaching  and  the 
care  of  the  sick.  At  the  time  of  the  religious  disturb- 
ances in  France,  over  seventeen  hundred  sisters  were 
engaged  in  France,  Spain,  South  America,  and  Asiatic 
Turkey,  where  they  have  charge  of  a  number  of 
schools  and  protectories  for  girls.  At  Agua  de  Dios  in 
Colombia  they  care  for  a  colony  of  lepers.  In  1813 
the  mother-house  was  established  at  Saint-Sym- 
phorien  near  Tours. 

(3)  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  of  Mary,  also  called 
White  Ladies,  founded  in  1796  at  Montpezat  by  Ven. 
Marie  Rivier  (d.  1838),  assisted  by  the  Abb6  Pontan- 
nier,  for  the  instruction  of  poor  girls.  The  first  novi- 
tiate was  opened  at  Thueys,  near  Aubenas,  but  the 
mother-house  was  permanently  established  at  Bourg- 
Saint-And6ol  in  the  Diocese  of  Viviers.  The  congre- 
gation soon  spread  over  France  and  in  18.53  a  house 
was  established  in  Canada.  At  the  time  of  the  dis- 
persion of  the  religious  orders  in  France  the  congre- 
gation numbered  two  thousand  members  in  charge 
of  schools  and  orphan  asylums.  The  Polish  mother- 
house  is  at  Cracow. 

(4)  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  of  Our  Lady,  founded 
at  Ghent  in  1805  by  Miss  Weewauters,  in  religion 
Mother  Mary  Augustine,  and  Canon  de  Decker  (d. 
1874)  for  the  education  of  girls.  The  mother-house 
is  at  Saint-Nicolas,  on  which  are  dependent  a  number 
of  fihal  houses,  with  about  two  hundred  members. 

Heimbucher,  Orden  u.  Kongregationen  (Paderborn,  1907) ; 
H^LTOT,  Diet,  des  Ordres  Tel,  (Paris,  1859) ;  Vie  de  M.  Rivier 
f  Avignon,  1842). 

Florence  Rudge  McGahan. 

Presentation,  Right  op. — Out  of  gratitude  for  the 
foundation  or  endowment  of  churches  and  benefices, 
the  Church  grants  founders,  if  they  wish  to  reserve  it, 
the  right  of  patronage,  the  first  and  chief  privilege  of 
which  is  the  right  of  presenting  a  cleric  for  the  ben- 
efice. Presentation  therefore  means  the  naming  to  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  of  a  suitable  cleric,  thereby 
conferring  on  the  latter  the  right  to  have  the  vacant 
benefice.  Like  election  and  nomination  presentation 
confers  on  the  cleric  presented  a  real  right  {jus  ad  rem), 
so  that  the  ecclesiastical  superior  entrusted  with  the 
institution  may  not  give  the  benefice  to  another. 
There  are  many  forms  of  the  right  of  patronage;  here 
we  need  refer  only  to  the  right  of  ecclesiastical  patron- 
age belonging  to  ecclesiastical  bodies  as  such,  e.  g.  a 
chapter,  and  to  the  right  of  lay-patronage,  possessed 
by  laymen  or  ecclesiastics  in  their  private  capacity. 
Hence  there  exist  notable  differences  in  the  manner 
of  exercising  the  right  of  patronage,  as  might  naturally 
be  expected,  especially  when  we  remember  that  the 
foundations  or  endowments  giving  rise  to  the  right  of 
ecclesiastical  patronage  are  made  with  property  al- 
ready belonging  to  the  Church  (see  Patron  and 
Patronage).  Theoretically  no  special  form  of  pres- 
entation is  necessary:  it  suffices  if  the  act  signifies  the 
presentation,  and  excludes  anything  that  might  indi- 
cate a  collation  of  the  benefice,  and  if  there  is  no 
simony;  in  practice  it  is  made  in  writing,  generally 
after  voting  has  taken  place  or  an  arrangement  has 
been  made,  when  the  patron  is  not  an  individual  and 
when  there  are  co-patrons.  It  is  communicated  to  the 
ecclesiastical  superior,  usually  the  bishop,  who  has  to 
perform  the  canonical  institution.  The  patron  exer- 
cises his  right  personally  if  past  the  age  of  puberty 
(fourteen  or  twelve  years  respectively),  although  he 
may  act  by  an  attorney;  if  he  has  not  attained  this 
age,  he  must  act  through  those  who  have  authority 
over  him:  mother,  guardian,  protector.  If  the  patron 
is  an  individual,  he  makes  the  presentation  by  himself; 
if  it  is  a  college,  e.  g.  a  chapter,  a  secret  vote  is  taken 
and  an  absolute  majority  is  required;  if  the  co-patrons 


act  individually,  as  when  the  different  members  of  a 
family  are  called  on  to  present  a  candidate,  the  most 
important  point  is  to  observe  all  the  regulations  gov- 
erning the  foundation;  account  is  taken  of  the 
branches  of  the  family  and  of  the  persons  in  each 
branch,  in  which  case  a  relative  majority  is  sufficient. 
A  ballot  is  resorted  to  also  when  the  patronage  is  exer- 
cised by  a  numerous  community,  e.  g.  the  men  of  a 
parish  who  have  attained  their  majority.  In  case  of  a 
tie,  the  bishop  selects  one  of  the  candidates  proposed. 
As  to  the  suitability  of  the  candidate,  see  Patron  and 
Patronage.  Often,  in  virtue  of  a  local  law,  as  in 
Austria,  the  patron  must  select  from  a  list  of  suitable 
candidates  three  for  ecclesiastical  patrons.  By  the 
acceptance  of  the  presentation,  the  cleric  presented 
acquires  immediately  the  right  to  the  benefice,  if  the 
patronage  is  ecclesiastical;  but  the  right  is  definitive 
only,  if  the  patronage  is  lay,  on  the  expiration  of  the 
four  months  allowed  the  patron  to  exercise  his  right  of 
presentation,  unless  the  bishop  has  already  proceeded 
to  the  institution.  On  learning  of  the  presentation 
and  acceptance,  the  bishop  examines  into  the  fitness 
of  the  candidate,  whom  he  admits  or  rejects  according 
to  the  case;  if  he  admits  him,  he  gives  him  canonical 
institution,  regularly  within  two  months;  if  he  rejects, 
the  patron  may  present  another,  unless  in  the  pre- 
vious instance  he  had  knowingly  presented  an  unfit 
candidate  (cf.  Lib.  Ill,  Decret.,  tit.  xxxviii,  "De  jure 
patronatus" ;  Cone.  Trid.  Sess.  VII,  c.  13;  Sess.  XXIV, 
c.  18;  Sess.  XXV,  c.  9,  de  Ref.;  see  also  Benefice). 

See  commentaries  on  De  jure  patronatus,  III,  xxxviii,  and  VI; 
Ferraris,  Prompta  bibliotheca,  b.  v.  Beneficia,  a.  Ill  and  V:  s. 
V.  Juspatronatus;  SAgmulleb,  Lehrbuch  d.  kathol.  Kirchenrechts 
(Freiburg,  1909),  §84.  A.    BoTTDINHON. 

Presentation  Brothers. — In  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  when  the  Penal  Laws  were  relaxed, 
and  the  ban  which  was  placed  on  the  Catholic  educa- 
tion of  youth  in  Ireland  during  a  long  period  of  perse- 
cution was  removed,  great  efforts  were  made  to  em- 
ploy the  opportunities  which  a  comparative  freedom 
placed  within  the  reach  of  Irish  Catholics,  and  several 
new  religious  congregations  of  both  men  and  women 
sprang  into  existence.  Amongst  these  was  the  Insti- 
tute of  Presentation  Brothers  founded  by  Edmund 
Ignatius  Rice.  The  Brothers  continued  a  diocesan 
congregation  approved  of  by  Rome  until  1889,  when  a 
change  was  effected  in  the  constitution  of  the  body 
with  a  view  to  its  more  rapid  development.  With  the 
sanction  of  the  bishops  under  whom  the  Brothers  then 
laboured,  all  the  houses  of  the  Institute  were  united 
under  a  superior-general  and  Leo  XIII  approved  and 
confirmed  the  new  constitutions.  The  rapid  spread  of 
the  order  since  then  has  been  very  marked.  It  now 
has  several  branches  in  each  of  the  provinces  of  Ire- 
land, and  is  also  established  in  England  and  Canada. 
The  Brothers  conduct  colleges,  primary  schools,  indus- 
trial schools,  and  orphanages.  A  new  novitiate  and 
training  college  has  been  erected  at  Mount  St.  Joseph, 
Cork.  The  superior-general  resides  there.  The  Com- 
missioners of  National  Education,  after  investigating 
the  methods  of  training  adopted  by  the  institute,  fully 
approved  of  them  and  recognized  the  training  college. 
In  the  colleges,  special  attention  is  paid  to  the  teach- 
ing of  experimental  science.  Classes  are  taught  in 
connexion  with  the  Intermediate  Education  Board 
and  Technical  Department.  Students  are  prepared 
for  the  Civil  Service  as  well  as  for  the  National 
University.  In  the  industrial  schools  and  orphan- 
ages, in  addition  to  the  ordinary  school  studies, 
various  trades  are  taught,  as  also  agriculture  and 
horticulture.  Moreover,  all  the  boys  get  a  two  years' 
course  in  manual  instruction. 

Brother  De  Sales. 

Presentation  of  Mary,  Congregation  of  the. — 
This  congregation,  devoted  to  the  education  of  young 
girls,   was  founded  in   1796   at   Theuyts,   Ardfeche, 


PRESENTATION 


400 


FRESTER 


France,  by  the  Venerable  Mother  Marie  Rivier.  The 
mother-house  is  now  at  Saint-Andeol,  Ardeche.  The 
superior  general  is  the  Mother  Marie  Ste-Honorine. 
The  provincial  house  in  Canada  was  founded  on  18 
October,  1853,  by  Mgr  Jean-Charles  Prince,  first 
Bishop  of  St.  Hyacinthe.  It  is  also  the  mother-house 
and  the  religious  make  their  vows  there.  The  first  six 
religious,  with  Mother  Marie  St-Maurice  as  superior, 
settled  at  Ste-Marie  de  Monnoir,  where  Rev.  E.  Cre- 
vier,  pastor  of  this  parish,  had  prepared  a  convent  for 
them.  They  opened  a  boarding-school  and  a  class  for 
day  pupils;  both  of  these  are  very  prosperous  at  the 
present  time.  In  1855  the  novitiate  was  transferred 
to  St.  Hugues  (in  the  county  of  Bagot),  and  in  1858  it 
was  definitively  located  at  St.  Hyacinthe  in  a  convent 
which  was  occupied  up  to  this  time  by  the  Sisters  of 
the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame  of  Montreal.  This 
house  was  of  insufficient  accommodation  and  the  com- 
munity was  obliged  to  erect,  not  far  from  the  seminary, 
a  large  building  of  which  they  took  possession  in  1876. 
The  house  occupied  since  1858  then  became  an 
academy.  Later  it  was  necessary  to  add  a  large  annex 
to  the  first  building.  The  students  were  installed  there 
in  1907.  The  provincial  house  is  at  the  same  time  the 
mother-house  of  the  institution  in  Canada.  The 
Congregation  of  the  Presentation  of  Mary  comprises 
30  houses  in  Canada  and  16  in  the  United  States,  edu- 
cating 13,670  children. 

Sister  Mary  St.  David. 

Presentation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Feast 
OP  THE. — The  Protoevangel  of  James,  the  Gospel  of 
Pseudo-Matthew,  the  Gospel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary, 
and  other  apocrjrphal  writings  (Walker,  "Apocryph. 
Gosp.",  Edinburgh,  1873)  relate  that  Mary,  at  the  age 
of  three,  was  brought  by  her  parents  to  the  Temple,  in 
fulfilment  of  a  vow,  there  to  be  educated.  The  corre- 
sponding feast  originated  in  the  Orient,  probably  in 
Syria,  the  home  of  the  apocrypha.  Card.  Pitra  (Anal. 
Spici.  Solesmensi,  p.  275)  has  published  a  great  canon 
(liturgical  poem)  in  Greek  for  this  feast,  composed  by 
some  "Georgios"  about  the  seventh  or  eighth  century. 
The  feast  is  missing  in  the  earlier  Menology  of  Con- 
stantinople (eighth  century);  it  is  found,  however,  in 
the  liturgical  documents  of  the  eleventh  century,  like 
the  "Calend.  Ostromiranum "  (Martinow,  "Annus 
graBco-slav.",  329)  and  the  Menology  of  Basil  II 
(etaoSos  ttjs  iravaylas  Q€ot6kov).  It  appears  in  the 
constitution  of  Manuel  Comnenos  (1166)  as  a  fully 
recognized  festival  during  which  the  law  courts  did  not 
sit.  In  the  West  it  was  introduced  by  a  French  noble- 
man, Philippe  de  Maziferes,  Chancellor  of  the  King  of 
Cyprus,  who  spent  some  time  at  Avignon  during  the 
pontificate  of  Gregory  XI.  It  was  celebrated  in  the 
presence  of  the  cardinals  (1372)  with  an  office  accom- 
modated from  the  office  chanted  by  the  Greeks.  In 
1373  it  was  adopted  in  the  royal  chapel  at  Paris,  1418 
at  Metz,  1420  at  Cologne.  Pius  II  granted  (1460)  the 
feast  with  a  vigil  to  the  Duke  of  Saxony.  It  was  taken 
up  by  many  dioceses,  but  at  the  end  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  it  was  still  missing  in  many  calendars  (Grote- 
fend,  "Zeitrechnung",  III,  137).  At  Toledo  it  was 
assigned  (1500)  by  Cardinal  Ximenes  to  30  September. 
Sixtus  IV  received  it  into  the  Roman  Breviary,  Pius  V 
struck  it  from  the  calendar,  but  Sixtus  V  took  it  up  a 
second  time  (1  September,  1585).  In  the  province  of 
Venice  it  is  a  double  of  the  second  class  with  an  octave 
(1680);  the  Passionists  and  Sulpicians  keep  it  as  a 
double  of  the  first  class;  the  Servites,  Redemptorists, 
CarmeUtes,  Mercedarians,  and  others  as  a  double 
of  the  second  with  an  octave.  In  the  Roman  Cal- 
endar it  is  a  major  double.  The  Greeks  keep  it 
for  five  days.  In  some  German  dioceses,  under  the 
title  "Illatio",  it  was  kept  26  November  (Grotefend 
III,  137). 

Kellner,  Heortologie  (Freiburg,  1901);  Nilles,  Kal.  Man, 
(Innsbruck,  1S97);  Holweck,  Fasti  Mariani  (Freihmg,  1892). 

F.  G.  Holweck. 


Prester  John,  name  of  a  legendary  Eastern 
priest  and  king. 

First  Stage. — The  mythical  journey  to  Rome  of 
a  certain  Patriarch  John  of  India  in  1122,  and  his 
visit  to  Callistus  II,  cannot  have  been  the  origin  of 
the  legend.  Not  until  much  later,  in  a  MS.  dating 
from  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth-century  "Tracta- 
tus  pulcherrimus"  (Zarncke),  do  we  find  the  patriarch 
a,nd  priest  united  in  one  person.  The  first  combina- 
tion of  the  two  legends  appears  at  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century,  in  an  apocryphal  book  of  devotions 
called  the  "Narrative  of  Eliseus".  The  first  au- 
thentic mention  of  Prester  John  is  to  be  found  in  the 
"Chronicle"  of  Otto,  Bishop  of  Freising,  in  1145. 
Otto  gives  as  his  authority  Hugo,  Bishop  of  Gabala. 
The  latter,  by  order  of  the  Christian  prince,  Raymond 
of  Antioch,  went  in  1144  (after  the  fall  of  Edessa) 
to  Pope  Eugene  II,  to  report  the  grievous  position 
of  Jerusalem,  and  to  induce  the  West  to  send  an- 
other crusade.  Otto  met  the  Syrian  prelate  at 
Viterbo,  where  in  the  pope's  presence  he  learned 
that  a  certain  John,  who  governed  as  priest  and  king 
in  the  Far  East,  had  with  his  people  become  con- 
verted to  Nestorianism.  A  few  years  earlier  he  had 
conquered  the  brother  monarchs  of  Media  and  Persia, 
Samiardi.  Prester  John  had  emerged  victorious 
from  the  terrible  battle  that  lasted  three  days,  and 
ended  with  the  conquest  of  Ecbatana;  after  which 
the  victor  started  for  Jerusalem  to  rescue  the  Holy 
Land,  but  the  swollen  waters  of  the  Tigris  compelled 
him  to  return  to  his  own  country.  He  belonged  to 
the  race  of  the  three  Magi,  their  former  kingdoms 
being  subject  to  him.  His  enormous  wealth  was 
demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  he  carried  a  sceptre 
of  pure  emeralds. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  West  gave  unreserved  credence 
to  this  tale,  judging  from  the  long  silence  of  its 
chronicles.  Some  twenty  years  later  there  came  to 
light  in  unaccountable  ways  letters  from  this  mys- 
terious personage  to  the  Byzantine  emperor  Manuel, 
Barbarossa,  and  other  princes,  which  roused  ex- 
travagant hopes.  About  a  hundred  manuscripts 
of  the  letter  to  Manuel  of  Constantinople  are  still 
extant  (with  many  variants),  and  afford  an  in- 
teresting insight  into  this  exceedingly  complicated 
fiction.  This  wild  medieval  tale  contains  the 
principal  incidents  of  the  long  Alexander  legend. 
This  letter  is  probably  a  Nestorian  forgery.  From 
that  time  it  was  believed  that  a  Christian  kingdom 
existed  in  the  Far  East,  or  in  the  heart  of  Asia. 
The  legend  furnished  a  wealth  of  material  for  the 
poets,  writers,  and  explorers  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  England  Sir  John  Mandeville  exploited  it  to 
excess.  In  Germany  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  in 
' '  Parsifal ",  was  the  first  to  unite  the  legend  of  the  Holy 
Grail  with  this  history  of  Prester  John.  He  found 
many  and  more  extravagant  imitators  (e.  g.  Albrecht 
von  Scharfenstein  in  "Jiingere  Titurel"). 

It  is  questionable  whether  the  letter  of  Pope 
Alexander  III,  dated  from  the  Rialto  in  Venice  in 
1177  and  beginning  with  the  words  "Alexander 
episcopus  [or  Papa],  servus  servorum  Dei,  carrissimo 
in  Christi  filio  Joanni,  illustro  et  magnifico  Indorum 
regi",  has  anything  to  do  with  Prester  John.  The 
pope  had  heard  many  rumours  of  a  powerful  Chris- 
tian ruler  in  the  East.  His  physician  in  ordinary, 
Philippus,  on  returning  from  those  parts,  brought 
him  further  information.  The  pope  sent  his  con- 
fidant to  the  king  with  the  much-discussed  letter, 
and  an  invitation  to  enter  the  Roman  Church; 
also  a  caution  against  boastfulness  about  his  vast 
power  and  wealth.  Provided  that  he  listened  to 
this  warning,  the  pope  would  willingly  grant  his 
two  requests  (apparently,  to  cede  him  a  church  in 
Rome,  and  to  accord  him  certain  rights  in  the  church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem).  The  result 
of  this  mission  is  not  known;   but  judging  from  the 


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401 


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details  in  the  letter,  it  is  certain  that  the  recipient 
was  no  mythical  personage.  The  pope  may  have 
recognized  him  as  the  Presbyter  of  the  legend,  but 
this  is  uncertain. 

Historical  Foundation  of  the  Origin  of  the 
Legend. — Otto  von  Freising  does  not  mention  the 
exact  year  ot  the  battle  between  the  Eastern  conqueror 
and  the  Persian  sultan;  he  only  remarks  that  in  1145 
ithad  taken  place  "ante  nonmultosannos".  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  found  in  the  Annals  of  Admont 
(1181),  part  of  which,  as  far  as  1141,  are  a  continua- 
tion of  Otto's  chronicle,  the  following  note:  "Johannes 
presbyter  rex  Armenise  et  Indiae  cum  duobus  regibus 
fratribus  Persarum  et  Medorum  pugnavit  et  vioit". 
Minute  research  has  shown  that  in  that  year  the 
Persian  Sultan  Sanjar  was  completely  vanquished  by 
a  conqueror  from  the  east,  not  very  far  from  the  an- 
cient Ecbatana.  The  Arabic  historian  Ibn-el-Athir 
(1160-1233)  says  that,  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  of 
536  (1141),  Sanjar,  the  most 
powerful  of  the  Seljuk  princes, 
had  mortally  offended  his  vas- 
sal the  Shah  of  Kharezm.  The 
latter  called  to  his  assistance 
Ku  Khan,  or  Korkhan  of  China 
(Chinese,  Yeliutasche),  who 
had  come  in  1 122  from  Northern 
China  at  the  head  of  a  mighty 
army.  Korkhan  killed  Sanjar 
and  100,000  of  his  men.  The 
Arabic  versions  are  substan- 
tially corroborated  by  other 
Asiatic  historians  of  that  epoch : 
by  the  Syrian  writer  Abulfa- 
radsch  (on  account  of  his  Jew- 
ish descent  called  Bar  Hebrseus, 
1226-86),  by  the  Arabic  Abul- 
feda  (1273-1331),  the  Persian 
Mirkhond  (1432-89)  etc.  It  is 
not  certain  whether  the  Spanish 
Jew,  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  who 
travelled  in  Central  Asia  in 
1171,  refers  to  this  event.  If 
so,  the  hypothesis  based  on  the 
researches  of  d'Avezac,  Oppert, 
Zarncke,  and  Yule  becomes  a 
certainty,  i.  e.  the  land  of  this 
uncertain  and  shifting  legend 
is  the  Kingdom  of  Karakhitai 
(1141-1218),  founded  in  Cen- 
tral Asia  by  the  priest-king  of  the  tale.  The  disputed 
points  are  the  name,  the  religion,  and  the  priestly 
character  of  the  mysterious  personage. 

Independently  of  the  much  earlier  work  of 
d'Avezac,  Oppert  thinks  that  Ku-Khan,  Korkhan  or 
Corchan  (Coirchan),  as  the  East-Asian  conqueror  is 
called  in  the  chronicles,  could  easily  have  become 
Jorchan,  Jochanan,  or  in  Western  parlance,  John; 
this  name  was  then  very  popular,  and  was  often  given 
to  Christian  and  Mohammedan  princes  (Zarncke). 
History  knows  nothing  about  the  Christianity  of 
Yeliutasche.  Yet  it  is  clear  that  the  league  of  the  West 
against  the  Mohammedans  stirred  up  the  oppressed 
Christians  on  the  borders  of  Tatar  Asia  to  look  for  a 
deliverer.  The  sacerdotal  character  of  the  legendary 
king  still  offers  an  unsolved  riddle. 

Second  Stage. — The  political  aspect  of  the  legend 
again  came  forward  in  the  thirteenth  century.  In 
November,  1219,  Damietta  was  conquered  by  the 
crusaders.  In  the  spring  of  1221  the  report  was  cir- 
culated among  the  victors  that  in  the  East,  King 
David,  either  the  son  or  nephew  of  the  Presbyter,  had 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  three  powerful  armies, 
and  was  moving  upon  the  Mohammedan  countries. 
An  Arabic  prophecy  foretold  that  when  Easter  fell  on 
3  April,  the  religion  of  Mohammed  would  be  abolished. 
This  occurred  in  1222,  and  many  expected  that  King 
XIL— 26 


Pbester  John 
From  a  print  published  in  Paris  about  1660 


David  and  his  host  would  offer  their  support  to  the 
long-awaiting  army  of  Frederick  II.  The  enthusiasm 
that  this  announcement  created  in  the  camp  at  Dami- 
etta led  to  a  premature  outbreak  of  the  Franks  against 
Cairo,  and  the  defeat  of  the  army.  The  historical 
germ  is  easily  discovered.  King  David  is  no  other 
than  the  Mongolian  conqueror  Jenghiz  Khan,  who  at 
this  time  with  three  legions  pushed  forward  towards 
the  West,  and  in  a  most  sanguinary  battle  annihilated 
the  power  of  Islam  in  Central  Asia.  He  and  many  of 
his  successors  were  favourable  to  the  Christians,  and 
averse  to  the  Mohammedans;  the  Mongol  Kingdom 
also  surpassed  all  Asiatic  principalities  by  its  display; 
but  the  name  of  David  given  to  the  Eastern  conqueror 
still  remains  unexplained. 

Third  Stage. — The  horrible  slaughter  committed 
by  the  Mongols  soon  proved  that  they  were  no  pious 
pilgrims  bound  for  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  still  less  were 
they  Christians.  After  a  short  time  the  legend  as- 
sumed another  form.  It  said 
that  the  Mongolians  were  the 
wild  hordes  mentioned  in  the 
Presbyter's  letter  to  Manuel. 
They  had  risen  up  against 
their  own  ruler.  King  David, 
murdering  both  him  and  his 
father.  The  "Speculum  his- 
toriale"  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais 
says:  "In  the  year  of  our  Lord 
1202,  after  murdering  their 
ruler  [David]  the  Tatars  set 
about  destroying  the  people" 
Certain  historical  facts  form  the 
basis  of  this  remarkable  report. 
Bar  Hebraeus  mentions  that  in 
1006  the  Mongolian  tribe  of  the 
Keriats  in  Upper  Asia  had  be- 
come Christians  (Nestorians) . 
According  to  the  account  of 
Rubruquis,  the  Franciscan, 
these  Keriats  were  related  to 
the  Naymans,  another  Mon- 
goUan  shepherd  tribe,  and  paid 
tribute  to  their  ruler  Coirchan; 
they  also  were  Nestorian  Chris- 
tians, and  in  that  vicinity  were 
considered  the  countrymen  of 
Prester  John.  The  prince  of 
the  Keriats,  Unc-Khan,  was  in 
1202  completely  subject  to  the 
superior  power  of  Jenghiz  Khan,  who  meanwhile 
was  on  the  friendliest  terms  with  his  family,  thus 
giving  the  Keriats  a  certain  amount  of  independence. 
Marco  Polo  speaks  of  Unc-Khan  as  the  "great  prince 
who  is  called  Prester  John,  the  whole  world  speaking 
of  his  great  power"-  In  1229  the  celebrated  mission- 
ary John  of  Monte  Corvino  converted  a  Nestorian 
prince  belonging  to  this  tribe,  who  afterwards  served 
Mass  for  him  {Bex  Gregorius  de  illustri  genere  Magni 
Regis  qui  dictus  fuit  Presbyter  Johannes) .  And  yet 
neither  he  nor  the  other  missionaries,  who  at  this  time 
were  trying  to  convert  the  Mongolian  princes  of  Upper 
Asia,  paid  much  attention  to  the  extravagant  embel- 
lishments of  the  legend.  One  of  these  missionaries, 
Odoricus  de  Foro  Julii,  wrote  "that  not  a  hundredth 
part  of  the  things  related  of  Prester  John  were  true" 
For  centuries  the  Prince  of  the  Keria  was  looked  upon 
as  the  Prester  John  of  the  legend.  The  papal  librar- 
ian Assemani  and  the  geographer  Ritter  justified  this 
scientific  hypothesis  by  a  mass  of  original  documents. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  in  this  explanation  of  the 
legend  many  of  its  peculiarities  are  more  clearly 
brought  out;  e.  g.  the  sacerdotal  character  of  the 
hero;  for  according  to  Rubruquis,  the  Nestorians  of 
that  locality  were  accustomed  to  dedicate  to  the 
priesthood  even  the  children  in  their  cradles.  The 
main  point,  however,  is  still  unexplained,  namely,  the 


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402 


PRESTON 


origin  of  the  legend;  the  account  of  Rubmquis,  how- 
ever, carefully  considered,  supports  the  Oppert- 
Zarncke  hypothesis,  and  elucidates  the  transition  of 
the  legend  from  the  Karakhitai,  to  the  Keria. 
Zarnoke  meanwhile  agrees  with  Oppert  only  in  essen- 
tials, and  in  many  points  sharply  and  unjustly 
criticizes  his  colleague.  Oppert  is  an  Orientalist, 
Zarncke  is  not. 

Fourth  Stage.— With  the  collapse  of  the  Mongol 
Kingdom,  hitherto  the  setting  for  this  legend,  the 
latter,  finding  no  favourable  background  in  Upper 
or  Middle  Asia,  was  shifted  to  the  hill  country  of  the 
Caucasu.s,  or  to  indefinite  parts  of  India.  It  is  true 
that  all  earlier  accounts  of  the  Presbyter  designated 
India  as  his  kingdom,  but  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  term 
India  was  so  vague  that  the  legend  obtained  in  this 
way  no  definite  location.  But  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury there  appeared  many  real  or  fictitious  accounts  of 
voyages  (Zarncke),  which  pointed  to  the  modern  Bast 
Indies  as  the  kingdom  of  the  Priest-King.  The  most 
important  document  of  this,  or  a  somewhat  later 
period,  is  the  afore-mentioned  "Tractatus  pulcher- 
rimus".  In  some  maps,  especially  a  Catalonian  pub- 
lished in  1375,  we  find  Christian  king(;loms  given  in 
India.  In  another  map  of  1447,  towers  are  to  be 
found  at  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus,  and  underneath  is 
written;  "The  Presbyter,  King  John  built  these 
towers  to  prevent  [the  Tatars]  from  reaching  him" 
The  Admont  Annals  (1181)  had  already  spoken  of  the 
Presbyter  as  King  of  Armenia.  Professor  Brun  of 
Odessa  supports  the  hypothesis  founded  on  these  and 
other  plausible  grounds,  namely  that  the  Armenian 
general,  Ivane,  who  in  1124  gained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Crescent,  was  the  first  Presbyter  John  (Zeitsoh.  f . 
Erdkunde,  1876,  279). 

Fifth  Stage. — Marco  Polo  speaks  of  the  country 
called  Abascia  as  part  of  India,  meaning  probably 
Abyssinia.  Many  scholars  (among  others  Yule)  are 
of  the  opinion  that  Pope  Alexander's  enigmatical  let- 
ter was  sent  to  the  Negus  of  Ethiopia;  at  a  much 
earlier  time  it  was  customary  to  see  in  him  the  Pres- 
byter of  the  legend.  In  1328  the  Christian  bishop, 
John  of  Columbo  (not  Colombo)  in  India,  designated 
the  Xegus  as  Prester  John:  quern  vos  vocatis  Prestre 
Johan.  In  Jerusalem  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  Abyssinian  priests  described  their  country 
to  the  Christian  Portuguese  merchants  as  the  King- 
dom of  Prester  John.  The  Grand  Master  of  the 
Knights  of  Rhodes  expressed  the  same  opinion  in  a 
letter  written  to  King  Charles  VII  of  France  in  1448. 
This  interpretation  was  most  popular  at  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, on  account  of  the  voyages  of  discovery  made  by 
the  Portuguese,  who  at  first  persistently  sought  the 
Presbyter's  kingdom  along  the  whole  African  coast 
(Vasco  de  Gama  even  carried  with  him  letters  of  in- 
troduction to  this  supposed  Christian  ruler),  and 
believed  that  in  Ethiopia  they  had  at  last  fallen  in 
with  him.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Christian  King- 
dom of  Abyssinia  had  for  centurie.s  successfully  with- 
stood the  onslaughts  of  Islam.  The  Negus  combined 
in  his  person  a  kind  of  spiritual  with  temporal  power, 
and  the  name  of  John  recurs  in  a  remarkable  manner 
in  the  long  line  of  princes  of  that  land.  The  oldest 
map,  discovered  by  P.  Joseph  Fischer,  on  which 
America  is  mentioned  (1.507),  places  the  Presbyter's 
country  in  Asia  (Province  of  Thebet;  Tibet)  in  the 
following  words:  "This  is  the  land  of  the  good  King 
and  lord,  known  as  Prester  John,  lord  of  all  Eastern 
and  Southern  India,  lord  of  all  the  kings  of  India,  in 
whose  mountains  are  found  all  kinds  of  precious 
stones."  On  the  Carta  Marina  (1.516)  it  is  placed  in 
Africa:  "Regnum  Habesch  et  Habacci  Presbiteri 
Joh.  sive  India  Maior  Ethiopie"  etc.  In  later 
times  it  was  the  general  opinion  that  Abyssinia  was 
the  Prcsl>yter's  native  land,  "Terra  do  Preste",  as 
the  Portuguese  called  it.     Only  towards  the  end  of 


the  seventeenth  century  did  this  opinion  disappear. 
In  Leutholf's  great  work  on  Abyssinia  (Frankfort, 
1681)  it  is  said  that  the  land  had  been  wrongly  named 
the  Presbyter's  kingdom.  The  legend  had  a  stimulat- 
ing effect  on  Portuguese  discoverers,  and  indirectly 
encouraged  the  missionary  activity  of  Franciscans 
and  Dominicans  in  Central  Asia  and  China,  the  con- 
version of  the  Mongolian  ruler  being  often  their  goal. 
Some  also  exhibited  a  certain  scientific  interest  in  the 
solution  of  the  legend;  the  narrative  of  Rubruquis,  for 
instance,  is  still  the  starting  point  for  all  modern 
research. 

Yule,  Cathay  and  the  Way  Thither,  17.3  sq.;  Marco  Polo 
(2nd  ed.),  I,  229-33;  II,  539-43;  Ritter,  Erdkunde  i>on  Asien 
(2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1838) ;  d'Avezac,  Recueil  de  Voyages  et  de 
Memoires  public  par  la  Societe  de  Geographic,  IV  (Paria,  1839), 
547-64;  Oppert,  Der  Presbyter  Johannes  in  Sage  und  Gesch. 
(2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1870);  Zarncke,  Fitnf  Lcipzigcr  Programme 
(1873-75),  the  first  four  revised  by  the  same  author  in  vol. 
XVII  of  Abhandl.  der  k.  H&chs.  Gesellsch.  d.  Wissenschaften,  vol. 
VII,  phil-hiator.  Klasse  1879,  Der  Prief^ter  Johar171.es,  I.  Abti.,  p. 
827-1030,  II.  Abb.  in  vol.  XIX,  vol.  VIII,  phil-histor.  Klaase 
1883-86;   Ostasiatischer  Loyd,  XV  (1902),  1819  aq. 

Alois  Stockmann. 

Preston,  Thomas,  alias  Roger  Widdrington, 
Benedictine,  d.  in  the  Clink  prison,  5  April,  1640.  He 
studied  first  at  the  English  College  in  Rome,  his 
professor  of  theology  being  the  distinguished  Jesuit 
Vasquez.  He  was  professed  in  the  Benedictine 
Order  in  1590  at  Monte  Cassino,  being  then  a  priest 
of  mature  age,  and,  says  Weldon,  a  learned  and 
virtuous  man.  He  was  sent  on  the  English  mission 
in  1603,  landing  at  Yarmouth,  and  lived  with  Dom 
Sigebert  Buckley  (the  last  survivor  of  the  monks  of 
Westminster)  until  the  latter's  death  in  1710.  Before 
this  he  had  been  indicted  at  the  Middlesex  Sessions 
for  the  crime  of  being  a  priest,  and  the  year  after 
Dom  Buckley's  death  he  seems  to  have  been  in 
prison,  as  he  delegated  his  authority  to  two  other 
monks.  Expelled  from  England  three  years  later, 
he  took  part  at  Reims  in  the  negotiations  for  the 
union  of  the  English  monks  of  Monte  Cassino, 
Valladolid,  and  the  old  Enghsh  Congregation.  He 
returned  to  England  and  was  again  imprisoned, 
first  in  the  Clink,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Thames, 
and  later  in  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury's  palace 
at  Croydon.  In  one  prison  or  another  he  wrote, 
under  the  assumed  name  of  Widdrington,  several 
works  treating  of  the  oath  of  allegiance  proposed  by 
King  James  I,  of  which  (together  with  many  other 
Benedictines  and  secular  priests)  he  was  an  upholder 
and  apologist  against  the  Jesuits.  Weldon  says  that 
Preston  "evermore  disowned"  the  books  written 
under  the  name  of  Widdrington,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  he  was  the  author  of  them.  Towards  the  end  of 
his  life,  however,  he  seems  to  have  altered  his  views, 
or  at  any  rate  to  have  made  full  submission  on  the 
question  of  the  oath  to  the  authorities  of  Rome. 

Revner,  Apostolatus  Benedictinorum  in  Anglia  (Douai,  1626), 
app.,  ii,  ix;  Weldon,  Chronological  Notes  concerning  the  Eng. 
Congr.  0.  S.  B.  (Stanbroolc,  1881),  40,  43,  46,  76,  94,  95,  180; 
Oliver,  Collections  Illustrating  the  Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Religion 
(London,  1857),  521,  522;  Foley,  Records  of  the  English  Province 
S.  J.,  ser.  I  (London,  1877)  ,  25S,  note;  Milneh,  Supplementary 
Memoirs  of  English  Catholics  (London,  1820),  33;  Berington, 
Memoirs  of  Gregorio  Panzani  (Birmingham,  1793),  121,  156; 
Gillow,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Calh.  a.  v.  Preston,  Thomas,  0.  S.  B. 

D.  O.  Huntek-Blaie. 

Preston,  Thomas  Scott,  Vicar-General  of  New 
York,  prothonotary  Apostolic,  chancellor,  dis- 
tinguished convert,  author,  preacher,  and  adminis- 
trator, b.  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  23  July,  1824; 
d.  at  New  York,  4  Nov.,  1891.  From  his  youth  he 
was  serious,  pious,  and  zealous.  He  studied  in  the  Epis- 
copalian general  seminary,  located  at  Ninth  Avenue 
and  Twentieth  Street,  New  York,  where  he  was  rec- 
ognized as  the  leader  of  the  High  Church  party. 
In  1846  he  received  deacon's  orders,  and  served  in  this 


PRESUMPTION 


403 


PRESUMPTION 


capacity  at  Trinity  Church,  the  Church  of  the  Annunci- 
ation in  West  Fourteenth  Street,  and  at  Holy  Inno- 
cents, West  Point.  In  1847  he  was  ordained  presbyter 
by  Bishop  Delanoey  of  Western  New  York,  his  own 
bishop  having  refused  to  adyanee  him  to  this  order 
on  account  of  his  rituahstic  views.  He  believed 
himself  now  a  validly  ordained  priest  of  the  English 
branch  of  the  One,  Holy,  Catholic,  Apostolic  Church, 
and  served  for  some  time  at  St.  Luke's,  Hudson 
Street,  New  York,  hearing  confessions  and  urging 
frequent  Holy  Communion.  He  was  a  deep  student 
of  the  early  history  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Fathers, 
and  thus  gradually  began  to  feel  the  branch  theory 
untenable.  He  was  convinced  of  the  truth  of 
Catholicity,  as  well  as  of  his  obligation  to  embrace  it, 
before  he  had  ever  read  a  professedly  Catholic  book, 
or  spoken  to  a  priest.  He  was  baptized  and  received 
into  the  Church  on  14  November,  1849.  In  the 
autumn  of  1850  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  assigned 
to  duty  in  the  cathedral.  In  1851  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  Yonkers  with  out-missions  at  Dobbs  Ferry 
and  Tarrytown.  In  1853  he  became  secretary  to 
Archbishop  Hughes,  and  chancellor  of  the  diocese. 
He  was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Ann's  in  1863,  and 
was  promoted  in  1872  to  be  vicar-general.  During 
the  absence  of  Archbishop  Corrigan  in  1890  he  was 
administrator  of  the  diocese.  He  founded  and  di- 
rected for  many  years  the  Sisters  of  the  Divine 
Compassion.  He  was  a  man  of  exquisite  refinement, 
of  tender  piety,  and  of  intense  loyalty.  His  Advent 
and  Lenten  conferences  attracted  multitudes  from 
all  parts  of  the  city.  His  works  are:  "Reason  and 
Revelation"  (New  York,  1868);  "The  Divine 
Paraclete"  (1879);  "Ark  of  the  Covenant"  (I860): 
"The  Divine  Sanctuary"  (1887);  "Gethsemani'* 
(1887);  "The  Sacred  Year"  (1885);  "Vicar  of 
Christ"  (1878);  "The  Protestant  Reformation" 
(1879);  "Protestantism  and  the  Church"  (1882); 
"Protestantism  and  the  Bible"  (1888);  "Christian 
Unity"  (1881);  "The  Watch  on  Calvary"  (1885); 
"Christ  and  the  Church"  (1870);  "God  and  Reason" 
(1884);    "Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart". 

Peeston,  Remembrances  of  My  Brother  Thomas ;  Brann,  The 
Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  S.  Preston,  Vicar  General  (New  York) ;  Catholic 
Family  Almanac  (1893);  Monsignor  Preston's  Views  (New  York, 
1890) ;  Cornell,  Beginnings  of  the  Church  in  Yonkers  (Yonkers, 
1893);  Golden  Jubilee  of  St.  Ann's  Parish  (1902). 

Michael  J.  Lavelle. 

Presumption  (Lat.  prwsumere,  "to  take  before", 
"to  take  for  granted")  is  here  considered  as  a  vice 
opposed  to  the  theological  virtue  of  hope.  It  may 
also  be  regarded  as  a  product  of  pride.  It  may  be 
defined  as  the  condition  of  a  soul  which,  because  of  a 
badly  regulated  reliance  on  God's  mercy  and  power, 
hopes  for  salvation  without  doing  anything  to  deserve 
it,  or  for  pardon  of  his  sins  without  repenting  of  them. 
Presumption  is  said  to  offend  against  hope  by  excess, 
as  despair  by  defect.  It  will  be  obvious,  however,  to 
one  who  ponders  what  is  meant  by  hope,  that  this 
statement  is  not  exact.  There  is  only  a  certain  anal- 
ogy which  justifies  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact  we  could 
not  hope  too  much,  assuming  that  it  is  really  the  super- 
natural habit  which  is  in  question. 

Suarez  ("De  spe",  disp.  2a  sect.  3,  n.  2)  enumerates 
five  ways  in  which  one  may  be  guilty  of  presumption, 
as  follows:  (1)  by  hoping  to  obtain  by  one's  natural 
powers,  unaided,  what  is  definitely  supernatural,  viz. 
eternal  bliss  or  the  recovery  of  God's  friendship  after 
grievous  sin  (this  would  involve  a  Pelagian  frame 
of  mind) ;  (2)  a  person  might  look  to  have  his  sins 
forgiven  without  adequate  penance  (this,  likewise, 
if  it  were  based  on  a  seriously  entertained  conviction, 
would  seem  to  carry  with  it  the  taint  of  heresy) ;  (3) 
a  man  might  expect  some  special  assistance  from  Al- 
mighty God  for  the  perpetration  of  crime  (this 
would  be  blasphemous  as  well  as  presumptuous);  (4) 


one  might  aspire  to  certain  extraordinary  super- 
natural excellencies,  but  without  any  conformity  to 
the  determinations  of  God's  providence.  Thus  one 
might  aspire  to  equal  in  blessedness  the  Mother  of 
God;  (5)  finally,  there  is  the  transgression  of  those 
who,  whilst  they  continue  to  lead  a  life  of  sin,  are  as 
confident  of  a  happy  issue  as  if  they  had  not  lost  their 
baptismal  innocence.  The  root-malice  of  presumption 
is  that  it  denies  the  supernatural  order,  as  in  the  first 
instance,  or  travesties  the  conception  of  the  Divine 
attributes,  as  in  the  others.  Theologians  draw  a  sharp 
distinction  between  the  attitude  of  one  who  goes  on 
in  a  vicious  career,  precisely  because  he  counts  upon 
pardon,  and  one  whose  persistence  in  wrongdoing  is 
accompanied,  but  not  motived,  by  the  hope  of  for- 
giveness. The  first  they  impeach  as  presumption  of 
a  very  heinous  kind;  the  other  is  not  such  specifically. 
In  practice  it  happens  for  the  most  part  that  the  ex- 
pectation of  ultimate  reconciliation  with  God  is  not 
the  cause,  but  only  the  occasion,  of  a  person's  con- 
tinuing in  sinful  indulgence.  Thus  the  particular 
guilt  of  presumption  is  not  contracted. 

Slater,  Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908) ;  RicK- 
ABY,  Moral  Teaching  of  St.  Thomas  (London,  1896) ;  St.  Thomas, 
Summa  (Turin,  1885);  Ballerini,  Opus  Theol.  Morale  (Prato, 
1899). 

Joseph  F.  Del  any. 

Presumption  (in  Canon  Law),  a  term  signifying  a 
reasonable  conjecture  concerning  something  doubt- 
ful, drawn  from  arguments  and  appearances,  which 
by  the  force  of  circumstances  can  be  accepted  as  a 
proof.  It  is  on  this  presumption  our  common  adage 
is  based:  "Possession  is  nine  points  of  the  law". 
Presumption  has  its  place  in  canon  law  only  when 
positive  proofs  are  wanting,  and  yet  the  formulation 
of  some  judgment  is  necessary.  It  is  never  in  itself 
an  absolute  proof,  as  it  only  presumes  that  something 
is  true.  Canonists  divide  presumption  into  (1) 
presumption  of  law  (juris),  or  that  which  is  deduced 
from  some  legal  precept  or  authority  expressed  in  law 
or  based  upon  precedents  or  similarities,  and  (2) 
presumption  of  a  judge  or  man  (jvdicis  or  hominis), 
when  the  law  is  silent  on  the  subject  and  an  opinion 
must  be  formed  according  to  the  way  that  circum- 
stances and  indications  would  affect  a  prudent  man 
or  judge. 

There  are  several  sub-varieties  of  presumption  of 
law.  Thus,  it  is  called  presumption  of  law  alone 
(Juris  tantum)  when  a  thing  is  judged  to  be  so  until 
the  contrary  is  proved.  Hence  the  legal  formulae: 
"Everyone  is  presumed  innocent  until  his  guilt  is 
proved";  "Once  bad  always  bad"  (i.  e.  in  the  same 
species  of  ill-doing,  if  amendment  is  not  certain); 
"What  is  known  in  a  remote  place  is  known  in  a 
neighbouring  place",  and  others  similar.  It  is 
denominated  presumption  juris  et  de  jure,  when  the 
law  so  strongly  supports  the  presumption  that  it 
is  held  to  be  certain  in  judicial  proceedings.  Against 
such  a  presumption  no  proofs  are  admitted  except 
the  evident  truth.  Thus,  goods  described  in  the  in- 
ventory made  by  a  guardian  are  presumed  to  belong 
to  the  possessions  of  the  deceased,  nor  would  the  later 
testimony  of  the  guardian  himself  to  the  contrary 
ordinarily  be  admitted.  As  to  the  presumption 
judicis  or  Hominis,  it  is  called  (a)  vehei/ient,  when  the 
probability  is  very  strongly  supported  by  most  urgent 
conjectures.  Thus,  a  birth  would  be  held  illegitimate, 
which  took  place  eleven  months  after  a  husband's 
decease.  A  vehement  presumption  is  considered 
equivalent  to  a  full  proof  in  civil  causes  of  not  too 
great  importance.  As  to  whether  it  should  have 
sufficient  effect  in  criminal  causes  to  produce  the  con- 
demnation of  an  accused  person,  canonists  do  not 
agree.  It  is  termed  (b)  probable,  when  it  arises  from 
less  urgent  and  only  less  probable  conjectures  and 
indications.  Such  presumption  is  looked  on  as 
merely  a  semi-proof,  unless  it  be  sustained  by  public 


PRETORIUM 


404 


PRETORIUM 


rumour,  in  which  case  it  is  held  as  sufficient  proof. 
Finally,  it  is  denominated  (c)  rash,  or  temerarious,  if  it 
rests  on  insuflacient  conjectures  or  scarcely  probable 
arguments.  Such  presumption  is  to  be  entirely  re- 
jected as  a  proof. 

The  foundation  of  these  legal  presumptions  is  to 
be  sought  in  the  natural  conclusions  drawn  from  the 
ordinary  happenings  of  common  life  and  the  con- 
sideration of  the  motives  that  usually  sway  men  in 
given  circumstances.  The  general  rules  are  thus 
formulated:  "What  is  natural  is  presumed  to  be  in 
the  person  or  case  in  question";  "Change  is  not  to  be 
presumed";  "Presumption  is  to  be  formed  from  the 
favourable  side".  As  to  effects,  when  there  is  ques- 
tion of  presumption  juris,  it  abstracts  from  the  neces- 
sity of  proof;  not  so  presumption  hominis.  A  judge 
can  follow  the  first  in  civil  cases  even  when  doubt 
remains,  not  so  the  second.  The  former  places  the 
burden  of  proof  on  the  adversary,  but  the  latter  does 
not.  Finally,  the  first  is  considered  of  itself  equiva- 
lent to  proof,  while  the  second  needs  corroboration 
from  something  extraneous  to  itself. 

Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (New  York,  1906),  s.  v. 
Presum-ption;  Fehharis,  Bihliotheca  canonica,  VI  (Rome,  1890), 
s.   V.    Prwsumptio, 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Pretorium. — This  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
prcetorium,  in  later  Greek  t5  irpaiTdpiov.  Originally, 
prcelorium  signified  the  general's  or  praetor's  tent  in 
Roman  camps;  then  it  was  applied  to  the  military 
council  sitting  there  in  judgment,  and  later  to  the 
official  residence  of  the  provincial  governor,  a  palace 
or  castle.  In  the  Gospel  (v.  g.,  Matt.,  xxvii,  27)  it 
denotes  the  building  Pilate  occupied  at  the  time  of 
Christ's  Passion.  There  were  two  castles  of  this  kind, 
both  built  by  Herod.  The  first  rose  on  the  site  of  the 
tower  of  Birah,  or  tower  of  the  House  (II  Esd.,  ii,  8; 
cf.  I  Mach.,  xiii,  53),  called  Baris  by  Josephus  ("Ant. 
Jud.",  XV,  xi,  4;  "Bell.  Jud.",  I,  iii,  3).  The  tower 
of  Baris  stood  on  a  rocky  mass  about  350  feet  long 
and  130  feet  wide,  cut  perpendicularly  to  a  height  of 
30  feet  on  the  south  side,  at  a  distance  of  a  hundred 
yards  from  the  north-west  corner  of  the  Temple  en- 
closure, and  to  a  height  of  15  feet  on  the  north,  where 
it  was  separated  from  Mount  Bezetha  by  a  ditch 
nearly  200  feet  wide.  On  this  rock,  now  occupied  by 
the  Turkish  barracks,  Herod  built  a  new  fortress.  Be- 
tween the  rock  and  the  Temple  enclosure  he  made  two 
wide  courts  surrounded  with  porticoes.  The  castle, 
called  Antonia  in  honour  of  Mark  Antony,  is  described 
by  Josephus  in  glowing  terms  (Bell.  Jud.,  V,  v,  8). 
Some  years  later,  Herod  built  a  second  palace,  on  the 
northern  brow  of  Mount  Sion,  at  the  western  extrem- 
ity of  the  town. 

That  Pilate  resided  in  one  of  these  two  castles  when 
Jesus  was  brought  before  him  can  scarcely  be  doubted ; 
and  the  early  tradition  which  locates  the  pretorium 
in  the  fortress  of  Antonia  is  well  supported  by  history 
and  archaeology.  During  the  Paschal  solemnities, 
riots  and  sedition  often  broke  out  amongst  the  Jews 
in  the  precincts  of  the  Temple;  the  Roman  soldiers 
were  therefore  held  under  arms  at  the  difTerent  por- 
ticoes, watching  the  populace,  to  suppress  any  at- 
tempted insurrection,  the  Temple  being  the  watch- 
tower  of  the  city,  as  the  Antonia  was  of  the  Temple 
(Bell.  Jud.,  V,  V,  8).  In  case  of  sedition  the  Tem- 
ple was  accessible  only  from  the  Antonia  (cf.  Bell.  Jud., 
II,  XV,  5,  6;  VI,  i-iii).  Pilate  came  from  Caesarea 
to  Jerusalem  solely  to  look  after  the  Jews  assembled 
around  the  sanctuary,  and  in  such  circumstances  he 
would  naturally  have  resided  in  the  Antonia.  St. 
John  (xix,  13)  tells  us  that  the  paved  court,  in  Greek 
Lilhostrotos,  where  our  Lord  was  sentenced  to 
death,  bore  the  significant  name  of  Gabbatha,  in 
Syro-Chaldean  (from  Heb.  gaphiphta,i.  e.  the  raised). 
So  interesting  a  place  could  not  have  been  forgotten 
by  the  first  Christians.     In  the  year  340,  St.  Cyril 


of  Jerusalem  reminded  his  flock,  as  a  well-known  fact, 
that  the  house  of  Caiphas  and  the  pretorium  of  Pilate 
had  remained  "unto  that  day  a  heap  of  ruins  by  the 
might  of  Him  who  hung  upon  the  Cross"  (Catech., 
xiii,  xxxviii,  xxxix).  Now,  the  western  palace  of  Herod 
was  spared  by  Titus,  and  served  as  a  citadel  to  the 
legion  left  to  garrison  the  Upper  City  (Bell.  Jud., 
VII,  i,  1).  During  the  rebeUion  of  the  Jews  under 
Bar-Cocheba,  Julius  Severus  took  it  by  assault;  but 
Hadrian  rebuilt  it  and  made  of  it  the  citadel  of 
Mlia,  Capitolina  (Eutychius  of  Alex.,  "Annales"). 
Whereas  the  Antonia  was  utterly  destroyed  by  Titus 
(Bell.  Jud.,  VI,  ii,  7),  and  history  tells  of  no  building 
raised  upon  its  ruins  before  the  fifth  century. 


The  Arch  of  Eoce  Homo,  Jerusalem 

In  333  the  Bordeaux  pilgrim  mentions  Golgotha 
as  being  on  his  left  as  he  was  walking  from  Mount  Sion 
towards  the  northern  Gate:  "On  the  right",  he  says, 
"we  perceive,  down  in  the  valley,  walls  where 
once  stood  the  house  or  pretorium  of  Pilate. 
There  the  Lord  was  judged  before  His  Passion. "  The 
Brevarius  of  Jerusalem  (c.  436)  mentions  in  the  preto- 
rium "a  great  basilica  called  St.  Sophia,  with  a  chapel, 
cubiculum,  where  our  Lord  was  st  ripped  of  his  garments 
and  scourged"  Peter  the  Iberian  (o.  454)  went  down 
from  Golgotha  "to  the  basilica  named  after  Pilate", 
and  thence  to  that  of  the  Paralytic,  and  then  to 
Gethsemane.  The  local  tradition  remained  constant, 
showing  at  all  times  up  to  the  present  day  the  pre- 
torium of  Pilate  to  have  been  in  the  Antonia. 

Of  this  fortress  there  still  remain  three  piers 
and  two  archivolts  of  the  triple  gateway,  which 
gave  access  to  the  castle.  The  central  arch,  which 
crosses  the  street,  and  which  from  the  sixteenth 
century  only  has  been  called  Arch  of  the  Ecce 
Homo,  measures  20  feet.  The  smaller  one,  on  the 
north,  is  enclosed  in  the  new  church  of  the  Ecce 
Homo  (1);  the  small  southern  arch  has  disap- 
peared. The  gateway  extends  66  feet.  To  the  east  of 
the  Arch  of  the  Ecce  Homo  is  a  court  paved  with  rec- 
tangular stone  blocks,  over  15  inches  thick.  It  meas- 
ures about  130  feet  by  95  fci't,  and  is  bordered  at 
the  east  end  by  foundation  walls  of  ancient  buildings. 


PRIDE 


405 


FRIERIAS 


Ground-plan  of  the  Fortress  of  Antonia 
The  broken  lines  indicate  the  supposed  buildings  according  to  the  descrip- 
tions of  Josephus.    The  figures  in  the  parentheses  give  in  feet  the 
altitude  above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 


This  is  the  outer  court  or  the  Lithostrotos.  On  the 
day  of  Christ's  trial,  the  Jews  could  not  penetrate 
further  amongst  pagan  dwellings  without  contracting  a 
legal  defilement.  On  this  pavement  stands  the  chapel 
of  the  Condemnation  (2),  restored  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury and  rebuilt  in  1904.  The  chapel  of  the  Flagellation 
(3)  rises  about  100 
feet  more  to  the  east; 
it  dates  probably 
from  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, but  has  been 
three  times  rebuilt. 
On  the  rook  of  Baris, 
the  natural  site  of 
the  royal  palace,  was 
the  tribunal,  "the 
inner  court",  called 
"  the  court  of  the  pre- 
torium ' '  in  the  Syrian 
Version  (Mark,  xv, 
16).  The  chapel  of 
the  Crowning  with 
Thorns(5),builtinthe 
twelfth  century,  is  still 
well  preserved.  The 
basilica  of  St.  Sophia 
(6),  reconstructed  in 
the  twelfth  century, 
stood  towards  the 
east.  It  was  trans- 
formed later  into  a 
Turkish  tribunal,  and 
finally  razed  to  the 
ground  in  1832,  when 
new  barracks  were 
erected. 

Wilson  .\nd  Warren,  The  Recovery  of  Jerusalem  (London, 
1871) ;  Warren  and  Conder,  Survey  of  Western  Palestine:  Jeru- 
salem (London,  1884) ;  Gu^rin,  JSrusalem  (Paris,  1889) ;  Meis- 
termann,  Le  prStoire  de  Pilate  (Paris,  1902);  Idem,  New  Guide  to 
the  Holy  Land  (London,  1907). 

Barnabas  Meistermann. 
Pride  is  the  excessive  love  of  one's  own  excellence. 
It  is  ordinarily  accounted  one  of  the  seven  capital  sins. 
St.  Thomas,  however,  endorsing  the  appreciation  of  St. 
Gregory,  considers  it  the  queen  of  all  vices,  and  puts 
vainglory  in  its  place  as  one  of  the  deadly  sins.  In 
giving  it  this  pre-eminence  he  takes  it  in  a  most  formal 
and  complete  signification.  He  understands  it  to  be 
that  frame  of  mind  in  which  a  man,  through  the  love 
of  his  own  worth,  aims  to  withdraw  himself  from  sub- 
jection to  Almighty  God,  and  sets  at  naught  the  com- 
mands of  superiors.  It  is  a  species  of  contempt  of  God 
and  of  those  who  bear  his  commission.  Regarded  in 
this  way,  it  is  of  course  a  mortal  sin  of  a  most  heinous 
sort.  Indeed  St.  Thomas  rates  it  in  this  sense  as  one 
of  the  blackest  of  sins.  By  it  the  creature  refuses  to 
stay  within  his  essential  orbit;  he  turns  his  back  upon 
God,  not  through  weakness  or  ignorance,  but  solely 
because  in  his  self-exaltation  he  is  minded  not  to  sub- 
mit. His  attitude  has  something  Satanic  in  it,  and  is 
probably  not  often  verified  in  human  beings.  A  less 
atrocious  kind  of  pride  is  that  which  impels  one  to 
make  much  of  oneself  unduly  and  without  sufficient 
warrant,  without  however  any  disposition  to  cast  off 
the  dominion  of  the  Creator.  This  may  happen,  ac- 
cording to  St.  Gregory,  either  because  a  man  regards 
himself  as  the  source  of  such  advantages  as  he  may  dis- 
cern in  himself,  or  because,  whilst  admitting  that  God 
has  bestowed  them,  he  reputes  this  to  have  been  in 
response  to  his  own  merits,  or  because  he  attributes  to 
himself  gifts  which  he  has  not;  or,  finally,  because  even 
when  these  are  real  he  unreasonably  looks  to  be  put 
ahead  of  others.  Supposing  the  conviction  indicated 
in  the  first  two  instances  to  be  seriously  entertained, 
the  sin  would  be  a  grievous  one  and  would  have  the 
added  guilt  of  heresy.  Ordinarily,  however,  this  er- 
roneous persuasion  does  not  exist;  it  is  the  demeanour 


that  is  reprehensible.  The  last  two  cases  generally 
speaking  are  not  held  to  constitute  grave  offences. 
This  is  not  true,  however,  whenever  a  man's  arrogance 
is  the  occasion  of  great  harm  to  another,  as,  for  in- 
stance, his  undertaking  the  duties  of  a  physician  with- 
out the  requisite  knowledge.    The  same  judgment  is 

to  be  rendered  when 
pride  has  given  rise 
to  such  temper  of  soul 
that  in  the  pursuit  ot 
its  object  one  is  readj 
for  anything,  even 
mortal  sin.  Vain- 
glory, ambition,  and 
presumption  are  com- 
monly enumerated 
as  the  offspring  vices 
of  pride,  because 
they  are  well  adapted 
to  serve  its  inordi- 
nate aims.  Of  them- 
selves they  are  venial 
sins  unless  some  ex- 
traneous considera- 
tion puts  them  in  the 
ranks  of  grievous 
transgressions.  It 
should  be  noted  that 
presumption  does 
not  here  stand  fox 
the  sin  against  hope 
It  means  the  desire 
to  essay  what  ex- 
ceeds one's  capacity 

Slater,  Manual  03 
Moral  Theology  (New 
York,  1908) ;  Rickaby,  Moral  Teaching  of  St.  Thomas  (London 
1896)  ;  St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theologica  (Turin,  1885). 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 

Priene,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  ol 
Ephesus.  The  foundation  of  the  town  of  Priene 
dates  from  the  period  when  the  Carians,  Leleges  and 
Lycians,  were  sole  masters  of  the  country.  Later 
it  was  occupied  by  the  lonians  and  became  one  ot 
the  twelve  cities  of  Ionia.  It  was  a  holy  city,  and 
chose  the  leader  of  the  Panionian  feasts.  Its  tem- 
ple of  Athena,  built  by  Alexander,  contained  an  an- 
cient statue  of  that  goddess.  Situated  on  the  south- 
ern slope  of  Mount  Mycale,  it  never  attained 
great  development,  although  it  had  at  first  two  har- 
bours and  a  fleet.  In  the  time  of  Augustus  it  was 
already  forty  stadia  from  the  sea  because  of  the  in- 
roads of  the  Meander.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Ly- 
cian  King  Ardys,  then  by  Cyrus,  and  remained  sub- 
ject to  the  Persians  till  the  time  of  Alexander.  Priene 
endured  great  hardships  under  the  Persian  genera! 
Tabates  and  later  under  Hiero,  one  of  its  citizens 
After  regaining  autonomy,  it  remained  attached  to 
the  Ionic  confederation.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
philosopher  Bias.  The  "Notitiae  episcopatuum " 
mentions  it  as  a  suffragan  of  Ephesus  until  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Four  of  its  bishops  are  known :  Theo- 
sebius,  present  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431);  Isi- 
dore, who  was  living  in  451;  Paul,  present  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  (692);  Demetrius,  in  the 
twelfth  century.  The  beautiful  ruins  of  Priene  are  at 
Samsoon  Kalessi,  near  the  Greek  village  of  Kelitesh 
in  the  vilayet  of  Smyrna,  about  two  miles  from  the 
sea. 

Le  QniEN,  Oriens  christ.,  I,  717;  Chandler,  Travels,  200 
etc.;  Leake,  Asia  Minor  (London,  1834),  239,  352;  Fellows, 
Asia  Minor  (London,  1852),  268  etc.;  Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and 
Roman  geogr.  (London,  1878),  s.  v.,  bibliography  of  ancient 
authors;  Manneht,  Geogr.  d.  Grieschen  u,  RUmer,  III  (1825  sq.) 
264;  Texieh,  Asie  Mineure  (Paris,  1882),  342-45;  Eckel,  Doc- 
irina  rei  num.,  II  (Leipzig,  1842),  536. 

S.    P^TRIDilS. 

Prierias,  Sylvester.    See  Mazzolini,  Sylvester, 


PRIEST 


406 


PRIEST 


Priest. — This  word  (etymologioally  "elder",  from 
wp€<TpvTepos,  presbyter)  has  taken  the  meaning  of 
"saoerdos",  from  which  no  substantive  has  been 
formed  in  various  modern  languages  (English,  French, 
German).  The  priest  is  the  minister  of  Divine  wor- 
ship, and  especially  of  the  highest  act  of  worship,  sac- 
rifice. In  this  sense,  every  religion  has  its  priests, 
exercising  more  or  less  exalted  sacerdotal  functions 
as  intermediaries  between  man  and  the  Divinity  (cf. 
Heb.,  V,  1:  "for  every  high  priest  taken  from  among 
men,  is  ordained  for  men  in  the  things  that  appertain 
to  God,  that  he  may  offer  up  gifts  and  sacrifices  for 
sins").  In  various  ages  and  countries  we  find  numer- 
ous and  important  differences:  the  priest  properly  so 
called  may  be  assisted  by  inferior  ministers  of  many 
kinds;  he  may  belong  to  a  special  class  or  caste,  to  a 
clergy,  or  else  may  be  like  other  citizens  except  in 
what  concerns  his  sacerdotal  functions;  he  may  be  a 
member  of  a  hierarchy,  or,  on  the  contrary,  may  exer- 
cise an  independent  priesthood  (e.  g.  Melchisedech, 
Heb.,  vii,  1-33);  lastly,  the  methods  of  recruiting  the 
ministers  of  worship,  the  rites  by  which  they  receive 
their  powers,  the  authority  that  establishes  them,  may 
all  differ.  But,  amid  all  these  accidental  differences, 
one  fundamental  idea  is  common  to  all  religions :  the 
priest  is  the  person  authoritatively  appointed  to  do 
homage  to  God  in  the  name  of  society,  even  the  prim- 
itive society  of  the  fanjily  (cf.  Job,  i,  5),  and  to  offer 
Him  sacrifice  (in  the  broad,  but  especially  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word) .  Omitting  further  discussion  of  the 
general  idea  of  the  priesthood,  and  neglecting  all  refer- 
ence to  pagan  worship,  we  may  call  attention  to  the  or- 
ganization among  the  people  of  God  of  a  Divine  service 
with  ministers  properly  so-called :  the  priests,  the  in- 
ferior clergy,  the  Levites,  and  at  their  head  the  high- 
priest.  We  know  the  detailed  regulations  contained 
in  Leviticus  as  to  the  different  sacrifices  offered  to  God 
in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  character  and 
duty  of  the  priests  and  Levites.  Their  ranks  were  re- 
cruited, in  virtue  not  of  the  free  choice  of  individuals, 
but  of  descent  in  the  tribe  of  Levi  (especially  the  fam- 
ily of  Aaron),  which  had  been  called  by  God  to  His 
ritual  service  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  The  elders 
{irpta-^iTcpoi)  formed  a  kind  of  council,  but  had  no 
sacerdotal  power;  it  was  they  who  took  counsel  with 
the  chief  priests  to  capture  Jesus  (Matt.,  xxvi,  3).  It 
is  this  name  presbyter  (elder)  which  has  passed  into 
the  Christian  speech  to  signify  the  minister  of  Divine 
service,  the  priest. 

The  Christian  law  also  has  necessarily  its  priesthood 
to  carry  out  the  Divine  service,  the  principal  act  of 
which  is  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice,  the  figure  and  re- 
newal of  that  of  Calvary.  This  priesthood  has  two 
degrees:  the  first,  total  and  complete,  the  second  an 
incomplete  participation  of  the  first.  The  first  belongs 
to  the  bishop.  The  bishop  is  truly  a  priest  (sacerdos), 
and  even  a  high-priest;  he  has  chief  control  of  the 
Divine  worship  (sacrorum  antistes),  is  the  president  of 
liturgical  meetings;  he  has  the  fullness  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  administers  all  the  sacraments.  The  second 
degree  belongs  to  the  priest  (presbyter),  who  is  also  a 
sacerdos,  but  of  the  second  rank  ("secundi  sacerdotes" 
Innocent  I  ad  Eugub.);  by  his  priestly  ordination  he 
receives  the  power  to  offer  sacrifice  (i.  e.  to  celebrate 
the  Eucharist),  to  forgive  sins,  to  bless,  to  preach,  to 
sanctify,  and  in  a  word  to  fulfil  the  non-reserved  litur- 
gical duties  or  priestly  functions.  In  the  exercise  of 
these  functions,  however,  he  is  subject  to  the  author- 
ity of  the  bishop  to  whom  he  has  promised  canonical 
obedience;  in  certain  cases  even  he  requires  not  only 
authorization,  but  real  jurisdiction,  particularly  to 
forgive  sins  and  to  take  care  of  souls.  Moreover,  cer- 
tain acts  of  the  sacerdotal  power,  affecting  the  society 
of  which  the  bishop  is  the  head,  are  reserved  to  the 
latter — e.  g.  confirmation,  the  final  rite  of  Christian 
initiation,  ordination,  by  which  the  ranks  of  the 
clergy  are  recruited,  and  the  solemn  consecration  of 


new  temples  to  God.  Sacerdotal  powers  are  conferred 
on  priests  by  priestly  ordination,  and  it  is  this  ordina- 
tion which  puts  them  in  the  highest  rank  of  the  hier- 
archy after  the  bishop. 

As  the  word  sacerdos  was  applicable  to  both  bishops 
and  priests,  and  one  became  a  presbyter  only  by  sacer- 
dotal ordination,  the  word   presbyter  soon  lost  its 
primitive  meaning  of  "ancient"  and  was  applied  only 
to  the  minister  of  worship  and  of  the  sacrifice  (hence 
our  priest).    Originally,  however,  the  presbyteri  were 
the  members  of  the  high  council  which,  under  the 
presidency  of  the  bishop,  administered  the  affairs  of 
the  local  church.    Doubtless  in  general  these  members 
entered  the  presbyterate  only  by  the  imposition  of 
hands  which  made  them  priests;   however,  that  there 
could  be,  and  actually  were  presbyteri  who  were  not 
priests,  is  seen  from  canons  43-47  of  Hippolytus  (cf. 
Duchesne,   "Origines  du  culte  chr^tien",  append.), 
which  show  that  some  of  those  who  had  confessed  the 
Faith  before  the  tribunals  were  admitted  into  the 
presbyterium  without  ordination.     These  exceptions 
were,  however,  merely  isolated  instances,  and  from 
time  immemorial  ordination  has  been  the  sole  manner 
of  recruiting  the  presbyteral  order.    The  documents 
of  antiquity  show  us  the  priests  as  the  permanent 
council,  the  auxiliaries  of  the  bishop,  whom  they  sur- 
round and  aid  in  the  solemn  functions  of  Divine  Wor- 
ship.   When  the  bishop  is  absent,  he  is  replaced  by  a 
priest,  who  presides  in  his  name  over  the  hturgical 
assembly.    The  priests  replace  him  especially  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  diocese,  where  they  are  stationed 
by  him;   here  they  provide  for  the  Divine  Service,  as 
the  bishop  does  in  the  episcopal  city,  except  that 
certain  functions  are  reserved  to  the  latter,  and  the 
others  are  performed  with  less  liturgical  solemnity. 
As  the  churches  multiplied  in  the  country  and  towns, 
the  priests  served  them  with  a  permanent  title,  be- 
coming rectors  or  titulars.     Thus,  the  bond  uniting 
such  priests  to  the  cathedral  church  gradually  became 
weaker,  whereas  it  grew  stronger  in  the  case  of  those 
who  served  in  the  cathedral  with  the  bishop  (i.  e.  the 
canons) ;   at  the  same  time  the  lower  clergy  tended  to 
decrease  in  number,  inasmuch  as  the  clerics  passed 
through  the  inferior  orders  only  to  arrive  at  the  sacer- 
dotal ordination,  which  was  indispensable  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  churches  and  the  exercise  of  a  use- 
ful ministry  among  the  faithful.    Hence  ordinarily  the 
priest  was  not  isolated,  but  was  regularly  attached  to 
a  definite  church  or  connected  with  a  cathedral.    Ac- 
cordingly, the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIII,  cap. 
xvi,  renewing  canon  vi  of  Chalcedon)  desires  bishops 
not  to  ordain  any  clerics  but  those  necessary  or  useful 
to  the  church  or  ecclesiastical  establishment  to  which 
they  are  to  be  attached  and  which  they  are  to  serve. 

The  nature  of  this  service  depends  especially  on  the 
nature  of  the  benefice,  office,  or  function  assigned  to 
the  priest;  the  Council  in  particular  desires  (cap.  xiv) 
priests  to  celebrate  Mass  at  least  on  Sundays  and 
holydays,  while  those  who  are  charged  with  the  care 
of  souls  are  to  celebrate  as  often  as  their  office  de- 
mands. 

Consequently,  it  is  not  easy  to  say  in  a  way  appli- 
cable to  all  cases  what  are  the  duties  and  rights  of  a 
priest;  both  vary  considerably  in  individual  cases. 
By  his  ordination  a  priest  is  invested  with  powers 
rather  than  with  rights,  the  exercise  of  these  powers 
(to  celebrate  Mass,  remit  sins,  preach,  administer  the 
sacraments,  direct  and  minister  to  the  Christian 
people)  being  regulated  by  the  common  laws  of  the 
church,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop,  and  the  office 
or  charge  of  each  priest.  The  exercise  of  the  sacer- 
dotal powers  is  both  a  duty  and  a  right  for  priests 
having  the  care  of  souls,  either  in  their  own  name 
(e.  g.  parish  priests)  or  as  auxiliaries  (e.  g.  parochial 
curates).  Except  in  the  matter  of  the  care  of  souls 
the  sacerdotal  functions  are  likewise  obligatory  in  the 
case  of  priests  having  any  benefice  or  office  in  a 


PRIEST 


407 


PRIEST 


church  (e.  g.  canons);  otherwise  they  are  optional, 
and  their  exercise  depends  upon  the  favour  of  the 
bishop  (e.  g.  the  permission  to  hear  confessions  or  to 
preach  granted  to  simple  priests  or  to  priests  from  out- 
side the  diocese).  As  for  the  case  of  a  priest  who  is 
entirely  free,  moralists  limit  his  obligations,  as  far  as 
the  exercise  of  his  sacerdotal  powers  is  concerned,  to 
the  celebration  of  Mass  several  times  a  year  (St.  Al- 
phonsus  Liguori,  1.  VI,  no.  313)  and  to  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacraments  in  case  of  necessity,  in  addition 
to  fulfilling  certain  other  obligations  not  strictly  sacer- 
dotal (e.  g.  the  Breviary,  celibacy).  But  canonical 
writers,  not  considering  such  a  condition  regular,  hold 
that  the  bishop  is  obliged  in  this  case  to  attach  such 
a  priest  to  a  church  and  impose  some  duty  on  him, 
even  if  it  be  only  an  obligatory  attendance  at  solemn 
functions  and  processions  (Innocent  XIII,  Constitu- 
tion "  Apostolici  ministerii",  23  March,  1723;  Bene- 
dict XIII,  Const.  "In  supremo",  23  Sept.,  1724;. 
Roman  Council  of  172.5,  tit.  vi,  c.  ii). 

As  to  the  material  situation  of  the  priest,  his  rights 
are  clearly  laid  down  by  canon  law,  which  varies  con- 
siderably with  the  actual  condition  of  the  Church  in 
different  countries.  As  a  matter  of  principle,  each 
cleric  ought  to  have  from  his  ordination  to  the  sub- 
diaconate  a  benefice,  the  revenues  of  which  ensure  him 
a  respectable  living  and,  if  he  is  ordained  with  a  title 
of  patrimony  (i.  e.  the  possession  of  independent 
means  sufficient  to  provide  a  decent  livelihood),  he 
has  the  right  to  receive  a  benefice  as  soon  as  possible. 
Practically  the  question  seldom  arises  in  the  case  of 
priests,  for  clerics  are  ordinarily  ordained  with  the 
title  of  ecclesiastical  service,  and  they  cannot  usefully 
fill  a  remunerated  post  unless  they  are  priests.  Each 
priest  ordained  with  the  title  of  ecclesiastical  service 
has  therefore  the  right  to  ask  of  his  bishop,  and  the 
bishop  is  under  an  obligation  to  assign  him,  a  benefice 
or  ecclesiastical  office  which  will  ensure  him  a  re- 
spectable living;  in  this  office  the  priest  has  therefore 
the  right  to  collect  the  emoluments  attached  to  his 
ministry,  including  the  offerings  which  a  legitimate 
custom  allows  him  to  receive  or  even  demand  on  the 
occasion  of  certain  definite  functions  (stipends  for 
Masses,  curial  rights  for  burial  etc.).  Even  when  old 
or  infirm,  a  priest  who  has  not  rendered  himself  un- 
worthy and  who  is  unable  to  fulfil  his  ministry  re- 
mains a  charge  on  his  bishop,  unless  other  arrange- 
ments have  been  made.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  the 
rights  and  duties  of  a  priest  are,  in  the  concrete  reality, 
conditioned  by  his  situation.  (See  Benefice; 
Pastor;  Parish  Priest;  Priesthood.) 

See  bibliography  to  Orders,  Holy,  and  Priesthood;  consult 
also  Phillips,  DtoU  ecclesiastique  (French  tr.,  Paris,  1850),  36; 
Many,  Prcelectiones  de  sacra  ordinaiione  (Paris,  1905),  n.  16;  and 
the  collections  of  Zamboni  and  of  Pallottini,  a.  v.  Presbyteri 
(simplices) . 

A.  Botjdinhon. 

Priest,  Assistant. — The  assistant  priest  (pres- 
byter assistens,  anciently  called  capellanus)  is  the  first 
and  highest  in  dignity  of  the  ministers  who  assist  the 
bishop  in  pontifical  functions.  Where  there  are  cathe- 
dral chapters,  ordinarily  the  first  dignitary  acts  as 
assistant  priest;  but  if  the  bishop  only  assists  at  a 
service,  then  the  first  canon  after  the  dignitaries 
should  serve  in  this  capacity.  If  a  priest  preaches  at 
pontifical  Mass,  the  preacher  should  also  be  assistant 
priest.  A  cardinal-bishop  acts  as  assistant  priest  for 
the  pope.  By  privilege,  prothonotaries  de  numero 
participantium  and  mitred  abbots  may  have  an  assist- 
ant priest  when  they  celebrate  pontifical  Mass;  and 
so  also,  but  with  some  restrictions,  supernumerary 
prothonotaries  and  prothonotaries  ad  instar.  Certain 
dignitaries  and  canons  in  virtue  of  ancient  custom  are 
similarly  privileged,  and  finally  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Rites  tolerates  the  custom  of  having  an  assist- 
ant priest  at  a  priest's  first  solemn  Mass.  While 
assisting  the  celebrant  the  assistant  priest  wears  the 


cope  and  amice  over  his  surplice  or  rochet;  but  while 
assisting  the  bishop  presiding  at  the  throne  he  wears 
his  regular  choral  dress.  At  the  throne  his  stool  is 
placed  on  the  platform  of  the  throne,  regularly  at  the 
right  and  a  little  in  front  of  the  first  assistant  deacon. 
When  the  celebrant  uses  the  faldstool,  the  assistant 
priest  sits  on  the  bench  at  the  deacon's  right;  but 
when  the  celebrant  uses  the  bench,  the  assistant  priest 
sits  on  a  stool  placed  at  the  end  of  the  bench  and 
usually  at  the  right  of  the  deacon.  His  chief  duty  is  to 
attend  to  the  book,  which  he  holds  for  most  of  the 
parts  which  the  celebrant  sings,  and  at  the  altar  he 
turns  the  leaves,  points  out  the  text,  etc.  He  minis- 
ters the  ring,  presents  the  towel,  and  receives  the  kiss 
of  peace  first,  from  the  celebrant,  and  conveys  it  to 
the  choir.  At  the  throne  he  also  ministers  the  incense 
and  incenses  the  bishop.  Sometimes  it  is  his  duty  to 
publish  the  episcopal  indulgences.  When  the  bishop 
presides  at  the  throne,  part  of  the  time  the  assistant 
priest  occupies  his  place  at  the  throne,  and  part  of 
the  time  his  regular  place  in  the  choir,  and  then  he 
ministers  the  incense,  incenses  the  bishop,  and  brings 
the  kiss  of  peace  from  the  celebrant  to  the  bishop. 
In  other  pontifical  functions  besides  the  Mass  and  the 
Divine  Office  his  duties  are  similar  to  those  described. 

Cccre-moniale  Episco-porum  (Ratisbon,  1902);  Martinucci, 
Manuale  sacrarum  ca:rimoniarum  (Rome,  1879);  De  Herdt, 
Praxis  pontificalis  (Louvain,  1904) ;  Le  Vavasseur,  Les  Fonctions 
pontificales  (Paris,  1904);  Ceremonial  of  the  Church  (Philadelphia, 
189-'^    313. 

J.   F.  GoGGIN. 

Priest,  The  High. — The  high-priest  in  the  Old 
Testament  is  called  by  various  names:  'jrOH,  i.  e.  the 
priest  (Num.,  iii,  6);  bTu~  ]~C~,  i.  e.  the  great  priest 
(Lev.,  xxi,  10);  fKnn  'jro,  i.  e.  the  head  priest  (IV 
Kings,  XXV,  18);  n'i'I^n  ]~2~,  i.  e.  the  anointed  priest 
(Lev.,  iv,  3):  Gr.,  'Apx^cpeis  (Lev.,  iv,  3),  also  in  later 
books  and  New  Testament.  In  the  Old  Testament 
6  Upeii  (Num.,  iii,  6);  kpeh  6  irpwroi  (IV  Kings, 
XXV,  18);  6  lepeis  6  li^yas  (Lev.,  xxi,  10),  are  the  common 
forms.  A  coadjutor  or  second  priest  was  called  p3 
nyra"  (IV  Kings,  XXV,  18;  see  Gesenius,  s.  v.  ~3U'?3). 

Aaron  and  his  sons  were  chosen  by  God  to  be  priests, 
Aaron  being  the  first  high-priest  and  Eleazar  his  suc- 
cessor; so  that,  though  the  Scripture  does  not  say  so 
explicitly,  the  succession  of  the  eldest  son  to  the  office 
of  high-priest  became  a  law.  The  consecration  of 
Aaron  and  his  sons  during  seven  days  and  their  vest- 
ments are  described  in  Ex.,  xxviii,  xxix  (cf.  Lev.,  viii, 
12;  Ecclus.,  xlv,  7  sqq.).  Aaron  was  anointed  with 
oil  poured  on  his  head  (Lev.,  viii,  12);  hence  he  is 
called  "the  priest  that  is  anointed"  (Lev.,  iv,  3). 
Some  texts  seem  to  require  anointing  for  all  (Ex., 
XXX,  30;  Lev.,  x,  7;  Num.,  iii,  3),  but  Aaron  was 
anointed  with  oil  in  great  profusion,  even  on  tjie  head 
(Ex.,  xxix,  7),  to  which  reference  is  made  in  Ps. 
cxxxii,  2,  where  it  is  said  that  the  precious  ointment 
ran  down  upon  his  beard  and  "to  the  skirt  of  his  gar- 
ment". The  ointment  was  made  of  myrrh,  cinnamon, 
calamus,  cassia,  and  olive  oil,  compounded  by  the  per- 
fumer or  apothecary  (Ex.,  xxx,  23-2.5;  Josephus, 
"Ant.",  Ill,  viii,  3),  and  not  to  be  imitated  nor  ap- 
plied to  profane  uses  (Ex.,  xxx,  31-33). 

After  the  Exile  anointing  was  not  in  use :  both  high- 
priests  and  priests  were  consecrated  by  simple  in- 
vestiture. The  rabbis  held  that  even  before  the  Exile 
the  high-priest  alone  was  anointed  by  pouring  the 
sacred  oil  "over  him"  and  applying  it  to  his  forehead 
over  the  eyes  "  after  the  form  of  the  Greek  X  "  (Eders- 
heim,  "The  Temple,  Its  Ministry  and  Service  at  the 
Time  of  Jesus  Christ",  71).  No  age  is  specified,  and 
thus  youth  was  no  impediment  to  the  appointment  by 
Herod  of  Aristobulus  to  the  high-priesthood,  though  the 
latter  was  in  his  seventeenth  year  (Josephus,  "  Antiq.", 
XV,  iii,  3) .  Josephus  gives  a  list  of  eighty-three  high- 
priests  from  Aaron  to  the  destruction  of  the  Temple 
by  the  Romans  (Ant.,  XX,  x).     They  were  in  the  be- 


PRIEST 


408 


PRIEST 


ginning  chosen  for  life,  but  later  removed  at  will  by 
the  secular  power  (Jos.,  "Ant.",  XV,  iii,  1;  XX,  x), 
so  that  "the  numbers  of  the  high-priests  from  the 
days  of  Herod  until  the  day  when  Titus  took  the 
Temple  and  the  city,  and  burnt  them,  were  in  all 
twenty-eight;  the  time  also  that  belonged  to  them  was 
one  hundred  and  seven  years"  (Jos.,  "Ant.",  XX,  x). 
Thus  one-third  of  the  high-priests  of  fifteen  centuries 
lived  within  the  last  century  of  their  history:  they  had 
become  the  puppets  of  the  temporal  rulers.  The 
frequency  of  change  in  the  office  is  hinted  at  by  St. 
John  (xi,  51),  where  he  says  that  Caiphas  was  "the 
high-priest  of  that  year".  Solomon  deposed  Abiathar 
for  having  supported  the  cause  of  Adonias,  and  gave 
the  high-priesthood  to  Sadoc  (III  Kings,  ii,  27,  35) : 
then  the  last  of  Heli's  family  was  cast  out,  as  the  Lord 
had  declared  to  Heh  long  before  (I  Kings,  ii,  32).  It 
seems  strange,  therefore,  that  Josephus  (Ant.,  XV, 
iii,  1)  states  that  Antiochus  Epiphanes  was  the  first 
to  depose  a  high-priest.  It  may  be  that  he  regarded 
Abiathar  and  Sadoc  as  holding  the  office  conjointly, 
since  Abiathar  "the  priest"  and  Sadoe  "the  priest" 
were  both  very  prominent  in  David's  reign  (III  Kings, 
i,  34;  I  Par.,  xvi,  39,  40).  Josephus  may  have  con- 
sidered the  act  of  Solomon  the  means  of  a  return  to 
unity;  moreover,  in  the  same  section  where  he  men- 
tions the  change,  he  says  that  Sadoc  was  high-priest 
in  David's  reign  (Ant.,  VIII,  i,  3),  and  adds  "the  king 
[Solomon]  also  made  Zadok  to  be  alone  the  high- 
priest"  (Ant.,  VIII,  i,  4).  Shortly  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple  by  the  Romans  the  zealots  chose 
by  lot  a  mere  rustic  named  Phannias  as  the  last  high- 
priest:  thus  the  high-priesthood,  the  city  and  the 
Temple  passed  away  together  (Josephus,  "Bell.  Jud.", 
IV,  iii,  8). 

iThe  prominence  of  Solomon  at  the  dedication  of  the 
Temple  need  not  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  king 
officiated  also  as  priest  on  the  occasion.  Smith 
("  Ency.  Bib.",  s.  v.  Priest)  maintains  this,  and  that  the 
kings  of  Juda  oifered  sacrifice  down  to  the  Exile,  al- 
leging in  proof  such  passages  as  III  Kings,  ix,  25 ;  but 
since  priests  are  mentioned  in  this  same  book,  for 
instance,  viii,  10,  11  such  inference  is  not  reasonable. 
As  Van  Hoonacker  shows,  the  prominence  of  the 
secular  power  in  the  early  history  of  the  people  and  the 
apparent  absence  of  even  the  high-priest  during  the 
most  sacred  functions,  as  well  as  the  great  authority 
possessed  by  him  after  the  Exile,  do  not  warrant  the 
conclusion  of  Wellhausen  that  the  high-priesthood  was 
known  only  in  post-Exilic  times.  That  such  a  change 
could  have  taken  place  and  could  have  been  introduced 
into  the  life  of  the  nation  and  so  easily  accepted  as  a  Di- 
vine institution  is  hardly  probable.  We  have,  however, 
undoubted  references  to  the  high-priest  in  pre-Exilio 
texts  (IV  Kings,  xi;  xii;  xvi,  10;  xxii;  xxiii,  etc.)  which 
Buhl  ("The  New  Schaff-Herzog  Ency.  of  Refigious 
Knowledge",  s.  v.  High  Priest)  admits  as  genuine,  not 
interpolations,  as  some  think,  by  which  the  "later 
office  may  have  had  a  historic  foreshadowing".  We 
see  in  them  proofs  of  the  existence  of  the  high-priest- 
hood, not  merely  its  "foreshadowing"-  Then  too  the 
title  "the  second  priest"  in  Jer.,  Iii,  24,  where  the 
high-priest  also  is  mentioned,  is  a  twofold  witness  to 
the  same  truth;  so  that  though,  as  Josephus  tells  us 
(Ant.,  XX,  x),  in  the  latter  years  of  the  nation's  his- 
tory "the  high-priests  were  entrusted  with  a  dominion 
over  the  nation"  and  thus  became,  as  in  the  days  of 
the  sacerdotal  Machabees,  more  conspicuous  than  in 
early  times,  yet  this  was  only  an  accidental  lustre 
added  to  an  ancient  and  sacred  office. 

In  the  New  Testament  (Matt.,  u,  4;  Mark,  xiv,  1, 
etc.)  where  reference  is  made  to  chief  priests,  some 
think  that  these  all  had  been  high-priests,  who  having 
been  deposed  constituted  a  distinct  class  and  had 
great  influence  in  the  Sanhedrin.  It  is  clear  from 
John,  xviii,  13,  that  Annas,  even  when  deprived  of  the 
pontificate,  took  a  leading  part  in  the  deliberations  of 


that  tribunal.  Schurer  holds  that  the  chief  priests  in 
the  New  Testament  were  ex-high-priests  and  also 
those  who  sat  in  the  council  as  members  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  privileged  families  from  whom  the 
high-priests  were  chosen  (The  Jewish  People,  Div. 
II,  V.  i,  204-7),  and  Maldonatus,  in  Matt.,  ii,  6,  cites 
II  Par.,  xxxvi,  14,  showing  that  those  who  sat  in 
the  Sanhedrin  as  heads  of  priestly  families  were  so 
styled. 

The  high-priest  alone  might  enter  the  Holy  of  Holies 
on  the  day  of  atonement,  and  even  he  but  once  a 
year,  to  sprinkle  the  blood  of  the  sin-offering  and 
offer  incense:  he  prayed  and  sacrificed  for  himself  as 
well  as  for  the  people  (Lev.,  xvi).  He  likewise  offi- 
ciated "on  the  seventh  days  and  new  moons"  and 
annual  festivals  (Jos.,  "Bell.  Jud.",  V,  v,  7).  He 
might  marry  only  a  virgin  "of  his  own  people", 
though  other  priests  were  allowed  to  marry  a 
widow;  neither  was  it  lawful  for  him  to  rend  his 
garments  nor  to  come  near  the  dead  even  if  closely 
related  (Lev.,  xxi,  10-14;  cf.  Josephus,  "Ant.",  Ill, 
xii,  2).  It  belonged  to  him  also  to  manifest  the  Di- 
vine will  made  known  to  him  by  means  of  the  urim 
and  thummim,  'a  method  of  consulting  the  Lord  about 
which  we  have  very  little  knowledge.  Since  the 
death  of  the  high -priest  marked  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  Israel,  the  homicides  were  then  allowed 
to  return  home  from  the  city  where  they  had  found 
a  refuge  from  vengeance  (Num.,  xxxv,  25,  28). 

The  typical  character  of  the  high-priest  is  explained 
by  St.  Paul  (Heb.,  ix),  where  the  Apostle  shows  that 
while  the  high-priest  entered  the  "Holy  of  Holies" 
once  a  year  with  the  blood  of  victims,  Christ,  the 
great  high-priest,  offered  up  His  own  blood  and  en- 
tered into  Heaven  itself,  where  He  "also  maketh  inter- 
cession for  us"  (Rom.,  viii,  34;  see  Piconio,  "Trip. 
Expos,  in  Heb.",  ix). 

In  addition  to  what  other  priests  wore  while  exer- 
cising their  sacred  functions  the  high-priest  put  on 
special  golden  robes,  so  called  from  the  rich  material 
of  which  they  were  made.  They  are  described  in 
Ex.,  xxviii,  and  each  high-priest  left  them  to  his 
successor.  Over  the  tunic  he  put  a  one  piece  violet 
robe,  trimmed  with  tassels  of  violet,  purple,  and 
scarlet  (Joseph.,  Ill,  vii,  4),  between  the  two  tassels 
were  bells  which  rang  as  he  went  to  and  from  the 
sanctuary.  Their  mitres  differed  from  the  turbans  of 
the  ordinary  priests,  and  had  in  front  a  golden  plate  in- 
scribed "  Holy  to  the  Lord  "  (Ex.,  xxviii,  36) .  Josephus 
describes  the  mitre  as  having  a  triple  crown  of  gold, 
and  adds  that  the  plate  with  the  name  of  God  which 
Moses  had  written  in  sacred  characters ' '  hath  remained 
to  this  very  day"  (Ant.,  VIII,  iii,  8;  III,  vii,  6).  In  a 
note  to  Whiston's  Josephus  (Ant.,  Ill,  vii,  6)  the  later 
history  of  the  plate  is  given,  but  what  became  of  it 
finally  is  not  known.  'The  precious  vestments  of  the 
high-priest  were  kept  by  Herod  and  by  the  Romans, 
but  seven  days  before  a  festival  they  were  given  back 
and  purified  before  use  in  any  sacred  function  (Jos., 
"Ant.'',  XVIII,  iv,  3).  On  the  day  of  atonement, 
according  to  Lev.,  xvi,  4,  the  high-priest  wore  pure 
linen,  but  Josephus  says  he  wore  his  golden  vestments 
(Bell.  Jud.,  V,  V,  7),  and  to  reconcile  the  two  Eders- 
heim  thinks  that  the  rich  robes  were  used  at  the 
beginning  of  the  ceremony  and  changed  for  the  linen 
vestments  before  the  high-priest  entered  the  Holy  of 
Hohes  (The  Temple,  p.  270).  For  additional  infor- 
mation concerning  the  vestments  and  ornaments  of 
the  high-priest  see  Ephod,  Oracle,  Pectoral,  Urim 
AND  Thummim. 

ScHiyRBR,  The  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ,  II,  I, 
195-207;  also  Gratz  and  other  historians;  Josephus,  passim; 
Smith,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  3.  v.  High-Priest;  Edersheim,  The  Tem- 
ple, Its  Ministry  and  Service  at  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ,  57-79; 
VAN  Hoonacker,  Le  sacerdoce  i^i'i^igwe  (1899),  .317-83;  Smith  in 
Ency.  Bib.,  a.  v.  Priest,  gives  the  radical  view;  Orr,  The  Problem 
of  the  Old  Testament  (1906),  180-90,  refutes  Wellhausen  and 
others  of  the  radical  school. 

John  J.  Tibrnkt. 


PRIESTHOOD 


409 


PRIESTHOOD 


Priesthood. — The  word  priest  (Germ.  Priester; 
Ft.  prMre;  Ital.  prete)  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
vpea-^urepos  (the  elder,  as  distinguished  from  vedrepoi, 
the  younger),  and  is,  in  the  hieratical  sense,  equivalent 
to  the  Latin  sacerdos,  the  Greek  Uphs,  and  the  He- 
brew "jriD.  By  the  term  is  meant  a  (male)  person  called 
to  the  immediate  service  of  the  Deity  and  authorized 
to  hold  public  worship,  especially  to  offer  sacrifice. 
In  many  instances  the  priest  is  the  religious  mediator 
between  God  (gods)  and  man  and  the  appointed 
teacher  of  religious  truths,  especially  when  these  in- 
clude esoteric  doctrines.  To  apply  the  word  priest 
to  the  magicians,  prophets,  and  medicine-men  of  the 
religions  of  primitive  peoples  is  a  misuse  of  the  term. 
The  essential  correlative  of  priesthood  is  sacrifice, 
consequently,  mere  leaders  in  the  pubhc  prayers 
or  guardians  of  shrines  have  no  claim  to  the  title 
priest.  Our  subject  may  be  conveniently  treated 
under  four  heads:  I.  The  Pagan  Priesthood;  II.  The 
Jewish  Priesthood;  III.  The  Christian  Priesthood; 
IV.  The  Blessings  arising  from  the  Catholic  Priest- 
hood. 

I.  The  Pagan  Priesthood. — A. — Historically  the 
oldest  of  pagan  religions,  the  most  fully  developed, 
and  the  most  deeply  marked  by  vicissitude  is  that  of 
India.  Four  divisions,  distinct  in  history  and  nature, 
are  recognizable:  Vedism,  Brahminism,  Buddhism, 
and  Hinduism.  Even  in  the  ancient  Vedic  hymns  a 
special  priesthood  is  distinguishable,  for,  although 
originally  the  father  of  the  family  was  also  the  offerer 
of  sacrifice,  he  usually  sought  the  co-operation  of  a 
Brahmin.  From  the  essential  functions  of  praying 
and  singing  during  the  sacrifice  arose  in  Vedism  the 
three  classes  of  sacrificing  (adhvariu),  singing  {ud- 
gdtar),  and  praying  priests  (holar).  The  four  cate- 
gories of  soldier,  priest,  artisan  or  farmer,  and  slave 
developed  formally  in  later  Brahminism  into  the  four 
rigidly  distinguished  castes  (Dahlmann),  the  Brah- 
mins meanwhile  forging  ahead  of  the  soldiers  to  the 
position  of  chief  importance.  The  Brahmins  alone 
understood  the  intricate  and  difficult  sacrificial  cere- 
monial; thanks  to  their  great  knowledge  and  sacri- 
fices, they  exercised  an  irresistible  influence  over  the 
gods;  a  pantheistic  explanation  of  the  god  Brahma 
invested  them  with  a  divine  character.  The  Brahmin 
was  thus  a  sacred  and  inviolable  person,  and  to  murder 
him  the  greatest  sin.  Brahminism  has  wrongly  been 
compared  with  medieval  Christianity  (cf.  Teich- 
miiller,  "Religionsphilosophie",  Leipzig,  1886,  p. 
528).  In  the  Middle  Ages  there  was  indeed  a  priv- 
ileged priesthood,  but  not  an  hereditary  priestly  caste ; 
then  as  now  the  lowest  classes  could  attain  to  the 
highest  ecclesiastical  offices.  Still  less  justified,  in 
view  of  the  pantheistic  character  of  the  Brahminic 
religion,  are  all  attempts  to  trace  a  genetic  connex- 
ion between  the  Catholic  and  Indian  priesthoods, 
since  the  monotheistic  spirit  of  Catholicism  and  the 
characteristic  organization  of  its  clergy  are  irrecon- 
cilable with  a  pantheistic  conception  of  the  Deity 
and  the  unsocial  temper  of  a  caste  system. 

The  same  remarks  apply  with  even  greater  force  to 
Buddhism  which,  through  the  reform  introduced  by 
King  Asoka  (239-23  b.  c),  forced  Brahminism  into 
the  background.  As  this  reform  inaugurated  the 
reign  of  Agnosticism,  lUusionism,  and  a  one-sided 
morality,  the  Brahminic  priesthood,  with  the  decay 
of  the  ancient  sacrificial  services,  lost  its  raison  d'Hre. 
If  there  be  no  eternal  substance,  no  Ego,  no  immortal 
soul,  no  life  beyond,  the  idea  of  a  God,  of  a  Redeemer, 
of  a  priesthood  forthwith  disappears.  The  Buddhist 
redemption  is  merely  an  ascetioal  self-redemption 
wrought  by  sinking  into  the  abyss  of  nothingness 
(Nirvana).  The  bonzes  are  not  priests  in  the  strict 
sense;  nor  has  Buddhist  monasticism  anything  beyond 
the  name  in  common  with  Christian  monasticism. 
Modern  zealots  for  Buddhism  declare  with  increasing 
boldness  since  Schopenhauer,  that  what  they  chiefly 


desire  is  a  religion  without  dogma  and  without  an 
alien  redeemer,  a  service  without  a  priesthood.  It 
will  therefore  perhaps  appear  all  the  more  extraor- 
dinary that  Buddhism,  in  consequence  of  the  efforts 
of  the  reformer  Thong-Kaba,  has  developed  in  Tibet  a 
formal  hierarchy  and  hierocracy  in  Lamaism  (Lama= 
Brahma). 

The  monasticism  and  the  religious  services  of  Lama- 
ism also  present  so  striking  a  similarity  with  Catholic 
institutions  that  non-Catholic  investigators  have  un- 
hesitatingly spoken  of  a  "Buddhist  Catholicism"  in 
Tibet.  Pope  and  dalai-lama,  Rome  and  the  city  of 
Lhasa  are  counterparts;  Lamaism  has  its  monas- 
teries, bells,  processions,  litanies,  relics,  images  of 
saints,  holy  water,  rosary-beads,  bishop's  mitre, 
crosier,  vestments,  copes,  baptism,  confession,  mass, 
sacrifice  for  the  dead.  Nevertheless,  since  it  is  the 
interior  spirit  that  gives  a  rehgion  its  characteristic 
stamp,  we  can  recognize  in  these  externals,  not  a  true 
copy  of  Catholicism,  but  only  a  wretched  caricature. 
And,  since  this  religious  compound  undoubtedly  came 
into  existence  only  in  the  fourteenth  century,  it  is 
evident  that  the  remarkable  parallelism  is  the  result 
of  Catholic  influence  on  Lamaism,  not  vice  versa.  We 
can  only  suppose  that  the  founder  Thong-Kaba  was 
educated  by  a  Catholic  missionary.  Of  modern  Hin- 
duism, Schanz  draws  a  gloomy  picture:  "In  addition 
to  Vishnu  and  Siva,  spirits  and  dempns  are  wor- 
shipped and  feared.  The  River  Ganges  is  held  in 
special  veneration.  The  temples  are  often  built  near 
lakes  because  to  all  who  bathe  there  Brahma  promises 
forgiveness  of  sin.  Beasts  (cows),  especially  snakes, 
trees,  and  lifeless  objects,  serve  as  fetishes.  Their 
offerings  consist  of  flowers,  oil,  incense,  and  food.  To 
Siva  and  his  spouse  bloody  sacrifices  are  also  offered. 
Nor  are  idolatry  and  prostitution  wanting"  ("Apolo- 
gie  d.  Christentums",  Freiburg,  1905,  II,  84  sq.). 

B. — In  the  kindred  but  ethically  superior  religion 
of  the  Iranians  (Parseeism,  Zoroastrianism,  Mazde- 
ism),  which  unfortunately  never  overcame  the  theo- 
logical dualism  between  the  good  god  (Ormuzd= 
Athura-Mazda)  and  the  wicked  anti-god  (Ahriman= 
Angro-Mainyu) ,  there  existed  from  the  beginning  a 
special  priestly  caste,  which  in  the  Avesta  (q.  v.)  was 
divided  into  six  classes.  The  general  name  for  priest 
was  Athravan  (man  of  fire),  and  the  chief  duty  of  the 
priesthood  was  the  fire-service,  fire  being  the  special 
symbol  of  Ormuzd,  the  god  of  light.  After  the  de- 
struction of  the  Persian  monarchy  only  two  categories 
of  priests  remained:  the  officiating  {zoatar,  jolV)  and 
the  ministering  (rathwi).  Both  were  later  succeeded 
by  the  Median  magicians  (magus),  called  in  modern 
Parseeism  mohed  (from  mogh-pati,  magic-father).  In 
addition  to  the  maintenance  of  the  sacred  fire,  the 
duties  of  the  priests  were  the  offering  of  sacrifices 
(flesh,  bread,  flowers,  fruit),  the  performance  of 
purifications,  prayers,  and  hymns,  and  instructing 
in  the  holy  law.  Sacrificial  animals  were  placed  on  a 
bundle  of  twigs  in  the  open  air,  lest  the  pure  earth 
should  be  defiled  with  blood.  The  human  sacrifices, 
customary  from  time  immemorial,  were  abolished  by 
Zoroaster  (Zarathustra).  In  ancient  times  the  fire- 
altars  were  placed  in  the  open  air,  and  preferably  on 
the  mountains,  but  the  modern  Parsees  have  special 
fire-temples.  The  haoma,  as  the  oldest  sacrifice,  calls 
for  particular  mention;  manufactured  out  of  the 
narcotic  juice  of  a  certain  plant  and  used  as  a  drink- 
offering,  it  was  identified  with  the  Deity  Himself  and 
given  to  the  faithful  as  a  means  of  procuring  immor- 
tality. This  Iranian  haoma  is  doubtlessly  identical 
with  the  Indian  soma,  the  intoxicating  juice  of  which 
(asclepias  acida  or  sacrostemma  acidum)  was  supposed 
to  restore  to  man  the  immortality  lost  in  Paradise 
(see  Eucharist).  When,  during  the  reign  of  the 
Sassanides,  Mithras  the  sun-god — according  to  the 
later  Avesta,  high-priest  and  mediator  between  God 
and  man — had  gradually  supplanted  the  creative  god 


PRIESTHOOD 


410 


PRIESTHOOD 


Ormuzd,  Persian  Mithra-worship  held  the  field  almost 
unopposed;  and  under  the  Roman  Empire  it  exerted 
an  irresistible  influence  on  the  West  (see  Mass). 

C. — To  turn  to  classical  antiquity,  Greece  never 
possessed  an  exclusive  priestly  caste,  although  from 
the  Dorian-Ionian  period  the  public  priesthood  was 
regarded  as  the  privilege  of  the  nobility.  In  Homer 
the  kings  also  offer  sacrifices  to  the  gods.  Public 
worship  was  in  general  undertaken  by  the  State,  and 
the  priests  were  state  officials,  assigned  as  a  rule  to  the 
service  of  special  temples.  The  importance  of  the 
priesthood  grew  with  the  extension  of  the  mysteries, 
which  were  embodied  especially  in  the  Orphic  a,nd 
Eleusinian  cults.  Sacrifices  were  always  accompanied 
with  prayers,  for  which  as  the  expression  of  their  re- 
ligious sentiments  the  Greeks  showed  a  special  pref- 
erence. 

But  among  no  people  in  the  world  were  religion, 
sacrifice,  and  the  priesthood  to  such  an  extent  the  busi- 
ness of  the  State  as  among  the  ancient  Romans.  At 
the  dawn  of  their  history,  their  legendary  kings  (e.  g. 
Numa)  are  themselves  the  sacrificial  priests.  Under 
the  Republic,  the  priestly  office  was  open  only  to  the 
patricians  until  the  Lex  Ogulina  (about  300  B.  c.) 
admitted  also  the  plebeians.  As  the  special  object  of 
Roman  sacrifice  was  to  avert  misfortune  and  win  the 
favour  of  the  gods,  divination  played  in  it  from  the 
earliest  times  an  important  role.  Hence  the  importance 
of  the  various  classes  of  priests;  who  interpreted  the 
will  of  the  gods  from  the  flight  of  birds  or  the  entrails 
of  the  beasts  of  sacrifice  {augures,  haruspices) .  There 
were  many  other  categories:  pontifices,  flamines, 
fctiales,  luperci  etc.  During  imperial  times  the  em- 
peror was  the  high-priest  {pontifex  maximus). 

D. — According  to  Tacitus,  the  religion  of  the  ancient 
Germans  was  u.  simple  worship  of  the  gods,  without 
images;  their  services  took  place,  not  in  temples,  but 
in  sacred  groves.  The  priests,  if  one  may  call  them 
such,  were  highly  respected,  and  possessed  judicial 
powers,  as  the  Old  High  German  word  for  priest, 
^wartc  (guardians  of  justice),  shows.  But  a  far  greater 
influence  among  the  people  was  exercised  by  the  Celtic 
priests  or  druids  (Old  Irish,  drui,  magician).  Their 
real  home  was  Ireland  and  Britain,  whence  they  were 
transplanted  to  Gaul  in  the  third  century  before 
Christ.  Here  they  appear  as  a  priestly  caste,  exempt 
from  taxes  and  military  service;  they  constitute  with 
the  nobility  the  ruling  class,  and  by  their  activity  as 
teachers,  judges,  and  physicians  become  the  represent- 
ati^-es  of  a  higher  religious,  moral,  and  intellectual 
culture.  The  druids  taught  the  existence  of  Divine 
providence,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  trans- 
migration. They  appear  to  have  had  images  of  the 
gods  and  to  have  offered  human  sacrifices — the  latter 
practice  may  have  come  down  from  a  much  earfier 
period.  Their  refigious  services  were  usually  held  on 
heights  and  in  oak-groves.  After  the  conquest  of 
Gaul  the  druids  declined  in  popular  esteem. 

E. — The  oldest  religion  of  the  Chinese  is  Sinism, 
which  may  be  characterized  as  "the  most  perfect, 
spiritualistic,  and  moral  Monotheism  known  to  an- 
tiquity outside  of  Judea"  (Schanz).'  It  possessed  no 
distinct  priesthood,  the  sacrifices  (animals,  fruits,  and 
incense)  being  offered  by  state  officials  in  the  name  of 
the  ruler.  In  this  respect  no  alteration  was  made  by 
the  reformer  Confucius  (sixth  century  b.  c),  although 
he  debased  the  concept  of  religion  and  made  the  al- 
most deified  emperor  "the  Son  of  Heaven"  and  the 
organ  of  the  cosmic  intellect.  In  direct  contrast  to 
this  priestless  system  Laotse  (b.  604  b.  c),  the  founder 
of  Taoism  (tao,  reason),  introduced  both  monasticism 
and  a  regular  priesthood  with  a  high-priest  at  its  head. 
From  the  first  century  before  Christ,  these  two  reli- 
gions found  a  strong  rival  in  Buddhism,  although  Con- 
fucianism remains  even  to-day  the  official  religion  of 
China. 

The  original  national  religion  of  the  Japanese  was 


Shintoism,  a  strange  compound  of  nature-,  ancestor-, 
and  hero-worship.  It  is  a  religion  without  dogmas, 
without  a  moral  code,  without  sacred  writings.  The 
Mikado  is  a  son  of  the  Deity,  and  as  such  also  high- 
priest;  his  palace  is  the  temple — it  was  only  in  much 
later  times  that  the  Temple  of  Ise  was  built.  About 
A.  D.  280  Confucianism  made  its  way  into  Japan  from 
China,  and  tried  to  coalesce  with  the  kindred  Shinto- 
ism. The  greatest  blow  to  Shintoism,  however,  was 
struck  by  Buddhism,  which  entered  Japan  in  a.  d.  552, 
and,  by  an  extraordinary  process  of  amalgamation) 
united  with  the  old  national  religion  to  form  a  third. 
This  fusion  is  known  as  Rio-bu-Shinto.  In  the  Revo- 
lution of  1868,  this  composite  religion  was  set  aside, 
and  pure  Shintoism  declared  the  religion  of  the  State. 
In  1877  the  law  establishing  this  situation  was  re- 
pealed, and  in  1889  general  religious  freedom  was 
granted.  The  various  orders  of  rank  among  priests 
had  been  abofished  in  1879. 

F. — With  the  ancient  religion  of  the  Egyptians  the 
idea  of  the  priesthood  was  inseparably  bound  up 
for  many  thousand  years.  Though  the  ruler  for  the 
time  being  was  nominally  the  only  priest,  there  had 
developed  even  in  the  ancient  kingdom  (from  about 
3400  B.  c.)  a  special  priestly  caste,  which  in  the  middle 
kingdom  (from  about  2000  b.  c),  and  still  more  in  the 
late  kingdom  (from  about  1090  b.  c),  became  the 
ruling  class.  The  great  attempt  at  reform  by  King 
Amenhotep  IV  (died  1374  b.  c),  who  tried  to  banish 
all  gods  except  the  sun-god  from  the  Egyptian  reli- 
gion and  to  make  sun-worship  the  religion  of  the  State, 
was  thwarted  by  the  opposition  of  the  priests.  The 
whole  twenty-first  dynasty  was  a  family  of  priest- 
kings.  Although  Moses,  learned  as  he  was  in  the 
wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,  may  have  been  indebted  to 
an  Egyptian  model  for  one  or  two  external  features 
in  his  organization  of  Divine  worship,  he  was,  thanks 
to  the  Divine  inspiration,  entirely  original  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Jewish  priesthood,  which  is  based 
on  the  unique  idea  of  Jahweh's  covenant  with  the 
Chosen  People  (cf.  "  Realencyklopadie  filr  protest. 
Theologie",  XVI,  Leipzig,  1905,  33).  Still  less 
warranted  is  the  attempt  of  some  writers  on  the 
comparative  history  of  religions  to  trace  the  origin  of 
the  Catholic  priesthood  to  the  Egyptian  priestly 
castes.  For  at  the  very  time  when  this  borrowing 
might  have  taken  place,  Egyptian  idolatry  had  degen- 
erated into  such  loathsome  animal-worship,  that  not 
only  the  Christians,  but  the  pagans  themselves  turned 
away  from  it  in  disgust  (cf.  Aristides,  "ApoL",  xii; 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  "Cohortatio",  ii). 

G. — In  the  religion  of  the  Semites,  we  meet  first  the 
Babylonian-Assyrian  priests,  who,  under  the  name 
"Chaldeans",  practised  the  interpretation  of  dreams 
and  the  reading  of  the  stars  and  conducted  special 
schools  for  priests,  besides  performing  their  functions 
in  connexion  with  the  sacrifices.  Hence  their  division 
into  various  classes:  sacrificers  (ni'sakku),  seers  {bdrH), 
exorcists  (akipu)  etc.  Glorious  temples  with  idols 
of  human  and  hybrid  form  arose  in  Assyria,  and  (apart 
from  the  obligatory  cult  of  the  stars)  served  for  as- 
trological and  astronomical  purposes.  Among  the 
Syrians  the  cruel,  voluptuous  cult  of  Moloch  and 
Astarte  found  its  special  home,  Astarte  especially 
(Babylonian,  Ishtar)  being  known  to  the  ancients 
simply  as  the  "Syrian  Goddess"  {Dea  Syria).  Like- 
wise among  the  semitized  Phccnicians,  Amonites,  and 
Philistines  these  ominous  deities  found  special  venera- 
tion. Howling  and  dancing  priests  sought  to  appease 
the  bloodthirsty  Moloch  by  sacrifices  of  children  and 
self-mutilation,  as  the  analogous  Galli  strove  to  pacify 
the  Phrygian  goddess  Cybele.  The  notorious  priests 
of  Baal  of  the  Chanaanitos  were  for  the  Jews  as  strong 
an  incentive  to  idolatry  as  the  cult  of  Astarte  was  a 
temptation  to  immorality.  The  south-Semitic  refi- 
gion  of  the  ancient  pagan  Arabians  was  a  plain  re- 
ligion of  the  desert  without   a  distinct  priesthood; 


PRIESTHOOD 


411 


PRIESTHOOD 


modern  Islam  or  Mohammedanism  has  a  clergy 
(muezzin,  announcer  of  the  hours  of  prayer;  imAm, 
leader  of  the  prayers;  khdlib,  preacher),  but  no  real 
priesthood.  The  west-Semitic  branch  of  the  Hebrews 
is  treated  in  the  next  section. 

Of  the  vast  literature  only  a  few  fundamental  works  can  be 
cited: — General  Works; — MUller,  Physical  Religion  (London, 
1891);  Idem,  Anthropological  Relig,  (London,  1892);  Idem,  The 
Books  of  the  Bast  (Oxford,  1879-94) ;  Lippeet,  Allgemeine  Ge- 
schichte  des  Priestertums  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1883);  de  la  ISaussaye, 
Lehrbuch der  Religionsgesch.  (2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1905) ;  Vollers,  Die 
Weltreligionen  in  ihrem  geschichtl.  Zusammenhang  (Jena,  1907). 

Concerning  the  Indian  priesthood: — AsMUS,  Die  indogermaii. 
Religion  in  den  Hauptpunkten  ihrer  Entwickclung  (2  vols.,  Leipzig, 
1875-7) ;  Barth,  Les  religions  de  V Inde  (Paris,  1880) ;  Laquenan, 
Du  brakmanisme  et  ses  rapports  avec  le  judalsme  et  Ic  christianisme 
(Paris,  18S.S);  Monier-Wiluams,  Brahmanism  anil  Hinduism 
(London,  ISlll);  Oldenburg,  Die  Religion  des  Vedn  (Leipzig, 
1894);  Hopkins,  The  Religions  of  India  (London,  1895) ;  Hardy, 
Die  vedisch-brahman .  Periode  des  alien  Indicns  (1893);  Idem, 
Indische  Religionsgesch,  (1898) ;  Macdonell;  Vctlic  Mythology 
(London,  1897);  Hillebrandt,  Ritual-Literalur,  ved.  Opfer  u. 
Zauber  (Leipzig,  1897) :  Dahlmann.  Der  Idealismus  der  ind.  Rfli- 
gionsphilos.  ini  ZeitalUr  der  Opfi  rnnjslik  (Freiburg,  1901) ;  Dilger, 
Die  ErWsung  des  Menschen  nach  Ilinditismus  u.  Christentum 
(1902);   Houwsell,  La  religion  v^digue  (Paris,  1909). 

On  Buddhism: — CopLEaTON,  Buddhism  primitive  and  present 
in  Magadha  and  in  Ceylon  (London,  1893) ;  \N'addell,  B.  of  Tibet 
(London,  1895) ;  Davids,  Buddhism,  its  History  and  Literature 
(London,  1896);  Kern,  Manual  of  Indian  B.  (London,  1898); 
Aiken,  The  Dhamma  of  Gotama,  the  Buddha  and  the  Gospel  of  Jesus 
the  Christ  (New  York,  1900);  Smith,  Asoka,  the  Buddhist  Emperor 
of  India  (London,  1902) ;  Hardy,  Kbnig  Asoka  (1902) ;  Idem, 
Buddha  (1903);  Silbernagl,  Der  Buddhismus,  seine  Entstehung, 
Fortbildung  w.  W^breitung  (1903);  Schultze,  Der  B.  als  Religion 
der  Zukunft  (2nd  ed.,  1901) ;  Freydank,  Buddha  u.  Christus,  eine 
Apologetik  (1903);  Wecker,  Lamaismus  u.  Katholicismus  (1910). 

On  the  Iranians: — Darmesteter,  Ormuzd  et  Ahriman,  leura 
origines  et  leur  histoire  (Paris,  1877);  Spiegel,  Eranische  Alter- 
tumskunde,  11  (1878) ;  DE  Harlez,  Origines  du  zoroastrisme  (Paris, 
1879);  C.iSARTELLi,  La  philosophic  religeuse  du  mazdeisme  sous 
les  Sassanides  (Louvain,  1884);  Menant,  Les  Parses,  Hist,  des 
communautes  zoroastricnnes  de  V Inde  (Paris,  1898) ;  Gasquet, 
Essai  sur  le  culte  et  les  mysteres  de  Mithra  (Paris,  1899) ;  Jackson, 
Zoroaster,  the  Prophet  of  Ancient  India  (New  York,  1899); 
CuMONT,  Les  mysteres  de  Mtlhra  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1902;  tr.  Lon- 
don, 1903). 

Concerning  the  Greeks  and  Romans: — Reichel,  Ueber  vor- 
hellenische  KuUe  (1897);  Gruppe,  Griechische  Mythologie  u. 
Religionsgesch,  (Munich,  1897-1906) ;  Jentsch,  Hellenentum  u, 
Christentum  (1903) ;  Beurlier,  Le  culte  rendu  aux  empereurs 
romains  (Paris,  1890);  WissoWA,  Relig,  u,  Kultus  d,  RSmer  (1903). 

Concerning  the  Celts  and  Germans: — Bertrand,  La  religion 
des  Gaulois  (Paris,  1897) ;  de  la  Saussaye,  The  Religions  of  the 
Teutons  (London,  1902) ;  Dottin,  La  religion  des  Celtes  (Paris, 
1904):  Grupp,  Die  Kultur  der  alien  Kelten  u.  Germanen  (1904); 
Anwyl,  Celtic  Religion  in  Pre-Christian  Times  (London,  1906). 

On  the  Chinese  and  Japanese: — de  Harlez,  Les  religions  de  la 
Chine  (Brussels,  1901) ;  DvorAk,  Chinas  Religionen  (Leipzig, 
1895-1903) ;  Douglas,  Confucianism  and  Taoism  (London, 
1892):  MuNziNGER,  Die  Japaner  (1898);  Haas,  Gesch.  des 
Christentums  in  Japan  (Berlin,  1902). 

On  the  Egyptians: — Wiedemann,  Die  Religion  der  alien 
Aegypter  (1890);  Brugsch,  Aegyptologie  (1891);  Sayce,  The 
Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt  and  Babylonia  (London,  1892) ;  Budge, 
The  Gods  of  the  Egyptians  (London,  1894);  Heyes,  Bibel  u. 
Aegypten  (1904);  Otto,  Priesler  u,  Tempel  im  hellenistischen 
Aegypten  (2  vols.,  1905-8);  Erman,  Die  dgyptische  Religion  (2nd 
ed.,  Berlin,  1909). 

Concerning  the  Semites; — Lenormant,  La  magie  chez  les 
Chaldeens  (Paris,  1871) ;  Lagrange,  Sur  les  religions  s^mitiques 
(Paris,  1903) ;  Schrader,  Die  Keilinschriften  u.  das  Alte  Testament 
(3rd  ed.,  1903);  Schrank,  Babylonische  SUhnerilen  mil  Rucksicht 
auf  Priester  u.  Busser  (1908);  Vince.n't,  Canaan  (Paris,  1907). 

II.  The  Jewish  Priesthood. — In  the  age  of  the 
Patriarchs  the  offering  of  sacrifices  was  the  function 
of  the  father  or  head  of  the  family  (ef.  Gen.,  viii,  20; 
xii,  7,  etc.;  Job,  i,  5).  But,  even  before  Moses,  there 
were  also  regular  priests,  who  were  not  fathers  of 
family  (cf.  Ex.,  xix,  22  sqq.).  Hummelauer's  hypoth- 
esis ("Das  vormosaische  Priestertum  in  Israel", 
Freiburg,  1899)  that  this  pre-Mosaic  priesthood  was 
estabhshed  by  God  Himself  and  made  hereditary  in 
the  family  of  Manasses,  but  was  subsequently  abol- 
ished in  punishment  of  the  worship  of  the  golden  calf 
(cf.  Ex.,  xxxii,  26  sqq.),  can  hardly  be  scientifically 
established  (cf.  Rev.  bibl.  internat.,  1899,  pp.  470 
sqq.) .  In  the  Mosaic  priesthood  we  must  distinguish : 
priests,  Levites,  and  high-priest. 

A. — Priests, — It  was  only  after  the  Sinaitical  legis- 
lation that  the  Israelitic  priesthood  became  a  special 
class  in  the  community.  From  the  tribe  of  Levi 
Jahweh  chose  the  house  of  Aaron  to  discharge  per- 
manently and  exclusively  all  the  religious  functions; 


Aaron  himself  and  later  the  first-born  of  his  family 
was  to  stand  at  the  head  of  this  priesthood  as  high- 
priest,  while  the  other  Levites  were  to  act,  not  as 
priests,  but  as  assistants  and  servants.  The  solemn 
consecration  of  the  Aaronites  to  the  priesthood  took 
place  at  the  same  time  as  the  anointing  of  Aaron  as 
high-priest  and  with  almost  the  same  ceremonial  (Ex., 
xxix,  1-37;  xl,  12  sqq.;  Lev.,  viii,  1-36).  This  single 
consecration  included  that  of  all  the  future  descend- 
ants of  the  priests,  so  that  the  priesthood  was  fixed  in 
the  house  of  Aaron  by  mere  descent,  and  was  thus 
hereditary.  After  the  Babylonian  Exile  strict  genea- 
logical proof  of  priestly  descent  was  even  more  rigidly 


Aaron,  the  High  Priest 
Giovanni  Strazza,  Archiepiscopal  Palace,  Milan 

demanded,  and  any  failure  to  furnish  the  same  meant 
exclusion  from  the  priesthood  (I  Esd.,  ii,  61  sq.; 
II  Esd.,  vii,  63  sq.).  Certain  bodily  defects,  of  which 
the  later  Talmudists  mention  142,  were  also  a  dis- 
qualification from  the  exercise  of  the  priestly  office 
(Lev.,  xxi,  17  sqq.).  Age  limits  (twenty  and  fifty 
years)  were  also  appointed  (II  Par.,  xxxi,  17);  the 
priests  were  forbidden  to  take  to  wife  a  harlot  or  a 
divorced  woman  (Lev.,  xxi,  7) ;  during  the  active  dis- 
charge of  the  priesthood,  marital  intercourse  was  for- 
bidden. In  addition  to  an  unblemished  earlier  life, 
levitioal  cleanness  was  also  indispensable  for  the 
priesthood.  Whoever  performed  a  priestly  function 
in  levitical  unoleanness  was  to  be  expelled  like  one 
who  entered  the  sanctuary  after  partaking  of  wine  or 
other  intoxicating  drinks  (Lev.,  x,  9;  xxii,  3).  To  in- 
cur an  uncleanness  "at  the  death  of  his  citizens", 
except  in  the  case  of  immediate  kin,  was  rigidly  for- 
bidden (Lev.,  xxi,  1  sqq.).  In  cases  of  mourning  no 
outward  signs  of  sorrow  might  be  shown  (e.  g.  by 
rending  the  garments).  On  entering  into  their  office, 
the  priests  had  first  to  take  a  bath  of  purification  (Ex., 
xxix,  4;  xl,  12),  be  sprinkled  with  oil  (Ex.,  xxix,  21; 
Lev.,  viii,  30),  and  put  on  the  vestments. 

The  priestly  vestments  consisted  of  breeches,  tunic, 
girdle,  and  mitre.  The  breeches  (Jeininalia  linea) 
covered  from  the  reins  to  the  thighs  (Ex.,  xxviii,  42). 
The  tunic  {tunica)  was  a  kind  of  coat,  woven  in  a  special 
manner  from  one  piece;  it  had  narrow  sleeves,  ex- 


PRIESTHOOD 


412 


PRIESTHOOD 


tended  from  the  throat  to  the  ankles,  and  was  brought 
together  at  the  throat  with  bands  (Ex.,  xxviii,  4). 
The  girdle  {halleus)  was  three  or  four  fingers  in  breadth 
and  (according  to  rabbinic  tradition)  thirty-two  ells 
long;  it  had  to  be  embroidered  after  the  same  pattern 
and  to  be  of  the  same  colour  as  the  curtain  of  the  fore- 
court and  the  tabernacle  of  the  covenant  (Ex.,  xxxix, 
38).  The  official  vestments  were  completed  by  the 
mitre  (Ex.,  xxxix,  26),  a  species  of  cap  of  fine  linen. 
As  nothing  is  said  of  foot-covering,  the  priests  must 
have  performed  the  services  barefooted  as  Jewish 
tradition  indeed  declares  (cf.  Ex.,  iii,  5).  These  vest- 
ments were  prescribed  for  use  only  during  the  services ; 
at  other  times  they  were  kept  in  an  appointed  place 
in  charge  of  a  special  custodian.  For  detailed  in- 
formation concerning  the  priestly  vestments,  see 
Josephus,  "Antiq.",  Ill,  vii,  1  sqq. 

The  official  duties  of  the  priests  related  partly  to 
their  main  occupations,  and  partly  to  subsidiary  ser- 
vices. To  the  former  category  belonged  all  functions 
connected  with  the  public  worship,  e.  g.  the  offering 
of  incense  twice  daily  (Ex.,  xxx,  7),  the  weekly  renewal 
of  the  loaves  of  proposition  on  the  golden  table  (Lev., 
xxiv,  9),  the  cleaning  and  filling  of  the  oil-lamps  on  the 
golden  candlestick  (Lev.,  xxiv,  1).  All  these  ser\'icea 
were  performed  in  the  sanctuary.  There  were  in  ad- 
dition certain  functions  to  be  performed  in  the  outer 
court — the  maintenance  of  the  sacred  fire  on  the  altar 
for  burnt  sacrifices  (Lev.,  vi,  9  sqq.),  the  daily  offering 
of  the  morning  and  evening  sacrifices,  especially  of  the 
lambs  (Ex.,  xxix,  38  sqq.).  As  subsidiary  services  the 
priests  had  to  present  the  cursed  water  to  wives  sus- 
pected of  adultery  (Num.,  v,  12  sqq.),  sound  the 
trumpets  announcing  the  holy-days  (Num.,  x,  1  sqq.), 
declare  the  lepers  clean  or  unclean  (I;ev.,  xiii-xiv; 
Deut.,  xxiv,  8;  cf.  Matt.,  viii,  4),  dispense  from  vows, 
appraise  all  objects  vowed  to  the  sanctuary  (Lev., 
xxvii),  and  finally  offer  sacrifice  for  those  who  broke 
the  law  of  the  Nazarites,  i.  e.  a  vow  to  avoid  all  in- 
toxicating drinks  and  every  uncleanness  (especially 
from  contact  with  a  corpse)  and  to  let  one's  hair  grow 
long  (Num.,  vi,  1-21).  The  priests  furthermore  were 
teachers  and  judges;  not  only  were  they  to  explain 
the  law  to  the  people  (Lev.,  x,  11;  Deut.,  xxxiii,  10) 
without  remuneration  (Mich.,  iii,  11)  and  to  preserve 
carefully  the  Book  of  the  Law,  of  which  a  copy  was  to 
be  presented  to  the  (future)  king  (Deut.,  xvii,  18), 
but  they  had  also  to  settle  difficult  lawsuits  among  the 
people  (Deut.,  xvii,  8;  xix,  17;  xxi,  .5).  In  view  of  the 
complex  nature  of  the  liturgical  service,  David  later 
divided  the  priesthood  into  twentj'-four  classes  or 
courses,  of  which  each  in  turn,  with  its  eldest  member 
at  its  head,  had  to  perform  the  service  from  one  Sab- 
bath to  the  next  (IV  Kings,  xi,  9;  cf.  Luke,  i,  8).  The 
order  of  the  classes  was  determined  by  lot  (I  Par., 
xxiv,  7  sqq.). 

The  income  of  the  priests  was  derived  from  the 
tithes  and  the  firstlings  of  fruits  and  animals.  To 
these  were  added  as  accidentals  the  remains  of  the 
food,  and  guilt-oblations,  which  were  not  entirely 
consumed  by  fire;  also  the  hides  of  the  animals  sacri- 
ficed and  the  natural  products  and  money  vowed  to 
God  (Lev.,  xxvii;  Num.,  viii,  14).  With  all  these 
perquisites,  the  Jewish  priests  seem  never  to  have 
been  a  wealthy  class,  owing  partly  to  the  increase  in 
their  numbers  and  partly  to  the  large  famihes  which 
they  reared.  But  their  exalted  office,  their  superior 
education,  and  their  social  position  secured  them  great 
prestige  among  the  people.  In  general,  they  fulfilled 
their  high  position  worthily,  even  though  they  fre- 
quently merited  the  stern  reproof  of  the  Prophets  (cf . 
Jer.,  V,  31;  Ezech.,  xxii,  26;  Os.,  vi,  9;  Mich.,  iii,  11; 
Mai.,  i,  7).  With  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus  in  70  B.  c.  the  entire  sacrificial  service  and  with 
it  the  Jewish  priesthood  ceased.  The  later  rabbis 
never  represent  themselves  as  priests,  but  merely  as 
teachers  of  the  law, 


B. — Levites  in  the  Narrow  Sense. — It  has  been  said 
above  that  the  real  priesthood  was  hereditary  in  the 
house  of  Aaron  alone,  and  that  to  the  other  descend- 
ants of  Levi  was  assigned  a  subordinate  position  as 
servants  and  assistants  of  the  priests.  The  latter  are 
the  Levites  in  the  narrow  sense.  They  were  divided 
into  the  famiUes  of  the  Gersonites,  Caathites,  and 
Merarites  (Ex.,  vi,  16;  Num.,  xxvi,  57),  so  named 
after  Levi's  three  sons,  Gerson,  Caath,  and  Merari 
(cf.  Gen.,  xlvi,  11;  I  Par.,  vi,  1).  As  simple  servants 
of  the  priests,  the  Levites  might  not  enter  the  sanc- 
tuary, nor  perform  the  real  sacrificial  act,  especially 
the  sprinkling  of  the  blood  {aspersio  sanguinis) .  This 
was  the  privilege  of  the  priests  (Num.,  xviii,  3,  19 
sqq.;  xviii,  6).  The  Levites  had  however  to  assist 
the  latter  during  the  sacred  services,  prepare  the  dif- 
ferent oblations  and  keep  the  sacred  vessels  in  proper 
condition.  Among  their  chief  duties  was  the  constant 
guarding  of  the  tabernacle  with  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant; the  Gersonites  were  encamped  towards  the  west, 
the  Caathites  towards  the  south,  the  Merarites 
towards  the  north,  while  Moses  and  Aaron  with  their 
sons  guarded  the  holy  tabernacle  towards  the  east 
(Num.,  iii,  23  sqq.).  When  the  tabernacle  had  found 
a  fixed  home  in  Jerusalem,  David  created  four  classes 
of  Levites:  servants  of  the  priests,  officials  and  judges, 
porters,  and  finally  musicians  and  singers  (I  Par., 
xxiii,  3  sqq.).  After  the  building  of  the  Temple  by 
Solomon  the  Levites  naturally  became  its  guardians 
(I  Par.,  xxvi,  12  sqq.).  When  the  Temple  was  rebuilt 
Levites  were  established  as  guards  in  twenty-one 
places  around  (Talmud;  Middoth,  I,  i).  In  common 
with  the  priests,  the  Levites  were  also  bound  to  in- 
struct the  people  in  the  Law  (II  Par.,  xvu,  8;  II  Esd., 
viii,  7) ,  and  they  even  possessed  at  times  certain  judi- 
cial powers  (II  Par.,  xix,  11). 

They  were  initiated  into  office  by  a  rite  of  consecra- 
tion: sprinkling  with  the  water  of  purification,  shaving 
of  the  hair,  washing  of  the  garments,  offering  of 
sacrifices,  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the  eldest  (Num., 
viu,  5  sqq.).  As  to  the  age  of  service,  thirty  years 
was  fixed  for  the  time  of  entrance  and  fifty  for  retire- 
ment from  office  (Num.,  iv,  3;  I  Par.,  xxiii,  24;  I  Esd., 
iii,  8).  No  special  vestments  were  prescribed  for 
them  in  the  Law;  in  the  time  of  David  and  Solomon 
the  bearers  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant  and  the  singers 
wore  garments  of  fine  linen  (I  Par.,  xv,  27;  II  Par.,  v, 
12).  At  the  division  of  the  Promised  Land  among 
the  Twelve  Tribes,  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  left  without 
territory,  since  the  Lord  Himself  was  to  be  their  por- 
tion and  inheritance  (cf.  Num.,  xviii,  20;  Deut.,  xii, 
12;  Jos.,  xiii,  14).  In  compensation,  Jahweh  ceded 
to  the  Levites  and  priests  the  gifts  of  natural  products 
made  by  the  people,  and  other  revenues.  The  Levites 
first  received  the  tithes  of  fruits  and  beasts  of  the  field 
(Lev.,  xxvii,  30  sqq.;  Num.,  xviii,  20  sq.),  of  which 
they  had  in  turn  to  deliver  the  tenth  part  to  the  priests 
(Num.,  xviii,  26  sqq.).  In  addition,  they  had  a  share 
in  the  sacrificial  banquets  (Deut.,  xii,  18)  and  were, 
like  the  priests,  exempt  from  taxes  and  military  ser- 
vice. The  question  of  residence  was  settled  by  order- 
ing the  tribes  endowed  with  landed  property  to  cede 
to  the  Levites  forty-eight  Levite  towns,  scattered 
over  the  land,  with  their  precincts  (Num.,  xxxv,  1 
sqq.);  of  these,  thirteen  were  assigned  to  the  priests. 
After  the  division  of  the  monarchy  into  the  Northern 
Kingdom  of  Israel  and  the  Southern  Kingdom  of 
Juda,  many  Levites  from  the  northern  portion  re- 
moved to  the  Kingdom  of  Juda,  which  remained  true 
to  the  Law,  and  took  up  their  abode  in  Jerusalem. 
After  the  Northern  Kingdom  had  been  chastised  by 
the  Assyrian  deportation  in  722  B.  c,  the  Southern 
Kingdom  was  also  overthrown  by  the  Babylonians  in 
606  B.  c,  and  numbers  of  the  Jews,  including  many 
Levites,  were  hurried  away  into  the  "Babylonian 
exile"  Only  a  few  Levites  returned  to  their  old 
home  under  Esdras  in  450  (cf.  I  Esd.,  ii,  40  sqq.). 


PRIESTHOOD 


413 


PRIESTHOOD 


With  the  destruction  of  the  Herodian  Temple  in  a.  d. 
70  the  doom  of  the  Levites  was  sealed. 

C.  —  J'he  High  -  priest. — At  Jahweh's  command 
Moses  consecrated  his  brother  Aaron  first  high-priest, 
repeated  the  consecration  on  seven  days,  and  on  the 
eighth  day  solemnly  introduced  him  into  the  taber- 
nacle of  the  covenant.  The  consecration  of  Aaron 
consisted  in  washings,  investment  with  costly  vest- 
ments, anointing  with  holy  oil,  and  the  offerings  of 
various  sacrifices  (Ex.,  xxix).  As  a  sign  that  Aaron 
was  endowed  with  the  fullness  of  the  priesthood, 
Moses  poured  over  his  head  the  oil  of  anointing  (Lev., 
viii,  12),  while  the  other  Aaronites,  as  simple  priests, 
had  only  their  hands  anointed  (Ex.,  xxix,  7,  29).  The 
high-priest  was  for  the  Jews  the  highest  embodiment 
of  theocracy,  the  monarch  of  the  whole  priesthood, 
the  special  mediator  between  God  and  the  People  of 
the  Covenant,  and  the  spiritual  head  of  the  synagogue 
He  was  the  priest  par  excellence,  the  "great  priest" 
(Greek,  apxiepeiis;  Heb.,  h'~:~  '":,-),  the  "prince 
among  the  priests",  and,  because  of  the  anointing  of 
his  head,  the  "anointed  priest".  To  this  exalted 
office  corresponded  his  special  and  costly  vestments, 
worn  in  addition  to  those  of  the  simple  priests  (Ex., 
xxviii).  A  (probably  sleeveless)  purple-blue  upper 
garment  (tunica)  fell  to  his  knees,  the  lower  seam  being 
ornamented  alternately  with  small  golden  bells  and 
pomegranates  of  coloured  thread.  About  the  shoulders 
he  also  wore  a  garment  called  the  ephod;  this 
was  made  of  costly  material,  and  consisted  of  two 
portions  about  an  ell  long,  which  covered  the  back 
and  breast,  were  held  together  above  by  two  shoulder- 
bands  or  epaulets,  and  terminated  below  with  a  mag- 
nificent girdle.  Attached  to  the  ephod  in  front  was 
the  shield  (rationale),  a  square  bag  bearing  on  the 
outside  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes  engraved  on 
precious  stones  (Ex.,  xxviii,  6),  and  containing  within 
the  celebrated  Urim  and  Thummim  (q.  v.)  as  the 
means  of  obtaining  Divine  oracles  and  prophecies. 
The  vestments  of  the  high-priest  were  completed  by 
a  precious  turban  (tiara),  bearing  on  a  golden  frontal 
plate  the  inscription:    "Sacred  to  Jahweh"    (Heb. 

The  high-priest  had  supreme  supervision  of  the  Ark 
of  the  Covenant  (and  of  the  Temple) ,  of  Divine  service 
in  general  and  of  the  whole  personnel  connected  with 
public  worship.  He  presided  at  the  Sanhedrin.  He 
alone  could  perform  the  liturgy  on  the  Feast  of  Ex- 
piation, on  which  occasion  he  put  on  his  costly  vest- 
ments only  after  the  sacrifices  were  completed.  He 
alone  might  offer  sacrifice  for  his  own  sins  and  those 
of  the  people  (Lev.,  iv,  5),  enter  the  holy  of  holies 
(sanctum  sanctorum),  and  seek  counsel  of  Jahweh  on 
important  occasions.  The  office  of  high-priest  in  the 
house  of  Aaron  was  at  first  hereditary  in  the  line  of 
his  first-born  son  Eleazar,  but  in  the  period  from  Hell 
to  Abiathar  (1131  to  973  b.  c.)  it  belonged,  by  right 
of  primogeniture,  to  the  line  of  Ithamar.  Under  the 
rule  of  the  Seleucidae  (from  about  175  B.  c.)  the  office 
was  sold  for  money  to  the  highest  bidder.  At  a  later 
period  it  became  hereditary  in  the  family  of  the  Has- 
mon.  With  the  destruction  of  the  central  sanctuary 
by  the  Romans,  the  high-priesthood  disappeared. 

Against  the  foregoing  account  of  the  Mosaic  priest- 
hood, based  on  the  Old  Testament,  the  negative 
biblical  critics  of  to-day  make  a  determined  stand. 
According  to  the  hypothesis  of  Graf-Wellhausen, 
Moses  (about  12.50  b.  c.)  cannot  be  the  author  of  the 
Pentateuch.  He  was  not  the  Divinely  appointed 
legislator,  but  simply  the  founder  of  Monolatry,  for 
ithical  Monotheism  resulted  from  the  efforts  of  much 
later  Prophets.  Deuteronomy  D  made  its  appearance 
in  substance  in  621  b.  c,  when  the  astute  high-priest 
Helkias  by  a  pious  fraud  palmed  off  on  the  god- 
fearing King  Josias  the  recently  composed  "Book  of 
the  Laws"  D  as  written  by  Moses  (cf.  IV  Kings,  xxii, 
1  sqq.).     When  Esdras  returned  to  Jerusalem  from 


the  Babylonian  Exile  about  450  b.  c,  he  brought  back 
the  "Book  of  the  Ritual"  or  the  priest's  codex  P, 
i.  e.,  the  middle  portions  between  Genesis  and  Deu- 
teronomy, composed  by  himself  and  his  school  in 
Babylon,  although  it  was  only  in  444  b.  c.  that  he 
dared  to  make  it  public.  A  clever  editor  now  intro- 
duced the  portions  relating  to  public  worship  into  the 
old,  pre-Exilic  historical  books,  and  the  entirely  new 
idea  of  an  Aaronic  priesthood  and  of  the  centraliza- 
tion of  the  cult  was  projected  back  to  the  time  of 
Moses.  The  story  of  the  tabernacle  of  the  covenant 
is  thus  a  mere  fiction,  devised  to  represent  the  7>mple 
at  Jerusalem  as  established  in  fully  developed  form 
at  the  dawn  of  Israelitic  history  and  to  justify  the 
unity  of  worship.  Although  this  hypothesis  does  not 
contest  the  great  antiquity  of  the  Jewish  priesthood, 
it  maintains  that  the  centralization  of  the  cult,  the 
essential  difference  between  priests  and  Levites,  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  priests  of  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem  as  compared  with  the  so-called  hill-priests 
(cf.  Ezech.,  xliv,  4  sqq.),  must  be  referred  to  post- 
Exilic  times. 

Without  entering  upon  a  detailed  criticism  of  these 
assertions  of  Wellhausen  and  the  critical  school  (see 
Pentateuch),  we  may  here  remark  in  general  that 
the  conservative  school  also  admits  or  can  admit  that 
only  the  original  portion  of  the  Pentateuch  is  to  be 
accepted  as  Mosaic,  that  in  the  same  text  many  repe- 
titions seem  to  have  been  brought  together  from 
different  sources,  and  finally  that  additions,  exten- 
sions, and  adaptations  to  new  conditions  by  an  in- 
spired author  of  a  later  period  are  by  no  means  ex- 
cluded. It  must  also  be  admitted  that,  though  one 
place  of  worship  was  appointed,  sacrifices  were  offered 
even  in  early  times  by  laymen  and  simple  Levites  away 
from  the  vicinity  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  and  that 
in  restless  and  politically  disturbed  epochs  the  ordi- 
nance of  Moses  could  not  always  be  observed.  In  the 
gloomy  periods  marked  by  neglect  of  the  Law,  no 
attention  was  paid  to  the  prohibition  of  hill-sacrifices, 
and  the  Prophets  were  often  gratified  to  find  that  on 
the  high  places  (bamoth)  sacrifice  was  offered,  not  to 
pagan  gods,  but  to  Jahweh.  However,  the  Penta- 
teuch problem  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  intricate 
questions  in  Biblical  criticism.  The  Wellhausen 
hypothesis  with  its  bold  assumptions  of  pious  deceits 
and  artificial  projections  is  open  to  as  great,  if  not 
greater,  difficulties  and  mysteries  as  the  traditional 
view,  even  though  some  of  its  contributions  to  literary 
criticism  may  stand  examination.  It  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  critical  structure  has  suffered  a  severe  shock 
since  the  discovery  of  the  Tell-el-Amarna  letters  dat- 
ing from  the  fifteenth  century  b.  c,  and  since  the  de- 
ciphering of  the  Hammurabi  Code.  The  assumption 
that  the  oldest  religion  of  Israel  must  have  been  iden- 
tical with  that  of  the  primitive  Semites  (Polydaemon- 
ism.  Animism,  Fetishism,  Ancestor-worship)  has  been 
proved  false,  since  long  before  2000  b.  c.  a  kind  of 
Henotheism,  i.  e..  Polytheism  with  a  monarchical  head, 
was  the  ruling  religion  in  Babylon.  The  beginnings  of 
the  religions  of  all  peoples  are  purer  and  more  spirit- 
ual than  many  historians  of  religions  have  hitherto 
been  willing  to  admit.  One  thing  is  certain:  the  final 
word  has  not  yet  been  spoken  as  to  the  value  of  the 
Wellhausen  hypothesis. 

On  the  general  question: — Lightfoot,  Ministerium  templi  in 
0pp.,  I  (Rotterdam,  1699),  671  eqq.;  Ugolini,  Thesaur.  antiquit. 
sacrarum,  IX,  XII-XIII  (Rome,  1748-52);  Bahr,  Sy-mbolik  des 
mosaischen  Kultus  (2  vols.,  Heidelberg,  iS39;  2nd  ed.,  1  vol., 
1874) ;  KypEH,  Das  Priestertum  des  Alien  Bundes  (Leipzig,  1866) ; 
ScHOLZ,  Die  heiligen  Allertilmer  des  Volkes  Israel  (2  vols.,  Ratis- 
bon,  1868) ;  Idem,  Gotzendienst  u.  Zauberwesen  bei  den  alien 
Hebraern  (Ratisbon,  1877);  Schafeb,  Die  religiosen  Allertiimer 
der  Bibel  (2nd  ed.,  1891) ;  Nowack,  Lehrbuch  der  hebr.  Arch<iotogie 
(2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1894);  Baudissin,  Gesch.  des  alltest.  Pricster- 
tums  (Berlin,  1892) ;  GiQOT,  Outlines  of  Jewish  Hist.  (New  York, 
1897);  Van  Hoonacker,  Le  sacerdoce  Uvil.  dans  la  Loi  et  dans 
I'hist.  des  Hebreux  (Louvain,  1899) ;  SchtJreh,  Gesch.  des  jUd. 
Volkes  im  Zeitalter  Christi,  II  (2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1898),  224  sqq.; 
K5BERLE,  Die  Tempelsdnger  im  Alten  Test.  (1899). 

For  modern   Biblical   criticism: — Wellhausen,   Prolegomena 


PRIESTHOOD 


414 


PRIESTHOOD 


zur  Gesch.  Israels  (Berlin,  ISSS),  tr.  Black  and  Menzies,  (Edin- 
burgh, 1XH.5);  Idem,  Die  Komposition  des  Hexateuchs  u.  der 
geschichtl.  Bucher  des  A.  T.  (2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1899):  Frey,  Tod, 
Seelenglaube  u.  SeelenkuU  im  alien  Israel  (1898);  Voqelstein, 
Der  Kumpf  zmschen  Priestern  u.  Leviteii  seit  den  Tagen  des 
Ezechiel  (Leipzig,  1899);  Van  Hoonackek,  Les  prUres  et  les 
Lenles  dans  le  Here  d'Ezichiel  in  Rei>.  bibl.  internal.  (1899),  177 
sqq.;  American  Journal  of  Theol.  (1905),  76  sqq.;  Kennet, 
Origin  of  the  Aaronite  Priesthood  in  Journal  of  Theol.  Studies 
(Jan.,  1905) ;  Meyeh,  Die  Israeliten  u.  ihre  NachbarsMmme  (Leip- 
zig, 1906). 

Catholic  works: — Hummelaueh,  Das  vormosaische  Priestertum 
in  Israel  (Freiburg,  1899);  Nikel,  Wiederherstellung  des  jiid. 
Gemeinwesens  nach  dem  babylon.  Exit  (Freiburg,  1900) ;  DoBN- 
stetter,  Abraham:  Studien  iiber  die  Anfdnge  des  hebr.  Volkes 
(Freiburg,  1902);  Zapletal,  Alttestamentliches  (Freiburg,  1903); 
Nikel,  Genesis  u.  Keilschriflforschung  (Freiburg,  1903);  Hobehg, 
Moses  u.  der  Pentateuch  (Freiburg,  1905);  Engelkempeh,  Hn- 
ligtum  u.  OpferstStten  in  den  Gesetzen  des  Pentateuch  (Miinater, 
1908):  Sc-HULZ,  Doppelberirhle  im  Pentateuch  (Freiburg,  1908); 
Peterr,  Die  jud.  Gemeinde  von  Elephantine-Syene  u.  ihr  Tempet 
im  5.  Jahrh.  v.  Christus  (Freiburg,  1910). 

III.  The  Christian  Priesthood. — In  the  New 
Testament  bishops  and  priests  are,  according  to 
CathoUc  teaching,  the  sole  bearers  of  the  priesthood, 
the  former  enjoying  the  fullness  of  the  priesthood 
{sumnius  sacerdos  s.  primi  ordinis),  while  the  presby- 
ters are  simple  priests  (simplex  sacerdos  s.  secundi 
ordinis).  The  deacon,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  mere 
attendant  of  the  priest,  with  no  priestly  powers.  Omit- 
ting all  special  treatment  of  the  bishop  and  the 
deacon,  we  here  confine  our  attention  primarily  to 
the  presbyterate,  since  the  term  "priest"  without 
qualification  is  now  taken  to  signify  the  presbyter. 

A.  The  Divine  Institution  of  the  Priesthood. — Ac- 
cording to  the  Protestant  view,  there  was  in  the 
primitive  Christian  Church  no  essential  distinction 
between  laity  and  clergy,  no  hierarchical  differentia- 
tion of  the  orders  (bishop,  priest,  deacon),  no  recog- 
nition of  pope  and  bishops  as  the  possessors  of  the 
highest  power  of  jurisdiction  over  the  Universal 
Church  or  over  its  several  territorial  divisions.  On 
the  contrary,  the  Church  had  at  first  a  democratic 
constitution,  in  virtue  of  which  the  local  churches 
selected  their  own  heads  and  ministers,  and  imparted 
to  these  their  inherent  spiritual  authority,  just  as  in 
the  modern  republic  the  "sovereign  people"  confers 
upon  its  elected  president  and  his  officials  administra- 
tive authority.  The  deeper  foundation  for  this  trans- 
mission of  power  13  to  be  sought  in  the  primitive 
Christian  idea  of  the  universal  priesthood,  which  ex- 
cludes the  recognition  of  a  special  priesthood.  Christ 
is  the  sole  high-priest  of  the  New  Testament,  just  as 
His  bloody  death  on  the  Cross  is  the  sole  sacrifice  of 
Christianity.  If  all  Christians  without  exception  are 
priests  in  virtue  of  their  baptism,  an  official  priest- 
hood obtained  by  special  ordination  is  just  as  inad- 
missible as  the  Catholic  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  Not 
the  material  sacrifice  of  the  Eucharist,  consisting  in 
the  offering  of  (real)  gifts,  but  only  the  purely  spirit- 
ual sacrifice  of  prayer  harmonizes  with  the  spirit  of 
Christianity.  One  is  indeed  forced  to  admit  that  the 
gradual  corruption  of  Christianity  began  very  early 
(end  of  first  century),  since  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
Clement  of  Rome  (Ep.  ad  Cor.,  xliv,  4),  the  Teaching 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles  (Didache,  xiv),  and  Tertullian 
(De  bapt.,  xvii;  "De  prassc.  hser.",  xli;  "De  exhort, 
cast.",  vii)  recognize  an  official  priesthood  with  the 
objective  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  The  corruption 
quickly  spread  throughout  the  whole  East  and  West, 
and  persisted  unchecked  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
until  the  Reformation  finally  succeeded  in  restoring 
to  Christianity  its  original  purity.  Then  "the  idea 
of  the  universal  priesthood  was  revived;  it  appeared 
as  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  very  nature  of 
Christianity.  .  .  .  Since  the  whole  idea  of  sacrifice  was 
discarded,  all  danger  of  reversion  to  the  beliefs  once 
derived  from  it  was  removed"  ("Realency  cl.  fiir  prot. 
Theol.",  XVI,  Leipzig,  lOO.i,  p.  50). 

To  these  views  we  may  answer  briefly  as  follows. 
Catholic  theologians  do  not  deny  that  the  double 
"hierarchy  of  order  and  jurisdiction"  gradually  devel- 


oped from  the  germ  already  existing  in  the  primitive 
Church,  just  as  the  primacy  of  the  pope  of  Rome  and 
especially  the  distinction  of  simple  priests  from  the 
bishops  was  recognized  with  increasing  clearness  as 
time  advanced  (see  Hierarchy).  But  the  question 
whether  there  was  at  the  beginning  a  special  priest- 
hood in  the  Church  is  altogether  distinct.  If  it  is  true 
that  "the  reception  of  the  idea  of  sacrifice  led  to  the 
idea  of  the  ecclesiastical  priesthood"  (loc.  cit.,  p.  48), 
and  that  priesthood  and  sacrifice  are  reciprocal  terms, 
then  the  proof  of  the  Divine  origin  of  the  Catholic 
priesthood  must  be  regarded  as  established,  once  it  is 
shown  that  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is 
coeval  with  the  beginnings  and  the  essence  of  Chris- 
tianity. In  proof  of  this  we  may  appeal  even  to  the 
Old  Testament.  When  the  Prophet  Isaias  foresees  the 
entrance  of  pagans  into  the  Messianic  Kingdom,  he 
makes  the  calling  of  priests  from  the  heathen  li.  e. 
the  non-Jews)  a  special  characteristic  of  the  new 
Church  (Is.,  Ixvi,  21) :  "And  I  will  take  of  them  to  be 
priests  and  Levites,  saith  the  Lord".  Now  this  non- 
Jewish  (Christian)  priesthood  in  the  future  Messianic 
Church  presupposes  a  permanent  sacrifice,  namely 
that  "clean  oblation",  which  from  the  rising  of  the 
sun  even  to  the  going  down  is  to  be  offered  to  the  Lord 
of  hosts  among  the  Gentiles  (Mai.,  i,  11).  The  sac- 
rifice of  bread  and  wine  offered  by  Melchisedech  (cf. 
Gen.,  xiv,  18  sqq.),  the  prototype  of  Christ  (cf.  Ps. 
cix,  4;  Heb.,  v,  5  sq.;  vii,  1  sqq.),  also  refers  prophet- 
ically, not  only  to  the  Last  Supper,  but  also  to  its 
everlasting  repetition  in  commemoration  of  the  Sac- 
rifice of  the  Cross  (see  Mass).  Rightly,  therefore,  does 
the  Council  of  Trent  emphasize  the  intimate  connex- 
ion between  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  and  the  priest- 
hood (Sess.  XXIII,  cap.  i,  in  Denzinger,  "Enchi- 
ridion", 10th  ed.,  957):  "Sacrifice  and  priesthood  are 
by  Divine  ordinance  so  inseparable  that  they  are  found 
together  under  all  laws.  Since  therefore  in  the  New 
Testament  the  Catholic  Church  has  received  from  the 
Lord's  institution  the  holy  visible  sacrifice  of  the 
Eucharist  it  must  also  be  admitted  that  in  the  Church 
there  is  a  new,  visible  and  external  priesthood  into 
which  the  older  priesthood  has  been  changed. "  Surely 
this  logic  admits  of  no  reply.  It  is,  then,  all  the  more 
extraordinary  that  Harnack  should  seek  the  origin  of 
the  hierarchical  constitution  of  the  Church,  not  in 
Palestine,  but  in  pagan  Rome.  Of  the  Catholic 
Church  he  writes:  "She  continues  ever  to  govern  the 
peoples;  her  popes  lord  it  like  Trajan  and  Marcus 
Aurelius.  To  Romulus  and  Remus  succeeded  Peter 
and  Paul;  to  the  proconsuls  the  archbishops  and  bish- 
ops. To  the  legions  correspond  the  hosts  of  priests 
and  monks;  to  the  imperial  bodyguard  the  Jesuits. 
Even  to  the  finest  details,  even  to  her  judicial  organ- 
ization, nay  even  to  her  very  vestments,  the  continued 
influence  of  the  ancient  empire  and  of  its  institutions 
may  be  traced"  ("Das  Wesen  d.  Christen  turns " , 
Leipzig,  1902,  p.  157).  With  the  best  of  good  will, 
we  can  recognize  in  this  description  only  a  sample  of 
the  writer's  ingenuity,  for  an  historical  investigation 
of  the  cited  institutions  would  undoubtedly  lead  to 
sources,  beginnings,  and  motives  entirely  different 
from  the  analogous  conditions  of  the  Empire  of  Rome. 
But  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  indicates  only  one 
side  of  the  priesthood ;  the  other  side  is  revealed  in  the 
power  of  forgiving  sin,  for  the  exercise  of  which  the 
priesthood  is  just  as  necessary  as  it  is  for  the  power  of 
consecrating  and  sacrificing.  Like  the  general  power 
to  bind  and  to  loose  (cf.  Matt.,  xvi,  19;  xviii,  18),  the 
power  of  remitting  and  retaining  sins  was  solemnly 
bestowed  on  the  Church  by  Christ  (cf.  John,  xx,  21 
sqq.).  Accordingly,  the  Catholic  priesthood  has  the 
indisputable  right  to  trace  its  origin  in  this  respect  also 
to  the  Divine  Founder  of  the  Church.  Both  sides  of 
the  priesthood  were  brought  into  prominence  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  (loc.  cit.,  n.  901):  "If  any  one  shall 
say  that  in  the  New  Testament  there  is  no  visible  and 


PRIESTHOOD 


415 


PRIESTHOOD 


external  priesthood  nor  any  power  of  consecrating  and 
offering  the  Body  and  Blood  of  the  Lord,  as  well  as  of 
remitting  and  retaining  sins,  but  merely  the  office  and 
bare  ministry  of  preaching  the  Gospel,  let  him  be 
anathema."  Far  from  being  an  "unjustifiable  usurpa- 
tion of  Divine  powers",  the  priesthood  forms  so  in- 
dispensable a  foundation  of  Christianity  that  its  re- 
moval would  entail  the  destruction  of  the  whole  edifice. 
A  Christianity  without  a  priesthood  cannot  be  the 
Church  of  Christ.  This  conviction  is  strengthened  by 
consideration  of  the  psychological  impossibility  of 
the  Protestant  assumption  that  from  the  end  of  the 
first  century  onward,  Christendom  tolerated  without 
struggle  or  protest  the  unprecedented  usurpation  of 
the  priests,  who  without  credentials  or  testimony 
suddenly  arrogated  Divine  powers  with  respect  to  the 
Eucharist,  and,  on  the  strength  of  a  fictitious  appeal  to 
Christ,  laid  on  baptized  sinners  the  grievous  burden 
of  public  penance  as  an  indispensable  condition  of  the 
forgiveness  of  sin. 

As  for  the  "universal  priesthood",  on  which  Prot- 
estantism relies  in  its  denial  of  the  special  priesthood, 
it  may  be  said  that  Catholics  also  believe  in  a  universal 
priesthood;  this,  however,  by  no  means  excludes  a 
special  priesthood  but  rather  presupposes  its  existence, 
since  the  two  are  related  as  the  general  and  the  par- 
ticular, the  abstract  and  the  concrete,  the  figurative 
and  the  real.  The  ordinary  Christian  cannot  be  a 
priest  in  the  strict  sense,  for  he  can  offer,  not  a  real 
sacrifice,  but  only  the  figurative  sacrifice  of  prayer. 
For  this  reason  the  historical  dogmatic  development 
did  not  and  could  not  follow  the  course  it  would  have 
followed  if  in  the  primitive  Church  two  opposing 
trains  of  thought  (i.  e.  the  universal  versus  the  special 
priesthood)  had  contended  for  supremacy  until  one 
was  vanquished.  The  history  of  dogma  attests,  on 
the  contrary,  that  both  ideas  advanced  harmoniously 
through  the  centuries,  and  have  never  disappeared 
from  the  Catholic  mind.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  pro- 
found and  beautiful  idea  of  the  universal  priesthood 
may  be  traced  from  Justin  Martyr  (Dial,  cum  Tryph., 
cxvi),  Irenaeus  (Adv.  haer.,  IV,  viii,  3),  and  Origen 
("De  orat.",  xxviii,  9;  "In  Levit.",  hom.  ix,  1),  to 
Augustine  (De  civit.  Dei,  XX,  x)  and  Leo  the  Great 
(Sermo,  iv,  1),  and  thence  to  St.  Thomas  (Summa,  III, 
Q-  Ixxxii,  a.  1)  and  the  Roman  Catechism.  And  yet 
all  these  writers  recognized,  along  with  the  Sacrifice 
of  the  Mass,  the  special  priesthood  in  the  Church. 
The  origin  of  the  universal  priesthood  extends  back, 
as  is  known,  to  St.  Peter,  who  declares  the  faithful,  in 
their  character  of  Christians,  "a  holy  priesthood,  to 
offer  up  spiritual  sacrifices",  and  "a  chosen  genera- 
tion, a  kingly  priesthood"  (I  Peter,  ii,  5,  9).  But  the 
very  text  shows  that  the  Apostle  meant  only  a  figura- 
tive priesthood,  since  the  "spiritual  sacrifices"  signify 
prayer  and  the  term  "royal"  {regale,  paffCKuov)  could 
have  had  but  a  metaphorical  sense  for  the  Christians. 
The  Gnostics,  Montanists,  and  Catharists,  who,  in 
their  attacks  on  the  special  priesthood,  had  misapplied 
the  metaphor,  were  just  as  illogical  as  the  Reformers, 
since  the  two  ideas,  real  and  figurative  priesthood,  are 
quite  compatible.  It  is  clear  from  the  foregoing  that 
the  Catholic  clergy  alone  are  entitled  to  the  designa- 
tion "priest",  since  they  alone  have  a  true  and  real 
sacrifice  to  offer,  the  Holy  Mass.  Consequently, 
Anglicans  who  reject  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  are 
inconsistent,  when  they  refer  to  their  clergy  as 
"priests".  The  preachers  in  Germany  quite  logically 
disclaim  the  title  with  a  certain  indignation. 

B.  The  Hierarchical  Position  of  the  Presbyterate. — 
The  relation  of  the  priest  to  the  bishop  and  deacon 
may  be  briefly  explained  by  stating  that  he  is,  as  it 
were,  the  middle  term  between  the  two,  being  hier- 
archically the  subordinate  of  the  bishop  and  the 
superior  of  the  deacon  (cf.  Council  of  Trent,  Sess. 
XXVI,  can.  vi).  While  the  pre-eminence  of  the  bishop 
over  the  priest  consists  mainly  in  his  power  of  ordina- 


tion, that  of  the  priest  over  the  deacon  is  based  on 
his  power  of  consecrating  and  absolving  (cf .  Council  of 
Trent,  loo.  cit.,  cap.  iv;    can.  i  and  vii).    The  inde- 
pendence of  the  diaoonate  appears  earlier  and  more 
clearly  in  the  oldest  sources  than  that  of  the  priest- 
hood, chiefly  because  of  the  long-continued  fluctuation 
in  the  meaning  of  the  titles  episcopus  and  presbyter, 
which  until  the  middle  of  the  second  century  were  in- 
terchangeable   and    synonymous    terms.      Probably 
there  was  a  rea- 
son in  fact   for 
thisuncertainty, 
since    the   hier- 
archical distinc- 
tion between 
bishop     and 
priest  seems  to 
have     been     of 
gradual  growth. 
Epiphanius 
( Ad  V  .  hajr  . , 
Ixxv,  5)  offered 
an    explanation 
of  this  condition 
of  uncertainty 
by  supposing 
that  priests  were 
appointed  in 
some    places 
where  there  was 
no  bishop,  while 
in  other   places 
where  no  candi- 
dates for  priest- 
hood werefound, 
the  people  were 
satisfied  with 
having  a  bishop, 
who,     however, 
could     not     be 
without   a   dea- 
con.      Cardinal 
Franzelin   ("De 
eccles.  Christi", 
2nd  ed.,  Rome, 
1907,  thes.  xvi) 
gives      good 
grounds  for  the 
opinion  that   in 
the  Bible  bish- 
ops are    indeed 
named   pres- 
byter, but    sim- 
ple   priests    are 
nevercalledepis- 
copi.   The  prob- 
lem is,  however, 
far   from   being 
solved,  since  in  the  primitive  Church  there  were  not 
yet  fixed  names  for  the  different  orders;  the  latter 
must  rather  be  determined  from  the  context  according 
to  the  characteristic  functions  discharged.     The  ap- 
peal to  the  usage  of  the  pagan  Greeks,  who  had  their 
iirla-Koiroi  and  irpea^irepoi,  does  not   settle   the  ques- 
tion, as  Ziebarth  ("Das  griechische  Vereinswesen", 
Leipzig,    1896)   has  shown   in  reply   to   Hatch   and 
Harnack.    Any  attempt  at  a  solution  must  take  into 
account  the  varying  use  in  different  countries  (e.  g. 
Palestine,  Asia  Minor).     In  some  places  the  "pres- 
JDyters"  may  have  been  real  bishops,  in  others  priests 
in  the  present  meaning  of  the  term,  while  elsewhere 
they  may  have  been  mere  administrative  officers  or 
worthy  elders  chosen  to  represent  the  local  church  in 
its  external  relations  (see  Hierabchy  of  the  Eably 
Church). 

Like    the    Apostolic    writings,     the     "Didache", 
Hermas,  Clement  of  Rome,  and  IreniBus  often  use  the 


Priest  Saying  Mass 
IX  Century  Ivory,  Frankfort 


PRIESTHOOD 


416 


PRIESTHOOD 


terms  "bishop"  and  "priest"  indiscriminately.  In 
fact,  it  is  really  a  moot  question  whether  the  presby- 
terate  gradually  developed  as  an  offshoot  of  the  epis- 
copate— whichis  in  the  nature  of  things  more  likely 
and  in  view  of  the  needs  of  the  growing  Church  more 
readily  understood — or  whether,  conversely,  the  epis- 
copate had  its  origin  in  the  elevation  of  the  presby- 
terate  to  a  higher  rank  (Lightfoot),  which  is  more 
difficult  to  admit.  On  the  other  hand,  even  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century,  Ignatius  of  Antiooh 
(Ep.  ad  Magnes.,  vi  and  passim)  brings  out  with  re- 
markable clearness  the  hierarchical  distinction  be- 
tween the  monarchical  bishop,  the  priests,  and  the 
deacons.  He  emphasizes  this  triad  as  essential  to  the 
constitution  of  the  Church:  "Without  these  [three] 
it  cannot  be  called  the  Church"  (Ad  Trail.,  iii).^  But, 
according  to  the  law  of  historic  continuity,  this  dis- 
tinction of  the  orders  must  have  existed  in  substance 
and  embryo  during  the  first  century;  and,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  St.  Paul  (I  Tim.,  v,  17,  19)" mentions  "presby- 
ters" who  were  subordinate  to  the  real  bishop  Tim- 
othy. But  in  the  Ijatin  writers  there  is  no  ambiguity. 
Tertullian  (De  bapt.,  xvii)  calls  the  bishop  the 
"summus  sacerdos",  under  whom  are  the  "presbyteri 
et  diaconi";  and  Cyprian  (Ep.  Ixi,  3)  speaks  of  the 
"presbyteri  cum  episcopo  sacerdotali  honore  con- 
juncti",  i.  e.  the  priests  united  by  sacerdotal  dignity 
with  the  bishop  (see  Bishop)  . 

About  360,  after  the  development  of  the  orders  had 
long  been  complete,  Aerius  of  Pontus  first  ventured  to 
obliterate  the  distinction  between  the  priestly  and 
episcopal  orders  and  to  place  them  on  an  equality 
with  respect  to  their  powers.  For  this  he  was  ranked 
among  the  heretics  by  Epiphanius  (Adv.  haer.,  Ixxv, 
3).  The  testimony  of  St.  Jerome  (d.  420),  whom  the 
Scottish  Presbyterians  cite  in  behalf  of  the  presbyteral 
constitution  of  the  Church,  raises  some  difficulties,  as 
he  appears  to  assert  the  full  equality  of  priests  and 
bishops.  It  is  true  that  Jerome  endeavoured  to  en- 
hance the  dignity  of  the  priesthood  at  the  expense  of 
the  episcopate  and  to  refer  the  bishop's  superiority 
"rather  to  ecclesiastical  custom  than  to  Divine  regula- 
tion" (In  Tit.,  i,  5:  "Episcopi  noverint  se  magis  con- 
suetudine  quam  dispositionis  dominicse  veritate  pres- 
byteris  esse  majores").  He  desired  a  more  democratic 
constitution  in  which  the  priests  hitherto  undeserv- 
edly slighted  would  participate,  and  he  urged  the 
correction  of  the  abuse,  widespread  since  the  third 
century,  by  which  the  archdeacons,  as  the  "right 
hand"  of  the  bishops,  controlled  the  whole  diocesan 
administration  (Ep.  cxliv  ad  Evangel.).  It  is  at  once 
evident  that  Jerome  disputes  not  the  hierarchical 
rank  {potestas  ordinis)  of  the  bishops  but  their  powers 
of  government  [potestas  jurisdictionis) — and  this  not 
so  much  in  principle,  but  only  to  insist  that  the 
deacons  should  be  dislodged  from  the  position  they 
had  usurped  and  the  priests  established  in  the  official 
position  befitting  their  higher  rank.  How  far  Jerome 
was  from  being  a  follower  of  Aerius  and  a  forerunner 
of  Presbyterianism  appears  from  his  important  ad- 
mission that  the  power  of  ordination  is  possessed 
by  the  bishops  alone,  and  not  by  the  priests  (loc.  cit. 
in  P.  L.,  XXII,  1193:  "Quid  enim  facit — excepta 
ordinatione — episcopus  quod  presbyter  non  faciat?"). 
By  this  admission  Jerome  establishes  his  orthodoxy. 

C.  The  Sacra-mentality  of  the  Presbyterate. — The 
Council  of  Trent  decreed  (Sess.  XXIII,  can.  iii,  in 
Denzinger,  n.  963):  "If  any  one  shall  say  that  order 
or  sacred  ordination  is  not  truly  and  properly  a  sacra- 
ment instituted  by  Christ  our  Lord  ...  let  him  be 
anathema."  While  the  synod  defined  only  the  existence 
of  the  Sacrament  of  Holy  Orders,  without  deciding 
whether  all  the  orders  or  only  some  fall  within  the 
definition,  it  is  admitted  that  the  priestly  ordination 
possesses  with  even  greater  certainty  than  the  epis- 
copal and  the  diaconal  ordination  the  dignity  of  a 
sacrament    (cf.   Benedict  XIV,   "De  syn.   dioees.", 


VIII,  ix,  2).  The  three  essentials  of  a  sacrament — ■ 
outward  sign,  interior  grace,  and  institution  by  Christ 
— are  found  in  the  priestly  ordination. 

As  regards  the  outward  sign,  there  has  been  a  long- 
protracted  controversy  among  theologians  concerning 
the  matter  and  form,  not  alone  of  the  priestly  ordina- 
tion, but  of  the  Sacrament  of  Holy  Orders  in  general. 
Is  the  imposition  of  hands  alone  (Bonaventure, 
Morin,  and  most  modern  theologians),  or  the  pres- 
entation of  the  instruments  (Gregory  of  Valencia,  the 
Thomists),  or  are  both  together  (Bellarmine,  De  Lugo, 
Billot  etc.)  to  be  regarded  as  the  essential  matter  of 
the  sacrament?  As  to  the  priestly  ordination  in  par- 
ticular, which  alone  concerns  us  here,  the  difference  of 
views  is  explained  by  the  fact  that,  in  addition  to 
three  impositions  of  hands,  the  rite  includes  a  pres- 
entation to  the  candidate  of  the  chalice  filled  with 
wine,  and  of  the  paten  with  the  host.  Concerning  the 
latter  Eugenius  IV  says  expressly  in  his  "Decretum 
pro  Armenis"  (1439;  in  Denzinger,  n.  701):  "The 
priesthood  is  conferred  by  the  handing  of  the  chalice 
containing  wine  and  of  the  paten  with  bread."  How- 
ever, in  view  of  the  fact  that  in  the  Bible  (Acts,  xiii, 
3;  xiv,  22;  I  Tim.,  iv,  14;  v,  22;  II  Tim.,  i,  6),  in  all 
patristic  literature,  and  in  the  whole  East  the  imposi- 
tion of  hands  alone  is  found,  while  even  in  the  West 
the  presentation  of  the  sacred  vessels  does  not  extend 
back  beyond  the  tenth  century,  we  are  forced  to 
recognize  theoretically  that  the  latter  ceremony  is 
unessential,  like  the  solemn  anointing  of  the  priest's 
hands,  which  is  evidently  borrowed  from  the  Old 
Testament  and  was  introduced  from  the  Galilean  into 
the  Roman  Rite  (cf.  "Statuta  ecclesiae  antiquae"  in 
P.  L.,  LVI,  879  sqq.).  In  defence  of  the  anointing, 
the  Council  of  Trent  condemned  those  who  declared 
it  "despicable  and  pernicious"  (Sess.  XXXIII,  can. 
v).  As  regards  the  sacramental  form,  it  may  be 
accepted  as  probable  that  the  pra\'er  accompanying 
the  second  extension  of  hands  (x^ipoTovla)  is  the 
essential  form,  although  it  is  not  impossible  that  the 
words  spoken  by  the  bishop  during  the  third  im- 
position of  hands  {x^ipo6ea-ta) :  "  Receive  the  Holy 
Ghost,  whose  sins  you  shall  remit,  they  are  remitted,, 
etc.",  constitute  a  partial  form.  The  first  imposition 
of  hands  by  the  bishop  (and  the  priests)  cannot  be 
regarded  as  the  form,  since  it  is  performed  in  silence, 
but  it  also  may  have  an  essential  importance  in  so  far 
as  the  second  extension  of  hands  is  simply  the  moral 
continuation  of  the  first  touching  of  the  head  of  the  ordi- 
nandus  (cf.  Gregory  IX,  "Decret.",  I,  tit.  xvi,  cap. 
III).  The  oldest  formularies — e.  g.  the  "Eucholo- 
gium"  of  Serapion  of  Thmuis  (cf.  Funk,  "Didascaha", 
II,  Tubingen,  1905,  189),  the  " Pseudo-ApostoUc  Con- 
stitutions" (Funk,  loc.  cit.,  I,  520),  the  lately  dis- 
covered "Testament  of  the  Lord"  (ed.  Rahmani, 
Mainz,  1899,  p.  68),  and  the  Canons  of  Hippolytus 
(ed.  Achelis,  Leipzig,  1891,  p.  61) — contain  only  one 
imposition  of  hands  with  a  short  accompanying  prayer. 
In  the  eleventh  century  the  Mozarabic  Rite  is  still 
quite  simple  (cf.  "Monum.  Uturg.",  V,  Paris,  1904, 
pp.  54  sq.),  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  Armenian  Rite 
of  the  Middle  Ages  shows  great  complexity  (cf. 
Conybeare-Maclean,  "Rituale  Armenorum",  Oxford, 
1905,  pp.  231  sqq.).  In  the  Greek-Byzantine  Rite, 
the  bishop,  after  making  three  signs  of  the  cross, 
places  his  right  hand  on  the  head  of  the  ordinandus, 
meanwhile  reciting  a  prayer,  and  then,  praying  in 
secret,  holds  the  same  hand  extended  above  the  candi- 
date, and  invokes  upon  him  the  seven  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (cf.  Goar,  "Euchol.  Grsoc",  Paris,  1647, 
pp.  292  sqq.).  For  other  formularies  of  ordination  see 
Denzinger,  "Ritus  Orientalium",  II  (Wtirzburg, 
1864);  Manser  in  Buchberger,  "Kirchliches  Hand- 
lexikon",  o.  v.  Priesterweihe. 

As  a  sacrament  of  the  living,  ordination  presupposes 
the  possession  of  sanctifying  grace,  and  therefore  con- 
fers, besides  the  right  to  the  actual  graces  of  the 


PRIESTHOOD 


417 


PRIESTHOOD 


priestly  office,  an  increase  of  sanctifying  grace  (cf. 
"Decret.  pro  Armenis"  in  Denzinger,  n.  701).  But 
in  all  cases,  whether  the  candidate  is  in  the  state  of 
sanctifying  grace  or  not,  the  sacrament  imprints  on 
the  soul  an  indelible  spiritual  mark  (cf.  Council  of 
Trent,  Sess.  VII,  can.  ix,  in  Denzinger,  n.  852),  i.  c.  the 
priestly  character,  to  which  are  permanently  attached 
the  powers  of  consecrating  and  absolving — the  latter, 
however,  with  the  reservation  that  for  the  valid  ad- 
ministration of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  the  power 
of  jurisdiction  is  also  required  (see  Character).  As 
the  priestly  character,  hke  that  imparted  by  baptism 
and  confirmation,  is  indelible,  ordination  can  never 
be  repeated,  and  a  return  to  the  lay  state  is  absolutely 
impossible  (cf.  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXIII,  can. 
iv,  in  Denzinger,  n.  964).  That  priestly  ordination 
was  instituted  by  Christ  is  proved  not  alone  by  the 
Divine  institution  of  the  priesthood  (see  above.  A), 
but  also  by  the  testimony  of  Holy  Writ  and  Tradition, 
which  unanimously  testify  that  the  Apostles  trans- 
mitted their  powers  to  their  successors,  who  in  turn 
transmitted  them  to  the  succeeding  generation  (cf. 
I  Tim.,  V,  22).  Since  the  charismatic  gifts  of  the 
"apostles  and  prophets"  mentioned  in  the  "Didache" 
had  nothing  to  do  with  the  priesthood  as  such,  these 
itinerant  missionaries  still  needed  the  imposition  of 
hands  to  empower  them  to  discharge  the  specifically 
priestly  functions  (see  Charismata). 

For  the  vaUd  reception  of  the  Sacrament  of  Orders, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  minister  be  a  bishop  and  the 
recipient  a  baptized  person  of  the  male  sex.  The  first 
requisite  is  based  on  the  episcopal  prerogative  of  or- 
daining; the  second  on  the  conviction  that  baptism 
opens  the  door  to  all  the  other  sacraments  and  that 
women  are  definitively  barred  from  the  service  of  the 
altar  (cf.  Epiphanius,  "De  hsr.",  Ixxix,  2).  St.  Paul 
is  a  resolute  champion  of  an  exclusively  male  priest- 
hood (cf.  I  Cor.,  xiv,  34).  In  this  respect  there  is  an 
essential  difference  between  Christianity  and  Pagan- 
ism, since  the  latter  recognizes  priestesses  as  well  as 
priests — e.  g.  the  hierodules  of  Ancient  Greece,  the 
vestal  virgins  of  Rome,  the  bajaders  of  India,  the  wu 
of  China,  and  the  female  bonzes  of  Japan.  The  early 
Church  contemned  as  an  absurdity  the  female  priest- 
hood of  Montanism  and  of  the  CoUyridiani,  and  it 
never  regarded  the  Apostolic  institute  of  deaconesses 
as  a  branch  of  Holy  orders.  For  the  licit  reception  of 
priestly  ordination,  canon  law  demands:  freedom 
from  every  irregularity,  completion  of  the  twenty- 
fourth  year,  the  reception  of  the  earlier  orders  (in- 
cluding the  diaconate),  the  observation  of  the  regular 
interstices,  and  the  possession  of  a  title  to  ordination. 
In  addition  to  the  requisites  for  the  valid  and  lawful 
reception  of  the  priesthood  the  question  arises  as  to 
the  personal  worthiness  of  the  candidate.  According 
to  earUer  canon  law  this  question  was  settled  by  three 
ballots  (scrutinia) ;  it  is  now  decided  by  official  exam- 
ination and  certification.  One  of  the  most  important 
means  of  securing  worthy  candidates  for  the  priest- 
hood is  careful  inquiry  regarding  vocations.  In- 
truders in  the  sanctuary  have  at  all  times  been  the 
occasion  of  the  greatest  injury  to  the  Church,  and  of 
scandal  to  the  people.  For  this  reason.  Pope  Pius  X, 
with  even  greater  strictness  than  was  shown  in  pre- 
vious ecclesiastical  regulations,  insists  upon  the  exclu- 
sion of  all  candidates  who  do  not  give  the  highest 
promise  of  a  life  conspicuous  for  firmness  of  faith  and 
moral  rectitude.  In  this  connexion  the  importance 
and  necessity  of  colleges  and  ecclesiastical  seminaries 
for  the  training  of  the  clergy  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized. 

D.  The  Official  Powers  of  the  Priest. — As  said  above, 
the  official  powers  of  the  priest  are  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  sacramental  character,  indelibly  im- 
printed on  his  soul.  Together  with  this  character  is 
conferred,  not  only  the  power  of  offering  up  the  Sac- 
rifice of  the  Mass  and  the  (virtual)  power  of  forgiving 
XII.— 27 


sins,  but  also  authority  to  administer  extreme  unction 
and,  as  the  regular  minister,  solemn  baptism.  Only  in 
virtue  of  an  extraordinary  faculty  received  from  the 
pope  is  a  priest  competent  to  administer  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Confirmation.  While  the  conferring  of  the 
three  sacramental  orders  of  the  episcopate,  presby- 
terate,  and  diaconate,  pertains  to  the  bishop  alone, 
the  pope  may  delegate  a  priest  to  administer  the  four 
minor  orders,  and  even  the  subdiaconate.  According 
to  the  present  canon  law,  however,  the  papal  per- 
mission granted  to  abbots  of  monasteries  is  confined 
to  the  conferring  of  the  tonsure  and  the  four  minor 
orders  on  their  subjects  (cf.  Council  of  Trent,  Sess. 
XXIII  de  Ref.,  cap.  x).  Concerning  the  privilege  of 
conferring  the  diaconate,  claimed  to  have  been  given 
to  Cistercian  abbots  by  Innocent  VIII  in  1489,  see 
Gasparri,  "De  sacr.  ordin.",  II  (Paris,  189.3),  n.  798, 
and  Pohle,  "Dogmatik",  III  (4th  ed.,  Paderborn, 
1910),  pp.  587  sqq.  To  the  priestly  office  also  belongs 
the  faculty  of  administering  the  ecclesiastical  bless- 
ings and  the  sacramentals  in  general,  in  so  far  as  these 
are  not  reserved  to  the  pope  or  bishops.  By  preaching 
the  Word  of  God  the  priest  has  his  share  in  the  teach- 
ing office  of  the  Church,  always,  however,  as  subor- 
dinate to  the  bishop  and  only  within  the  sphere  of 
duty  to  which  he  is  assigned  as  pastor,  curate,  etc. 
Finally,  the  priest  may  participate  in  the  pastoral  duty 
in  so  far  as  the  bishop  entrusts  him  with  a  definite 
ecclesiastical  office  entailing  a  more  or  less  extensive 
jurisdiction,  which  is  indispensable  especially  for  the 
valid  absolution  of  penitents  from  their  sins.  Certain 
external  honorary  privileges,  e.  g.  those  enjoyed  by 
cardinal-priests,  prelates,  ecclesiastical  councillors, 
etc.,  do  not  enhance  the  intrinsic  dignity  of  the 
priesthood. 

General  Works: — St.  Thomas,  Supplem.,  Q.  xxxiv  sqq.,  and  the 
commentators:  Petrus  Soto,  De  instit.  sacerdotum  (Dillingen, 
1568) ;  Hallier,  De  sacris  eleciionibus  et  ordinationibus  ex  antiquo 
et  novo  jure  (Paris,  1636),  also  in  Migne,  Cursus  theoL,  XXIV ; 
MoBiN,  Comment,  de  sacris  Ecclesice  ordinal.  (Paris,  1655;  Ant- 
werp, 1695) ;  Obebndohfer,  De  sacr.  ord.  (Freising,  1759) ;  among 
later  works  consult:  Koppler,  Priester  u.  Ovf&rgabe  (Mainz, 
1886) ;  Gasparri,  Tractatus  canonicus  de  sacr.  ordinal.  (Paris, 
1893) ;  ScHANZ,  Die  Lehre  von  den  Sakramenten  d.  kathol.  Kirche 
(Freiburg,  1893) ;  Gihr,  Die  Lehre  von  den  hll.  Sakramenten  der 
kathol.  Kirche,ll  (Freiburg,  1903) ;  Kluge,  Die  Idee  des  Priestertums 
in  Israel-Juda  u.  im  Urchristentum.  (1906);  Pourhat,  La  thiologie 
sacramentaire  (Paris,  1907) ;  Saltet,  Les  riordinations  (Paris, 
1907).  The  following  are  written  rather  from  the  ascetical  stand- 
point; Olier,  Trai^^  des  sotnis  ordres  (7th  ed.,  Paris,  1868) ;  Man- 
ning, The  Eternal  Priesthood  (London,  1883);  Mercier,  Retraite 
pastorale  (7th  ed.,  Brussels,  1911). 

Concerning  the  alleged  pagan  influences  on  the  Catholic  Sacri- 
fice and  priesthood;  DOllinger,  Heidentum  u.  Judentum  (Ratis- 
bon,  1857) ;  Hatch,  The  Influence  of  Greek  Ideas  and  Usages  upon 
the  Christian  Church,  ed.  by  Fairbairn  (London,  1890) ;  Anrich, 
Das  antike  Mysterienwesen  in  seinem  Einfluss  auf  das  Christentum 
(Gottingen,  1894) ;  Wobbebmin,  Religionsgeschichil.  Studien  zur 
Frage  der  Beeinfiussung  des  Christentums  durch  das  antike  Mys- 
terienwesen (Berlin,  1896) ;  Cumont,  Textes  et  mon.  relatifs  aux 
mystkres  de  Mithra  (Brussels,  1896—9) ;  Robebtson,  Christianity 
and  Mythology  (London,  1900) ;  Chapuis,  L'influence  deTessSnisme 
sur  les  origines  chrU.  in  Rev.  de  thiol,  et  philos.  (1903),  pp.  193 
sqq.;  Cumont,  The  Mysteries  of  Mithra,  tr.  McCobmack  (London, 
1903) ;  Grill,  Die  persische  Mysterienreligion  u.  das  Christentum 
(Leipzig,  1903) ;  Dietebich,  Eine  Mithrasliturgie  (Leipzig,  1903) ; 
Blotzeb,  Dieheidnischen  Mysterienu.  die Hellenisierung  des  Chris- 
tentums in Stimmenaus  Maria-Laach  (1906),  pp.  376 sqq.,  500  sqq.; 
(1907),  pp.  37  sqq.,  182  sqq.;  Feine,  Ueber  Babylonische  Einflusse 
im  Neuen  Testament  in  Neue  kirchl.  Zeitschr.  (1906),  pp.  696  sqq.; 
Jensen,  Das  Gilgamesch-Epos  in  der  Weltliteratur,  I  (Strasburg, 
1906) ;  Wendland,  Die  hellenisch-rOmische  Kultur  in  ihren  Bezie- 
hungen  zu  Judentum  u.  Christentum  (Tubingen,  1907) ;  Soltau, 
Das  Fortleben  des  Heidentums  in  der  altchristl.  Kirche  (Berlin,  1906) ; 
DE  Jong,  Das  antike  Mysterienwesen  (Leiden,  1909);  Clemen, 
Religionsgeschichtl.  Erkl&rung  des  Neuen  Testaments  (Gieasen, 
1909). 

Concerning  the  relations  between  the  bishop  and  priests  in  the 
primitive  Church  consult;  KuBz,  Der  Episkopat  der  hSchste  vom 
Presbyterat  verschiedene  Ordo  (Vienna,  1877) ;  Hatch,  The  Organi- 
zation of  the  Early  Christian  Churches  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1882); 
Smith  and  Cheetham,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiq.,  s.  v.  Priest; 
Schttlte-Plassman,  Der  Episkopat  ein  vom  Presbyterat  verschiede- 
ner,  selbstdndiger  und  sakramentaler  Ordo  (Paderborn,  1883) ; 
L5NING,  Die  Gemeindeverfassung  des  Ur christentums  (Halle,  1889), 
cf.  Hist.  Jahrb.  der  Gdrresgesellschaft,  XII  (1900),  221  sqq.;  Sob- 
KOwSKi,  Episkopat  und  Presbyterat  in  den  ersten  christl.  Jahrhund. 
(Wiirzburg,  1893);  (!tOBET,  Uorigine  divine  de  Vepiscopat  (Fri- 
bourg,  1898) ;  Dunin-Bobkowski,  Die  neueren  Forschungen  Tiber 
die  Anfdnge  des  Episkopats  (Freiburg,  1900) ;  Michiels,  Uorigine 
de  Vepiscopat   (Louvain,   1900) ;    Weizsackeh,  Das  apostolische 


PRIESTHOOD 


418 


PRIESTHOOD 


Zeitalter  der  chrisll.  Kirche  (3rd  cd.,  Leipzig,  1902) ;  Brudebs,  Die 
Wrfassung  der  Kirche  von  den  ersten  Jahrzehnten  der  apostolischen 
Wirksamkeit  bis  zum  Jahre  176  nach  Chr.  (Mainz,  1904) ;  Knopf, 
Z>a.s  7iachapostolische  Zeitalter  (Leipzig,  1905);  Batiffol,  Uiglis^ 
naiissatiLe  el  te  Cathoticisme  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1908);  Harnack, 
Entstf'.hung  und  Eiitwickelung  der  Kirchenverfassung  und  des  Kirch- 
enrechts  (Leipzig,  1910).  For  special  treatment  of  the  views  of  St. 
Jerome,  consult:  Blondel,  Apologia  pro  sententia  Hieronymi  de 
epi^cnpis  et  presbyteris  (Amsterdam,  1646) ;  KoNiG,  Der  katho- 
IxHchc  Priester  vor  1500  Jahreti:  Priester  und  Priestfrlum  nach 
Hieronymus  (Breslau,  1890) ;  Sanders,  Etudes  sur  S.  Jcrdme 
(Paris,  1903),  296  sqq.;  Tixeront,  Hist,  des  dogmes,  II  (Paris, 
1909),    On  clerical  training  see  bibliography  under  Seminary. 

IV.  What  the  Catholic  Priesthood  has  done 
FOR  Civilization. — Passing  entirely  over  the  super- 
natural blessings  derived  by  mankind  from  the 
prayers  of  the  priesthood,  the  celebration  of  the  Holy 
Sacrifice,  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments, 
we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  secular  civilization, 
which,  through  the  Catholic  priesthood,  has  spread 
to  all  nations  and  brought  into  full  bloom  religion, 
morality,  science,  art,  and  industry.  If  religion  in 
general  is  the  mother  of  all  culture,  Christianity  must 
be  acknowledged  as  the  source,  measure,  and  nursery 
of  all  true  civilization.  The  Church,  the  oldest  and 
most  successful  teacher  of  mankind,  has  in  each  cen- 
tury done  pioneer  service  in  all  departments  of  culture. 
Through  her  organs,  the  priests  and  especially  the 
members  of  the  religious  orders,  she  carried  the  light 
of  Faith  to  all  lands,  banished  the  darkness  of  pagan- 
ism, and  with  the  Gospel  brought  the  blessings  of 
Christian  morality  and  education.  What  would  have 
become  of  the  countries  about  the  Mediterranean 
during  the  epoch  of  the  migration  of  the  nations  (from 
375)  if  the  popes,  bishops,  and  clergy  had  not  tamed 
the  German  hordes,  converted  them  from  Arianism 
to  Catholicism,  and  out  of  barbarism  evolved  order? 
What  Ireland  owes  to  St.  Patrick,  England  owes  to 
St.  Augustine,  who,  sent  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great, 
brought  not  only  the  Gospel,  but  also  a  higher  moral- 
ity and  culture.  While  the  light  of  Christianity  thus 
burned  brightly  in  Ireland  and  Britain,  part  of  Ger- 
many was  still  shrouded  in  the  darkness  of  paganism. 
Bands  of  missionaries  from  the  Island  of  Saints  now 
brought  to  the  continent  the  message  of  salvation  and 
established  new  centres  of  culture.  Charlemagne's 
great  work  of  uniting  all  the  German  tribes  into  an 
empire  was  only  the  glorious  fruit  of  the  seed  sown  by 
St.  Boniface  of  Certon  (d.  755)  on  German  soil  and 
watered  with  the  blood  of  martyrs.  The  Church  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  having  now  attained  to  power,  con- 
tinued through  her  priests  to  propagate  the  Gospel  in 
pagan  lands.  It  was  missionaries  who  first  brought  to 
Europe  news  of  the  existence  of  China.  In  1246  three 
Franciscans,  commissioned  by  the  pope,  appeared  in 
audience  before  the  emperor  of  the  Mongols;  in  1306 
the  first  Christian  church  was  built  in  Peking.  From 
the  Volga  to  the  Desert  of  Gobi,  the  Franciscans  and 
Dominicans  covered  the  land  with  their  missionary 
stations.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  zeal  of  the 
older  orders  was  rivalled  by  the  Jesuits,  among  whom 
St.  Francis  Xavier  must  be  accorded  a  place  of  hon- 
our; their  achievements  in  the  Reductions  of  Para- 
guay are  as  incontestable  as  their  great  services  in  the 
United  States.  As  for  the  French  colonies  in  America, 
the  American  historian  Bancroft  declares  that  no 
notable  city  was  founded,  no  river  explored,  no  cape 
circumnavigated,  without  a  Jesuit  showing  the  way. 
Even  if  Buckle's  one-sided  statement  were  true,  viz. 
that  culture  is  not  the  result  of  religion,  but  vice  versa, 
we  could  point  to  the  work  of  Catholic  missionaries, 
who  are  striving  to  lift  the  savages  in  pagan  lands  to  a 
higher  state  of  morality  and  civilization,  and  thence 
to  transform  them  into  decent  Christians. 

In  the  wake  of  religion  follows  her  inseparable  com- 
panion, morality;  the  combination  of  the  two  forms  is 
the  indispensable  preliminary  condition  for  the  con- 
tinuation and  vitality  of  all  higher  civilization.  The 
decadence  of  culture  has  always  been  heralded  by  a 


reign  of  unbelief  and  immorality,  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  and  the  French  Revolution  furnishing 
conspicuous  examples.  What  the  Church  accom- 
plished in  the  course  of  the  centuries  for  the  raising  of 
the  standard  of  morality,  in  the  widest  sense,  by  the 
inculcation  of  the  Decalogue,  that  pillar  of  human 
society,  by  promulgating  the  commandment  of  love 
of  God  and  one's  neighbour,  by  preaching  purity  in 
single,  married,  and  family  life,  by  waging  war  upon 
superstition  and  evil  customs,  by  the  practice  of  the 
three  counsels  of  voluntary  poverty,  obedience,  and 
perfect  purity,  by  holding  out  the  "imitation  of 
Christ"  as  the  ideal  of  Christian  perfection,  the  rec- 
ords of  twenty  centuries  plainly  declare.  The  history 
of  the  Church  is  at  once  the  history  of  her  charitable 
activity  exercised  through  the  priesthood.  There 
have  indeed  been  waves  of  degeneracy  and  immorality 
sweeping  at  times  even  to  the  papal  throne,  and  re- 
sulting in  the  general  corruption  of  the  people,  and 
in  apostasy  from  the  Church.  The  heroic  struggle  of 
Gregory  VII  (d.  1085)  against  the  simony  and  incon- 
tinence of  the  clergy  stands  forth  as  a  fact  which 
restored  to  the  stale-grown  salt  of  the  earth  its  earlier 
strength  and  flavour. 

The  most  wretched  and  oppressed  classes  of  human- 
ity are  the  slaves,  the  poor,  and  the  sick.  Nothing 
is  in  such  harsh  contrast  to  the  ideas  of  human  per- 
sonality and  of  Christian  freedom  as  the  slavery 
found  in  pagan  lands.  The  efforts  of  the  Church  were 
at  first  directed  towards  depriving  slavery  of  its  most 
repulsive  feature  by  emphasizing  the  equality  and  free- 
dom of  all  children  of  God  (cf.  I  Cor.,  vii,  21  sqq.; 
Philem.,  16  sqq.),  then  towards  ameliorating  as  far  as 
possible  the  condition  of  slaves,  and  finally  towards 
effecting  the  abohtion  of  this  unworthy  bondage.  The 
slowness  of  the  movement  for  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
which  owed  its  final  triumph  over  the  African  slave- 
traders  to  a  crusade  of  Cardinal  Lavigerie  (d.  1892), 
is  explained  by  the  necessary  consideration  of  the 
economic  rights  of  the  owners  and  the  personal  welfare 
of  the  slaves  themselves,  since  a  bold  "proclamation 
of  the  rights  of  man"  would  simply  have  thrown 
millions  of  helpless  slaves  breadless  into  the  streets. 
Emancipation  carried  with  it  the  obligation  of  caring 
for  the  bodily  needs  of  the  freedmen,  and,  whenever 
the  experiment  was  made,  it  was  the  clergy  who  un- 
dertook this  burden.  Special  congregations,  such  as 
the  Trinitarians  and  the  Mercedarians,  devoted  them- 
selves exclusively  to  the  liberation  and  ransom  of 
prisoners  and  slaves  in  pagan,  and  especially  in 
Mohammedan  lands.  It  was  Christian  compassion 
for  the  weakly  and  languishing  Indians  which  sug- 
gested to  the  Spanish  monk.  Las  Casas,  the  unfor- 
tunate idea  of  importing  the  strong  negroes  from 
Africa  to  work  in  the  American  mines.  That  his  idea 
would  develop  into  the  scandalous  traffic  in  the  black 
race,  which  the  history  of  the  three  succeeding  cen- 
turies reveals,  the  noble  monk  never  suspected  (see 
Slavery). 

As  to  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  sick;  a  single 
priest,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (d.  1660),  achieved  more 
in  all  the  branches  of  this  work  than  many  cities  and 
states  combined.  The  services  of  the  clergy  in  general 
in  the  exercise  of  charity  cannot  here  be  touched  upon 
(see  Charity  and  Charities).  It  may  however  be 
noted  that  the  famous  School  of  Salerno,  the  first  and 
most  renowned,  and  for  many  centuries  the  only 
medical  faculty  in  Europe,  was  founded  by  the  Benedic- 
tines, who  here  laboured  partly  as  practitioners  of 
medicine,  and  partly  to  furnish  a  supply  of  skilled 
physicians  for  all  Europe.  Of  recent  pioneers  in  the 
domain  of  charity  and  social  work  may  be  mentioned 
the  Irish  "Apostle  of  Temperance",  Father  Theobald 
Matthew  and  the  German  "Father  of  Journeymen" 
(Gesellenvater) ,  Kolping. 

Intimately  related  with  the  morally  good  is  the  idea 
of  the  true  and  the  beautiful,  the  object  of  science  and 


PRIESTHOOD 


419 


PRIESTHOOD 


art.  At  all  times  the  Catholic  clergy  have  shown  them- 
selves patrons  of  science  and  the  arts,  partly  by  their 
own  achievements  in  these  fields  and  partly  by  their 
encom'agement  and  support  of  the  work  of  others. 
That  theology  as  a  science  should  have  found  its  home 
among  the  clergy  was  but  to  be  expected.  However, 
the  whole  range  of  education  lay  so  exclusively  in  the 
hands  of  the  priesthood  during  the  Middle  Ages,  that 
the  ecclesiastical  distinction  of  clericus  (cleric)  and 
laicus  (layman)  developed  into  the  social  distinction 
of  educated  and  ignorant.  But  for  the  monks  and 
clerics  the  ancient  classical  literature  would  have  been 
lost.  A  medieval  proverb  ran :  "A  monastery  without 
a  library  is  a  castle  without  an  armory. "  Hume,  the 
philosopher  and  historian,  says:  "It  is  rare  that  the 
annals  of  so  uncultivated  a  people  as  were  the  English 
as  well  as  the  other  European  nations,  after  the  decline 
of  Roman  learning,  have  been  transmitted  to  posterity 
so  complete  and  with  so  little  mixture  of  falsehood  and 
fable.  This  advantage  we  owe  entirely  to  the  clergy 
of  the  Church  of  Rome,  who,  founding  their  authority 
on  their  superior  knowledge,  preserved  the  precious 
literature  of  antiquity  from  a  total  extinction" 
(Hume,  "Hist,  of  England",  ch.  xxiii,  Richard  III). 
Among  English  historians  Gildas  the  Wise,  Venerable 
Bede,  and  Lingard  form  an  illustrious  triumvirate. 
The  idea  of  scientific  progress,  first  used  by  Vincent 
of  Lerins  with  reference  to  theology  and  later  trans- 
ferred to  the  other  sciences,  is  of  purely  Catholic 
origin.  The  modern  maxim,  "Education  for  all",  is 
a  saying  first  uttered  by  Innocent  III.  Before  the 
foundation  of  the  first  universities,  which  also  owed 
their  existence  to  the  popes,  renowned  cathedral 
schools  and  other  scientific  institutions  laboured  for 
the  extension  of  secular  knowledge.  The  father  of 
German  public  education  is  Rhabanus  Maurus.  Of 
old  centres  of  civilization  we  may  mention  among 
those  of  the  first  rank  Canterbury,  the  Island  of  lona, 
Malmesbury,  and  York  in  Great  Britain;  Paris, 
Orleans,  Corbie,  Cluny,  Chartres,  Toul,  and  Bee  in 
France;  Fulda,  Reichenau,  St.  Gall,  and  Cdrvey  in 
Germany.  The  attendance  at  these  universities  con- 
ducted by  clergjonen  during  the  Middle  Ages  awakens 
one's  astonishment :  in  1340  the  University  of  Oxford 
had  no  less  than  30,000  students,  and  in  1538,  when 
the  German  universities  were  almost  deserted,  about 
20,000  students,  according  to  Luther,  flocked  to  Paris. 
The  elementary  schools  also,  wherever  they  existed, 
were  conducted  by  priests.  Charlemagne  had  already 
issued  the  capitulary  "Presbyteri  per  villas  et  vioos 
scholas  habeant  et  cum  summa  charitate  parvulos 
doceant",  i.  e.  The  priests  shall  have  schools  in  the 
towns  and  hamlets  and  shall  teach  the  children  with 
the  utmost  devotion.  The  art  of  printing  was  re- 
ceived by  the  whole  Church,  from  the  lowest  clergy 
to  the  pope,  as  a  "holy  art"  Almost  the  whole  book 
production  of  the  fifteenth  century  aimed  at  satisfying 
the  taste  of  the  clergy  for  reading,  which  thus  furthered 
the  development  of  the  book  trade.  Erasmus  com- 
plained :  "The  booksellers  declare  that  before  the  out- 
break of  the  Reform  they  disposed  of  3000  volumes 
more  quickly  than  they  now  sell  600"  (see  Dollinger, 
"Die  Reformation,  ihre  innere  Entwiekelung  u.  ihre 
Wirkungen",  I,  Ratisbon,  1851,  p.  348).  Early 
Humanism,  strongly  encouraged  by  Popes  Nicholas  V 
and  Leo  X,  numbered  among  its  enthusiastic  sup- 
porters many  Catholic  clerics,  such  as  Petrarch  and 
Erasmus;  the  later  Humanistic  school,  steeped  in 
paganism,  found  among  the  Catholic  priesthood,  not 
encouragement,  but  to  a  great  extent  determined  op- 
position. Spain's  greatest  writers  in  the  seventeenth 
century  were  priests:  Cervantes,  Lope  de  Vega, 
Calder6n  etc.  At  Oxford  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
by  their  skill  in  the  natural  sciences  the  Franciscans 
acquired  celebrity  and  the  Bishop  Grosseteste  exer- 
cised great  influence.  The  friar,  Roger  Bacon  (d. 
1249),  was  famous  for  his  scientific  knowledge,  as  were 


also  Gerbert  of  Rheims,  afterwards  Pope  Silvester  II, 
Albertus  Magnus,  Raymond  LuUy,  and  Vincent  of 
Beauvais.  Copernicus,  canon  of  Thorn,  is  the 
founder  of  modem  astronomy,  in  which  even  to  the 
present  day  the  Jesuits  especially  (e,  g.  Scheiner, 
Clavius,  Secchi,  Perry)  have  rendered  important  serv- 
ices. For  the  first  geographical  chart  or  map  we  are 
indebted  to  Fra  Mauro  of  Venice  (d.  1459).  The 
Spanish  Jesuit,  Hervas  y  Panduro  (d.  1809),  is  the 
father  of  comparative  philology;  the  Carmelite, 
Paolino  di  san  Bartolomeo,  was  the  author  of  the 
first  Sanskrit  grammar  (Rome,  1790) .  The  foundation 
of  historical  criticism  was  laid  by  Cardinal  Baronius 
(d.  1607),  the  monks  of  St.  Maur,  and  the  Bollandists. 
A  study  of  the  history  of  art  would  reveal  a  propor- 
tionately great  number  of  the  apostles  of  the  beautiful 
in  art  among  the  Catholic  clergy  of  all  centuries.  From 
the  paintings  in  the  catacombs  to  Fra  Angelico  and 
thence  to  the  Beuron  school  we  meet  numerous  priests, 
less  indeed  as  practising  artists  than  as  Maecenases  of 
art.  The  clergy  have  done  much  to  justify  what  the 
celebrated  sculptor  Canova  wrote  to  Napoleon  I: 
"Art  is  under  infinite  obligations  to  religion,  but  to 
none  so  much  as  the  Catholic  religion." 

The  basis  on  which  higher  culture  finds  its  secure 
foundation  is  material  or  economic  culture,  which,  in 
spite  of  modern  technics  and  machinery,  rests  ulti- 
mately on  labour.  Without  the  labourer's  energy, 
which  consists  in  the  power  and  the  will  to  work,  no 
culture  whatever  can  prosper.  But  the  Catholic 
priesthood  more  than  any  other  professional  body  has 
praised  in  word  and  proved  by  deed  the  value  and 
blessing  of  the  labour  required  in  agriculture,  mining, 
and  the  handicrafts.  The  curse  and  disdain,  which 
paganism  poured  on  manual  labour,  were  removed  by 
Christianity.  Even  an  Aristotle  (Polit.,  Ill,  iii)  could 
anathematize  manual  labour  as  "philistine",  the 
humbler  occupations  as  "unworthy  of  a  free  man" 
To  whom  are  we  primarily  indebted  in  Europe  for  the 
clearing  away  of  the  primitive  forests,  for  schemes 
of  drainage  and  irrigation,  for  the  cultivation  of  new 
fruits  and  crops,  for  the  building  of  roads  and  bridges, 
if  not  to  the  Catholic  monks?  In  Eastern  Europe  the 
Basilians,  in  Western  the  Benedictines,  and  later  the 
Cistercians  and  Trappists,  laboured  to  bring  the  land 
under  cultivation,  and  rendered  vast  districts  free 
from  fever  and  habitable.  Mining  and  foundries  also 
owe  their  development,  and  to  some  extent  their 
origin,  to  the  keen  economic  sense  of  the  monasteries. 
To  place  the  whole  economic  hfe  of  the  nations  on  a 
scientific  foundation,  Catholic  bishops  and  priests  early 
laid  the  basis  of  the  science  of  national  economy — -e.<g. 
Duns  Scotus  (d.  1308),  Nicholas  Oresme,  Bishop  of 
Lisieux  (d.  1382),  St.  Antoninus  of  Florence  (d.  1459), 
andGabrielBiel  (d.  1495).  The  Church  and  clergy  have 
therefore  truly  endeavoured  to  carry  out  in  every 
sphere  and  in  all  centuries  the  programme  which  Leo 
XIII  in  his  famous  Encyclical  "Immortale  Dei"  of 
1  Nov.,  1885,  declared  the  ideal  of  the  Cathohc 
Church:  "Imo  inertise  desidiseque  inimica  [Ecclesia] 
magnopere  vult,  ut  hominum  ingenia  uberes  ferant 
exercitatione  et  cultura  fruetus".  The  "flight  from 
the  world",  with  which  they  are  so  constantly  re- 
proached, or  the  "hostility  to  civilization",  which  we 
hear  so  often  echoed  by  the  ignorant,  have  never  pre- 
vented the  Church  or  her  clergy  from  fulfilUng  their 
oalHng  as  a  civilizing  agency  of  the  first  order,  and  thus 
refuting  all  slanders  with  the  logic  of  facts. 

For  the  literature  of  the  various  branches  of  ecclesiastical  and 
clerical  activity  in  the  furtherance  of  civilization  the  special  arti- 
cles must  be  consulted,  e.  g.,  Missions,  Schools,  Universities, 
etc.  Only  a  few  works  can  be  here  given.  General. — Balmes, 
Der  _  Protestantismus  verglichen  mit  dem  Katholizismus  in  seinen 
Beziehungen  zur  europaischen  Civilisation  (Ratisbon,  1844); 
GuizoT,  Hist,  de  la  civilisation  en  Europe  (Paris,  1840) ;  LACHAun, 
La  civilisation  ou  les  bienfaits  de  Viglise  (Paris,  1890) ;  Lilly,  Chris- 
tianity and  Modem  Civilization  (London,  1903) ;  Christ  and  Civili- 
zation, a  Survey  of  the  Influence  of  the  Christian  Religion  upon  the 
Course  of  Civilization  (London,  1910);  Devas,  Key  to  the  World's 
Progress  (2nd  ed.,    London,    1908);    Hettinger,    Apologie  des 


PRIESTS 


420 


PRIESTS 


ChristerUums,  V  (9th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1908);  Ehrhard,  Kalhol. 
Christentum  u.  moderne  Kultur  (2ad  ed.,  Mainz,  1906),  (c£.); 
Sadoc  Szal6,  Ehrhards  Schrijt  etc.,  ein  Beilrag  zur  Ktdrung  der 
rdigioscn  Frage  der  GegenwaH  (Graz,  1909);  Cathhein,  Die 
kalhol.  Weltanschauung  in  ihren  Grundlinien  mil  besonderer  Be- 
Tiicksichtigung  der  Moral  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1910).      _  .     .      , 

Special  works  are:  Schell,  Der  Kalholizismus  als  Primip  des 
FortschriUs  (7th  cd.,  Wurzburg,  1909);  Pesch,  Die  soziale  Be- 
fdhigung  der  Kirche  (2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1897) ;  db  Champagny,  La 
charity  chrUienne  dans  les  -premiers  siecles  (Paria,  1856) ;  Cochin, 
L'abolition  de  Vesclamge  (Paris,  1862);  Marqkaf,  Christentum 
u.  Sklaverei  (1865);  Ratzingek,  Gesch.  der  kirchl.  Armenpflege 
(Freiburg,  1868);  Schaub,  Die  kalhol.  Charitas  u.  ihre  Gegner 
(Freiburg,  1909);  Montalembeht,  The  Monks  of  the  West 
(tr.  Boston,  1872);  Whewell,  Hist,  of  the  Inductive  Sciences 
(London,  1S47) ;  Wiseman,  Science  and  Religion  (London,  1853) ; 
Maitre,  Les  (coles  de  I'Occidenl  (Paris,  1858);  Wedewek,  Das 
Christentum  u.  die  Sprachwicsenschaft  (1867) ;  RoecHER,  Principles 
of  Pol.  Economy  (tr.  New  York,  1878) ;  Secretan,  Civilisation  et 
CToyance  (Lausanne,  1882) ;  Dahlmann,  Die  Sprachkurtde  u.  die 
Missionen  (Freiburg,  1891) ;  Lilly,  Christianity  and  Modern 
Civilisation  (London,  1903) ;  Paulsen,  Gesch.  des  gelehrlen  Unter- 
richts  (2  vols.,  Berhn,  1S96);  Kneller,  Christianity  and  the 
Leaders  of  Modem  Science  (tr.  St.  Louis,  1911);  MCller,  Nik. 
Kopernikus.  Der  AUmeisler  der  neueren  Astronomic  (Freiburg, 
1898) ;  Pohle,  P.  Angela  Secchi,  ein  Lebens-u.  KuUurbild  (2nd  ed., 
Cologne,  1904) ;  Willmann,  Gesch.  des  Idealismus  (3  vols.,  Bruns- 
wick, 1908);  Ilqner,  Die  volkswirtschaftl.  Anschauungen  des  hi. 
Antonin  von  Florenz  (Breslau,  1904). 

J.    POHLB. 

Priests,  Confraternities  of. — Three  confraterni- 
ties of  priests — tlie  Apostolic  Union,  tlie  Priests'  Eu- 
charistio  League,  the  Priests'  Communion  League — 
have  reached  a  stage  of  unprecedented  diffusion 
throughout  the  Church  and  receive  special  treatment 
elsewhere  in  this  Encyclopedia.  Confraternities  of  a 
local  character  form  the  subject  of  this  article.  A  con- 
fraternity is  a  society  of  persons  associated  for  some 
pious  object.  The  members  are  hnked  together  by  a 
bond  of  brotherhood  for  mutual  co-operation  in  the 
pursuit  of  a  specific  object  of  religion  or  charity  by 
means  of  prayer,  example,  and  counsel.  This  defini- 
tion will  exclude  societies  among  the  clergy  formed 
for  purely  .scientific  or  literary  work.  The  clergy 
funds  of  English  dioceses,  even  though  they  include 
certain  religious  obligations  towards  the  living  and 
the  dead,  fall  outside  its  limits.  The  "Societas  pro 
clero  defuncto"  is  a  mutual  engagement  to  pray  for 
the  deceased  clergy  of  a  district;  it  is  an  association 
but  not  a  confraternity.  On  the  other  hand  the  nu- 
merous societies  of  secular  clergy  in  all  parts  of  Spain, 
called  by  the  name  of  "  Monte-pio",  will  doubtless, 
many  of  them,  fall  under  the  title  of  confraternity,  on 
account  of  the  importance  assigned  to  the  duty  of 
visiting  the  sick  brethren  and  affording  them  not  only 
material  aid  but  spiritual  consolation,  and  adminis- 
tering to  them  the  sacraments.  Two  or  more  of  the  as- 
sociates are  appointed  to  visit  the  sick  at  least  every 
three  days. 

A  confraternity  of  priests  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word  seeks  before  all  else  the  personal  sanctification  of 
its.  members.  Sacerdotal  confraternities  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  present  a  close  family-likeness, 
their  common  object  being  to  preserve  priests  from 
the  dangers  of  spiritual  and  social  isolation,  and  to 
afford  them  something  of  that  mutual  support  which 
belongs  to  a  religious  community.  "Conjunctae  vires 
plus  valent  quam  singulee"  is  the  expression  by  which 
the  Holy  See  has  recently  consecrated  the  principle. 
The  particular  aims  of  priests'  confraternities  may  be 
reduced  to  three :  personal  holiness,  ecclesiastical  learn- 
ing, and  mutual  financial  aid.  The  first  two  are  uni- 
versal, the  third  appears  occasionally.  The  religious 
exercises  almost  invariably  insisted  upon  are:  the 
half-hour's  meditation,  Mass  with  preparation  and 
thanksgiving  of  fifteen  minutes_,  visit  to  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  the  devout  recitation  of  the  Breviary, 
rosary,  weekly  confession,  monthly  recollection,  and 
biennial  retreats.  Ecclesiastical  learning  is  under- 
stood to  comprise  the  study  of  those  subjects  which 
are  proper  to  the  various  departments  of  the  ministry, 
and  great  importance  is  attached  to  associated  study 
ty  means  of  conferences  and  discussions.     Financial 


assistance  embraces  cases  of  sickness  and  old  age,  as 
well  as  loans,  medical  attendance,  and  legal  advice. 

I.  Spain. — The  uncertainty  of  the  position  of 
ecclesiastics  under  a  hostile  Government  has  led  to 
the  display  of  considerable  activity,  of  late  years  in 
different  parts  of  Spain,  in  the  establishment  of  the 
"Monte-pio",  an  association  for  the  help  of  priests  in 
sickness  or  old  age.  Such  societies  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Dioceses  of  C6rdova,  Madrid-Alcald  (founded 
1909),  and  for  the  clergy  of  the  cities  of  Valencia 
(1897),  Toledo  (1901),  Le6n  (1902),  Orviedo  (1903), 
Saragossa  (1904),  Palencia  (1905),  Astorgia  (1906), 
Urgel  (190(5),  Orense,  Salamanca  (1907),  and  in  the 
districts  of  north  Aragon,  Ayerbo,  and  Bolea  in  Huesca. 
In  Granada  there  is  the  "Refugio  de  San  Pedro 
Nolasco"  under  the  care  of  the  religious  of  St.  John 
of  God  for  priests  who  by  reason  of  age  or  infirmity 
are  ordinarily  unable  to  celebrate  Mass.  Should 
there  be  further  accommodation  after  these  have  been 
provided  for,  priests  over  sixty  years  of  age  who  are 
able  to  celebrate  regularly  are  also  admitted.  There 
is  a  society  of  clergy  for  mutual  aid  in  the  Diocese  of 
Majorca  (establi^ed  1846)  and  Vitoria  (1846),  also  in 
the  cities  of  San  Sebastian  and  Guernica ;  another  called 
"La  Providenza"  is  found  in  the  Diocese  of  Tarra- 
gona. A  brotherhood  for  mutual  assistance  in  case  of 
illness  exists  among  the  clergy  of  the  town  of  Vich 
(1846)  in  the  Diocese  of  Barcelona.  Masses  are  said 
for  all  deceased  members  once  a  year,  and  for  indi- 
vidual members  shortly  after  death.  The  co-oper- 
ative society  called ' '  The  Spanish  Clergy  Association ' ' , 
established  in  Ambrona  (Soria)  for  the  purchase  of 
provisions,  hardly  falls  within  the  scope  of  the  present 
article,  nor  does  the  society  now  being  projected  in 
Madrid  by  Fr.  Armendariz  for  the  vindication  of  the 
clergy  from  the  calumnies  of  the  anticlerical  press. 
In  Ciudad  Real,  Cadiz,  and  other  dioceses  there 
exists  a  brotherhood  in  which  each  priest  prays  for 
his  fellow  members.  At  his  death  his  mass-register 
is  shown  to  the  brotherhood,  and  if  it  appears  that  he 
has  faithfully  offered  Mass  for  deceased  members, 
each  living  member  offers  a  Mass  for  him.  The 
brotherhoods  framed  upon  the  type  of  the  "Associa- 
ci6n  de  Sacerdotes  del  Obispado  de  Ja^n  ",  under  the 
title  of  Our  Lady  of  Capilla  and  St.  Euphrasius,  dedi- 
cate their  lives  to  the  apostolate  of  the  working-class 
in  any  of  the  forms  required  by  the  present  social  con- 
ditions. They  teach  Christian  doctrine  in  the  schools ; 
they  distribute  wholesome  literature ;  they  attract  the 
young  to  confraternities  and  the  practices  of  religion; 
and  they  are  always  ready  for  work  in  the  confes- 
sional, so  as  to  make  it  easy  for  people  to  approach 
the  sacraments.  They  hold  a  day's  retreat  every 
month,  during  which  the  charitable  duties  for  the 
next  month  are  allotted.  In  case  of  sickness  three 
of  the  associates  are  selected  to  minister  spiritually 
to  the  sick  brother. 

The  "Venerable  Congregaci6n  de  Sacerdotes  de 
San  Felipe  Neri  y  Nuestra  Seiiora  de  la  Presentaci6n" 
took  its  rise  under  the  invocation  of  St.  Philip  in  the 
parish  church  of  St.  James,  Valladolid,  as  early  as  the 
year  1645.  Later  on  the  members  erected  the  church 
of  the  Oratory,  where  the  congregation  is  now  in- 
stalled, and  in  1609  united  with  the  ancient  but 
languishing  confraternity  of  the  Presentation.  The 
personal  sanctification  of  the  associates,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence the  greater  spiritual  profit  of  the  faithful, 
form  the  objects  of  the  Institute.  Priests  and  clerics 
in  sacred  orders  are  eligible  for  admission,  and  on  en- 
tering take  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  rules  which  pre- 
scribe certain  religious  duties  and  in  particular  visi- 
tation of  the  sick,  attendance  at  the  funerals  of  the 
brethren,  and  prayers  for  the  dead.  As  a  type  of 
other  forms  may  be  taken  the  ancient  "Hermandad 
[Brotherhood]  de  San  Pedro  de  la  Ciudad  de  Xerez". 
Its  aim  is  the  performance  of  spiritual  and  corporal 
works  of  mercy.     The  confraternity  supplies  a  legal 


PRIESTS 


421 


PRIESTS 


adviser  and  two  medical  doctors  at  a  low  fee;  more- 
over, it  also  provides  decent  interment  for  parents 
of  the  brethren,  and  for  sacristans  who  have  as- 
sisted the  society  in  its  charitable  offices.  There  are 
likewise  brotherhoods  of  the  clergy  in  Seville,  Puerto 
de  S.  Maria,  in  Santucar  de  Renameda,  Carmina, 
Ecija,  and  in  the  principal  cities  of  Andalusia.  To 
these  must  be  added  the  association  of  priests  entitled 
"Hermandad  de  Sacerdotes  operarios  Diocesanos  del 
Sagrado  Coraz6n  de  Jesiis",  founded  in  1872  by 
Manuel  Domingo  y  Sol  (d.  1909).  This  association, 
which  has  received  the  approval  of  the  pope,  takes 
charge  of  the  discipline  in  the  seminaries,  of  which 
it  has  several  in  Spain,  one  in  Mexico,  and  the  Spanish 
College  in  Rome,  whose  late  rector,  Benjamin  D. 
Minana,  became  superior  of  the  society  on  the  death 
of  the  founder. 

II.  Portugal. — A  confraternity  has  existed  in 
Lisbon  from  the  year  1415  with  the  title  of  "  Veneravel 
Irmandade  dos  Clerigos  Pobres"  under  the  protection 
of  the  Holy  Trinity  and  is  now  installed  in  the  sup- 
pressed convent  of  St.  Martha.  It  is  composed  of 
secular  and  regular  priests  and  clerics  in  orders. 
Its  chief  works  are  to  render  special  homage  to  the 
Blessed  Trinity,  to  afford  spiritual  and  temporal 
succour  to  the  brethren,  and  to  aid  primary  education. 
In  1887  the  brotherhood  took  up  the  functions  of  a 
benefit  society. 

III.  Austria. — Austria  possesses  several  confrater- 
nities of  the  clergy.  The  "Associatio  Perseverantiae 
Sacerdotalis",  founded  in  1868  for  secular  or  regular 
priests,  has  its  seat  in  Vienna.  The  aim  proposed  to 
members  is  their  sanctification  and  perseverance.  The 
zealous  promotion  of  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  is  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  association.  Much  is  made 
of  intercourse  between  members ;  the  anniversary  day 
of  ordination  is  observed  with  fitting  solemnity.  The 
society  has  a  monthly  journal  called  the  "Korrespon- 
denz  der  Associatio"  (Vienna).  The  "Priester-Sodali- 
tat  zum  heiligsten  Herzen  Jesu"  of  Botzen  was  estab- 
lished in  1866.  Candidates  are  admitted  after  a  year's 
probation.  The  key-note  of  the  association  is  per- 
sonal holiness  by  the  thoughtful  and  reverent  dis- 
charge of  priestly  duties.  It  supplies  a  guide  to  life  by 
fixing  a  minimum  for  certain  religious  exercises  likely 
to  be  crowded  out :  thus,  meditation,  twenty  minutes, 
and  when  this  is  impossible  its  place  is  to  be  supplied  by 
spiritual  reading  or  ejaoulatory  prayer;  confession,  at 
least  fortnightly;  retreat,  at  least  every  second  year, 
with  three  days'  recollection  other  years ;  preparation 
for  Mass  and  thanksgiving  (fifteen  minutes)  in  the 
church  for  example's  sake;  night  prayers  with  the  con- 
gregation. Stress  is  laid  on  regular  application  to  the 
studies  of  the  ministry;  specialization  is  encouraged 
as  promoting  interest.  Other  points  are:  careful 
preparation  of  all  instructions,  zeal  in  the  work  of  the 
confessional,  special  care  of  talented  boys  and  of 
neglected  children.  "Der  Marianische  Kongrega- 
tion  im  Priester-seminar "  in  Brixen  has  for  its  object 
to  foster  sacerdotal  piety  among  its  members  and  to 
cultivate  the  ecclesiastical  spirit  among  the  students 
of  the  seminary.  The  means  insisted  on  are  a  personal 
devotion  to  Our  Lady,  public  devotions  with  sermons 
twice  a  month,  and  mutual  admonition.  Its  journal  is 
the  "Priester-Konferenz-Blatt".  At  Innsbruck  there 
is  a  confraternity  connected  with  the  Jesuit  College 
entitled  "Priestergebetsverein",  consisting  of  priests 
and  seminarians  in  theology.  The  essential  object  of 
the  association  is  to  maintain  the  bonds  of  spiritual 
companionship  established  in  the  seminary  when  the 
young  priests  leave  to  take  up  their  pastoral  work. 
The  means  employed  are  prayer  (particularly  associ- 
ated devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart)  and  correspond- 
ence (the  periodical  of  the  confraternity  being  sent  to 
members,  and  members  writing  to  the  committee  at 
least  once  a  year). 

IV.  France. — A  pecuhar  feature  of  the  "Associa- 


tion des  Pretres  s^culiers  du  Sacr6-Coeur"  (Issoudun, 
France)  is  its  intimate  relation  with  the  Missionaries 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  of  whose  congregation  it  is  the  off- 
spring. "  Le  soutien  d'un  pr^tre,  c'est  le  pretre  "  is  the 
principle  which  has  guided  the  missionaries  in  found- 
ing an  association  whereby  they  may  co-operate  in  the 
sanctification  of  the  secular  clergy.  The  confraternity 
was  founded  in  1858,  blessed  by  Pius  IX  in  1860,  and 
enriched  by  him  with  special  favours  in  1867  and  1874. 
In  1882  the  roll  of  the  association  contained  700  names. 
At  that  date  a  journal  was  inaugurated,  to  be  suc- 
ceeded three  years  later  by  the  monthly  review  enti- 
tled "Le  Sacr^-CcEur  ".  Each  member  under  the 
advice  of  his  director  arranges  his  rule  of  life  with  suffi- 
cient detail  to  forestall  omissions  and  yet  with  a  cer- 
tain elasticity  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  parochial 
duties  [see  the  "Manuel"  (Issoudun),  published  by 
the  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart]. 

V.  Rome.— The  "Pia  Unio  S.  PauU  Apostoh", 
established  in  Rome,  may  be  accepted  as  an  approved 
type  of  a  priestly  association.  It  dates  back  to  1797, 
when  it  was  instituted  as  a  confraternity  of  priests  for 
the  corporal  and  spiritual  assistance  of  sick  brethren. 
With  the  co-operation  of  the  laity  the  good  work  ex- 
tended and  ultimately  embraced  the  distinct  works  of 
fostering  vocations  to  the  priesthood,  the  care  of  the 
young  on  festival  days,  and  the  holding  of  discussions 
on  moral  subjects.  It  was  reorganized  by  Pius  X  in  a 
decree  dated  26  May,  1910,  and  attached  to  the 
church  of  S.  Maria  della  Pace.  The  central  idea  of  the 
association  is  sanctification  by  the  exercise  of  the  sa- 
cred ministry.  On  the  economic  side  financial  aid  is 
given  in  time  of  sickness  and  a  loan  committee  has 
been  projected.  Provision  is  also  made  for  the  legal 
defence  of  the  clergy  when  this  is  desirable. 

VI.  United  States. — The  needs  of  the  teeming, 
active,  and  diversified  population  of  America  have 
called  into  being  a  number  of  agencies  for  deahng  with 
the  spiritual  and  social  problems  which  are  constantly 
arising.  Mention  therefore  should  be  made  here  of  the 
following  societies  of  priests:  "Association  for  the 
Protection  of  Belgian  and  Dutch  Immigrants  " ;  ' '  Asso- 
ciation of  the  Secular  Polish  Clergy  " ;  ' '  Catholic  Board 
for  Mission  Work  among  the  Coloured  People " ;  "The 
Bureau  of  Catholic  Indian  Missions";  "Catholic 
Missionary  Union",  which  provides  funds  to  enable 
bishops  to  defray  the  expenses  of  giving  missions  to 
non-Catholics  in  their  dioceses.  Finally  the  "Priests' 
Total  Abstinence  League"  appears  to  come  nearest  to 
the  true  idea  of  a  confraternity  whose  central  idea  is 
self-sanctification.  [See  the  "Catholic  Directory" 
(Milwaukee,  1910),  725-731.] 

VII.  Spanish  America. — It  must  suffice  here  to 
give  the  names  of  several  societies  of  priests  in  certain 
districts  of  South  America:  Argentina,  the  "Associa- 
ci6n  Eclesi^stica  de  S.  Pedro"  with  centres  at  Buenos 
Aires  and  C6rduba;  Colombia,  "Asociaci6n  de  sufra- 
gios  del  Clero"  at  Bogota;  Brazil,  "Liga  Sacerdotal 
Riograndeza"  at  Porto  Alegre.  In  Mexico  there  is  the 
"Asociaci6n  del  Esplritu  Santo"  and  the  "Asociaci6n 
de  S.  Juan  Nepomuceno"  at  Guadalajara,  and  the 
"Asociaci6n  de  Socorros  mutuos  de  Clirigos"  in  the 
City  of  Mexico. 

VIII.  Germany. — In  Germany  almost  all  the 
associations  for  priests  have  as  their  object  either 
the  cultivation  of  the  ascetical  life  among  the  clergy 
or  the  assistance  of  the  members  in  their  temporal 
necessities.  One  of  the  most  important  of  the  pious 
societies  is  the  "Associatio  Perseverantiae  Sacerdotalis" 
(see  III.  Austria).  The  association  has  already 
been  introduced  into  about  27  dioceses  in  Ger- 
many. The  "Eucharistic  Association  of  the  Priests 
of  the  Adoration"  was  founded  in  1858  for  sec- 
ular priests,  and  was  canonically  erected  into  a 
confraternity  on  16  January,  1887.  Its  objects  are 
to  foster  among  the  clergy  truly  priestly  sentiments 
and  a  lively  love  and  veneration  for  the  Blessed 


PRIESTS' 


422 


PRIESTS' 


Sacrament.  Each  member  is  to  spend  each  week 
one  hour  without  intermission  in  adoration  before 
the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  to  celebrate  one  Mass 
yearly  for  deceased  members,  to  whom  he  is  also  to 
apply  once  monthly  the  plenary  indulgence  granted 
for  each  hour  of  adoration.  The  official  organ, 
"S.  Eucharistia",  is  published  in  six  languages; 
the  membership  is  about  7000  in  Germany.  Among 
this  class  of  associations  may  be  also  mentioned  the 
"  Priesterabstinentenband "  (with  its  organ  "So- 
brietas")  for  promoting  total  abstinence,  and  the 
Katechetenvereine  in  Munich,  etc. 

There  are  tixree  important  associations  for  priests 
with  the  primary  object  of  the  rendering  of  assist- 
aace  to  members  in  temporal  matters.  These  are 
(1)  the  "  Priesterverein  zur  Unterstiitzung  kranker 
Mitglieder  " ;  (2)  "  St.  Josephs-Priesterverein  "  in  Gorz ; 
(3)  the  "Pax".  The  first,  which  is  essentially  an 
insurance  society,  pays  to  sick  priests  three  marks 
daily,  provided  they  have  been  members  for  at  least 
one  year.  The  entrance  fee  varies  from  2  marks 
to  over  100  marks  according  to  the  age  of  the  ap- 
plicant; the  annual  tax  is  10  marks.  Founded  in  1882 
it  paid  127,192  marks  to  513  members  in  995  cases 
of  sickness  in  the  first  twenty-five  years  of  its  ex- 
istence. The  association  has  almost  1000  members 
(600  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Cologne).  St.  Josephs- 
Priesterverein  in  Gorz  (primarily  an  Austrian  associa- 
tion) was  founded  in  1876  by  Mgr  Filipp'  in  Meran, 
and  was  transferred  in  1882  to  Gorz;  its  object  is 
to  secure  places  in  sanatoria  for  sick  priests  who  need 
to  take  a  cure  to  recover  their  health.  The  fee  for 
membership  is  three  Kronen  yearly  (about  60  cents), 
or  a  single  payment  of  fifty  Kronen.  The  "Pax",  or 
the  "  Association  of  the  Catholic  Priests  of  Germany  ", 
was  founded  in  1905  to  supply  good  and  cheap  insur- 
ance for  ecclesiastical  corporations;  the  foundation  of  a 
pension  fund,  the  affording  of  legal  protection,  and  the 
procuring  of  abatements  at  sanatoria  and  hotels  are  also 
in  contemplation  and  to  some  extent  attained.  Spe- 
cially favourable  terms  have  been  secured  from  the 
life  insurance  company  "Concordia",  at  Cologne,  and 
the  fire  insurance  company  "Rhineland",  at  Neuss. 
Any  priest  who  takes  an  insurance  with  either  of 
these  companies  becomes  thereby  a  member  of  the 
association.  The  members  (about  1500)  come  from 
all  parts  of  Germany,  although  the  southern  and 
eastern  dioceses  (except  Fulda)  are  not  equally  well 
represented.  The  Polish  priests  have  founded  a  sepa- 
rate insurance  society,  the  "Unitas" 

Keose,  Kirchliches  Handbuch,  II  (Freiburg,  1909),  377-79. 

Henrt  Parkinson. 

Priests'  Communion  League,  an  association  of 
priests  established  at  Rome  on  20  July,  1906,  in  the 
Church  of  San  Claudio,  in  charge  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  and  raised  by  Pius  X  to  the  dig- 
nity of  an  archconfraternity  ten  days  later.  Its  object 
is  to  spread  the  practice  of  frequent  and  daily  Com- 
munion among  the  faithful  in  conformity  with  the 
Decree  "  Sacra  Tridentina  Synodus  "  of  20  December, 
1905.  The  conditions  for  joining  the  league  are:  (1) 
To  have  one's  name  inscribed  on  the  register  of  the 
league;  (2)  to  pledge  oneself  (though  under  no  obliga- 
tion of  conscience)  to  promote  zealously  the  observ- 
ance of  the  Decree  upon  frequent  and  daily  Com- 
munion by  the  apostolate  of  prayer,  of  preaching,  and 
of  the  press ;  (3)  to  subscribe  for  the  monthly  period- 
ical "Emmanuel",  published  by  the  Fathers  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament.  The  members  of  the  league 
begin  their  work  by  explaining  to  the  people  what 
the  Eucharist  is;  when,  how,  wherefore,  and  with 
what  love  it  was  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ;  what 
are  its  [effects,  whether  considered  as  a  sacrifice, 
as  the  real,  perpetual  presence  of  God  among  us, 
and,  above  all,  as  the  nourishment  of  our  souls. 
They  endeavour  strenuously  to  dissipate    the  fear 


by  which  many  of  the  faithful  are  prevented  from 
frequenting  the  Holy  Table,  and  teach  them  that 
to  communicate  lawfully  every  day  nothing  more  is 
exacted  than  what  even  yearly  Communion  requires, 
namely,  the  state  of  grace  and  a  right  intention,  al- 
though it  is  desirable  that  they  should  be  free  also 
from  deliberate  venial  sins.  As  the  best  means  to 
spread  the  practice  of  daily  Communion  is  daily 
attendance  at  Mass,  they  exhort  the  people  to  hear 
it  every  day.  They  should  give  their  parishioners, 
during  a  period  of  not  less  than  three  days,  a  series 
of  instructions  dealing  especially  with  the  practice  of 
and  preparation  for  daily  Communion.  Members  of 
the  league  take  care  to  prepare  children  for  the  recep- 
tion of  Holy  Communion  at  an  early  age.  Priests 
belonging  to  the  league  enjoy  the  right  of  a  privileged 
altar  three  times  a  week,  provided  they  have  not  that 
right  already;  they  may  celebrate  Mass  an  hour 
before  sunrise  and  an  hour  after  midday,  and  may 
distribute  Holy  Communion  till  sunset;  they  may 
gain  a  plenary  indulgence  on  all  the  first-class  feasts 
of  the  mysteries  of  faith,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
the  Apostles;  and  an  indulgence  of  300  days  for  every 
work  they  perform  for  the  intention  of  the  league; 
they  may  impart  at  the  end  of  the  triduum,  after 
the  general  Communion,  the  papal  benediction  with 
the  plenary  indulgence  attached.  Lastly,  penitents 
confessing  to  priests  enrolled  in  the  league  may 
gain  a  plenary  indulgence  once  a  week,  if  accustomed 
to  communicate  very  frequently. 

A.  Letellieb. 

Priests'  Eucharistic  League. — I.  Object. — The 
Priests'  Eucharistic  League  (Confraternitas  sacerdo- 
talis  adorationis  Sanctissimi  Sacramenti)  was  estab- 
lished in  Paris  by  the  Venerable  Pierre-Julien  Eymard, 
founder  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 
Already  in  1857  he  had  been  deeply  impressed  by  the 
necessity  of  such  an  adaptation  of  his  work  of  Euchar- 
istic adoration  as  would  attract  the  clergy  to  a  more 
intimate  and  constant  intercourse  with  the  sacramen- 
tal Lord.  Still  it  was  not  until  1867  that  the  plan  of  a 
distinct  confraternity  was  matured,  and  the  Blessed 
Cure  d'Ars  was  among  the  first  to  enrol  his  name  on 
the  list  of  members.  The  association  assumed  its  pres- 
ent form  in  1879,  received  the  approval  of  Leo  XIII  on 
25  Jan.,  1881,  and  six  years  later,  on  16  Jan.,  1887,  was 
definitively  approved  and  canonically  erected  by  Car- 
dinal Parocchi,  cardinal  vicar,  in  the  church  of  S. 
Claudio  in  Rome.  To  this  church  is  attached  the 
Archconfraternity  of  the  Most  Holy  Sacrament,  and 
it  is  the  canonical  centre  of  the  Priests'  Eucharistic 
League;  but  the  office  of  the  central  administration  of 
the  league  is  at  the  house  of  the  fathers  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Most  Holy  Sacrament,  Brussels. 

The  primary  object  of  this  confraternity  is  the  fre- 
quent and  prolonged  worship  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment by  priests.  As  Christ  is  truly  " God  with  us"  in 
the  Eucharist,  it  is  His  desire  that  priests  should  ap- 
pear often  in  His  presence  and  remain  for  reverent  and 
affectionate  intercourse.  From  this  close  intimacy  a 
higher  spiritual  life  must  ensue.  At  this  source  priests 
will  learn  how  to  adore  Him  in  spirit  and  in  truth  and 
draw  light  and  power  to  carry  out  more  fruitfully  their 
apostolic  mission.  Its  next  object  is  to  extend  the 
Kingdom  of  Christ  by  forming  apostles  of  the  Eucha- 
rist. Reverent  and  docile  companionship  brings 
knowledge,  love,  and  a  desire  to  share  with  others  the 
precious  treasures  of  this  supreme  sacrament.  Hence 
the  devout  adorer  will  labour  assiduously  to  revive 
faith  in  the  Holy  Eucharist,  and  will  encourage  the 
faithful  to  partake  of  the  life-giving  banquet.  A  third 
object  of  the  confraternity  is  to  band  together  priests 
as  apostles  of  the  Eucharist  who  "will  pledge  them- 
selves to  take  up  and  defend  on  all  occasions  the  cause 
and  the  honour  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  promote  by  every 
means  in  their  power  frequent  visits  to  the  Blessed 


PRIMACY 


423 


PSIMATE 


Sacrament  as  well  as  frequent  communion"  The 
regular  and  associated  practice  of  the  weekly  adora- 
tion fosters  a  spirit  of  religious  brotherhood.  Priests 
animated  by  the  Eucharistic  spirit,  impelled  by  the 
Euoharistic  instinct,  will  be  stimulated  by  the  example 
of  the  neighbouring  clergy  and  by  a  sense  of  spiritual 
companionship  with  a  vast  unseen  array  of  associates 
performing  the  same  acts  of  homage  and  devotion  in 
all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  precise  and  specific  works  of  the  association  are 
the  following:  (1)  to  spend  each  week  one  full  and 
continuous  hour  of  adoration  before  the  Blessed  Sac- 
rament exposed  on  the  altar  or  veiled  in  the  taber- 
nacle; (2)  to  report  monthly  to  the  local  director  on 
a  prescribed  schedule  {libellus)  the  performance  of 
the  above  undertaking;  (3)  to  apply  once  a  month  the 
indulgences  attached  to  the  hour  of  adoration  for  the 
benefit  of  the  souls  of  members  who  may  have  died 
during  the  previous  month;  (4)  to  offer  the  Holy  Sac- 
rifice once  a  year  for  all  deceased  members  of  the  asso- 
ciation. Repeated  failure  to  transmit  the  libellus 
entails,  after  due  warning,  loss  of  membership. 

II.  Membership  and  Privileges. — The  confraternity 
was  originally  intended  for  members  of  the  secular 
clergy  only;  but  as  far  back  as  1898  the  admission 
of  religious  has  been  authorized;  and  by  a  conces- 
sion of  the  superior  general  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  dated  2  Nov.,  1902,  seminarists 
in  the  United  States  become  eligible  for  admission 
even  before  receiving  the  subdiaoonate.  The  Holy  See 
has  favoured  the  practice  of  this  devotion  with  numer- 
ous advantages,  notably  with  the  singularly  rich  indul- 
gences of  "The  Station  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament" 
(Beringer,  "Les  Indulgences",  II,  129),  and  the  fac- 
ulty of  granting  the  indulgence  of  the  Crosier  Fathers 
(of.  Beringer,  I,  504). 

III.  Organization. — The  organization  of  the  con- 
fraternity enjoys  the  merit  of  simplicity.  Ordinary 
members  are  grouped  under  their  respective  diocesan 
directors.  These  are  united  under  a  general  director 
for  a  district  or  a  whole  country,  while  the  entire  asso- 
ciation throughout  the  world  is  subject  to  the  central 
direction  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  at 
Brussels.  For  the  greater  convenience  of  administra- 
tion local  centres  have  been  established  in  Austria, 
Argentina,  Canada,  Chili,  Holland,  Italy,  Spain,  and 
the  United  States.  The  diocesan  directors  are  elected 
by  members  with  the  approval  of  the  ordinary.  They 
officially  represent  the  confraternity  in  a  diocese  and 
maintain  its  efficiency  and  regular  working.  The  life 
and  energy  of  the  members  is  promoted  by  periodical 
assemblies  of  the  respective  groups.  Conferences  of 
diocesan  members  are  held  on  the  occasion  of  the 
clergy  retreats  and  at  other  convenient  times.  In  the 
United  States,  besides  these  diocesan  conferences,  con- 
ventions of  several  dioceses  have  been  held  at  Coving- 
ton, Kentucky  (1894),  at  Notre  Dame,  Indiana  (1894, 
1898),  and  at  Philadelphia  (1899).  More  important 
gatherings  from  a  large  number  of  dioceses,  called  con- 
gresses, have  been  held  at  Washington  (1893),  St. 
Louis  (1901),  New  York  (1904),  and  Pittsburg  (1906). 
The  numerous  local  congresses  held  in  France  form  a 
significant  feature  of  the  religious  activity  of  the 
Church  there  (cf.  "Annales",  1909,  pp.  446-9;  1910, 
p.  158).  Perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  characteristic 
of  the  confraternity  is  the  rapidity  with  which  it  has 
spread  throughout  every  portion  of  the  world.  Can- 
ada has  a  total  of  two  thousand  four  hundred  and 
fifty  members,  the  United  States  8015,  while  the  grand 
total  for  the  whole  confraternity  in  March  of  the  year 
1911  is  one  hundred  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty- 
one,  of  whom  twelve  are  cardinals  and  two  hundred 
and  forty  bishops  or  archbishops.  The  real  value  of 
these  figures  is  checked  by  the  record  kept  of  the  in- 
dividual reports  sent  in  by  members  of  their  discharge 
of  the  duty  of  the  weekly  hour  of  adoration.  Should 
a  member  have  failed  for  a  year  to  send  in  his  libellus, 


he  receives  a  reminder,  which,  if  ineffective,  is  followed 
by  the  removal  of  his  name  from  the  register. 

IV.  Literature. — A  number  of  monthly  periodi- 
cals serve  to  maintain  the  fervour  and  activity  of  the 
associates:  the  "Emmanuel"  (sixteenth  year;  New 
York);  "Annales  des  Pretres  Adorateurs"  (twenty- 
third  year;  Brussels);  "Annales  de  1' Association 
des  Prfitres  Adorateurs"  (twenty-third  year;  Brus- 
sels); "Annali  dei  Sacerdoti  Adoratori"  (sixteenth 
year;  Turin);  "Anales  de  los  Sacerdotes  Adora- 
dores"  (third  year;  Buenos  Aires);  "  SS.  Eucharis- 
tia"  (twentieth  year;  Bozen),  the  organ  of  the 
league  for  Austria,  Germany,  and  Switzerland; 
"Eucharist  and  Priest"  (sixteenth  year;  Verapoly, 
Malabar  Coast).  In  addition  to  these  sources  of  infor- 
mation and  piety,  there  is  much  dogmatic  and  devo- 
tional literature  on  the  subject  of  the  hour  of  adoration, 
such  as  "The  Real  Presence",  "The  Month  of  our 
Lady  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament",  "The  Month  of 
Mary",  "The  Month  of  St.  Joseph",  by  the  Ven- 
erable P^re  Eymard.  The  late  Pere  Tesni^re  pub- 
lished: "The  Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament"; 
"The  Eucharistic  Christ";  "The  Eucharistic  Heart"; 
"The  Mysteries  of  the  Rosary".  The  commendable 
practice  has  much  increased  among  the  members  of 
the  confraternity  of  making  the  hour  of  adoration  at  a 
time  when  the  faithful  are  able  to  take  part  in  it.  Pri- 
vate or  solemn  exposition  is  adopted  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, and  for  the  benefit  of  the  faithful  prayers 
are  recited  and  suitable  hymns  sung  between  the  in- 
tervals of  meditation.  In  this  connexion  the  associa- 
tions^ entitled  "Agr6gation  du  tres  saint  Sacrement" 
and  (Euvre  de  I'Exposition  MenseuUe  du  trfes  saint 
Sacrement  dans  les  Paroisses"^  will  be  of  service. 

In  addition  to  the  literature  mentioned  In  the  article,  see  Stat- 
utes of  the  Eucharistic  League  (New  York) ;  Re-ptyrt  of  the 
Nineteenth  Eucharistic  Congress  (Westminster,  1908),  255-266; 
PoiRiER,  Advantages  of  the  Priests*  Eucharistic  League,  Its  Origin 
and  Present  Status  (paper  read  at  the  Montreal  Congress)  in 
Emmanuel  (Nov.,  1910),  279-290. 

Henry  Paekinson. 

Primacy  (Lat.  primatus,  primus,  first),  the  su- 
preme episcopal  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  as  pastor  and 
governor  of  the  Universal  Church.     (See  Pope.) 

Prima  Frimaria.     See  Sodality. 

Primary  School.     See  Schools. 

Primate  (Lat.  primas,  from  primus,  "first"). — In 
the  Western  Church  a  primate  is  a  bishop  possessing 
superior  authority,  not  only  over  the  bishops  of  his 
own  province,  like  the  metropolitan,  but  over 
several  provinces  and  metropolitans.  This  does  not 
refer  to  episcopal  powers,  which  each  bishop  possesses 
fully,  but  to  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  and  organiza- 
tion, especially  in  national  churches.  Primates  exist 
only  in  the  West,  and  correspond  not  to  the  patriarchs 
but  to  the  exarchs  of  the  East.  There  is  no  uniformity 
in  the  institution,  it  has  no  place  in  common  law; 
primatial  rights  are  privileges.  In  their  widest  ac- 
ceptation these  rights  would  be:  to  convoke  and  pre- 
side over  national  councils,  to  crown  the  sovereign,  to 
hear  appeals  from  the  metropolitan  and  even  episcopal 
courts,  and  finally  the  honorary  right  of  precedence. 
This  organization  formerly  useful,  as  it  favoured  and 
maintained  unity  in  national  churches,  has  lost  its 
importance  and  disappeared;  first,  because  national 
Churches  as  such  no  longer  exist,  and  secondly  on 
account  of  the  gradual  disciplinary  centralization  of 
the  Western  Churches  around  the  Roman  See.  Ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  Gran  in  Hungary,  the  primatial 
title  is  merely  honorific.  At  the  solemnities  accom- 
panying the  canonization  of  the  Japanese  martyrs  in 
1867,  no  special  place  was  reserved  for  primates;  and 
in  the  Vatican  Council  the  precedence  of  primates  was 
recognized  only  at  the  instance  of  the  Prince-Primate 
of  Hungary  (Vering,  "Kirchenrecht",  §  133),  as  some- 
thing exceptional  and  not  to  be  considered  a  prece- 


PRIME 


424 


PRIME 


dent.  The  Brief  "Inter  multiplices",  27  November, 
1869  (Acta  S.  Sedis,  V,  235),  ranks  the  prunates  ac- 
cording to  their  date  of  promotion  after  the  patriarchs, 
but  adds:  Ex  speciah  indulgentia,  i.  e.  by  special 
favour,  for  that  occasion  only,  nor  must  it  be  inter- 
preted as  conferring  any  right  on  them  or  diminishing 
the  right  of  others.  The  history  of  the  primacies  in 
the  Middle  Ages  is  largely  concerned  with  intermi- 
nable disputes  concerning  special  rights,  privileges,  etc. 
The  real  primacies  were  at  first  those  that  did  not  bear 
the  name.  The  Bishop  of  Carthage  exercised  a  true 
primatial  jurisdiction  over  the  provinces  of  Roman 
Africa,  without  being  called  a  primate;  on  the  other 
hand,  in  the  provinces,  other  than  the  Proconsular,  the 
oldest  bishop,  who  resembled  a  metropolitan,  was 
called  the  primate.  The  title  Primate  of  Africa  was 
restored  again  in  1893  by  Leo  XIII  in  favour  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Carthage.  The  Bishop  of  Toledo  was 
also  a  primate  for  the  Visigothic  kingdom.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Bishops  of  Thessalonica  and  Aries,  in- 
vested with  the  vicariate  of  the  pope,  had  authority 
over  several  provinces.  We  meet  later  with  claims  to 
primatial  authority  in  every  country,  and  refusals  to 
recognize  these  claims;  the  primates  who  have  exer- 
cised a  real  authority  being  especially  those  of 
Mayence,  the  successors  of  St.  Boniface,  and  of  Lyons, 
made  by  Gregory  VII,  Primate  of  the  Gauls,  in 
reality  of  the  provinces  called  formerly  "Lugdunen- 
ses"  All  kinds  of  reasons  were  invoked:  the  evan- 
gelization of  the  country,  the  importance  of  the  see, 
pontifical  concessions,  etc.  It  is  impossible  to  give 
more  than  the  mere  names  of  primacies:  in  Spain, 
Toledo,  Compostella,  Braga;  in  France,  Lyons,  Reims, 
Bourges,  Vienne,  Narbonne,  Bordeaux,  Rouen;  in 
Germany,  Mayence,  Trier,  Magdeburg;  in  England, 
Canterbury,  York;  in  Scotland,  St.  Andrews;  in  Ire- 
land, Armagh;  in  the  Scandinavian  countries,  Lund. 
But  of  all  these  nothing  but  a  title  has  remained;  and 
at  the  Vatican  Council  the  only  bishops  figuring  aa 
primates,  in  virtue  of  recent  concessions,  were  those 
of  Salzburg,  Antivari,  Salerno,  Bahia,  Gnesen,  Tarra- 
gona, Gran,  Mechlin,  and  Armagh  (Coll.  Lacens.,  VII, 
pp.  34,  488,  726). 

Thomabsin,  Vetus  et  nova  discipl,,  pt.  I,  bk.  I,  xxvii  sq.;  Phil- 
lips, Kirchenrecht,  §  62. 

A.    BOUDINHON. 

Prime. — I.  The  Name. — The  name  Prime  {prima 
flora)  belongs  with  those  of  Terce,  Sext,  None,  to  the 
short  offices  recited  at  the  different  hours  of  the  day, 
called  by  the.se  names  among  the  Romans,  that  is, 
prima  towards  6  a.  m.;  ieriia,  towards  9  a.  m.;  sexia, 
towards  noon;  nana  towards  3  p.  m.  At  first  Prime 
was  termed  matulina  (hora),  morning  hour;  later,  in 
order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  nocturnal  hours  of  Mat- 
ins and  Lauds,  and  to  include  it  among  hours  of  the 
day,  it  was  called  pruna.  The  name  is  first  met  with 
in  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict.  In  the  Bangor  Antipho- 
nary  it  is  called  secunda. 

II.  Origin. — This  short  office  is  one  of  those  whose 
origin  is  best  known.  Cassian,  speaking  of  Prime, 
says  expressly  "sciendum  .  .  hanc  matutinam 
canonicam  functionem  [i.  e.  Prime]  nostro  tempore  in 
nostro  quoque  monasterio  primitus  institutam "  (In- 
stit..  Ill,  IV). 

As  the  chronology  of  Cassian's  works  has  recently 
been  established  fairly  accurately,  the  institution  of 
Prime  must  be  placed  towards  382  (see  Pargoire, 
op.  cit.  below,  288).  Apropos  of  this  monastery,  of 
which  Cassian  speaks  as  the  cradle  of  Prime,  it  has 
now  been  proved  that  it  was  not  St.  Jerome's  monas- 
tery at  Bethlehem,  but  another,  perhaps  one  estab- 
lished beyond  the  Tower  of  Ader  (or  of  the  Flock)  be- 
yond the  village  of  the  Shepherds,  and  consequently 
beyond  the  modem  Beth-saour;  it  has  been  identified 
either  with  Deir-er-Raouat  (convent  of  the  shepherds) 
or  with  Seiar-er-Ganhem  (enclosure  of  the  sheep). 


We  learn  further  from  Cassian  the  reason  that  led 
to  the  institution  of  this  office.  The  office  of  the  night, 
comprising  Matins  and  Lauds,  ended  then  at  sunrise,  so 
that  Lauds  corresponded  to  the  dawn.  After  the 
night  offices  at  Bethlehem,  as  in  the  other  Palestinian 
monasteries,  the  monks  might  retire  to  rest.  As  no 
other  office  called  them  together  before  Terce,  those 
who  were  lazy  seized  the  opportunity  of  prolonging 
their  sleep  till  nine  in  the  morning,  instead  of  applying 
themselves  to  manual  work  or  spiritual  reading.  To 
end  this  abuse,  it  was  decided,  in  the  above  monastery, 
to  continue  the  custom  of  reposing  after  the  night 
office,  but,  to  prevent  an  undue  prolongation  of  sleep, 
the  monks  were  recalled  to  choir  at  the  hour  of  Prime, 
and  after  the  recital  of  a  few  psalms  they  were  to  work 
until  Terce  (Cassian,  "Instit.",  Ill,  iv).  All  this  is  es- 
tablished by  authentic  texts.  The  only  difficulty  is 
that  some  contemporaries  of  Cassian  or  even  his  pred- 
ecessors, as  Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  St.  Jerome,  St. 
Basil,  St.  John  Chrysostom,  speak  of  an  office  recited 
at  sunrise,  and  which  therefore  would  seem  to  be  iden- 
tical with  Prime.  But  it  must  be  noted  that  they  are 
speaking  of  Lauds,  which  in  some  communities  was  re- 
cited later,  and  so  was  identified  with  the  hour  but  not 
with  the  subject  matter  of  Prime. 

III.  Contents. — The  matter  composing  the  new 
hour  was  drawn  from  the  office  of  Lauds;  or  rather 
Prime,  as  an  office,  was  a  repetition  of  part  of  Lauds, 
and  added  nothing  to  the  ensemble  of  the  psalmody,  only 
Psalms  i,  Ixii,  and  Ixxxix,  which  were  formerly  part  of 
Lauds,  were  recited  at  this  hour.  Such  at  least  was 
the  original  composition  of  Prime;  but  the  monasteries 
which  gradually  adopted  it  in  the  East  and  in  the  West 
changed  its  constitution  as  they  liked.  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  describe  here  all  the  variations  this  office  under- 
went in  the  different  liturgies.  We  need  only  remark 
that  one  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  Prime 
is  the  recitation  of  the  famous  symbol  "Quicumque 
vult  salvus  esse",  called  the  Athanasian  Creed,  which 
has  recently  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy 
in  the  Anglican  Church.  St.  Benedict  orders  to  be 
recited  at  Prime  on  Sundays  four  groups  of  eight 
verses  of  Ps.  cxviii ;  on  week-days,  three  psalms,  be- 
ginning with  the  first  and  continuing  to  Ps.  xix,  tak- 
ing three  psalms  each  day  (Ps.  ix  and  xvii  being  di- 
vided into  two) .  In  that  way  Prime  is  symmetrical, 
like  the  other  short  hours  of  the  day.  It  resembles 
these  also  in  composition,  the  psalmody  being  accom- 
panied by  a  hymn,  an  antiphon,  capitulum,  versicle, 
and  prayer.  In  the  Roman  Liturgy  the  office  of  Prime 
is  not  composed  so  symmetrically.  Usually  it  consists 
of  Ps.  liii,  cxvii,  the  first  four  groups  of  eight  verses  of 
Ps.  cxviii,  and  during  the  week  Pss.  liii,  xxui,  xxv, 
xxiv,  xxii,  and  xxi.  The  capitulum  and  other  elements 
are  after  the  model  of  the  short  hours  (cf .  None)  . 

IV.  The  Office  of  the  Chapter. — So  far  we 
have  spoken  only  of  the  office  of  Prime  properly  so 
called,  which  ends  like  the  other  short  hours.  It  is  fol- 
lowed by  some  prayers  which  are  called  the  office  of 
the  chapter,  and  are  composed  in  the  Roman  Liturgy  of 
the  reading  of  the  martyrology,  of  a  prayer,  "Sancta 
Maria  et  omnes  sancti",  a  prayer  concerning  work, 
"Respice  in  servos  tuos  .  .  .  Dirigere  et  sanctificare", 
and  a  blessing.  This  addition  to  Prime  is  a  legacy 
bequeathed  by  the  monks  to  the  secular  clergy.  As 
has  been  said  above,  originally  after  Prime  the  monks 
had  to  betake  themselves  to  manual  work  or  reading. 
The  office  therefore  ended  with  a  prayer  for  their  work 
"  et  opera  manuum  nostrarum  dirige  super  nos 
et  opus  manuum  nostrarum  dirige",  and  the  prayer 
"Dirigere".  Later  the  reading  of  the  martyrology, 
the  necrology,  the  rule,  and  a  prayer  for  the  dead  were 
added  (see  Baumer-Biron,  loc.  cit.,  I,  361-62). 

In  view  of  its  origin  and  constitution.  Prime  is  to  be 
considered  as  the  prayer  of  the  beginning  of  the  day, 
whereas  Lauds  is  devoted  to  recalling  with  the  dawn 
the  memory  of  Christ's  Resurrection,  Prime  is  the 


PRIMER 


425 


PRIMER 


morning  hour  which  consecrates  all  the  work  of  the 
day.  Its  institution  has  made  the  hturgical  day  more 
regular  and  symmetrical.  Prime,  until  then  without 
an  office,  received  its  psalmody  like  Terce,  Sext,  None, 
Vespers.  With  Complin  and  Lauds,  the  liturgical  day 
reached  the  sacred  septenary,  "septies  in  die  laudem 
dixi  tibi".  While  for  the  night  office  there  was  the 
text:  "media  nocte  surgebam  ad  confitendum  tibi". 

Pelliccia,  The  Polity  of  the  Christian  Church,  204  sq.;  Mar- 
TIGNY,  Diet,  des  AntiguitSs  chrUiennes,  538;  Zaccabia,  Onomasti- 
con,  105;  Thomasi,  Opera,  ed.  Vezzosi,  VII,  22;  Maht^ne,  De 
antiquis  EcclesifE  ritibus,  lib.  IV,  c.  viii;  t.  Ill,  p.  19-23;  Idem, 
Deantiquis  Monachorum  ritibus,  lib.  I,  c.  iv,  t.  IV,  p.  16;  Batjmer- 
BlBON,  Histoire  du  Briviaire,  t.  I,  pp.  145,  240,  259,  361,  364,  374; 
Pargoire,  Prime  et  Complines  in  La  Revue  d  histoire  et  de  Litt6ra- 
ture,  III  (1898),  281-88;  Diet,  d' Arehiologie  et  de  Liturgie,  I,  198; 
II,  1245,  1302,  1306;  Neale  and  Littledale,  A  Commentary  on 
the  Psalms,  1  (London,  1884),  7,  18;  for  the  Symbol  of  St.  Atha- 
naaius  cf.  Athanasian  Creed,  t.  I,  p.  33  sq.;  and  Diet,  de  tMol. 
cathol.,  3.  V.  Athanase. 

F.  Cabeol. 

Primer,  The,  the  common  English  name  for  a  book 
of  devotions  which  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  six- 
teenth century  was  the  ordinary  prayer-book  used  by 
the  laity.  The  contents  of  these  books  varied  greatly, 
but  they  possessed  certain  common  elements  which 
practically  speaking  are  never  absent.  The  most  im- 
portant feature,  judging  by  the  position  usually 
assigned  to  it  as  well  as  by  the  lavish  use  of  miniatures 
and  other  forms  of  ornament  with  which  it  is  asso- 
ciated, was  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary.  In  different  liturgical  centres,  for  example,  at 
Rome,  Salisbury,  York,  or  Paris,  the  constituents  of 
this  Little  Office  differed  from  each  other  in  various 
details;  for  example,  the  Psalms  recited  at  Prime 
"according  to  the  use  of  York"  were  not  the  same  as 
those  appointed  for  the  same  hour  in  the  Sarum  bre- 
viary and  hence  in  the  later  printed  editions  of  the 
Primer  it  is  common  to  find  upon  the  title-page  or  in 
the  colophon  a  statement  of  the  particular  use  fol- 
lowed, e.g.,  "Horae  secundum  usum  Romanum"  or 
"secundum  usum  Sarum"  Such  designations  how- 
ever quahfy  only  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin, and  not  the  other  contents  of  the  volume.  Next 
in  importance,  but  not  usually  next  in  order,  was  the 
Office  for  the  Dead,  or  rather  Vespers,  followed  by 
Matins  and  Lauds.  These  were  commonly  known  as 
Placebo  and  Dirige  (hence  our  EngUsh  word  "dirge"), 
from  the  antiphons  with  which  the  Vespers  and  the 
Matins  respectively  began.  Three  other  constant 
elements  are  also  invariably  included  in  the  Primer: 
the  Fifteen  Psalms  (i.e.,  the  Gradual  Psalms,  Ps. 
cxix-cxxxiii),  the  Seven  Psalms  (i.e.,  the  Penitential 
Psalms),  and  the  Litany  of  the  Saints.  As  already 
stated,  these  invariable  features  of  the  Primer  are  sup- 
plemented in  nearly  all  extant  copies  with  a  variety 
of  other  devotions  of  which  a  word  will  be  said  later 
on. 

Origin  of  the  Primer. — The  question  of  the  origin 
and  primitive  association  of  the  invariable  elements 
just  specified  has  been  of  late  thoroughly  examined  by 
Mr.  Edmund  Bishop  (see  introduction  to  the  Early 
English  Text  Society's  edition  of  the  Primer,  London, 
1897),  who  has  corrected  the  erroneous  views  pre- 
viously advanced  by  Henry  Bradshaw  and  others. 
As  Mr.  Bishop  has  shown,  the  Primer  was  consti- 
tuted out  of  certain  devotional  accretions  to  the  Di- 
vine Office  itself  which  were  invented  first  by  the 
piety  of  individuals  for  the  use  of  monks  in  their  mon- 
asteries, but  which  gradually  spread  and  came  to  be 
regarded  as  an  obligatory  supplement  to  the  office  of 
the  day.  Of  these  accretions  the  Fifteen  Psalms  and 
the  Seven  Psalms  were  the  earliest  in  point  of  time  to 
establish  themselves  generally  and  permanently. 
Their  adoption  as  part  of  the  daily  round  of  monastic 
devotion  was  probably  largely  due  to  the  influence  of 
St.  Benedict  of  Aniane  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century.  The  "Vigilias  Mortuorum",  or  Office  for 
the  Dead,  was  the  next  accretion  to  be  generally 


received.  Of  the  cursus  or  Little  Office  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  we  hear  nothing  until  the  time  of  Ber- 
nerius  of  Verdun  (o.  960)  and  of  St.  Udalric  of  Augs- 
burg (c.  971);  but  this  form  of  devotion  to  Our  Lady 
spread  rapidly.  Two  English  manuscripts  which  con- 
tain it  date  from  before  the  Norman  Conquest  and 
have  been  pubhshed  in  facsimile  by  the  Henry  Brad- 
shaw Society.  In  these  provision  was  probably  made 
only  for  the  private  recitation  of  the  Office  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  but  after  the  ardent  encouragement 
given  to  this  form  of  devotion  by  St.  Peter  Damian 
in  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century  many  monastic 
orders  adopted  it  or  retained  it  in  preference  to  some 
other  devotional  offices,  e.g.,  those  of  All  Saints  and 
of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  which  had  found  favour  a  little 
earlier.  By  the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century 
a  certain  measure  of  uniformity  had  been  attained 
with  regard  to  these  devotional  accretions  both  among 
the  monastic  orders  and  in  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches,  so  that  we  learn  from  Radulphus  de  Rivo 
(c.  1360)  that  the  daily  recital  of  the  Office  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  and  of  the  Vigiliae  Mortuorum  were 
then  regarded  as  obligatory  upon  all  ecclesiastics  by 
the  general  consent  of  nations,  while  by  the  laudable 
practice  of  many,  other  particular  offices  were  also 
observed,  such  as  the  Penitential  and  Gradual  psalms 
and  soiorth.  Throughout  all  this  it  would  seem  that 
the  sense  that  these  things  were  accretions  to  the  Di- 
vine Office  itself  was  not  lost.  Hence  there  was  a 
tendency  to  perform  these  devotions  in  private,  and 
for  this  purpose  they  were  probably  often  collected 
into  a  separate  book.  Moreover,  since  these  devo- 
tions, unlike  the  Divine  Office,  were  invariable,  they 
could  be  learned  and  practised  with  comparative  ease 
by  those  who  had  little  pretensions  to  scholarship. 
There  was  always  a  tendency  in  the  laity  to  copy  the 
exercises  of  piety  which  prevailed  among  the  monastic 
orders.  To  take  part  in  the  full  Divine  Office  of  the 
Church,  which  changed  from  day  to  day,  was  beyond 
their  reach,  but  by  rendering  themselves  familiar  with 
the  Hours  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  they  were  enabled 
both  to  make  their  own  something  of  that  burden  of 
prayer  which  the  monks  actually  performed,  and  also 
to  imitate  that  sevenfold  consecration  of  the  day, 
which  no  doubt  seemed  to  them  the  most  distinctive 
feature  in  the  monastic  life.  Hence  it  came  to  pass, 
no  doubt,  that  the  collection  of  these  accretions  to  the 
Office,  gathered  into  one  emaU  volume,  became  the 
favourite  prayer-book  of  the  laity,  whilst  copyists 
naturally  supplemented  these  more  strictly  liturgical 
forms  of  prayer  by  the  addition  of  many  private  de- 
votions, often  in  the  vernacular.  For  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  Psalms,  the  Officium  B.  M.  V.,  the 
Vigiliae  Mortuorum,  etc.,  were  recited  by  the  laity  as 
well  as  by  the  clergy  in  Latin.  True,  a  number  of  manu- 
script primers  of  the  fifteenth  century  are  in  existence, 
in  which  the  whole  contents  have  been  translated  into 
English,  but  these  are  comparatively  rare  exceptions. 
On  the  other  hand,  out  of  over  a  hundred  editions  of 
the  Primer  printed  for  the  English  book-trade  before 
the  breach  with  Rome  in  1533,  not  one  is  known  to 
contain  the  Office  or  the  Psalms  in  Enghsh. 

Primers  for  Children. — The  origin  of  the  name 
"primer"  is  still  obscure.  The  earliest  instance  yet 
discovered  of  the  use  of  the  word  is  in  a  Latin  will  of 
1323,  where  it  evidently  means  a  prayer-book.  Prob- 
abihties  favour  the  view  (see  "The  Month  ",  February, 
1911,  pp.  150-63)  that  it  was  called  "primer"  because 
the  more  elaborate  forms  developed  out  of  a  book  con- 
taining the  invariable  elements  already  specified,  pre- 
ceded by  the  alphabet,  the  Pater  noster,  Ave  Maria, 
Creed,  etc.,  which  compilation  was  used  as  a  first 
reading  book  for  children.  This  will  not  seem  strange 
when  we  remember  that  children  in  the  Middle  Ages 
learned  to  read  not  in  English  but  in  Latin,  and  that 
almost  every  child  that  learned  to  read  learned  with 
the  more  or  less  definite  purpose  of  becoming  a  clerk. 


PRIMIANUS 


426 


PRIMICERIUS 


i.e.,  a  cleric,  whose  profession  required  him  to  recite  the 
OfBce  and  to  Icnow  the  Psalms  by  heart.  Further  the 
day-book  of  John  Dome  (Oxford  Hist.  Sec,  1888), 
bookseller  in  Oxford  in  1520,  preserves  many  entries 
of  the  sale  of  books  called  "primarium  pro  pueris", 
with  indications  which  make  it  certain  that  they  con- 
tained the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
though  none  of  these  now  survive,  some  later  re- 
formed examples  are  in  existence  of  the  "Primer — 
moste  necessary  for  the  educacyon  of  Children" 
(1538),  which  contain  the  A.  B.  C.  together  with  a 
modified  office.  When,  therefore,  we  read  in  Chaucer's 
"Prioress's  Tale"  (13S6)  of  the  primer  used  by  the 
"litel  clergeon  seven  years  of  age" — 

"This  litel  child,  his  htel  book  leminge, 
As  he  sat  in  the  scole  at  his  prymer", 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  book  was  none  other 
than  the  Primer  here  described.  Indeed,  the  religious 
character  of  such  elementary  manuals  persisted  for 
long  centuries  afterward  and  Dr.  Johnson,  the  lexicog- 
rapher, as  late  as  1773,  still  defined  a  primer  as  "a 
small  prayer-book  in  which  children  are  taught  to 
read". 

Early  Printed  Primers. — A  very  large  number  of 
editions  of  the  Primer  came  from  the  press  before 
Henry  VIII  threw  off  his  allegiance  to  the  pope.  Such 
books  containing  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin and  the  Vigiliae  Mortuorum  with  miscellaneous 
private  devotions  were  common  enough  everywhere 
throughout  Europe  and  were  generally  known  as 
' '  Horse ' '  But  the  English  name,  the  name  commonly 
used  when  these  books  were  spoken  of  in  English,  was 
"Primer".  Though  Caxton  himself  is  known  to  have 
printed  four  editions,  and  there  are  probably  more  of 
his  that  have  perished,  while  his  successors  multiplied 
editions  rapidly,  the  English  printers  were  unequal 
to  supply  the  demand.  A  vast  number  were  produced 
"secundum  usum  Sarum"  by  the  presses  of  Paris, 
Rouen,  and  elsewhere,  many  of  them  exceedingly 
beautiful  in  their  typography  and  ornamentation,  and 
a  considerable  number  printed  on  vellum.  Besides 
the  constant  elements  already  specified,  these  books 
commonly  contain  some  other  minor  offices,  e.g.,  that 
of  the  Passion,  that  of  the  Angels,  etc.,  and  a  vast 
number  of  commemorations  of  individual  saints. 
The  beginnings  of  the  four  Gospels  are  also  often 
found  with  the  Athanasian  and  other  creeds,  and 
prayers  for  Confession  and  Communion.  An  almost 
invariable  adjunct,  either  in  Latin  or  English,  was  the 
fifteen  prayers  attributed  to  St.  Bridget  and  known  as 
"the  fifteen  O's",  and  there  were  often  devotions  of  a 
more  fantastical  kind  which  claimed  to  have  been 
enriched  by  extravagant  grants  of  indulgence,  mostly 
quite  unauthentic.  Perhaps  no  better  idea  can  be 
given  of  the  miscellaneous  contents,  some  Latin, 
some  English,  of  many  of  the  larger  primers  than  by 
making  an  extract  from  the  index  of  one  of  Wynkyn 
de  Worde's  quarto  editions.    Thus: 

A  prayer  made  upon  Ave  Maria. 

Gaude  virgo  mater. 

De  profundis  for  all  crysten  soules. 

A  prayer  to  oure  lady  and  saynt  John  the  evan- 

gelyst:  O  intemerata. 
A  prayer  to  our  lady;  Sancta  Maria. 
Another  devout  prayer  to  our  lady:  Obsecro. 
To  our  lady :  Sancta  Maria  regina. 
To  our  lady:  Stella  cell  extirpavit. 
Prayers  to  the  Sacrament  at  the  leavaoion:   Ave 

verum. 
A  prayer  to  the  trinite;    sancta  trinitas  unus 

deus,  with  two  other  prayers,  Deus  qui  super- 

bis,  Deus  qui  liberasti. 
Domine  Jesu  Christe  qui  me  creasti. 
Domine  Jesu  Christe  qui  solus. 
Two   prayers   with   two   coUectes   to   the   thre 

Kynges  of  Coleyn. 


Rex  Jaspar,  rex  Melchior,  and  Trium  regum 
trinum  munus. 

The  XV  OOS  of  the  passion  of  our  Lorde  in  latyn. 

Prayers  to  the  pj'te  of  our  lorde:   Adoro  te  do- 
mine. 

A  prayer  to  our  lord  cruoyf yed :  Precor  te  aman- 
tissime. 

Another  to  his  V  woundes:  O  pie  crucifixe. 

The  prayer  of  saynt  Bernardyn:    O  bone  Jesu, 
with  an  antheme  and  a  coUecte. 

O  rex  gloriose. 

To  the  Crosse:  Santifica  me. 

To  thy  proper  Aungell ;  O  sancte  angele. 
Post  Reformation  Primers. — So  strong  was  the  hold 
which  the  Primer  had  taken  upon  the  affections  of 
Englishmen  that  after  the  breach  with  Rome  various 
imitations,  still  bearing  the  name  of  Primer  and 
framed  upon  the  same  general  lines,  were  put  forward 
with  more  or  less  of  ecclesiastical  approval  by  Mar- 
shall and  Bishop  Hilsey,  while  in  1545  appeared  "the 
Royal  Primer",  which  was  published  in  the  name  of 
Henry  VIII  himself,  and  was  to  supersede  all  others. 
Other  substitutes,  still  further  modified  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  reformed  doctrine  now  in  favour,  were  pub- 
lished in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  For  the  most  part 
these  books  were  entirely  in  English  and  when  under 
Queen  Mary  the  old  form  of  Primer  was  restored, 
several  editions  then  produced,  though  thoroughly 
Catholic  in  their  contents,  were  printed  in  English 
as  well  as  in  Latin.  Under  Elizabeth  the  Protestant 
substitutes  for  the  Primer  returned,  but  that  printed 
in  1559  was  still  called  "the  Primer  set  forth  at  large 
with  many  godly  and  devoute  Prayers"  and  it  in- 
cluded a  form  of  "Office"  divided  into  seven  hours, 
with  the  "seven  psalms",  the  litany  (much  modified), 
and  "the  Dirige"  (see  "Private  Prayers",  Parker 
Society,  1851).  Meanwhile  the  Catholics  had  to  be 
content  with  such  ancient  copies  of  the  Marian  or 
earlier  editions  which  they  would  secrete,  or  with  the 
few  copies  of  the  Roman  Horae  printed  entirely  in 
Latin  which  could  be  smuggled  in  from  abroad. 
The  first  Catholic  Primer  of  penal  times  seems  to 
have  been  that  edited  by  Richard  Verstegan  (Ant- 
werp, 1599).  It  adhered  to  the  old  conception  of  the 
Primer  by  making  the  Office  of  Our  Blessed  Lady  the 
most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  whole,  but  a  great 
deal  of  new  matter  was  introduced  into  the  miscella- 
neous devotions,  and  in  the  subsequent  editions 
printed  in  many  of  the  cities  to  which  Catholics 
resorted  upon  the  continent,  e.g.,  Douai,  St.  Omers, 
Rouen,  etc.,  a  great  deal  of  innovation  was  tolerated. 
Of  really  old  English  devotions  the  "Jesus  Psalter", 
which  we  know  from  John  Dome's  day-book  to  have 
been  printed  and  sold  separately  before  1520,  was 
one  of  the  features  most  relished  and  most  consist- 
ently retained.  The  edition  of  1706  seems  to  have 
been  much  improved  as  regards  the  translations  of 
the  hymns,  and  of  some  of  these  John  Dryden  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  author.  The  whole  number 
of  Catholic  editions  of  the  Primer  known  to  have 
been  printed  under  that  name,  either  in  England  or 
abroad  since  Elizabeth,  amounts  to  over  forty. 

Maskell,  Monumenta  Rittuilia  Ecclesias  Anglicanas,  III  (2nd 
ed.,  Oxford,  18S2) ;  Littlehales,  The  Prymer  or  Prayer-Book  of 
the  Lay  people,  two  parts  (LondoD,  l.StH-2) ;  Idem,  The  Prymer, 
edited  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society  and  including  an  intro- 
duction by  Bishop  (London,  1896-7) ;  Hoskins,  Horx  Beatce 
Marice  Virginis,  or  the  Sarum  and  York  Primers  and  Kindred 
Books,  a  list  and  description  of  English  Horae  and  Primers  (Lon- 
don, 1901) :  Bennett  in  Julian's  Dictionary  of  Hymnology  (Lon- 
don, 1907),  s.  V.  Primers;  Thurston,  The  Medieval  Primer  m  The 
Month  (February,  1911);  Gillow,  Letters  on  "Our  Old  English 
Prayer-books"  in  The  Tablet  (December,  1884,  and  January,  1885). 

Herbert  Thurston. 
Primianus.     See  Donatists. 

Primicerius  (etymologically  primus  in  cera,  sc.  in 
tabula  cerata,  the  first  in  a  list  of  a  class  of  officials), 
a  term  applied  in  later  Roman  times  to  the  head  of 
any  administration — thus  "primicerius  notariorum". 


PRIMUS 


427 


PRIOR 


"primicerius  protectorum''  etc.  (cf.  Forcellini,  "To- 
tius  latinitatis  Lexicon",  s.  v.)-  In  ecclesiastical  use 
the  term  was  given  to  heads  of  the  colleges  of  Notarii 
and  Defensores,  which  occupied  so  important  a  place 
in  the  administration  of  the  Roman  Church  in  later 
antiquity  and  in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  When  young 
clerics  were  assembled  in  schools  for  training  in  the 
ecclesiastical  service  in  the  different  districts  of  the 
Western  Church  (from  the  fifth  or  sixth  century),  the 
directors  of  these  schools  were  also  commonly  given 
this  title.  Thus,  an  inscription  of  the  year  551  from 
Lyons  mentions  a  "Stephanus  primicerius  scoIee  lec- 
torum  servientium  in  ecclesia  Lugdunensi "  (Le  Blant, 
"Inscriptions  chrfitiennes  de  la  Gaule",  I,  142,  n.  45; 
cf.  similar  notices  in  Ducange,  "Glossarium",  s.  v.; 
Gregory  of  Tours,  "Hist.  Francorum",  II,  xxxvii). 
St.  Isidore  of  Seville  treats  of  the  obligations  of  the 
primicerius  of  the  lower  clerics  in  his  "Epistola  ad 
Ludefredum"  (P.  L.,  LXXXIII,  896).  From  this 
position  the  primicerius  also  derived  certain  powers 
in  the  direction  of  liturgical  functions.  In  the  regu- 
lation of  the  common  life  of  the  clergy  in  collegiate 
and  cathedral  churches,  according  to  the  Rule  of 
Chrodegang  and  the  statutes  of  Amalarius  of  Metz, 
the  primicerius  appears  as  the  first  capitular  after  the 
archdeacon  and  archpresbyter,  controlling  the  lower 
clerics  and  directing  the  liturgical  functions  and  chant. 
The  primicerius  thus  became  a  special  dignitary  of 
many  chapters  by  a  gradual  development  from  the 
position  of  the  old  primicerius  of  the  scola  cantorum  or 
lectorum. 

THOM.\asiNU8,  Vetus  et  nova  Ecclesiae  disciplina,  I  (Lyons,  1 700) ; 
Galletti,  i>e?  Primicerio  di  Santa  Sede  Aposi.  (Rome,  1776); 
Philups,  Kirchenrecht,  VI  (Ratisbon,  1864),  343;  Keller,  Die 
sieben  rom.  Pfalzrichier  (Stuttgart,  1904). 

J.    P.   KiBSCH. 

Primus  and  Felician,  Saints,  suffered  martyrdom 
about  304  in  the  Diocletian  persecution.  The  "Mar- 
tyrologium  Hieronymianum  (ed.  De  Rossi-Duchesne, 
77)  gives  under  9  June  the  names  of  Primus  and 
Felician  who  were  buried  at  the  fourteenth  milestone 
of  the  Via  Nomentana  (near  Nomentum,  now  Men- 
tana).  They  were  evidently  from  Nomentum.  This 
notice  comes  from  the  catalogue  of  Roman  martyrs  of 
the  fourth  century.  In  648  Pope  Theodore  translated 
the  bones  of  the  two  saints  to  the  Roman  Church  of 
San  Stefano,  under  an  altar  erected  in  their  honour 
(Liber  Pontificalis,  I,  332),  where  they  remain.  Their 
feast  is  still  observed  on  9  June. 

Acta  SS.,  June,  II,  152  sq.;  Dufourcq,  Les  Gesta  martyrum 
romains,  I  (Paris,  1900),  213;  De  Rossi,  Inscriptiones  christ., 
uThis  RomxB,  II,  152;  Idem,  I  musaid  delle  chiese  di  Roma  (Rome, 
1899),  plate  XVII  with  text;  Marucchi,  Les  basiliques  et  iglises 
de  Rome  (2nd  ed.,  Rome,  1909),  221  sq. 

J.   P.   KlESCH. 

Prince  Alberi;,  Diocese  of,  a  suffragan  see  of  St. 
Boniface,  Manitoba,  in  the  Province  of  Saskatchewan, 
Canada.  Originally  part  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Albert, 
it  was  formed,  4  June,  1891,  into  the  Vicariate  Apos- 
tolic of  the  Saskatchewan,  bounded  in  the  south  by 
52°  30'  N.  lat.,  in  the  west  by  109°  W.  long.,  in  the  east 
by  the  present  boundaries  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  and  in  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Sea.  On  2  Dec, 
1907,  most  of  this  was  erected  into  the  Diocese  of 
Prince  Albert,  and  Rt.  Rev.  Albert  Pascal,  O.M.I., 
became  its  bishop.  The  new  diocese  is  bounded  on 
the  south  by  a  line  passing  between  the  thirtieth  and 
the  thirty-first  township,  approximately  51°  30'  N.  lat. 
Its  western  and  eastern  limits  are  coincident  with  the 
boundaries  of  the  civil  province  as  far  north  as  the 
sixtieth  township  (about  54°  20')  in  the  west,  and  the 
fifty-second  township  (or  53°  30')  in  the  east,  thus 
forming  in  the  north  a  line  of  demarcation  with  two 
right  angles  just  half  way  between  its  eastern  and 
western  limits. 

Fort  Carlton  within  that  territory  had  been  pe- 
riodically visited  by  Catholic  missionaries  ever  since 


1842.  In  1870  Father  Moulin  was  put  in  charge  of 
the  French  half-breed  families  who  had  settled  on  the 
banks  of  the  south  branch  of  the  Saskatchewan. 
In  1874  the  permanent  mission  of  St.  Laurent  was 
established  by  Father  Andrd,  who  was  replaced  in  Nov., 
1877,  by  Father  Lestanc,  the  real  founder  of  that  mis- 
sionary post  on  the  south  branch  of  the  Saskatche- 
wan. Then  followed  the  missions  of  St.  Anthony,  at 
Batoche,  estabUshed  in  1881  by  Father  V(5greville, 
succeeded  by  Father  Moulin,  and  of  Prince 
Albert,  started  by  Father  Andre  in  1882.  The  first 
missionaries  of  the  diocese  were  French  Oblates  of 
Mary  Immaculate.  The  uprising  of  the  dissatisfied 
population  in  1885  resulted  in  the  battles  of  Fish 
Creek  and  Batoche,  the  murder  of  two  missionaries 
by  Plains  Crees,  the  destruction  of  several  mission- 
ary establishments,  and  the  capture  and  execution 
of  the  half-breed  leader,  Louis  Riel.  St.  Louis  de 
Langevin  was  founded  by  Father  Lecocq  in  1886. 
The  advent  of  railways  prompted  the  foundation 
of  parishes  and  farming  settlements,  of  which  the 
most  important  is  the  German  colony  of  St.  Peter, 
founded  in  1903  by  the  Very  Rev.  Bruno  Doerfler, 
O.S.B.,  now  attended  by  several  priests  of  the  same 
order. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  estimated 
(1911)  at  45,000,  of  whom  some  15,000  follow  the 
Ruthenian  Rite.  The  French  have  18  parishes,  with 
resident  priests,  and  number  11,050;  the  Germans  are 
'between  10,500  and  11,000,  distributed  in  12  parishes; 
while  the  English-speaking  population,  about  3100, 
have  4  parishes  of  their  own.  In  other  centres  the 
Catholics  are  of  mixed  nationalities.  There  are  also 
some  1000  Catholic  Crees,  whose  spiritual  needs  are 
attended  to  by  French  Oblates  established  on,  or  near, 
their  reserves.  The  schools  of  all  these  parishes, 
whether  public  or  separate,  are  equally  satisfactory 
but  not  up  to  the  Catholic  ideal  (see  Saskatchewan, 
Province  or).  Saskatoon  has  15,000  inhabitants, 
and  Prince  Albert,  8000.  The  diocese  counts  28 
Oblate  fathers,  22  secular  priests,  14  Benedictines, 
and  6  communities  of  women.  It  has  42  academies 
and  parish  schools,  2  Catholic  hospitals,  and  2  board- 
ing-schools for  Indians  with  130  pupils. 

Official  Catholic  Directory;  Morice,  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Western  Canada  (Toronto,  1910). 

A.    G.    MOBICE. 


Prince  Edward  Island. 

Diocese  of. 


See  Chablottbtown, 


Prior,  a  monastic  superior.  In  the  Rule  of  St. 
Benedict  the  term  prior  occurs  several  times,  but  does 
not  signify  any  particular  superior;  it  is  indiscrimi- 
nately applied  to  any  superior,  be  he  abbot,  provost, 
dean,  etc.  In  other  old  monastic  rules  the  term  is  used 
in  the  same  generic  sense.  With  the  Cluniac  reform  the 
term  prior  received  a  specific  meaning;  it  supplanted 
the  provost  (prcepositus)  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict. 
In  the  congregation  of  Hirschau,  which  arose  in  Ger- 
many in  the  eleventh  century,  the  term  prior  was  also 
substituted  for  provost,  and  the  example  of  the  Cluniac 
and  Hirschau  congregations  was  gradually  followed  by 
all  Benedictine  monasteries,  as  well  as  by  the  Camal- 
dolese,  Vallombrosians,  Cistercians,  and  other  off- 
shoots of  the  Benedictine  Order.  In  the  Benedictine 
Order  and  its  branches,  in  the  Premonstratensian 
Order,  and  in  the  military  orders  there  are  two  kinds 
of  priors, — the  claustral  prior  (prior  daustralis)  and 
the  conventual  prior  (prior  convent  ualis).  The  claus- 
tral prior,  in  a  few  monasteries  called  dean,  holds  the 
first  place  after  the  abbot  (or  grand-master  in  military 
orders),  whom  he  assists  in  the  government  of  the 
monastery  and  whose  place  he  supplies  in  his  absence. 
He  has  no  ordinary  jurisdiction  by  virtue  of  his  office, 
since  he  performs  the  duties  of  his  office  entirely  ac- 
cording to  the  will  and  under  the  direction  of  the  ab- 
bot.    His  jurisdiction  is,  therefore,  a  delegated  one 


PRIORESS 


428 


PRISCA 


and  extends  just  as  far  as  the  abbot  desires,  or  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  congregation  prescribe.  He  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  abbot,  generally  after  a  consultation 
with  the  capitulars  of  tiie  monastery,  and  may  be  re- 
moved by  him  at  any  time.  In  many  monasteries,  es- 
pecially larger  ones,  the  claustral  prior  is  assisted  by  a 
subprior,  who  holds  the  third  place  in  the  monastery. 
In  former  times  there  were  in  larger  monasteries,  be- 
sides the  prior  and  the  subprior,  also  a  third,  fourth, 
and  sometimes  even  a  fifth  prior.  Each  of  these  was 
called  circa  (or  circalor),  because  it  was  his  duty  to 
make  the  rounds  of  the  monastery  to  see  whether  any- 
thing was  amiss  and  whether  the  brethren  were  intent 
on  the  work  allotted  to  them  respectively.  He  had  no 
authority  to  correct  or  punish  the  brethren,  but  was 
to  report  to  the  claustral  prior  whatever  he  found 
amiss  or  contrary  to  the  rules. 

The  conventual  prior  is  the  independent  superior 
of  a  monastery  that  has  no  abbot;  he  rules  in  temporals 
and  spirituals  just  like  an  abbot.  Ordinarily  he  is 
elected  by  the  chapter  of  his  monastery  and  holds 
his  office  for  life,  though  in  former  times  he  was 
often  elected  for  a  specified  period  of  time.  He  may 
be  assisted  by  a  subprior,  whose  office  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  claustral  prior  in  an  abbey.  In  the  Con- 
gregation of  Cluny  and  others  of  the  tenth,  eleventh, 
and  twelfth  centuries  there  was  also  a  greater  prior 
(prior  major)  who  preceded  the  claustral  prior  in  dig- 
nity and,  besides  assisting  the  abbot  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  monastery,  had  some  delegated  jurisdic- 
tion over  exti^rnal  dependencies  of  the  abbey.  The 
appellation  of  simple,  or  obedientiary,  prior  (prior 
simplex  or  prior  obedienliarius)  is  often  applied  to  the 
superior  of  a  monastic  establishment  which  is  a  de- 
pendency of  an  abbey.  He  is  an  obedientiary  of  the 
abbot,  is  appointed  by  him,  and  may  be  removed  by 
him  at  any  time. 

The  Augustinian  Hermits,  Carmelites,  Servites,  and 
Brothers  of  Mercy  have  three  kinds  of  priors, — the 
conventual  prior,  the  provincial  prior,  and  the  prior 
general.  The  conventual  prior  is  the  first  superior 
over  a  monastery.  He  is  generally  elected  by  the 
chapter  of  the  monastery  for  a  specified  time,  and  his 
election  requires  the  approbation  of  the  provincial 
prior.  The  provincial  prior  is  the  superior  over  a 
number  of  monasteries  that  are  united  into  a  province. 
He  is  generally  elected  for  a  specified  time  by  the  con- 
ventual priors  and  delegates  from  the  various  monas- 
teries of  the  province,  and  his  election  requires  the  ap- 
probation of  the  prior  general.  The  prior  general  is 
the  superior  over  the  whole  order ;  he  is  elected  in  the 
general  chapter  for  a  specified  time  and  resides  in 
Rome.  The  Dominicans  also  have  conventual  and 
provincial  priors,  but  the  superior  of  the  whole  order 
is  not  called  prior  general,  but  master  general.  The 
Carthusians  have  conventual  priors  and  a  prior  general, 
but  no  provincial  priors.  Their  prior  general  is  the 
only  superior  of  an  order  who  does  not  reside  in  Rome. 
Before  their  suppression  in  France  the  prior  of  the 
Grande  Chartreuse  was  always  prior  general,  an 
office  now  filled  by  the  prior  of  Farneta  near  Lucca  in 
Italy.  In  all  these  orders  the  second  superior  of 
a  monastery  is  called  subprior  and  his  office  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  claustral  prior  in  the  Benedictine  Order. 
Gasquet,  English  Monastic  Life  (London,  1904),  passim,  es- 
pecially .52-7;  MoLlTOR,  Religiosi  juris  capita  selerta  (Ratisbon, 
Rome,  New  York,  Cincinnati,  1909),  passim;  Braunmuller, 
PTopst,  Decan  u.  Prior  in  Studien  u.  Mitteil.  aus  dem  Benedictiner- 
u.  Cisternenzer-Orden,  IV,  i  (Wurzburg  and  Vienna,  1883),  231- 
49.    See  alao  Religious  Life. 

Michael  Ott. 

Prioress  (Priorissa,  pr.i:posita),  a  superioress 
in  a  monastic  community  for  women.  The  term 
prioress  is  properly  applied  only  to  a  superioress 
in  a,  convent  which  has  the  papal  approbation  and 
whose  members  make  solemn  profession,  that  is,  to 
convents  which  belong  to  an  order  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  word.     In  some  places,  however,  it  is  customary 


to  apply  the  title  of  prioress  also  to  a  superioress  in  a 
convent  which  has  only  the  episcopal  approbation 
and  whose  members  do  not  make  solemn  profession. 
In  general,  the  office  of  a  prioress  in  an  order  for 
women  corresponds  to  that  of  the  prior  in  the  same 
order  for  men.  If  the  prioress  is  the  first  superior,  her 
authority  over  the  convent  is  similar  to  that  of  a  con- 
ventual prior  over  his  priory;  if  the  first  superior  is  an 
abbess,  the  office  of  the  prioress  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
claustral  prior  in  an  abbey. 
For  bibliography  see  Prior. 

Michael  Ott. 

Priory,  a  monastery  whose  superior  is  a  prior. 
The  Dominicans,  Augustinian  Hermits,  Carthusians, 
Carmelites,  Servites,  and  Brothers  of  Mercy  call  all 
their  monasteries  priories.  The  Benedictines  and 
their  offshoots,  the  Premonstratensians,  and  the  mili- 
tary orders  distinguish  between  conventual  and  simple 
or  obedientiary  priories.  Conventual  priories  are 
those  autonomous  houses  which  have  no  abbots, 
either  because  the  canonically  required  number  of 
twelve  monks  has  not  yet  been  reached  or  for  some 
other  reason.  The  Congregation  of  Cluny  had  many 
conventual  priories.  There  were  likewise  many 
conventual  priories  in  Germany  and  Italy  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  England  all  monasteries 
attached  to  cathedral  churches  were  known  as  cathe- 
dral priories.  Nearly  all  the  monasteries  of  the 
famous  Maurist  Congregation  in  France  (seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries)  were  called  priories.  At 
present  the  Benedictine  Order  has  twenty-seven 
conventual  priories.  Simple  or  obedientiary  priories 
are  dependencies  of  abbeys.  Their  superior,  who  is 
subject  to  the  abbot  in  everything,  is  called  simple  or 
obedientiary  prior. 

For  bibliography  see  Prior. 

Michael  Ott. 

Prisca,  Saint,  a  martyr  of  the  Roman  Church,  whose 
dates  are  unknown.  The  name  Prisca  or  Priscilla  is 
often  mentioned  by  early  authorities  of  the  history  of 
the  Church  in  Rome.  The  wife  of  Aquila,  the  pupil  of 
St.  Paul,  bore  this  name.  The  grave  of  a  martyr 
Prisca  was  venerated  in  the  Roman  Catacomb  of 
Priscilla  on  the  Via  Salaria.  The  place  of  interment 
is  explicitly  mentioned  in  all  the  seventh-century 
itineraries  to  the  graves  of  the  Roman  martyrs  (De 
Rossi,  "Roma  sotterranea",  I,  176,  177).  The 
epitaph  of  a  Roman  Christian  named  Priscilla  was 
found  in  the  "larger  Catacomb",  the  Ccemeterium 
mains,  on  the  Via  Nomentana,  not  far  from  the 
Catacomb  of  St.  Agnes  [De  Rossi,  Bull,  di  arch,  crist. 
(1888-1889),  130,  note  5].  There  still  exists  on  the 
Aventine  a  church  of  St.  Prisca.  It  stands  on  the  site 
of  a  very  early  title  church,  the  TUulus  Priscce,  men- 
tioned in  the  fifth  century  and  built  probably  in  the 
fourth.  In  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  found 
near  this  church  a  bronze  tablet  with  an  inscription 
of  the  year  224,  by  which  a,  senator  named  Caius 
Marius  Pudens  Cornelianus  was  granted  citizenship 
in  a  Spanish  city.  As  such  tablets  were  generally  put 
up  in  the  house  of  the  person  so  honoured,  it  is  possible 
that  the  senator's  palace  stood  on  the  spot  where  the 
church  was  built  later.  The  assumption  is  proba- 
ble that  the  Prisca  who  founded  this  title  church,  or 
who,  perhaps  as  early  as  the  third  century,  gave  the 
use  of  a  part  of  the  house  standing  there  for  the 
Christian  church  services,  belonged  to  the  family  of 
Pudens  Cornelianus.  Whether  the  martyr  buried  in 
the  Catacomb  of  Priscilla  belonged  to  the  same  family 
or  was  identical  with  the  founder  of  the  title  church 
cannot  be  proved.  Still  some  family  relationship  is 
probable,  because  the  name  Priscilla  appears  also  in 
the  senatorial  family  of  the  Acilii  Glabriones,  whose 
burial-place  was  in  the  Catacomb  of  Priscilla  on  the 
Via  Salaria.  The  "  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum  " 
mentions  under  18  January  a  martyr  Priscilla  on  the 


PRISCIANUS 


429 


FRISCILLIANISM 


Via  Salaria  (ed.  De  Rossi-Duchesne,  10).  This  Pri- 
Boilla  is  evidently  identical  with  the  Prisca  whose 
grave  was  in  tlie  Catacomb  of  Priscilla  and  who  is 
mentioned  in  the  itineraries  of  the  seventh  century. 
Later  legendary  traditions  identified  the  founder  of 
the  Tituliis  Priscos  with  St.  Paul's  friend,  Priscilla, 
whose  home  would  have  occupied  the  spot  on  which 
the  church  was  later  erected.  It  was  from  here  that 
St.  Paul  sent  a  greeting  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
Another  legend  relates  the  martyrdom  of  a  Prisca  who 
was  beheaded  at  the  tenth  milestone  on  the  Via 
Ostiensis,  and  whose  body  Pope  Eutychianus  is  said 
to  have  translated  to  the  church  of  Prisca  on  the 
Aventine.  The  whole  narrative  is  unhistorical  and 
its  details  impossible.  As  18  January  is  also  assigned 
as  the  day  of  the  execution  of  this  Priscilla,  she  is 
probably  the  same  as  the  Roman  martyr  buried  in 
the  Catacomb  of  Priscilla.  Her  feast  is  observed  on 
18  January. 

Acta  SS.,  January,  II,  184  sqq. ;  Dufotjrcq,  Les  Gesta  martyrum 
romains,  I  (Paris,  1900),  169  sq. ;  GdnREs,  D.  Martyrium  d.  hi. 
Prisca  in  Jahrbuch  fUr  protest.  Theologie  (1892),  108  sq.;  Carini, 
Sul  titolo  presbiterate  di  S.  Prisca  (Palermo,  1885);  De  Rossi, 
Delia  casa  d'Aquila  e  Prisca  suit'  Aventino  in  Bull,  d'arch.  crist. 
(1867),  44  sq.;  Idem,  .\quila  e  Prisca  e  gli  Acilii  Glabriones.  ibid. 
(1S8S-9),  128  sq.;  Marucchi,  Les  basiliques  et  ^lises  de  Rome 
(2nd  ed.,  Rome,  1909),  180  sq.;  Butleb,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  Janu- 
ary, I,  83. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Priscianus,  Latin  grammarian,  b.  at  Csesarea 
(Mauretania),  taught  at  Constantinople  under  Anas- 
tasius  I  (491-518).  He  delivered  the  panegyric  of  the 
Emperor  Anastasius  about  512;  we  possess  this  work 
in  312  hexameter  verses,  preceded  by  a  prologue  of  22 
iambic  senarii.  Besides  this  he  composed  a  "Perie- 
gesis"  in  1087  hexameters;  a  translation  of  the  worlc 
of  the  same  name,  written  under  Hadrian  by  Dionys- 
ius  of  Alexandria;  three  works,  dedicated  to  a  certain 
Symmachus  (perhaps  the  consul  of  485),  on  numbers, 
numeration,  and  coins,  on  the  metrical  character  of 
Latin  comedies,  on  rhetoric  according  to  the  "Pro- 
gymnasmata"  of  Hermogenes;  the  "Partitiones  XII 
versuum  jEneidos"  (on  the  versification  of  the 
.lEneid);  a  treatise  "De  aocentibus";  a  compendium 
on  declensions  ("Institutio  de  nomine  et  pronomine 
et  verbo").  But  he  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  a  great 
work  of  which  the  last-named  is  an  extract,  the  eigh- 
teen books  of  the  "  Institutiones  Grammatioae",  the 
most  important  grammatical  work  of  antiquity  which 
we  possess.  Each  of  these  eighteen  books  has  its  own 
special  title  and  subject.  The  first  sixteen,  often 
separately  copied  ("Priscianus  Maior"),  treat  of 
forms  ("De  accidentibus");  the  last  two  ("Priscianus 
Minor")  of  syntax.  They  are  dedicated  to  a  certain 
Julianus,  consul  and  patrician.  In  this  preface  Pris- 
cian  declares  that  he  borrows  his  doctrines  from  the 
enormous  volumes  {spatiosa  volumina)  of  ApoUonius 
Dyscolus  and  from  "the  sea"  (pelagus)  oi  Herodian. 
He  also  cites  Juba,  Heliodorus,  and  Hephaestion. 
Moreover,  he  follows  his  sources  servilely,  as  is  proved 
by  comparison  with  the  extant  fragments  of  ApoUo- 
nius. His  knowledge  of  Latin  authors  is  chiefly  de- 
rived from  his  predecessor  Flavins  Caper  (end  of 
second  century).  Priscian  lacks  judgment  and  taste, 
but  he  is  valuable  because  he  has  preserved  for  us  the 
theories  of  the  Greek  grammarians,  and  numerous 
Latin  quotations  for  which  he  is  our  sole  authority. 
The  best  edition  is  Hertz  in  Keil's  "Grammatici 
Latini",  II,  III  (1855-9). 

A  copy  of  Priscian  carried  to  England  in  the  time 
of  Aldhelm  (d.  709)  was  quoted  by  Bede  and  Alcuin, 
and  copied  by  Rabanus  Maurus,  who  reintroduced 
Priscian  on  the  Continent.  Together  with  Donatus 
he  became  the  personification  of  grammar.  More 
than  a  thousand  manuscripts  of  his  work  exist.  His 
portrait  accompanies  the  allegorical  figure  of  Gram- 
mar at  Santa  Maria  Novella,  and  on  the  doorway  of 
the  cathedral  of  Chartres. 


Teuffel,  Gesch.  d.  lat,  Literatur,  §  481;  Jeep,  Gesch.  d.  Lehre 
V.  d.  Redeteilen  bei  d.  lat.  Grammatiker  (Leipzig,  1893),  89;  Idem  in 
Philologus,  LXVII  (1908),  12;  LXVIII  (1909),  1;  Sandys,  A 
Hist,  of  Classical  Scholarship,  1,  258;  Marriage,  The  Sculp- 
tures of  Chartres  Cathedral  (Cambridge,  1909),  30.  For  the  share 
of  the  eighth-  and  ninth-century  Irish  monks  in  transmitting  the 
text  of  iPriscian,  see  Tbaube,  0  Roma  Nobilis  (Munich). 

Paul  Lejay. 

Priscillianism. — This  heresy  originated  in  Spain 
in  the  fourth  century  and  was  derived  from  the 
Gnostic-Manichajan  doctrines  taught  by  Marcus,  an 
Egyptian  from  Memphis.  His  first  adherents  were 
a  lady  named  Agape  and  a  rhetorician  named  Hel- 
pidius,  through  whose  influence  Priscillian  "a  man 
of  noble  birth,  of  great  riches,  bold,  restless,  eloquent, 
learned  through  much  reading,  very  ready  at  debate 
and  discussion  "  (Sulpicius  Severus,  "His.  Sac",  II,  46), 
was  also  enrolled.  His  high  position  and  great  gifts 
made  him  the  leader  of  the  party^  and  he  became  an 
ardent  apostle  of  the  new  doctrines.  Through  his 
oratorical  gifts  and  reputation  for  extreme  asceti- 
cism he  attracted  a  large  following.  Among  those 
drawn  to  him  were  two  bishops,  Instantius  and 
Salvianus.  The  adherents  of  the  new  sect  organized 
themselves  into  an  oath-bound  society,  the  rapid 
spread  of  which  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Catholic 
Bishop  of  Cordova,  Hyginus,  who  made  known  his 
fears  to  Idaoius,  Bishop  of  Emeritu,  and,  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  latter  and  of  Ithacius  of  Ossanova,  a 
synod  was  held  at  Saragossa  in  380.  Bishops  were 
present  at  this  synod  not  only  from  Spain  but  from 
Aquitaine.  Though  summoned,  the  Priscillianists 
refused  to  appear,  and  the  synod  pronounced  sen- 
tence of  excommunication  against  the  four  leaders, 
Instantius,  Salvianus.  Helpidius,  and  Priscillian. 
The  enforcement  of  the  synod's  decrees  was  commit- 
ted to  Ithacius,  an  impulsive  and  violent  man.  He 
failed  to  bring  the  heretics  to  terms^  and,  in  defiance, 
Priscillian  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  and  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Avila.  Idacius  and  Ithacius  ap- 
pealed to  the  imperial  authorities.  The  Emperor 
Gratian  issued  a  decree  which  not  only  deprived  the 
Priscillianists  of  the  churches  into  which  they  had 
intruded  themselves  but  sentenced  Priscillian  and 
his  followers  to  exile.  Instantius,  Salvianus,  and 
Priscillian  proceeded  to  Rome  to  gain  the  aid  of  Pope 
Damasus  in  having  this  sentence  revoked.  Denied 
an  audience,  they  went  to  Milan  to  make  a  similar 
request  of  St.  Ambrose,  but  with  the  same  result. 
They  then  resorted  to  intrigue  and  bribery  at  the 
Court  with  such  success  that  they  were  not  only 
freed  from  the  sentence  of  exile,  but  permitted  to 
regain  possession  of  their  churches  in  Spain,  where, 
under  the  patronage  of  the  imperial  officials,  they 
enjoyed  such  power  as  to  compel  Ithacius  to  with- 
draw from  the  country.  He,  in  turn,  appealed  to 
Gratian,  but  before  anything  had  been  accomplished 
the  emperor  was  murdered  in  Paris,  and  the  usurper 
Maximus  had  taken  his  place.  Maximus,  wishing 
to  curry  favour  with  the  orthodox  party  and  to  re- 
plenish his  treasury  through  confiscations,  gave  orders 
for  a  synod,  which  was  held  in  Bordeaux  in  384. 
Instantius  was  first  tried  and  condemned  to  deposi- 
tion. Thereupon  Priscillian  appealed  to  the  em- 
peror at  Trier.  Ithacius  acted  as  his  accuser  and  was 
so  vehement  in  his  denunciations  that  St.  Martin 
of  Tours,  who  was  then  in  Trier,  intervened,  and,  after 
expressing  his  disapproval  of  bringing  an  ecclesiastical 
case  before  a  civil  tribunal,  obtained  from  the  em- 
peror a  promise  not  to  carry  his  condemnation  to  the 
extent  of  shedding  blood.  After  St.  Martin  had  left 
the  city,  the  emperor  appointed  the  Prefect  Evodius 
as  judge.  He  found  Priscillian  and  some  others 
guilty  of  the  crime  of  magic.  This  decision  was 
reported  to  the  emperor  who  put  Priscillian  and 
several  of  his  followers  to  the  sword;  the  property 
of  others  was  confiscated  and  they  were  banished. 
The  conduct  of  Ithacius  immediately  met  with  the 


PRISONS 


430 


PRISONS 


severest  reprobation.  St.  Martin,  hearing  what  had 
taken  place,  returned  to  Trier  and  compelled  the 
emperor  to  rescind  an  order  to  the  military  tribunes, 
already  on  their  way  to  Spain  to  extirpate  the  heresy. 
There  is  no  ground  in  the  condemnation  and  death  of 
Priscillian  for  the  charge  made  against  the  Church 
of  having  invoked  the  civil  authority  to  punish 
heretics.  The  pope  censured  not  only  the  actions  of 
Ithaoius  but  also  that  of  the  emperor.  St.  Ambrose 
was  equally  stern  in  his  denunciation  of  the  case  and 
some  of  the  Galilean  bishops,  who  were  in  Trier  under 
the  leadership  of  Theognistus,  broke  off  communion 
with  Ithacius,  who  was  subsequently  deposed  from 
his  see  by  a  synod  of  Spanish  bishops,  and  his  friend 
and  abettor,  Idatius,  was  compelled  to  resign.  The 
death  of  Priscillian  and  his  followers  had  an  unlooked- 
for  sequel.  The  numbers  and  zeal  of  the  heretics 
increased;  those  who  were  executed  were  venerated 
as  saints  and  martyrs.  The  progress  and  spread  of 
the  heresy  called  for  fresh  measures  of  repression. 
In  400  a  synod  was  held  in  Toledo  at  which  many 
persons,  among  them  two  bishops,  Symphonius  and 
Dictinnius,  were  reconciled  to  the  Church.  Dic- 
tinnius  was  the  author  of  a  book  "Libra"  (Scales), 
a  moral  treatise  from  the  Priscillianist  viewpoint. 
The  upheaval  in  the  Spanish  peninsula  consequent 
on  the  invasion  of  the  Vandals  and  the  Suevi  aided 
the  spread  of  Priscillianism.  So  menacing  was  this 
revival  that  Orosius,  a  Spanish  priest,  wrote  to  St. 
Augustine  (41.5)  to  enlist  his  aid  in  combating  the 
heresy.  Pope  Leo  at  a  later  date  took  active  steps 
for  its  repression  and  at  his  urgent  insistence  coun- 
cils were  held  in  446  and  447  at  Astorga,  Toledo,  and 
Galicia.  In  spite  of  these  efforts  the  sect  continued 
to  spread  during  the  fifth  century.  In  the  following 
century  it  commenced  to  decline,  and  after  the  Synod 
of  Braga,  held  in  563,  had  legislated  concerning  it,  it 
soon  died  out. 

In  regard  to  the  doctrines  and  teaching  of  Pris- 
cillian and  his  sect,  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  into  the 
merits  of  the  discussion  as  to  whether  Priscillian  was 
guilty  of  the  errors  traditionally  ascribed  to  him, 
whether  he  was  really  a  heretic,  or  whether  he  was  un- 
justly condemned — the  object  of  misunderstanding 
and  reprobation  even  in  his  lifetime  and  afterwards 
made  to  bear  the  burden  of  heretical  opinions  sub- 
sequently developed  and  associated  with  his  name. 
The  weight  of  evidence  and  the  entire  course  of 
events  in  his  lifetime  make  the  supposition  of  his 
innocence  extremely  improbable.  The  discovery 
by  Schepss  of  eleven  treatises  from  his  pen  in  a  fifth- 
or  sixth-century  manuscript,  in  the  library  of  the 
University  of  Wilrzburg,  has  not  put  an  end  to  a 
controversy  still  involved  in  considerable  difficulty. 
Kiinstle  (Antipriscilliana),  who  has  examined  all  the 
testimony,  has  decided  in  favour  of  the  traditional 
view,  which  alone  seems  capable  of  offering  any  ade- 
quate solution  of  the  fact  that  the  Church  in  Spain 
and  Aquitaine  was  aroused  to  activity  by  the  separa- 
tist tendency  in  the  Priscillianist  movement.  The 
foundation  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Priscillianists  was 
Gnostic-Manichaean  Dualism,  a  belief  in  the  existence 
of  two  kingdoms,  one  of  Light  and  one  of  Darkness. 
Angels  and  the  souls  of  men  were  said  to  be  severed 
from  the  substance  of  the  Deity.  Human  souls 
were  intended  to  conquer  the  Kingdom  of  Darkness, 
but  fell  and  were  imprisoned  in  material  bodies.  Thus 
both  kingdoms  were  represented  in  man,  and  hence  a 
conflict  symbolized  on  the  side  of  Light  by  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs,  heavenly  spirits,  who  corresponded  to 
certain  of  man's  powers,  and,  on  the  side  of  Darkness, 
by  the  Signs  of  the  Zodiac,  the  symbols  of  matter 
and  the  lower  kingdom.  The  salvation  of  man  con- 
sists in  liberation  from  the  domination  of  matter. 
The  twelve  heavenly  spirits  having  failed  to  accom- 
plish this  release,  the  Saviour  came  in  a  heavenly 
body,  which  appeared  to  be  like  that  of  other  men, 


and  through  His  doctrine  and  His  apparent  death 
released  the  souls  of  men  from  the  influence  of  the 
material.  These  doctrines  could  be  harmonized  with 
the  teaching  of  Scripture  only  by  a  strange  system 
of  exegesis,  in  which  the  liberal  sense  was  entirely 
rejected,  and  an  equally  strange  theory  of  personal 
inspiration.  The  Old  Testament  was  received,  but 
the  narrative  of  creation  was  rejected.  Several  of 
the  apocryphal  Scriptures  were  acknowledged  to  be 
genuine  and  inspired.  The  ethical  side  of  the 
Dualism  of  Priscillian  with  its  low  concept  of  nature 
gave  rise  to  an  indecent  system  of  asceticism  as  well 
as  to  some  peculiar  liturgical  observances,  such  as 
fasting  on  Sundays  and  on  Christmas  Day.  Because 
their  doctrines  were  esoteric  and  exoteric,  and  be- 
cause it  was  believed  that  men  in  general  could  not 
understand  the  higher  paths,  the  Priscillianists,  or 
at  least  those  of  them  who  were  enlightened,  were 
permitted  to  tell  lies  for  the  sake  of  a  holy  end.  It 
was  because  this  doctrine  was  likely  to  be  a  scandal 
even  to  the  faithful  that  Augustine  wrote  his  famous 
work,  "De  mendacio". 

Ed.  Schepss,  Priscilliani  qum  supersunt  in  Corpus  script,  eccles. 
lat.,  XVIII  (Vienna,  1889) ;  SuLPicius  Seveeus,  Hist,  sac,  II, 
46-51;  Idem,  Dialog.,  Ill,  ii  aq.;  Orositjs,  Commonitorium  ad 
Augusfinum  in  P.  L.,  XXXI,  124  sq.;  Augustine,  De  Hcsr.,  xxx; 
Idem,  Ep.  xxxvi  Ad  Casulam;  Jerome,  De  vir.  illus.,  cxxi;  Leo 
Magnus,  Ep.  xv  Ad  Turribium;  Hilgenfeld,  Friscillianus  u. 
seine  neuentdeckten  Schriften  in  Zeitschr.  f.  wissensch.  Theol.  (1892), 
1-82;  Paret,  Priscillianus,  ein  Reformator  des  4.  Jahrh.  (Wiirz- 
burg,  1891) :  Michael,  Priscillian  u.  die  neueste  Kritik  in  Zeitschr. 
f.  kath.  Theol.  (1892),  692-706;  Dierich,  Die  Quellen  zur  Gesch. 
Priscillians  (Breslau,  1897);  Kunstle,  Eine  Bibliothek  der 
Symbole  u.  th^olog.  Tractate  zur  Bekdmpfung  des  Priscillianismus 
u.  westgotischen  Arianismus  aus  dem  G.  Jahrh,  (Mainz,  1900) ; 
Idem,  Antipriscilliana.  Dogmengeschichtl.  Untersuchungen  u, 
Texte  aus  dem  Streite  gegen  Priscillians  Irrlehre  (Freiburg,  1905); 
PuECK  in  Journal  des  Savants  (1891),  110-134,  243-55,  307,  318; 
Leclercq,  UEspagne  chret.  (Paris,  1906),  iii,  150-213. 

P.  J.  Healt. 

Prisons. — I.  In  Ancient  Times. — Many  juris- 
consults and  Scriptural  interpreters  include  imprison- 
ment among  the  number  of  penalties  recognized  in 
Hebrew  legislation,  but  the  fact  may  well  be  ques- 
tioned. However,  on  the  coming  of  the  Chaldeans 
under  Nebuchadnezzar,  there  were  at  least  three 
prisons  at  Jerusalem,  and,  about  the  same  time,  the 
names  of  the  places  of  detention  were  expressive  of 
the  regime  to  which  the  culprits  were  subjected,  such 
as  Beth  ha-keli  (house  of  detention),  Beth  ha- 
asourim  (house  of  those  in  chains),  Beth  ha-mah- 
pecheth  (from  the  name  of  an  instrument  for  chaining 
the  hands  and  feet),  and  Bor  (cistern,  underground 
receptacle)  [cf.  Thonissen,  "Etudes  sur  I'histoire  du 
droit  criminel  des  peuples  anoiens"  (Brussels,  1869)]. 

At  Athens  imprisonment  was  imposed  as  a  penalty, 
though  this  is  doubted  by  many.  It  seems  there  was 
only  one  prison  placed  under  the  authority  of  the 
Eleven.  The  prisoners  were  not  isolated  and  could 
be  visited  by  their  friends  and  the  members  of  their 
family.  Some  were  deprived  of  freedom  of  move- 
ment by  having  their  feet  attached  to  wooden  blocks 
(Thonissen,  "Le  droit  p^nal  de  la  r6publique  ath6n- 
ienne",  1875).  At  Rome  there  still  remains  at  the 
foot  of  the  Capitol  the  ancient  Mamertine  prison. 
It  comprised  an  upper  portion  and  a  dungeon,  the 
Tullianum.  The  prisoners  were  enclosed  in  the 
former  which  was  lighted  only  by  narrow  loopholes, 
and,  if  they  were  condemned  to  death,  they  were 
thrown  into  the  dungeon  through  an  opening  in  its 
roof,  to  be  strangled  like  Cataline's  accomplices  or 
starve  to  death  like  Jugurtha.  Their  naked  corpses 
were  then  thrown  out  on  the  steps  of  the  Gemordes. 
Imprisonment,  which  the  laws  did  not  usually  pro- 
nounce, was  of  two  kinds,  simple  detention  or  de- 
tention in  chains.  It  was  for  life  or  for  a  time,  ac- 
cording to  the  gravity  of  the  offence.  The  super- 
vision of  the  public  prisons  at  Rome  was  entrusted 
to  the  triumviri  capitales.  Under  the  empire  per- 
petual   imprisonment    was    abolished    theoretically, 


PRISONS 


431 


PRISONS 


imprisonment  being  considered  not  so  much  a  penalty 
as  a  means  of  supervising  culprits.  The  care  of  the 
gaols,  up  to  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  was  in- 
cluded among  the  duties  of  the  triumviri  capitales. 
In  the  provinces  a  more  regular  administration  en- 
tirely under  military  control  was  then  being  in- 
stituted. At  first  the  accused  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  separated  from  the  convicted,  nor  were  the 
sexes  kept  apart;  though  there  are  instances  of 
solitary  imprisonment  (Humbert  in  Daremburg  and 
Saglio,  "Diet,  des  antiquity  grecques  et  romaines", 
s.  V.  Career). 

II.  Influence  op  Christianity. — It  was  natural 
that  when  Christians  were  being  hunted  down  and 
cast  into  gaol  for  their  faith,  the  Church  should  rec- 
ommend the  faithful  to  visit  the  prisoners.  The 
deacons  and  deaconesses  were  especially  charged  with 
the  care  of  the  incarcerated  Christians,  bringing  them 
the  comforts  of  religion,  food,  clothing,  and  es- 
pecially money,  which  was  needed  to  procure  certain 
mitigations,  even  liberty.  The  deaconesses  more 
particularly  were  appointed  to  this  office,  for  in 
visiting  the  Christians  they  ran  less  risk  of  awakening 
the  suspicion  of  the  pagans.  At  an  early  period  the 
bishops  began  to  purchase  the  liberty  of  the  prisoners. 
For  this  they  made  collections,  and  if  the  receipts 
were  not  sufficient,  they  sold  the  church  property. 
Not  only  their  own  flock  but  the  Christians  in  dis- 
tant lands  were  the  objects  of  their  charitable  zeal. 
Debtors,  towards  whom  Rome  was  so  heartless,  were 
not  forgotten.  Justinian  granted  private  debtors 
the  right  of  asylum  in  the  house  of  God,  but  only  if 
the  creditors  abused  their  rights;  this  favour  was  not, 
however,  extended  to  public  or  state  debtors.  The 
Church,  the  help  of  sinners,  could  not  but  extend  her 
assistance  and  protection  to  criminals;  for  crime  is 
primarily  a  sin.  In  the  earliest  times,  as  soon  as  more 
peaceful  days  had  dawned,  she  endeavoured  to  free 
them  from  prison,  to  punish  and  correct  them  in 
another  way.     For  this  she  employed  three  means. 

(1)  The  paschal  indulgence.  By  virtue  of  an  edict 
of  Valentinian  I  in  367  all  prisons  were  opened  at 
Easter  and  the  prisoners  set  free.  This  edict  was 
called  the  indulgentia  pascalis.  The  privilege  was 
not  extended  to  those  arrested  for  sacrilege,  poisoning, 
treason,  adultery,  rapine,  or  murder.  Valentinian 
the  younger,  Theodosius,  and  Theodoric  issued  similar 
edicts,   but   they   excluded   in   addition   recidivists. 

(2)  The  right  of  asylum.  Under  Constantine  the 
Church  had  the  right  of  asylum,  which  was  granted 
also  by  his  successors.  Charlemagne  ordained  in  a 
capitulary  that  no  one  taking  refuge  in  a  church 
should  be  taken  from  it  by  force,  but  should  be  un- 
molested till  the  court  had  pronounced  its  decision. 
This  privilege  in  the  course  of  time  was  abused  and 
consequently  was  abolished.  The  right  of  asylum 
was  not  extended  to  adulterers,  ravishers  of  young 
girls,  or  public  debtors;  it  was  confined  to  those  who 
were  unjustly  pursued.  (3)  The  right  of  interces- 
sion. The  bishops  had  the  right  to  ask  the  civil 
judge  to  pardon  condemned  prisoners,  especially 
those  sentenced  to  death;  frequently,  however,  they 
petitioned  to  have  prisoners  discharged.  In  the 
course  of  time,  through  the  influence  of  the  Church, 
the  lot  of  prisoners  was  greatly  improved.  The 
Council  of  Nioaea  (325)  ordered  the  procuratores  pau- 
perum  to  visit  the  gaols  and  offer  their  services.  The 
Synod  of  Orleans  (549)  obliged  the  archdeacon  to 
see  all  the  prisoners  on  Sundays.  The  active  in- 
tervention of  the  Church  began  in  the  days  of  Con- 
stantino the  Great  and  continued  for  a  long  period. 
The  bishops  and  priests  were  invited  and  authorized 
to  supervise  the  conduct  of  the  judges,  to  visit 
prisoners  on  a  certain  week-day,  Wednesdays  or 
Fridays,  and  find  out  the  reason  of  their  imprison- 
ment, to  speak  with  them  about  their  position  and 
wants,  to  inform  the  proper  authorities  of  any  de- 


fects they  noticed  and  to  have  changes  made.  Dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages  this  right  and  duty  was  enforced 
only  here  and  there.  St.  Charles  Borromeo  was  a 
great  reformer  and  reorganized  the  whole  prison 
system  in  his  diocese,  even  to  the  smallest  details, 
on  an  essentially  humanitarian  and  Christian  basis. 
The  clergyman  deputed  by  the  bishop  to  look  after 
the  prisoners  had  to  inquire  constantly  "quae  illorum 
cura  adhibeatur,  cum  in  primis  ad  animai  salutem, 
turn  etiam  ad  corporis  sustentationem",  i.  e.  what 
care  was  taken  of  them,  first  in  regard  to  their 
spiritual  needs  and  then  as  to  their  physical  welfare. 

Influence  of  the  Papacy. — The  influence  of  the 
Papacy  also  was  very  great,  and  the  prison  system 
at  Rome  became  a  model.  Popes  Eugenius  IV 
(1435),  Paul  V  (1611),  and  Innocent  X  (1655) 
passed  regulations  improving  the  conditions  of 
prisoners,  until  finally  Clement  XI  (1703),  by  con- 
structing St.  Michael's  prison,  introduced  the  most 
essential  change  needed  to  ameliorate  the  penal 
system:  the  construction  of  a  house  of  correction  for 
youthful  offenders,  as  is  recorded  in  the  inscription 
on  the  facade:  "Perditis  adolescentibus  corrigendis 
instituendisque  ut  qui  inertes  oberant  instructi 
reipublioae  serviant"  (for  the  correction  and  educa- 
tion of  abandoned  youths;  that  they  who,  without 
training,  were  detrimental  to  the  State,  may,  with 
training,  be  of  service  to  it).  The  methods  employed 
to  reclaim  culprits  were  separation,  silence,  work, 
and  prayer.  Each  prisoner  had  his  cell  at  night,  but 
all  worked  in  common  during  the  day.  A  religious 
confraternity  supervised  them  and  undertook  their 
education.  Each  one  was  taught  a  trade,  and  was 
encouraged  by  a  system  of  rewards.  The  punish- 
ments consisted  in  bread  and  water  diet,  work  in 
their  cells,  black  holes,  and  flogging.  In  the  large 
workshop  of  the  gaol  was  inscribed  the  motto: 
"Parum  est  coercere  improbos  poena  nisi  probos 
efficias  disciplina"  (It  avails  little  to  punish  the 
wicked  unless  you  reform  them  by  discipline).  In 
1735  Clement  Xll  erected  a  prison  for  women  on  the 
model  of  St.  Michael's.  If  Clement  is  considered  the 
creator  of  the  modern  penitentiary  system^  it  must 
be  pointed  out  that  at  Amsterdam  the  prmciple  of 
separation  at  night  and  work  in  common  during  the 
day  had  been  introduced  in  1603  (Von  Hippel, 
"Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  Freiheitstrafe"  in 
"Zeitschr.  fur  die  Gesch.  Straf.",  1897,  p.  437,  and 
Roux,  "Revue  p6nitentiaire",  1898,  p.  124  sqq.),  and 
that  the  work  of  the  Dutch  inspired  many  imitators 
in  Germany  and  Italy,  where  learned  jurisconsults 
proclaimed  that  the  reformation  of  the  culprit  was 
the  object  of  punishment  (Rivifere,  "Revue  p6ni- 
tentiah-e",  1895,  p.  1152).  A  priest,  Filippo  Franci, 
after  experimenting  at  Venice  and  Naples  on  the 
effect  of  separating  prisoners  according  to  sex,  age, 
and  social  rank,  succeeded  in  making  his  house  of 
refuge  at  Florence  {casa  pia  di  refugio),  by  the  ap- 
plication of  individual  separation,  a  model  establish- 
ment for  the  correctional  education  of  children. 

Influence  of  the  Religious  Orders. — In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  Church  founded  religious  orders  which 
bound  themselves  by  vow  to  the  redemption  of  cap- 
tives; the  Trinitarians,  or  Mathurins,  established 
in  1198  by  St.  John  of  Matha  and  Felix  de  Valois, 
and  the  Nolascans,  founded  in  1223.  In  Spain, 
France,  and  especially  Italy,  there  were,  moreover, 
associations  or  confraternities  labouring  to  improve 
the  condition  of  prisoners:  the  Confraternitd,  della 
Misericordia  and  the  Compagnia  di  Santa  Maria 
della  croce  al  Tempio  detta  de  Neri  at  Florence,  the 
Pia  Casa  di  Misericordia  at  Pisa,  the  Casa  della 
pietd,  at  Venice,  etc.  Besides  the  prisons  depending 
on  the  State,  there  were  prisons  under  the  control 
of  the  religious  authorities.  Each  convent  had  one 
or  at  times  two  prisons  in  which  religious  were  in- 
carcerated.    The  term  of  imprisonment   was  tern- 


PRISONS 


432 


PRISONS 


poral  or  perpetual.  The  culprit  had  to  do  penance 
and  amend  his  ways.  He  was  isolated  and  often 
chained.  Generally  the  discipline  was  severe;  not 
unf requently  corporal  punishment  was  added ,  to  in- 
carceration and  the  prisoner  put  on  bread  and  water. 
The  Church  had  the  right  to  punish  clerics  for  penal 
offences  and  had  its  own  episcopal  prisons,  but  from 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  a  result  of  the 
changed  relations  of  Church  and  State,  the  privilegium 
fori  disappeared  and  the  State  resumed  its  right  of 
punishing  clerics  in  non-religious  matters.  In  the 
episcopal  prisons  clerics  were  treated  more  gently 
than  were  the  monks  in  convent  prisons,  neverthe- 
less in  certain  cases  the  discipline  was  very  rigorous. 
The  Church  had  jurisdiction  also  over  the  laity  in 
offences  of  a  religious  character.  Finally,  it  created 
a  new  procedure,  differing  from  the  ordinary,  viz. 
the  inquisitorial  procedure  in  cases  of  heresy.  Im- 
prisonment was  the  severest  punishment  the  in- 
quisitors could  inflict  directly.  According  to  the 
inquisitional  theory,  it  was  not  really  a  punishment, 
but  a  means  for  the  culprit  to  obtain  pardon  for  his 
crimes,  and  to  amend  and  be  converted,  while  close 
supervision  prevented  him  from  infecting  the  rest 
of  the  flock.  The  prisoners  were  subjected  to  two 
regimes:  the  severe  and  the  milder;  but,  in  either 
case,  the  captive  was  given  only  bread  and  water; 
he  was  confined  to  a  cell,  and  forbidden  all  communica- 
tion, though  the  latter  provision  was  not  strictly 
enforced.  Those  under  the  milder  discipline  could, 
if  they  behaved  well,  take  a  little  exercise  in  the 
corridors,  a  privilege  granted  also  to  the  aged  and 
infirm.  Those  condemned  to  the  severe  regime  were 
cast  fettered  into  a  narrow  dark  cell;  sometimes  they 
were  chained  to  the  walls.  The  prisons  were  con- 
structed without  any  regard  to  the  health  or  con- 
venience of  the  inmates,  and  the  condition  of  the 
latter  was  wretched.  The  Inquisition  sometimes 
commuted  or  remitted  the  punishment.  The  re- 
mission was  ad  tempus,  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period, 
according  to  the  case. 

III.  Modern  Prison  Reforms. — In  spite  of  these 
efforts  to  better  the  prison  system  in  earlier  days 
there  was  much  room  for  improvement  in  the  build- 
ings, diet,  and  discipline.  Usually  the  main  object 
of  the  authorities  was  to  punish  rather  than  to  re- 
form the  culprit.  Not  unfrequently  the  greatest 
criminals  and  persons  convicted  of  trifling  offences 
were  imprisoned  together.  Fortunately,  after  the 
construction  of  St.  Michael's  prison  by  Clement  XI, 
the  development  of  cellular  imprisonment  went  on 
uninterruptedly.  From  Central  Italy  the  movement 
spread  towards  Northern  Italy,  to  Turin  (erection  of 
the  House  of  Good  Counsel,  17.57),  Venice  (1760), 
Milan,  where  Empress  Maria  Theresa  established 
in  17.59  a  house  of  correction  containing  140  cells, 
25  of  which  were  for  women  and  20  for  children. 
From  Milan  the  system,  as  might  be  expected,  was 
introduced  almost  immediately  into  the  Austrian 
Low  Countries  where  Maria  Theresa's  efforts  were 
earnestly  seconded  by  Viscount  Jean  Vilain  XIV, 
Burgomaster  of  Ghent  (Vicomte  Vilain  XIV,  "M6- 
moires  sur  les  moyens  de  corriger  les  malfaiteurs", 
Brussels,  1841).  At  his  suggestion  the  celebrated 
prison  of  Ghent,  finished  in  1775,  was  erected  (Holt- 
zendorf,  "Handbuch",  I,  pi.  3,  gives  the  plan  of  this 
prison).  The  system  adopted  there  was  isolation 
by  night  and  work  in  common  by  day.  Moreover 
a  division  of  the  culprits  according  to  juridical  and 
moral  classification  was  seriously  undertaken. 

A  general  change  in  prison  discipline  was  effected 
through  the  efforts  of  John  Howard  the  philan- 
thropist, b.  in  1726  at  Hackney,  London  (Rivifere, 
"Howard,  sa  vie,  son  ceuvre"  in  "Revue  p^niten- 
tiaire",  1S91,  pp.  662  sqq.;  Howard-Wines,  "Punish- 
ment and  Reformation",  122  sqq.;  Krohne,  "Lehr- 
buch";    Cuche,  "Traits  de  science  et  de  legislation 


penitentiares",  304).  Having  visited  the  prisons  of 
England,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Portugal,  Turkey, 
and  North  America,  he  published  in  1744  a  remark- 
able work,  "State  of  the  prisons  in  England  and 
Wales  with  preliminary  observations  and  an  account 
of  some  foreign  prisons"  Howard  described  the 
wretched  conditions  of  the  prisons:  imprisonment  in 
common  without  regard  to  age  or  sex,  want  of  space, 
bad  food,  damp  and  vitiated  air,  want  of  light, 
filth,  immorality,  the  use  of  spirituous  liquors, 
gambling  with  cards  and  dice.  After  noting  the 
evils,  he  proposes  the  remedies.  It  is  on  a  religious 
training  of  the  prisoners  that  he  relies  most  for  a 
reform;  the  second  great  means  is  work;  he  holds 
that  society  is  bound  by  the  ties  of  brotherhood  and 
even  by  the  hope  of  reclaiming  the  culprit,  to  provide 
him  with  proper  food  and  subject  him  to  a  hygienic 
regime;  he  favoured  the  separation  of  prisoners, 
though  he  did  not  approve  of  the  system  of  shutting 
them  alone  in  cells  both  by  day  and  night,  except 
for  certain  classes  of  culprits;  all  others  he  would 
separate  only  during  the  night.  Howard  was  the 
interpreter  of  the  opinion  of  the  civilized  world. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  the  results  of  this  change  of 
opinion  in  the  different  countries,  or,  at  least,  to  point 
out  the  original  systems. 

United  States  of  America. — (1)  The  Pennsylvania 
system  is  the  work  of  the  Philadelphia  Society  for 
Alleviating  the  Miseries  of  Public  Prisons,  founded  in 
1776.  The  fundamental  idea  of  this  regime  is 
rigorous  and  continued  isolation  to  excite  to  re- 
pentance and  lead  the  culprit  to  a  better  life.  At 
first  the  system  was  carried  to  such  an  extreme  that 
the  cells  were  without  light  in  order  that  the  darkness 
might  act  more  powerfully  on  the  prisoner's  mind  and 
conscience.  Some  writers  say  that  the  culprits  had 
no  work  to  do,  but  that  is  uncertain.  The  Pennsyl- 
vania system,  in  its  rigorous  form  as  it  was  originally 
established,  prevented,  it  is  true,  the  mutual  corrup- 
tion of  the  prisoners  and  the  planning  of  crimes  to  be 
committed  on  their  release,  which  are  the  negative 
effects  of  individual  separation;  but  it  was  not  suited 
to  produce  positive  results,  that  is,  an  awakening  of 
the  moral  sense  in  man  left  to  his  own  meditations; 
the  cell  can  have  an  influence  for  moral  good  only 
when  it  enables  the  reflections  of  solitude  to  be 
guided  and  strengthened  by  outside  influences 
(Cuche,  op.  cit.,  312  sqq.). 

(2)  'The  system  of  Auburn  or  silence  (Chestel, 
"Avantages  du  Syst^me  d'Auburn",  1900),  intro- 
duced in  the  State  of  New  York,  consists  in  isolating 
the  prisoners  only  at  night,  in  making  them  work  to- 
gether in  strict  silence  during  the  day,  and  in  separat- 
ing them  according  to  age  and  morality.  This  is, 
in  general,  the  same  as  the  regime  of  the  prisons  of 
Amsterdam,  St.  Michael,  and  Ghent.  The  prin- 
cipal objection  urged  against  it  is  the  difficulty  of 
enforcing  silence,  and  of  preventing  the  inmates  from 
communicating  with  one  another.  Moreover,  such 
unnatural  life  makes  the  culprits  irascible. 

(3)  In  the  so-called  system  of  classification,  the 
prisoners  are  divided  not  only  according  to  sex,  age, 
degree  of  guilt,  aptitude  for  work,  but  also  according 
to  their  moral  character  and  the  possibility  of  amend- 
ment; in  each  division  work  is  in  common.  Such  a 
system  depending  entirely  on  the  judgment  of  the 
governor  of  the  gaol  seems  diflScult  to  carry  out  in 
practice. 

(4)  In  the  mitigated  Pennsylvania  system,  the 
inmates  are  isolated  in  cells  day  and  night;  they  are 
separated  also  in  church,  in  school,  and  on  the  grounds, 
but  they  work  at  a  lucrative  trade,  read  books,  are 
visited  by  members  of  the  prison  staff,  are  allowed  to 
receive  their  relations  from  time  to  time,  and  may 
write  to  them. 

(5)  The  state  reformatories  are  intended  to  pro- 
vide rigorous  training  for  prisoners  between  the  ages 


PRISONS 


433 


PRISONS 


of  sixteen  and  thirty  who  give  hope  of  being  cor- 
rected; the  indeterminate  sentence  is  the  basis  and 
the  paroling  of  prisoners  the  completion  of  this  sys- 
tem. The  model  establishment  is  the  Reformatory 
at  Elmira  (Aschrott,  "  Aus  dem  Strafen  u.  Gefangniss- 
wesen  Nordamerikas",  1889;  Winter,  "Die  New- 
Yorker  staatliche  Besserungsanstalten  zu  Elmira", 
1890;  Yoon,  "Rapport  sur  I'organisation  p^niten- 
tiare  aux  Etats-Unis"  in  "Revue  p^nitentiare", 
1895;  Barrows,  "The  Reformatory  System  in  the 
United  States",  Washington,  Govt.  Printing  Office, 
1900;  Sanborn,  "Rapport  sur  Ic  Reformatory 
d'Elmira";  Cuche,  op.  cit.,  358  sqq.).  The  com- 
mittee of  directors  release,  before  the  end  of  their 
term,  those  who  deserve  this  favour.  The  convicts 
are  isolated  at  night;  and  in  the  daytime  receive  a 
professional,  physical,  and  intellectual  training. 
Every  opportunity  is  taken  to  provide  for  the  moral 
and  religious  improvement  of  the  culprits.  It  is  not 
the  object  of  the  system  to  train  the  prisoners  only 
at  specified  hours  but  rather  to  do  so  continually, 
by  bringing  them  into  constant  contact  with  an  in- 
telligent and  devoted  staff  of  instructors,  and  thus 
gradually  inspire  better  re.solutions.  A  last  charac- 
teristic of  the  system  is  the  multiplication  of  classi- 
fications and  gradations.  The  reward  consists  in 
being  promoted  from  grade  to  grade,  which  results 
in  an  increase  of  comfort  and  a  greater  remuneration 
for  manual  work ;  the  punishment  in  a  corresponding 
descent.  When  he  has  been  promoted  to  the  first 
class  or  category,  the  convict,  if  his  conduct  during 
the  preceding  six  months  has  been  satisfactory, 
may  be  let  out  on  parole.  Generally  a  situation  is 
found  for  him,  and  his  employer  sends  in  regularly 
an  account  of  his  conduct  to  the  administration  of  the 
reformatory;  certain  officers  are,  moreover,  appointed 
to  watch  over  the  paroled  convicts  and  are  authorized 
to  arrest  them  and  bring  them  back  to  the  reforma- 
tory if  their  conduct  is  not  satisfactory.  This  last 
stage  of  freedom  on  parole  lasts  six  months,  after 
which  the  prisoners  are  discharged  from  prison  for 
good.  (For  treatment  of  juvenile  offenders  see 
Juvenile  Courts.) 

Great  Britain. — Captain  Maconochie  introduced 
about  1840  a  special  system  called  the  progressive 
into  the  convict  settlement  of  Norfolk  Island.  This 
system  consisted  in  proportioning  the  duration  of  the 
punishment  to  the  work  done  and  the  good  conduct 
of  the  convict.  The  duration  was  represented  by  a 
certain  figure  or  number  of  good  marks  settled  ac- 
cording to  the  gravity  of  the  crime.  The  culprit 
had  to  merit  these  good  marks  before  being  liberated; 
each  day  he  was  awarded  one  or  more,  according  to 
hia  work;  if  his  conduct  was  unsatisfactory  a  slight 
penalty  was  imposed.  Maconochie  thus  gave  the 
convict  the  control  of  his  own  lot.  The  results  were 
marvellous.  When  transportation  was  abolished, 
England  remained  faithful  to  the  idea  of  making  im- 
prisonment in  a  cell  only  a  small  part  of  the  penalty, 
and  of  gradually  preparing  the  convict  to  return  to 
society  when  he  had  gained  his  complete  freedom. 
This  system  comprises  the  following  stages:  (1)  The 
prisoner  is  at  first  confined  to  the  cells  for  nine  months. 
(2)  He  is  then  sent  to  one  of  the  central  public  works 
prisons,  Chatham,  Dover,  or  Plymouth,  where  the 
Auburn  regime  is  in  force — separation  at  night,  work 
in  common  during  the  day.  The  culprits  are  divided 
into  four  classes,  according  to  their  work  and  conduct, 
by  means  of  a  system  of  marks,  enabling  them  to 
reach  a  higher  grade.  Violation  of  discipline  rele- 
gates them  to  a  lower  grade  and  even  to  the  cells. 

(3)  The  third  period  is  one  of  conditional  liberty, 
the  prisoner  being  liberated  on  a  ticket-of-leave. 
In  Ireland  Walter  Crofton  devised  an  intermediate 
stage  between  the  public  gaol  and  conditional 
hberty.  To  test  the  moral  character  of  the  convict 
and  to  see  if  he  was  fit  for  hberty,  he  was  compelled 
XII.— 28 


to  reside  six  months  in  the  prison  at  Lusk,  a  prison 
without  walls,  bars,  or  bolts,  where  the  culprits  were 
employed  as  free  workmen  in  agriculture  or  a  trade. 
This  intermediate  stage  was  abolished  when  Crofton's 
connexion  with  the  Irish  prisons  ceased. 

The  progressive  system  has  been  adopted  in  Hun- 
gary; during  the  intermediate  stage  the  prisoners 
are  employed  on  farms.  What  characterizes  the 
regime  of  penal  servitude,  in  addition  to  its  progre.s- 
sive  organization,  is  the  nature  of  the  work  imposed 
on  the  prisoners.  In  the  second  stage  the  prisoners 
are  engaged  only  in  public  works.  The  gaol  at  Worm- 
wood-Scrubs was  built  entirely  by  convicts,  as  were 
the  breakwater  at  Portsmouth  and  part  of  the  docks 
at  Chatham  etc.  Prins  (Science  penale  et  droit 
positif,  p.  445  sq.)  believes  that  the  progressive 
regime,  while  not  perfect,  offers  perhaps  more  scope 
than  the  purely  cellular  system,  as  it  approaches  more 
closely  the  normal  conditions  of  life.  The  successive 
stages  bring  the  convict  nearer  to  liberty,  and  enable 
him  to  appreciate  the  advantages,  the  dangers,  the 
meaning,  and  significance  of  freedom.  The  shops, 
where  groups  of  prisoners  work  under  the  control 
of  the  authorities,  accustom  them  to  the  conditions 
of  free  work.  Rivifere  and  Cuche,  viewing  the  ques- 
tion from  another  standpoint,  hold  that  if  the  com- 
mon prison  is  only  a  preparatory  school  for  recidivists, 
it  still  retains  that  character  when  it  is  imposed  on  a 
criminal  who  has  just  completed  his  stay  in  the  cells. 
Persons  who  have  caught  a  cold  are  not  placed  in  a 
draught  to  fortify  them  against  the  draughts  they 
must  be  exposed  to  later.  At  all  events,  what  may 
have  succeeded  in  one  country  or  in  the  case  of  a 
particular  race  might  produce  evil  results  if  applied 
elsewhere  (Cuche,  op.  cit.,  325). 

Belgium. — ^When  a  discussion  arises  among  prison 
experts  as  to  the  merits  and  demerits  of  the  cell,  the 
typical  example  is  always  the  Belgian  cell  says 
Cuche  (cf.  "Notice  sur  I'organisation  des  prisons  en 
Belgique",  Brussels,  1910).  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  study  it  in  detail.  The  cellular  regime  is  due 
to  Ducpetiaux,  Inspector-General  of  Prisons,  who, 
in  1830,  determined  to  put  an  end  to  the  abuses  of  the 
penitentiary  system  in  vogue  in  Belgium,  and  to 
place  the  criminal  in  a  cell,  compensating  for  the 
severity  of  the  punishment  by  curtailing  its  duration. 
Although  he  soon  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  his 
plan  succeed  so  far  as  to  have  cellular  gaols  erected, 
it  was  only  on  4  March,  1870,  that  cellular  imprison- 
ment was  adopted  by  law.  All  penalties  of  dep- 
rivation of  liberty  are  undergone  under  the  regime 
of  cellular  isolation  by  day  and  night.  The  rule, 
however,  admits  of  exceptions.  The  physical  or 
mental  condition  of  some  prisoners  will  not  allow  the 
application  or  continuance  of  cellular  discipline. 
Again  the  crowding  of  the  cellular  gaols  sometimes 
makes  it  necessary  to  allow  the  prisoners  to  be  put 
together.  Finally,  those  who  are  condemned  to  hard 
labour  or  perpetual  imprisonment  are  isolated  only 
during  the  first  ten  years  in  prison.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  that  time,  those  condemned  to  a  life  sentence 
are  allowed  to  choose  either  to  continue  their  form 
of  imprisonment  or  to  be  placed  under  ordinary 
discipline.  From  1870  to  1909,  170  (76  per  cent) 
selected  to  continue  their  cellular  life,  and  55  (24 
per  cent)  choose  the  ordinary  discipline. 

The  cellular  system  as  it  exists  in  Belgium  is  con- 
sidered at  present  the  most  practical,  though  criminol- 
ogists and  practical  experts  are  far  from  agreeing 
on  the  advantages  and  inconveniences  of  the  cell, 
except  in  the  cases  of  short  terms,  when  there  is 
unanimity.  "The  real  value  of  a  penitential  in- 
stitution ia  in  no  way  absolute",  says  Cuche  (op. 
cit.,  p.  331);  "we  have  merely  to  see  if  its  advantages 
are  considerably  greater  than  its  inconveniences;  it 
must  be  remembered,  too,  that  its  merit  is  greatly 
increased  when  intelligent  and  devoted  men  are  in 


PRISONS 


434 


PRISONS 


charge  of  the  establishment.  If  it  be  laid  down  as  a 
principle  that  the  prisoners  shall  be  subjected  to  the 
cellular  regime  only  as  long  as  is  judged  proper  by 
the  physician  who  shall  examine  them  on  their 
admission  and  visit  them  regularly  afterwards  during 
the  course  of  their  punishment;  if  there  be  an  official 
staff  and  a  sufficient  number  of  visitors  to  preserve 
the  social  element  in  each  prisoner;  finally  if,  in  con- 
fining prisoners  to  their  cells,  due  discrimination  as 
to  sex,  age,  and  race  is  made,  the  evil  results  of  pro- 
longed isolation  will  in  large  measure  disappear".  M 
Henri  Joly  ("Problemes  de  science  criminelle",  Paris, 
1910,  pp.  195,  211),  who  visited  the  central  prison  of 
Louvain  on  three  occasions,  was  very  favourably  im- 
pressed by  the  system;  he  recognizes  that  an  ex- 
cellent programme  is  being  carried  out:  the  prisoner 
is  separated  as  much  as  possible  from  his  fellows,  and 
brought  into  contact  as  far  as  possible  with  society 
properly  so-called,  with  which  he  maintains  the  best 
relations;  his  only  regrets  are  that  there  are  so  many 
prisoners  and  that  conditional  liberations  are  granted 
so  rarely. 

Proportional  and  progressive  reductions  of  the 
term  of  incarceration  are  granted.  The  rule  in 
force  reduces  a  sentence  of  6  months  to  4  months 
and  23  days;  a  year  to  9  months  and  12  days;  3 
years  to  2  years,  1  month,  and  8  days;  5  years  to  3 
years,  5  months,  and  10  days;  10  years  to  6  years, 
3  months,  and  9  days;  20  years  to  9  years,  9  months, 
and  12  days.  The  legislature  not  having  provided 
cases  in  which  the  original  sentence  is  between  20  and 
25  years,  a  conditional  liberation  is  granted  to  the 
prisoner  when  he  would  have  been  definitely  liberated 
if  he  had  been  granted  a  reduction  of  10-12  of  the 
years  over  20.  Experience  shows  that  a  mathemat- 
ical reduction,  uniform  in  every  case,  ignoring  the 
principle  of  the  individualization  of  the  penalty, 
does  not  meet  the  necessity  of  repression.  The 
only  result  of  the  system  is  to  weaken  the  effect  of 
prison  restraint  and  to  liberate  much  too  rapidly 
criminals  unworthy  of  the  favour  (Prins,  op.  cit., 
523  sqq.). 

The  prisons  are  divided  into  two  classes:  central 
prisons,  two  in  number,  Louvain  and  Ghent ;  second- 
ary prisons,  numbering  twenty-seven.  The  central 
prison  of  Louvain,  and  all  the  secondary  prisons, 
except  two  which  are  to  be  changed,  are  arranged 
with  a  view  to  complete  separation  night  and  day. 
The  central  prison  of  Ghent,  erected  towards  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  has  eight  divisions,  only 
one  of  which  has  been  arranged  for  cellular  imprison- 
ment by  day  and  night;  the  others  contain  only 
night  cells,  the  prisoners  being  assembled  during  the 
day.  The  central  prisons  receive  only  male  convicts. 
There  is  no  central  prison  for  women,  on  account  of 
the  few  crimes  committed  by  women;  they  are  in- 
carcerated in  the  secondary  prisons.  The  central 
prison  of  Louvain  receives  those  condemned  to  hard 
labour  and  seclusion,  as  well  as  prisoners  sentenced 
to  correctional  imprisonment  for  more  than  five 
years.  There  is  a  special  quarter  in  the  central 
prison  at  Ghent  for  youthful  convicts.  The  inmates 
are  isolated  in  cells  at  night  and  work  in  common 
during  the  day.  The  law  allows  the  courts  and  tri- 
bunals in  sentencing  an  individual  under  the  age  of 
eighteen  years  completed  to  order  him  to  remain  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Government  after  the  end  of  his  term 
till  he  attains  his  majority:  such  persons  are  also  sent 
to  Ghent.  However,  those  who  on  account  of  their 
youth,  the  moral  conditions  in  which  they  are  situ- 
ated, or  their  previous  conduct,  do  not  deserve  to  be 
subjopted  to  the  more  rigid  discipline  of  the  special 
quarters  till  their  majority  are  sent  to  a  philan- 
thropic school.  The  secondary  prisons,  which  with 
one  exception  have  two  distinct  sections,  one  for  men 
and  one  for  women,  are  principally  prisons  for  punish- 
ment; accused  persons  are  detained  there;  they  con- 


tain, moreover,  different  classes  of  inmates,  such  as 
those  detained  only  temporarily,  beggars  and  vaga- 
bonds awaiting  transference  to  the  mendicity  in- 
stitutions. 

The  central  administration  of  the  prisons  is  under 
the  control  of  the  minister  of  justice.  Connected 
with  the  central  administration  is  the  inspection  de- 
partment, divided  into  three  sections:  the  first  in- 
cludes everything,  except  the  accounting  and  con- 
struction departments;  the  second  is  engaged  on  the 
accounts;  the  third  attends  to  buildings,  improve- 
ments, and  repairs.  Besides  the  supervision  of  the 
inspectors,  which  embraces  the  prisons  as  a  whole, 
there  is  permanent  local  supervision  which,  in  each 
establishment,  is  confided  to  a  commission,  called 
the  administrative  commission.  The  members  of 
this  body,  numbering  three,  six,  or  nine,  according 
to  the  importance  of  the  prison,  are  appointed  by 
the  king  and  selected  preferably  from  the  ranks  of 
the  clergy,  physicians,  manufacturers  or  merchants, 
engineers  or  architects.  The  royal  procurator  of  the 
arrondissement,  the  burgomaster  of  the  commune,  and 
the  military  auditor,  if  there  be  one  in  the  locality, 
are  ex  officio  members.  The  commission  participates 
in  the  work  of  reforming  the  lives  of  the  condemned 
by  visiting  the  cells  as  often  as  possible.  It  advises 
pardons  and  conditional  liberation,  and  is  consulted 
on  the  suggestions  made  by  the  governor.  It  is  not 
a  mere  organ  of  control  and  consulting  council;  it 
participates  in  the  working  of  the  establishment,  at 
least  in  the  cases  provided  for  by  law,  such  as  grant- 
ing holidays  to  the  staff,  approving  contracts,  reg- 
ulating the  conditions  relating  to  the  work  of  the 
prisoners.  The  members  of  the  staff  of  the  central 
prison  of  Louvain  may  be  taken  as  an  example: 
a  governor,  two  assistant  governors,  three  Catholic 
chaplains,  two  Protestant  chaplains,  a  Jewish  chap- 
lain, two  teachers,  two  doctors,  a  druggist,  two  ac- 
countants, two  store-keepers,  five  clerks,  a  head- 
warder,  fifty  guards,  five  assistant  warders,  and  four 
inspectors  of  work.  As  the  central  prison  of  Louvain 
contains  about  600  ordinary  cells,  there  are  about 
twelve  prisoners  for  each  warder.  The  inspectors 
of  work  are  employed  exclusively  to  give  professional 
instruction  to  the  prisoners,  and  to  supervise  the  work 
of  the  principal  trades,  shoemaking,  tailoring  etc., 
as  well  as  the  repairing  of  the  furniture  and  buildings. 
In  five  gaols  where  the  small  number  of  female  in- 
mates requires  only  one  wardress,  the  latter  is  a  lay 
person.  In  all  the  others  the  supervision  of  the 
female  prisoners  is  confined  to  nuns. 

The  duty  of  the  chaplains  consists  in  presiding  at 
religious  exercises,  and  fulfilling  the  obligations  of 
their  ministry;  religious  instruction,  administration 
of  the  sacraments,  assistance  to  the  dying.  They  go 
to  the  cells  of  their  co-religionists  unless  the  latter 
decline  to  receive  them.  The  exercise  of  Catholic 
worship  includes  Mass  and  Benediction  and  also  a 
moral  and  religious  instruction  on  Sundays  and  feast 
days  in  the  prison  chapel.  In  the  more  important 
gaols  a  spiritual  retreat  is  given  every  year  by  an 
outside  clergyman.  Attendance  at  religious  ex- 
ercises is  optional.  Cuche  remarks  quite  correctly 
that  "for  adults  as  for  children,  experience  proves 
that  religion  is  the  best  method  of  inculcating  moral- 
ity "-  This  incontestable  truth  has  been  admitted  by 
every  prison  expert  in  the  neighbouring  countries. 
Krohne  declares  that  it  is  only  by  means  of  religion 
that  we  can  hope  through  punishment  to  reform  the 
criminal,  which  is  the  principal  object  of  imprison- 
ment. Kraus,  in  the  "Handbuch  d'Holtzendorff", 
gives  an  excellent  refutation  of  the  objection  drawn 
from  the  liberty  of  conscience  of  the  culprit.  "Be- 
sides the  moral  influence  of  religion  there  is,"  adds 
Cuche,  "the  Divine  service  with  its  ceremonies,  a 
fact  often  forgotten.  In  a  prison,  especially  if  it 
is  cellular,  assistance  at  Divine  worship  and  singing 


PRISONS 


435 


PRISONS 


of  hymns,  are  excellent  distractions,  while  they  offer 
the  prisoner  an  occasion  for  salutary  reflection. 
In  Germany  choruses  in  four  parts  are  sung  in  the 
evening.  Krohne  gives  a  simple  and  touching  de- 
scription of  this  ceremony.  The  same  author  recom- 
mends that  each  culprit  should  be  given  a  hymn-book, 
as  well  as  a  New  Testament,  a  Bible  history,  and  a 
psalter.  He  even  expresses  the  desire  that  the 
prisoner  should  be  induced  to  purchase  the  hymn- 
book  and  the  New  Testament  with  his  own  money 
in  order  that  he  might  keep  them  after  his 
liberation." 

Condiiional  Liberation. — Prins  remarks:  "As  the 
system  of  conditional  condemnation  allows  the  judges 
to  exercise  their  discretion,  and  remit  the  penalty 
in  the  case  of  offenders  for  whom  a  warning  seems  suf- 
ficient, conditional  liberation  allows  the  administra- 
tion to  act  similarly  towards  those  in  prison,  and  to 
decide  who  should  remain  in  prison  till  the  end  of 
their  term  and  who  should  be  prepared  for  definitive 
liberation  by  a  conditional  liberation.  This  plan 
acts  as  a  stimulus,  since  it  holds  out  to  well-oonducted 
prisoners  the  possibility  of  having  their  term  short- 
ened; it  acts  too  as  a  restraint,  as  the  liberated  con- 
vict recognizes  that  the  favour  may  be  withdrawn; 
it  is  a  stage  of  the  punishment  since  it  prepares  the 
prisoner  for  his  definitive  liberation."  Conditional 
liberation  has  become  an  essential  part  of  the  penal 
system  throughout  the  world.  As  there  is  an- 
ticipated liberation,  when  the  culprit  seems  reformed 
before  the  end  of  the  term  to  which  he  was  sentenced, 
so  it  logically  follows  there  should  be  a  supplementary 
detention  when  the  criminal  at  the  expiration  of 
his  term  does  not  appear  to  be  reformed.  Under  such 
circumstances  an  indeterminate  sentence  is  advocated 
(Cuche,  "Traitfi  de  science  et  de  legislation  piSniten- 
tiaires",  356-9).  Some  see  in  this  theory  the 
logical  result  of  a  repressive  system  having  as  its 
sole  aim  the  moral  reformation  of  the  criminal; 
others  consider  it  the  logical  result  of  the  theory 
which  considers  the  punishment  as  an  act  of  social 
defence,  the  intensity  of  which  is  proportioned  to  the 
danger  personified  in  the  delinquent  (cf.  Prins, 
"Science  p^nale  et  droit  positif",  455).  This  writer 
(op.  cit.,  459  sqq.)  does  not  favour  the  indeterminate 
sentence  as  a  penalty  properly  so  called  imposed  on  a 
normal  responsible  culprit,  because  it  is  not  in  har- 
mony with  the  principles  of  our  public  law,  which  en- 
deavours in  the  matter  of  punishment  to  safeguard 
the  liberty  of  every  individual  against  arbitrary  use 
of  power,  and  because  it  is  very  complicated  in 
practice;  he  admits,  however,  that  it  is  diiierent  when 
there  is  question  of  subjecting  to  government  con- 
trol youthful  offenders,  beggars,  and  vagabonds, 
or  in  the  case  of  degenerates,  lunatics  or  weak- 
minded  persons. 

Care  of  Ldberated  Criminals. — It  is  a  duty  of  society 
to  come  to  the  aid  of  deserving  liberated  prisoners; 
for  oftentimes  they  are  not  in  a  position  to  support 
themselves,  and  so  fall  again  easily.  Many  societies 
have  been  established  everywhere  to  assist  and  en- 
courage liberated  prisoners;  their  efforts  should  be 
directed  especially  towards  youthful  offenders. 
A  new  Central  Association  for  the  Aid  of  Discharged 
Prisoners  was  established  in  England  early  in  1911. 
While  the  association  is  an  official  body  it  combines 
and  co-ordinates  all  the  private  philanthropic  socie- 
ties which  in  a  disconnected  way  endeavoured  to 
assist  convicts  on  their  discharge.  Besides  aiming  to 
help  the  prisoner  on  his  release  more  effectively  than 
formerly,  it  aims  to  do  away  in  most  cases  with  the 
ticket-of-leave  system.  Persons  discharged  from 
penal  servitude  come  under  the  cognizance  and 
control  of  the  central  body.  Representatives  of  the 
different  societies  are  admitted  to  the  convict  pris- 
ons, and  are  thus  enabled  to  divide  the  ground 
among  the  different  agencies  and  to  make  a  study 


of  individual  cases  in  time  to  deal  with  them  on  the 
release  of  the  prisoners.  On  discharge  from  prison 
the  convict  keeps  in  touch  with  the  society  to  which 
he  belongs.  Except  in  unsuitable  cases  police 
supervision  is  suspended  so  long  as  the  convict  be- 
haves well  and  obeys  the  conditions  imposed  upon 
him  by  the  central  association,  working  through  the 
particular  society.  If  he  misbehaves,  or  if,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  authorities  charged  with  his  care,  he 
is  not  sincere  in  his  efforts  to  abstain  from  criminal 
courses,  he  may  be  returned  to  police  control.  But 
so  long  as  he  makes  an  honest  endeavour  to  regain 
his  position,  guided  and  aided  by  the  association, 
he  is  freed  from  direct  contact  with  the  police  or 
from  anything  likely  to  obtrude  his  past  upon  the 
notice  of  his  neighbours  or  employers. 

Prison-Reform  Associations. — The  international 
prison  congresses  have  played  an  important  part  in 
prison  reform.  The  first  was  held  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main  in  1846.  The  Congress  of  London  (1872), 
in  which  twenty-two  countries  were  represented  by 
100  delegates,  led  to  the  creation  of  an  international 
prison  commission.  The  last,  the  ninth  quinquen- 
nial session  of  the  International  Prison  Congress,  was 
held  in  Washington  in  1910.  Twenty-two  countries 
belonging  to  the  association  were  represented  by 
delegates  as  well  as  a  number  of  countries  not  yet 
officially  members,  among  them  China,  Japan,  and 
Egypt.  One  of  the  principal  achievements  of  the 
congress  was  the  formal  approval  of  the  indetermi- 
nate sentence,  a  product  of  American  developments. 
The  congress  also  approved  the  centralization  of  con- 
trol of  all  penal  institutions,  including  local  jaila, 
and  the  useful  employment  of  all  inmates,  whether 
merely  detained  for  trial  or  sentenced  for  long  terms; 
and  it  favoured  the  discreet  use  of  the  probation 
system,  advocating  central  supervision  of  probation 
in  each  state.  Considerable  attention  was  paid  also 
to  the  methods  of  criminal  procedure  suitable  for 
children  and  minors.  The  Prisons'  Society  of 
Rhenish  Prussia  and  Westphalia  (founded  in  1826); 
the  Society  of  Officers  of  the  German  Prisons 
(founded  in  1864) ;  the  German  Juristeniag  (founded 
in  1867);  the  International  Union  of  Penal  Law 
(founded  in  1889);  the  Societe  generale  des  prisons 
in  France,  and  the  National  Prison  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  have  likewise  materially  aided  the 
work  of  prison  reform. 

The  following  reforms  among  others  have  been 
warmly  advocated:  (1)  The  uniform  repressive 
system  should  be  differentiated  into  a  system  of 
education,  a  system  of  repression,  and  a  system  of 
preservation,  and  each  of  these  should  be  in  turn 
subdivided  according  to  the  various  classes  of  de- 
linquents. In  particular  there  should  be  a  good 
division  of  the  culprits,  and  a  social  effort  made  to 
reform  those  who  are  susceptible  of  it.  (2)  Short 
sentences  are  undesirable,  as  they  are  likely  neither 
to  intimidate  nor  to  educate.  (3)  The  cellular 
system  is  by  far  the  most  preferable,  so  long  as  danger 
to  the  physical  and  mental  well-being  of  the  culprit 
is  averted.  (4)  The  prisoner's  work  should  be  both 
useful  and  productive;  it  should  not  be  monotonous 
or  wearisome;  the  criminal  should  be  applied  to  work 
in  which  he  will  easily  find  occupation  on  his  libera- 
tion; the  kinds  of  work  should  be  sufficiently  varied 
to  suit  the  natural  aptitude  of  the  various  prisoners. 
State  pubUc  work  is  preferable.  (5)  While  enforcing 
as  far  as  possible  the  individualization  of  the  penalty, 
the  progressive  system  should  be  introduced,  as  it 
leads  up  gradually  to  liberty,  and  prepares  the  cul- 
prit to  enter  again  into  society.  (6)  In  the  case  of 
youthful  offenders  it  is  more  than  ever  necessary  to 
substitute  education  and  protection  for  punishment 
(see  CoUard,  "L'^ducation  protectrice  de  I'enfance 
en  Prusse,  La  loi  du  2  Juillet  1900  et  son  apphca- 
tion",  Louvain,  1908).    (7)  The  treatment  of  women 


PRISONS 


436 


PRIVILEGE 


in  prisons  should  be  based  on  different  principles 
from  those  applied  to  men.  (8)  In  the  case  of  con- 
ditional liberation  the  time  of  probation  should  be 
sufficiently  prolonged. 

Krauss,  Im  Kerker  vor  u.  nack  Christus  (Freiburg,  1895) ; 
Krieg,  Wissenschaft der Seeletikituug,  I  (Freiburg,  1907),  S-lZsqq.; 
LiMBERG,  Die  Giifdngnisseclsorge  u.  charitative  Fursorge  fiir 
Gefangene  und  Entlassene  ill  Preussen  (1903) ;  Rohden,  Pro- 
bleme  der  Gefangenenseelsorge  u.  Eiitlassenfursorge  (1908) :  von 
HOLTZENDORFF  AND  VON  Zagemann,  Handbuck  dcT  Gefdng- 
iiiswesejis  (1888);  Krohne,  Lehrbuch  der  Gfjdngnisskunde 
(1889);  Lenz,  Die  anglo-amerikanische  Reformbewegung  im 
Strafrecht  (1908);  AscnnoTT,  Strafen- u.  Gefdngniswesen  in  Eng- 
land wdhrend  des  letzten  Jahrzehnts  (1896);  Krohne  and  Ubeh, 
Die  Strafanstalten  und  Gefangnisse  in  Preussen  (1909) ;  Appel, 
Der  Vollzug  der  Freiheitsstrafen  in  Baden  (1905);  Rosenfeld, 
BOO  Jahre  Fursorge  der  preussischen  Staatsregierung  fur  die 
entlassenen  Gefangenen  (1905);  Heimberger,  Zur  Reform  des 
StrafvoUzuges  (1905) ;  Bachem  and  Meister,  Gefdngniswesen  in 
Staatslexikon,  II  (1909),  418  sqq.;  CuCHB,  Traite  de  science  et 
de  legislation  penitentiaires  (1905);  Prins,  Science  pinale  ei 
droit  positif  (1899);  Revue  penitentiaire,  pasaim;  International 
Prison  Congress,  Prisons  and  Reformatories  at  Home  and  Abroad 
(London,  1872) ;  Cook,  The  Prisons  of  the  World  (London, 
1891);  Wines,  State  of  Prisons  in  the  Civilized  World  (Cam- 
bridge, 1880) ;  Idem,  Punishment  and  Reformation  (New  York, 
1910) ;  Parsons,  Responsibility  for  Crime  (New  York,  1909) ; 
CoONET,  Prison  Reform  in  The  Month,  XCVI  (London,  1900), 
597. 

Charles  Collaed. 

Prisons,  Ecclesiastical. — It  is  plain  from  many 
decrees  in  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici"  that  the 
Church  has  claimed  and  exercised  the  right,  belonging 
to  a  perfect  and  visible  society,  of  protecting  its  mem- 
bers by  condemning  the  guilty  to  imprisonment.  The 
object  of  prisons  originally,  both  among  the  Hebrews 
and  the  Romans,  was  merely  the  safe-keeping  of  a 
criminal,  real  or  pretended,  until  his  trial.  The  eccle- 
siastical idea  of  imprisonment,  however,  is  that  con- 
finement be  made  use  of  both  as  a  punishment  and  as 
affording  an  opportunity  for  reformation  and  reflec- 
tion. This  method  of  punishment  was  anciently  ap- 
pUed  even  to  clerics.  Thus,  Boniface  VIII  (cap. 
"Quamvis",  iii,  "De  pcen.",  in  6)  decrees:  "Although 
it  is  known  that  prisons  were  specially  instituted  for 
the  custody  of  criminals,  not  for  their  punishment,  yet 
we  shall  not  find  fault  with  you  if  you  commit  to 
prison  for  the  performance  of  penance,  either  per- 
petually or  temporarily  as  shall  seem  best,  those  clerics 
subject  to  you  who  have  confessed  crimes  or  been  con- 
victed of  them,  after  you  have  carefully  considered  the 
excesses,  persons  and  circumstances  involved  in  the 
case"  The  Church  adopted  the  extreme  punishment 
of  perpetual  imprisonment  because,  by  the  canons,  the 
execution  of  offenders,  whether  clerical  or  lay,  could 
not  be  ordered  by  ecclesiastical  judges.  It  was  quite 
common  in  ancient  times  to  imprison  in  monasteries, 
for  the  purpose  of  doing  penance,  those  clerics  who  had 
been  convicted  of  grave  crimes  (o.  vii,  dist.  50).  The 
"Corpus  Juris",  however,  says  (c.  "Super  His",  viii, 
"De  poen.")  that  incarceration  does  not  of  itself  in- 
flict the  stigma  of  infamy  on  a  cleric,  as  is  evident 
from  a  papal  pronouncement  on  the  complaint  of  a 
cleric  who  had  been  committed  to  prison  because  he 
vacillated  in  giving  testimony.  The  reply  recorded  is 
that  imprisonment  does  not  ipso  facto  carry  with  it 
any  note  of  infamy. 

As  to  monastic  prisons  for  members  of  religious 
orders,  we  find  them  recorded  in  decrees  dealing  with 
the  incorrigibility  of  those  who  have  lost  the  spirit  of 
their  vocation.  Thus,  by  command  of  Urban  VIII, 
the  Congregation  of  the  Council  (21  Sept.,  1624)  de- 
creed: "For  the  future,  no  regular,  legitimately  pro- 
fessed, may  be  expelled  from  his  order  unless  he  be 
truly  incorrigible.  A  person  is  not  to  be  judged  truly 
incorrigible  unless  not  only  all  those  things  are  found 
verified  which  are  required  by  the  common  law  (not- 
withstanding the  constitutions  of  any  religious  order 
even  confirmed  and  approved  by  the  Holy  See),  but 
also,  until  the  delinquent  has  been  tried  by  fasting 
and  patience  for  one  year  in  confinement.  Therefore, 
let  every  order  have  private  prisons,  at  least  one  in 


every  province"  The  crimes  in  question  must  be 
such  as  by  natural  or  civil  law  would  merit  the  pun- 
ishment of  death  or  imprisonment  for  life  (Reiffen- 
stuel,  "Jus  Can.  univ.",  no.  228).  Innocent  XII  re- 
duced the  year  required  by  the  above-mentioned  decree 
to  six  months  (Decree  "Instantibus",  §2).  A  decree 
of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Council  (13  Nov., 
1632)  declares  that  a  religious  is  not  to  be  judged 
incorrigible  because  he  flees  from  imprisonment,  un- 
less, after  being  punished  three  times,  he  should  make 
a  fourth  escape.  As  the  civil  laws  do  not,  at  present, 
permit  of  incarceration  by  private  authority,  the  Con- 
gregation on  the  Discipline  of  Regulars  has  decreed 
(22  Jan.,  1886)  that  trials  for  incorrigibility,  preceding 
dismissal,  should  be  carried  out  by  summary,  not 
formal,  process,  and  that  for  each  case  recourse  should 
be  had  to  Rome.  A  vestige  of  the  monastic  imprison- 
ment (which,  of  course,  nowadays  depends  only  on 
moral  force)  is  found  in  the  decree  of  Leo  XIII  (4 
Nov.,  1892),  in  which  he  declares  that  religious  who 
have  been  ordained  and  wish  to  leave  their  order  can- 
not, under  pain  of  perpetual  suspension,  depart  from 
the  cloister  (exire  ex  clausura)  until  they  have  been 
adopted  by  a  bishop. 

PiATUs  MoNTENSis,  Prcelectiones  juris  regularis ,  I  (Paris,  1888); 
Reiffenstdel,  Jus  canonicum  universum,  V  (Paris,  1868) ;  Pl- 
HRING,  Jus  canonicum  universum,  V  (Venice,  1759). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Pritchard,  Humphrey,  Venerable.  See  Nich- 
ols, George,  Venerable. 

Privilege  (Lat.,  privilegium,  like  priva  lex)  is  a 
permanent  concession  made  by  a  legislator  outside 
of  the  common  law.  It  is  granted  by  special  favour, 
and  gives  the  privileged  an  advantage  over  the  non- 
privileged  individuals;  it  differs  from  particular  laws 
which  also  concern  certain  classes  of  persons  or  things; 
thus  the  clergy  and  the  religious  have  their  laws  and 
their  privileges.  The  favour,  being  lasting,  is  thus 
distinguished  from  a  permission  or  single  dispensa- 
tion. It  is  granted  to  his  subjects  by  a  superior 
having  authority  over  the  law;  it  thus  receives  an 
official  value  approximating  it  to  a  law,  in  the  sense 
that  he  who  enjoys  it  may  lawfully  exercise  it,  and 
third  parties  are  obliged  to  respect  its  use.  A  privi- 
lege, finally,  deviates  from  the  common  law,  including 
particular  laws,  whether  it  merely  adds  to  it  or 
derogates  from  it. 

Privileges  are  of  many  kinds.  Contrasted  with 
the  law,  they  are:  (1)  assimilated  to  the  law,  forming 
part  of  it  {dausa  in  corpore  juris),  such  are  the  privi- 
leges of  clerics,  or  they  are  granted  by  special  rescript. 
(2)  They  are  superadded  to  the  law  (prceler  jus) ,  when 
they  relate  to  an  object  not  touched  by  the  law,  or 
contrary  to  the  law  {contra  jus),  when  they  form  an 
exception,  allowing  one  to  do  or  to  omit  what  the  law 
forbids  or  commands.  As  to  the  manner  of  con- 
cession, they  are  (3)  granted  directly  or  obtained  by 
communication  with  those  who  enjoy  them  directly. 
Moreover,  the  concession  may  be  (4)  either  verbal  or 
by  an  official  writing.  Verbal  concessions  are  valid 
in  the  forum  of  conscience,  or  better,  in  the  case  of 
acts  that  need  not  be  justified  in  the  external  forum; 
to  be  valid  in  the  external  forum,  they  must  have  been 
granted  officially  by  rescripts  or  at  least  attested  lay  a 
competent  official  (Urban  VIII,  "Alias  felicis", 
20  Dec,  1631;  Reg.  Cone.  27  and  .52).  If  we  con- 
sider the  motive  for  granting  them,  privileges  are 
divided:  (5)  into  remunerative,  when  they  are  based 
on  the  merits  or  services  of  the  grantees,  or  purely 
gratuitous.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  subject, 
privileges  are  (6)  personal^  real,  or  mixed;  personal 
are  granted  directly  to  individuals;  real  to  what  the 
law  terms  a  "thing",  for  instance,  a  dignity  as  such, 
e.  g.  the  privilege  of  the  pallium  for  an  episcopal  see; 
mixed,  to  a  group  of  persons,  like  a  chapter  or  a  dio- 
cese (local  privilege).     With  regard  to  their  object, 


PRIVILEGED 


437 


PRIVILEGES 


privileges  are  (7)  positive  or  negative,  according  as 
they  allow  the  performance  of  an  act  otherwise  for- 
bidden, or  exempt  one  from  the  performance  of  an 
act  otherwise  obligatory.  Again  they  are  (8) 
honorary  or  useful;  (9)  purely  gratuitous  or  onerous, 
the  latter  entailing  certain  duties  or  obligations  cor- 
relative to  the  privilege;  among  such  are  conven- 
tional privileges,  like  concordats.  Finally,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  their  duration,  they  are  (10)  per- 
petual or  temporary. 

Privileges  recognized  by  the  law  require  no  proof 
and  must  be  recognized  by  the  court;  all  other  priv- 
ileges must  be  proved,  not  presumed.  They  are 
proved  by  the  production  of  the  original  concession 
or  by  a  duly  certified  copy.  To  avoid  difficulties  the 
superior  is  often  asked  to  renew  or  confirm  the  priv- 
ileges granted  by  him  or  his  predecessors.  This 
confirmation  may  be  either  in  common  form,  recogniz- 
ing the  privilege  again,  but  giving  it  no  new  force,  or 
in  specific  form,  which  is  a  new  grant,  revalidating  the 
former  as  far  as  needs  may  be.  The  two  forms  are 
distinguished  by  the  context  and  the  official  wording 
employed  (cf.  Decret.,  lib.  II,  tit.  xxx,  "De  con- 
firmatione  utili  vel  inutili").  The  teaching  of  the 
canonists  on  the  interpretation  of  rescripts  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows :  Privileges  are  to  be  construed 
according  to  the  letter,  the  interpretation  being  neither 
extensive  nor  restrictive  but  purely  declaratory,  that 
is  the  words  are  to  be  taken  only  in  their  full  and  usual 
signification.  A  privilege  as  being  a  concession  of 
the  ruler  is  understood  generously,  especially  when  it . 
runs  counter  to  no  law;  in  as  far  as  it  derogates  from 
the  law,  particularly  if  it  interferes  with  the  rights  of 
a  third  party,  it  is  interpreted  strictly.  Privileges 
are  obtained  by  direct  concession,  which  is  the  usual 
way,  or  by  prescriptive  custom,  an  exceptional  and 
indirect  manner,  or  by  communication.  The  last  is 
an  extension  of  the  privilege  to  others  than  the  first 
grantees.  It  may  occur  in  two  ways:  either  ex- 
plicitly, the  legislator  giving  the  former  class  what  he 
gave  the  latter,  or  implicitly,  when  it  is  already  de- 
creed that  the  privileges  granted  to  certain  juridical 
entities  are  deemed  accorded  to  certain  others,  un- 
less the  privilege  be  incommunicable  or  an  exception 
be  made  by  the  superior.  The  best-known  example 
of  the  communication  of  privileges  is  that  existing 
among  the  Mendicant  Orders,  as  appears  by  many 
pontifical  Constitutions  from  the  time  of  Sixtus 
IV.  Similarly  communication  of  privileges  exists 
between  archconfraternities  and  affiliated  confra- 
ternities. 

Privileges  cease  by  the  act  of  the  legislator,  the 
act  of  the  grantees,  or  spontaneously.  (1)  The  legis- 
lator may  revoke  his  concession  either  formally,  or 
implicitly  by  a  contrary  law  containing  the  clause 
"notwithstanding  all  privileges  to  the  contrary"  or 
even,  "notwithstanding  all  privileges  the  tenor  of 
which  ought  to  be  reproduced  textually".  It  is 
clear  that  a  revocation  may  be  only  partial.  (2)  The 
grantees  may  terminate  the  privilege:  first,  by  an 
express  renunciation  accepted  by  the  superior;  pro- 
vided however  that  it  is  the  case  of  a  personal  priv- 
ilege; for  privileges  of  general  interest,  like  those  of 
the  clergy,  may  not  be  renoimced.  Second,  by  non- 
user;  not  always,  however,  as  theoretically  the  use 
of  privileges  is  optional,  but  when  this  non-user  gives 
third  parties  a  prescriptive  right;  thus  by  non-user 
the  privilege  of  election  or  of  option  in  a  chapter  may 
be  lost.  Third,  by  abuse,  in  which  ease  the  with- 
drawal of  the  privilege  is  a  penalty  requiring  at  least 
a  judicial  declaratory  sentence.  (3)  A  privilege 
ceases  spontaneously  when  a  circumstance  which  was 
a  condition  for  its  enjoyment  ceases:  thus  a  cleric 
in  minor  orders  loses  the  clerical  privileges  if  he  again 
embraces  a  secular  calling;  second,  by  lapse  of  time: 
for  instance,  where  an  indult  is  granted  for  a  certain 
number  of  years,  or  when  an   honorary  title  is  con- 


ferred on  one  for  life;  third,  by  the  cessation  of  the 
subject:  thus  a  personal  privilege  disappears  with 
the  person:  the  real  privilege  with  the  thing,  e.  g. 
the  privileges  of  the  churches  of  France  ceased  with 
the  total  suppression  of  the  former  state.  Does  a 
privilege  cease  when  its  raison  d'Hre  has  completely 
ceased?  Theoretically,  it  may  be  so;  but,  in  prac- 
tice, the  privilege  remains  in  possession  and  the 
grantee  may  wait  till  the  superior  intervenes. 

See  the  canonical  writers  on  the  title  "  De  privilegiis  et  exces- 
sibus  privilegiatorum",  lib.  V,  tit.  xxxiii;  in  Sexto,  lib.  V,  tit.  vii; 
in  Clem.,  lib.  V,  tit.  vii;  Extrav.  Joann.  XXII,  tit.  xi;  Extrav. 
Comm.,  lib.  V,  tit.  vii;  Ferraris,  Prompta  bibliotheca,  a.  v. 
Priwilegium;  d'Annibale,  Summula,  I  (Rome,  1908),  nn.  227  sq.; 
Slater,  Moral  Theology  (London,  1908). 

A.    BOUDINHON. 

Privileged  Altar.  See  Altar,  sub-title  Pbivi- 
LEGBD  Altar. 

Privileges,  Ecclesiastical,  are  exceptions  to  the 
law  made  in  favour  of  the  clergy  or  in  favour  of 
consecrated  and  sacred  objects  and  places. 

I. — The  privileges  in  favour  of  the  clergy  are: 
personal  inviolability,  a  special  court,  immunity  from 
certain  burdens  and  the  right  to  a  proper  main- 
tenance (privilegium  canonis,  fori,  immunitatis, 
eompetentice) .  In  addition,  the  clergy  have  prece- 
dence of  the  laity  in  religious  assemblies  and  pro- 
cessions, a  special  place  in  the  church,  viz.,  the 
presbytery  (c.  1,  X  de  vita  et  honestate  cleric.  III, 
1),  and  titles  of  honour.  These  honours  increase 
according  to  the  higher  order  or  office. 

Privilegium  Canonis. — In  earlier  canon  law  the 
injuring  or  wounding  of  a  cleric  was  punished  by 
severe  canonical  penances,  and  on  occasion  by  ex- 
communication (cc.  21,  22,  23,  24,  C.  XVII,  q.  4). 
A  person  wounding  a  bishop  incurred  ipso  facto  ex- 
communication (Synod  of  Rome,  862  or  863,  c. 
xiv).  When  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury at  the  instigation  of  politico-religious  agitators, 
like  Arnold  of  Brescia,  excesses  were  committed 
against  the  defenceless  clergy  and  religious,  who  were 
forbidden  to  carry  weapons,  the  Church  was  com- 
pelled to  make  stricter  laws.  Thus,  the  Second 
Council  of  Lateran  (1139),  c.  xv,  after  the  Synods  of 
Clermont  (1130),  Reims  (1131),  and  Pisa  (1135), 
decreed  that  whosoever  thenceforth  laid  malicious 
hand  on  a  cleric  or  monk  incurred  ipso  facto  anathema, 
the  raising  of  which,  except  in  danger  of  death,  was 
reserved  to  the  pope  and  must  be  sought  in  person 
at  Rome  (c.  29,  C.  XVII,  q.  4). 

This  privilege,  which,  from  the  opening  words  of 
the  canon,  is  called  the  privilegium  canonis  "Si 
quis  suadente  diabolo"  or  simply  privilegium  canonis, 
continues  even  to-day  (Pius  IX,  "Apostolicse  Sedis 
moderationi",  12  October,  1869,  II,  2),  and  is  en- 
joyed also  by  nuns  (c.  33,  X  de  sent,  excomm.  V,  39), 
lay  brothers  (c.  33  cit.),  novices  (c.  21  in  Vlto  h.  t. 
V,  11),  and  even  by  tertiaries,  who  live  in  common 
and  wear  the  habit  (Leo  X,  "Dum  intra",  19  Decem- 
ber, 1516;  "Nuper  in  sacro",  1  March,  1518). 
According  to  the  wording  of  the  canon,  however, 
it  is  necessary,  for  the  incurring  of  the  excommunica- 
tion, that  the  injury  inflicted  on  the  cleric  or  monk 
be  a  malicious  and  real  injury,  under  which  is  in- 
cluded unauthorized  deprivation  of  freedom  (c. 
29,  X  h.  t.  V,  39).  Consequently,  excommunication 
is  not  incurred  by  a  superior  justly  chastising  one 
of  his  inferiors  (cc._  1,  10,  24,  54,  X  h.  t.  V,  39); 
by  one  who  acts  in  self-defence  against  a  cleric 
(cc.  3,  10,  X  h.  t.  V,  39),  by  one  who  avenges  insult 
or  assault  on  wife,  mother,  sister,  or  daughter  (c. 
3  cit.);  when  the  injury  results  from  a  joke  (c.  1, 
X  h.  _t.  V,  39),  or  if  the  assailant  be  unaware  (to 
be  testified  on  oath,  if  necessary)  of  the  clerical  rank 
(c.  4,  X  h.  t.  V,  39).  Instead  of  the  pope,  the  bishop 
gives  absolution  in  the  case  of  a  slight  injury  (c. 
3,  17,  31,  X  h.  t.  V,  39);   or  if  a  journey  to  Rome 


PRIVILEGES 


438 


PRIVILEGES 


be  impossible;  if  the  obstacle  to  the  journey  be  only- 
temporary,  the  assailant  must  promise  the  bishop 
on  oath  at  the  time  of  receiving  absolution  to  present 
himself  before  the  pope  on  the  disappearance  of  the 
obstacle;  should  he  fail  to  do  so,  the  sentence  re- 
vives (cc.  1,  2,  6,  11,  13,  26,  32,  33,  37,  58,  60,  X 
h.  t.  V,  39;  c.  22  in  Vlto  h.  t.  V,  11).  According  to 
the  Council  of  Trent,  the  bishop  may  also  absolve 
when  there  is  question  of  secret  offences  (Sess.  XXIV 
de  Rcf.,  c.  vi)  and,  in  virtue  of  the  quinquennial 
faculties  pro  foro  interna,  of  the  less  serious  of- 
fences. In  consequence  of  the  more  extensive  powers 
of  releasing  from  ecclesiastical  censures  enjoyed  by 
confessors  to-day,  personal  appearance  at  Rome  is 
perhaps  necessary  only  in  the  most  serious  cases. 
Abbots  absolve  their  subjects  in  the  case  of  lighter 
offences  occurring  among  themselves  (c.  2,  32,  50, 
X  h.  t.  V,  39).  This  privilege  grows  with  the  office. 
Thus,  whosoever  commits  or  causes  a  real  injury 
to  a  cardinal,  papal  legate,  or  bishop  incurs  excom- 
munication speciali  modo  reservata  (Pius  IX,  "Apos- 
tolicae  Sedis  moderationi",  12  October,  1869,  I, 
5).  While  the  old  German  common  law  punished 
the  injuring  of  a  cleric  with  a  heavier  fine  than  the 
injuring  of  a  lay  person,  the  modern  secular  laws,  like 
the  Roman  law,  afford  special  protection  to  clerics 
only  during  the  exercise  of  their  calling. 

Privilegium  Fori. — This  secures  the  clergy  a 
special  tribunal  in  civil  and  criminal  causes  before 
an  ecclesiastical  judge.  The  civil  causes  of  clerics 
pertain  by  nature  to  the  secular  courts  as  much  as 
those  of  the  laity.  But  the  thought  that  it  was  un- 
seemly that  the  fathers  and  teachers  of  the  faithful 
should  be  brought  before  laymen  as  judges,  and  also 
the  experience  that  many  laymen  were  greatly  in- 
chned  to  oppress  the  clergy  (c.  3  in  VI'o  de  immun.. 
Ill,  23),  led  the  Church  to  withdraw  her  servants 
even  in  civil  matters  from  the  secular  courts,  and 
to  bring  them  entirely  under  her  own  jurisdiction. 

In  the  Roman  Empire,  in  virtue  of  the  decisions 
of  the  synods,  a  cleric  could  in  civil  disputes  cite 
another  only  Ijefore  the  bishop  (cc.  43,  46,  C.  XI, 
q.  1).  However,  these  synodal  decrees  obtained  no 
recognition  from  the  lay  courts,  until  Justinian  rele- 
gated all  disputes  of  clerics  among  one  another  and 
complaints  of  laymen  against  clerics  to  the  ecclesi- 
astical forum  (Novella  Ixxix,  Ixxxiii,  cxxiii,  cc.  8,  21, 
22).  In  the  Frankish  kingdom,  also,  clerics  could 
summon  one  another  only  before  the  bishops  in 
civil  causes  (First  Synod  of  Macon,  583,  c.  8), 
while  laymen  engaged  in  a  civil  dispute  with  clerics 
could  proceed  before  the  secular  court  only  with 
the  bishop's  permission  (Third  Synod  of  Orleans, 
638,  c.  35).  The  Edict  of  Clotaire  II  (614),  c.  4, 
altered  the  existing  laws,  by  determining  that  at 
least  actions  for  debt  against  clerics  might  also  be 
brought  before  the  episcopal  tribunal.  The  Carlo- 
vingian  legislation  made  herein  no  alteration,  but 
it  forbade  clerics  expressly  to  appear  personally 
before  the  civil  courts,  ordering  them  to  appoint 
a  defender  (advocatus)  to  represent  them  (Admonitio 
generalis,  789,  c.  23). 

In  criminal  causes,  the  bishop  had  in  the  Roman 
Empire  no  jurisdiction,  except  in  trivial  matters. 
To  him  pertained  only  the  deposition  of  the  crim- 
inal cleric  before  punishment  was  inflicted  by  the 
secular  judge  (Novella  cxxiii,  c.  21,  §  1;  cxxxvii, 
c.  4).  In  the  Frankish  kingdom  bishops  were  con- 
demned and  degraded  at  the  synod,  whereupon 
the  secular  court  executed  the  sentence  of  death, 
when  necessary.  Still  more  in  the  case  of  the  other 
clergy  did  the  power  of  the  lay  courts  to  inflict  punish- 
ment prevail.  But,  from  the  time  of  the  Edict  of 
Clotaire  II  (614),  priests  and  deacons  began  to  be 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  bishops.  In  this 
respect  the  Carlovingian  legislation  remained  essen- 
tially the  same   (Synod  of  Frankfort,  794,  c.  30). 


The  gradual  liberation  of  the  clergy  from  the  lay 
forum  received  a  further  incentive  from  the  ever- 
increasing  number  of  ecclesiastical  causes,  from  the 
acceptance  of  the  dictum  that  the  clergy  were  sub- 
ject to  personal,  and  the  Church  to  the  Roman  law, 
from  the  ecclesiastical  prohibition  to  clerics  to  engage 
in  duels  or  ordeals,  from  the  growing  political  im- 
portance of  the  bishops  as  counts  and  territorial 
lords  after  the  disintegration  of  the  Carlovingian 
Empire.  Thus,  in  view  of  the  ferocious  acts  of 
violence  committed  by  the  laity,  Pseudo-Isidore 
could  demand  in  the  most  urgent  terms  that  no  cleric 
be  summoned  before  the  secular  courts  (cc.  1,  3, 
9,  10,  37,  C.  XI,  q.  1).  This  principle  was  called 
into  life  by  the  medieval  popes,  and,  by  decretal  law, 
the  exclusive  competence  of  ecclesiastical  judges  over 
clerics  in  civil  and  criminal  causes  was  established 
(cc.  4,  8,  10,  17,  X  de  iud.,  II,  1;  cc.  1,  2,  9,  12,  13, 
X  de  foro  compet.,  II,  2).  In  feudal  affairs  alone 
were  the  clergy  subject  to  the  secular  courts  (cc. 
6,  7,  X  de  foro  compet.,  II,  2).  The  ecclesiastical 
courts  were  thus  competent  for  civil  causes  of  clerics 
among  one  another,  of  laymen  against  clerics,  and 
for  all  criminal  causes  of  clerics.  This  privilegium 
fori  was  also  recognized  by  imperial  laws  (Authen- 
tica  of  Frederick  II,  "Statuimus",  1139,  ad  1.  33, 
C.  de  episc.  I,  3).  From  early  times,  however,  it 
met  with  great  opposition  from  the  State.  With 
the  growing  ascendancy  of  the  State  over  the  Church, 
the  privilege  was  more  and  more  limited,  and  was 
finally  everywhere  abrogated. 

To-day,  according  to  secular  law,  the  civil  and 
criminal  causes  of  clerics  belong  to  the  lay  court. 
Only  with  respect  to  the  purely  spiritual  conditions 
of  their  station  and  office,  are  clerics  subject  to  their 
bishop,  and  then  not  without  certain  state  limita- 
tions— especially  with  respect  to  certain  practical 
punishments.  However,  the  Church  maintains  in 
principle  the  privilegium  fori,  even  for  those  in  minor 
orders,  provided  that  they  have  the  tonsure  and  wear 
clerical  garb,  and  either  already  serve  in  a  church 
or  are  preparing  in  a  seminary  or  university  for  the 
reception  of  higher  orders  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess. 
XXIII  de  Ref.,  c.  vi;  Sess.  XXV  de  Ref.,  c.  xx; 
Syllabus,  n.  31).  On  the  other  hand,  the  popes  have 
in  their  recent  concordats  to  a  great  extent  relin- 
quished this  position.  They  have,  however,  de- 
manded that  the  bishops  should  be  apprised  of 
criminal  proceedings  against  a  cleric,  so  that  he  may 
be  able  to  take  the  necessary  ecclesiastical  measures 
(Bavarian  Concordat,  art.  xii,  litt.  c;  Austrian 
Concordat,  art.  xiii,  xiv;  Concordat  with  Costa 
Rica,  art.  xiv,  xv;  that  with  Guatemala,  art.  xvi, 
xvii;  that  with  Nicaragua,  art.  xiv,  xv;  that  with 
San  Salvador,  art.  xiv,  xv).  This  warning  of  the 
bishop  is  also  ordered  by  the  laws  of  many  states,  as 
well  as  a  similar  regard  for  the  cleric  himself  in  the 
case  of  criminal  proceedings  (Regulation  of  the 
Prussian  Minister  of  Justice  of  12  June,  1873;  of 
25  August,  1879;  Austrian  Law  of  7  May,  1874, 
§29). 

But,  wherever  the  pope  has  not  relinquished  the 
privilegium  fori,  lawgivers  and  administrators,  who 
directly  or  indirectly  compel  the  judges  to  summon 
ecclesiastical  persons  before  the  secular  forum,  incur 
excommunication  specially  reserved  to  the  pope 
(Pius  IX,  "Apostolicse  Sedis  moderationi",  12 
October,  1869,  I,  7).  In  places  where  the  papal 
derogation  of  the  privilegium  fori  has  not  been  secured 
but  where  justice  can  be  obtained  only  before  the 
secular  judge,  a  lay  complainant,  before  summoning 
a  cleric  before  the  secular  courts,  should  seek  the 
bishop's  permission,  or,  if  the  complaint  be  against 
a  bishop,  the  permisson  of  the  pope.  Otherwise, 
the  bishop  can  take  punitive  measures  against  him 
(S.  Congregation  of  the  Inquisition,  23  January, 
1886).     It  is  also  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of 


PRIVILEGES 


439 


PRIVILEGES 


the  privilegium  fori  that  it  is  ordered  in  many  dio- 
ceses that  all  complaints  of  and  against  clerics  be 
laid  first  before  the  bishop  for  settlement;  should 
no  settlement  be  reached,  the  case  may  then  be  brought 
before  the  secular  court  [Archiv  ftlr  kathol.  Kirehen- 
recht,  VII  (1862),  200  sqq.;  LXXXIII  (1903),  505 
sq,  562;  LXXXV  (1905),  571;  LXXXVI  (1906), 
356  sq.]. 

Privilegium  Immunitatis. — This  consists  in  the 
exemption  of  ecclesiastical  persons,  things,  and 
places  from  certain  general  obligations  and  taxation. 
The  immunity  is,  therefore,  either  personal,  or  real, 
or  local.  Personal  immunity  is  the  exemption  of  the 
clergy  from  certain  public  burdens  and  obligations, 
which  the  general  religious  sentiment  of  the  people 
declares  in  keeping  with  their  office,  or  which  render 
the  discharge  of  their  caUing  difficult.  Whether  this 
privilege,  as  well  as  the  other  clerical  privileges, 
rests  on  Divine  law,  the  Church  has  never  dogmati- 
cally decided,  although  canon  law  declares  that 
churches  and  ecclesiastical  persons  and  things  are 
free  from  secular  burdens  according  to  both  Divine 
and  human  law  (c.  4  in  VI*"  de  cens..  Ill,  20);  that 
ecclesiastical  immunity  rests  on  the  Divine  command 
(Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXV  de  Ref.,  c.  xx);  and 
that  it  is  false  to  assert  that  ecclesiastical  immunity 
can  be  traced  only  from  secular  law;  that  the  im- 
munity of  the  clergy  from  military  service  could  be 
abolished  without  any  breach  of  the  natural  law  or 
of  justice,  nay  that  it  must  be  abolished  in  the  in- 
terests of  progress  and  civil  equality  (Syllabus,  nn. 
30,  32). 

In  accordance  with  the  liberties  granted  the 
pagan  priests,  the  Christian  emperors  after  Con- 
stantine  exempted  the  clergy  from  the  obligation  of 
undertaking  municipal  offices,  trusteeships,  guardian- 
ships, and  all  public  functions,  from  military  service, 
quartering,  and  the  other  personal  munera  sordida 
(later  called  villainage),  and  in  part  also  from  per- 
sonal taxation  (Cod.  Just.,  1.  I,  t.  3  de  episc.  Novella 
cxxiii,  c.  5).  For  the  most  part  these  privileges 
also  prevailed  in  the  Teutonic  kingdoms.  Thus, 
Frederick  II  exempted  the  clergy  from  all  taxation 
and  from  all  socage  and  teaming  (Authentica, 
"Item  nulla"  1220  ad  1.  2,  C.  de  episc.  I,  3).  But 
decretal  law  (c.  3  in  Vlto  de  immun.  Ill,  23;  c. 
3  in  Clem,  de  cens.  Ill,  13)  demanded  the  complete 
immunity  of  the  clergy  (cc.  2,  4,  7,  X  de  immun. 
Ill,  49;  c.  4  in  Vlto  de  cens.  Ill,  20;  c.  3  in  VI*" 
de  immun.  Ill,  23;  c.  3  in  Clem,  de  cens.  Ill,  13; 
c.  un.  in  Clem,  de  immun.  Ill,  17).  This  immunity 
was  indeed  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  especially  at 
the  end,  complete,  since  in  many  cases  we  find  the 
secular  rulers  doing  their  utmost  to  impose  secular 
burdens  on  the  clergy.  The  Council  of  Trent 
(Sess.  XXV  de  Ref.,  c.  xx),  therefore,  again  exhorts 
the  princes  to  respect  this  privilege.  In  recent 
times,  and  especially  since  the  French  Revolution, 
the  State's  demands  on  the  clergy  have  been  in- 
creasing. Hence  the  above-cited  explanations  of 
Pius  IX  in  the  Syllabus,  nn.  30,  32. 

The  exemption  of  the  clergy  from  national  taxa- 
tion is  to-day  almost  entirely  abolished;  their  exemp- 
tion from  municipal  taxation  still  continues  in  some 
places.  In  Austria  and  Germany  clerics  are  exernpt 
from  public  offices  and  services  and  from  serving 
as  assessors  and  jurors.  In  these  countries  the  clergy 
are  also  free  from  undertaking  trusteeships,  if  they 
do  not  obtain  the  consent  of  their  superiors.  Finally, 
candidates  for  the  ecclesiastical  state,  and  still 
more  ordained  clergymen,  are  exempted  in  Germany 
and  Austria  from  military  service  under  arms. 
Less  favour  is  shown  the  clergy  in  Italy,  and  prac- 
tically none  in  France  since  the  separation  of  Church 
and  State.     Conditions  vary  greatly  in  other  lands. 

Privilegium  Competentice. — This  is  a  right  possessed 
by  the  clergy,  in  accordance  with  which,  in  the  case 


of  executions  against  their  property  an  income, 
sufficient  to  constitute  a  livelihood,  must  be  left  to 
them.  A  benefidum  competentice  was  enjoyed  by 
the  Roman  soldiers  (fr.  6,  18,  D.  de  re  iudic.  XLII, 
1).  The  Glossa  argues  that,  since  the  cleric  is  a 
miles  caelestis  militice  (cf.  also  c.  19,  C.  XXIII,  q.  8), 
the  same  privilege  should  be  recognized  in  his  case. 
But  this  constitutes  as  poor  a  foundation  as  the  c. 
"Odoardus"  (c.  3,  X.  de  solut.  Ill,  23),  according 
to  which  excommunication  may  not  be  mflicted  on 
an  insolvent  cleric,  who  binds  himself  to  pay  on  the 
improvement  of  his  financial  position.  The  origin 
of  the  privilege  is  to  be  referred  rather  to  custom 
and  to  the  idea  expressed  in  many  canons,  that  a 
cleric  may  not  be  brought  into  such  a  position  that 
he  is  forced  to  seek  a  livelihood  in  an  unworthy  man- 
ner. In  both  theory  and  practice  the  privilege  af- 
forded protection  from  personal  arrest,  foreclosure 
of  a  mortgage,  and  from  the  immediate  vacation  of 
property  in  favour  of  the  lay  person.  It  also  ex- 
tended to  the  patrimony  forming  the  title  of  or- 
dination. On  the  other  hand,  if  the  cleric  has 
judicially  denied  his  guilt,  has  been  guilty  of  a  fraud, 
disregarded  cautions,  or  if  the  lay  person  be  poorer 
than  the  debtor,  the  privilege  is  lost. 

Since  the  abolition  of  the  privilegium  fori,  the  scope 
of  the  privilegium  competentice  has  been  dependent  on 
the  state  laws.  Thus,  according  to  §  850,  Ziff.  8 
of  the  civil  suit  regulations  of  the  German  Empire, 
the  yearly  income  or  the  pension  of  clerics  is  free  from 
seizure  to  the  extent  of  1500  marks,  and  of  the  excess 
only  one-third  is  liable.  According  to  §  811,  Ziff. 
7,  8,  10,  all  objects  necessary  for  the  discharge  of 
the  clerical  calhng  (e.  g.  books,  proper  clothing) 
are  also  exempt  from  seizure.  In  Austria,  according 
to  the  law  of  21  April,  1882,  800  gulden  annually  are 
exempt  in  the  case  of  clergy  employed  in  the  care 
of  souls  and  ecclesiastical  beneficiaries,  and  500 
in  the  case  of  other  clerics.  In  Italy  also  the  privi- 
legium competentice  still  prevails,  but  it  has  been 
abolished  in  France. 

As  the  privilegia  clericorum  are  the  legal  conse- 
quences of  the  religious  station,  granted  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  clerical  calling,  they  may  not,  being 
the  rights  of  a  class,  be  waived  by  any  individual, 
nor  may  they  be  withdrawn  from  an  individual 
except  in  specified  cases.  They  are  forfeited  by 
degradation  (c.  2  in  Vlto  de  poen.  V,  9) ;  by  the  com- 
mitting of  a  serious  criminal  act  and  simultaneously 
laying  aside  the  clerical  garb  in  spite  of  a  triple 
warning  of  the  bishop  (cc.  14,  23,  25,  45,  X  de  sent. 
excomm.  V,  39;  e.  10,  X  de  iud.  II,  1;  c.  1,  X  de 
apostat.  V,  9) ;  by  leading  an  unseemly  or  despicable 
life  and  simultaneously  laying  aside  the  clerical  garb 
in  spite  of  three  warnings  from  the  bishop  (c.  16, 
X  de  vita  et  honest,  cleric.  Ill,  1;  c  un.  in  Vlto 
h.  t.  Ill,  1;  c.  1  in  Clem.  h.  t.  Ill,  1);  and  finally  in 
the  case  of  clerics  in  minor  orders  by  laying  aside 
the  clerical  garb  (Pius  IX,  20  September,  1860). 

II. — Like  clerics,  consecrated  and  sacred  things 
and  places  enjoy  certain  privileges  and  freedom  from 
burdens  and  obligations;  this  is  based  on  the  privile- 
gium immunitatis,  and  is  termed  real  or  local  im- 
munity. All  objects  intended  for  ecclesiastical 
use  are  termed  res  ecclesiasticae.  Res  ecclesiasticce 
in  this  wide  sense  are  divided  into  res  ecclesiasticcE 
in  the  narrow  sense  and  res  sacrce.  Ecclesiastical 
things  {res  ecclesiasticae  in  the  narrow  sense),  or 
ecclestiastical  property  {palrimonium  or  peculium 
ecclesiasticum) ,  mediately  maintain  the  Divine  wor- 
ship, and  include  all  buildings  and  real  property 
belonging  to  the  Church  except  the  churches  and 
cemeteries,  the  funds  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
servants  of  the  Church  {})ona  mensce,  bona  beneficii), 
and  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  (bona  fabricce), 
and  finally  the  property  designed  for  charitable 
objects  or  pious  foundations   (res    religiosce,  causce 


PROBA 


440 


PROBA 


picB).  Sacred  objects  {res  sacrm)  are  immediately 
connected  with  Divine  worship,  and  are  set  apart 
from  all  other  things  by  an  act  of  worship  or  con- 
secration as  things  consecrated  (res  consecratoe), 
and  by  benediction  as  things  blessed  (res  benediclm). 
To  res  consecratce  belong  churches,  altars,  chalices, 
and  patens;  to  res  benedictw  a  series  of  ecclesiastical 
utensils  and  cemeteries. 

As  the  ecclesiastical  property  serves  for  the  public 
good,  it  was  exempted  by  the  Roman  emperors  from 
all  the  lower  and  extraordinary  burdens,  but  not 
from  the  regular  taxes  (1.  3,  C.  de  episc.  I,  3).  This 
example  was  followed  in  the  Frankish  empire,  in 
which  church  property  was  subject  to  all  the  or- 
dinary public  burdens.  In  addition,  however,  many 
extraordinary  burdens  were  imposed,  such  as  the  dona 
gratuita  to  the  king,  the  furnishing  of  accommoda- 
tion for  him  on  his  journeys,  the  rendering  of  court 
and  war  services  to  him  as  their  feudal  lord,  and 
many  arbitrary  forms  of  oppression.  Consequently, 
the  Third  Lateran  Council  (1179)  demanded  the 
complete  exemption  of  church  property  from  taxa- 
tion, and  that  only  in  case  of  public  need,  and  then 
only  with  the  consent  of  the  bishop  or  of  the  pope, 
should  it  be  subjected  to  public  burdens  (cc.  2,  4, 
7,  X  de  immun.  Ill,  49;  c.  1,  3,  in  Vlto  h.  t.  Ill, 
23;  c.  un.  in  Clem.  h.  t.  Ill,  17;  c.  un.  Extrav. 
commun.  Ill,  13).  Frederick  II  accordingly  granted 
church  property  exemption  from  all  taxation  (Au- 
thentioa  "Item  nulla"  ad  1.  2,  C  de  episc.  I,  3). 
After  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  however,  secular 
rulers  subjected  to  a  great  extent  church  property 
to  public  burdens;  the  Council  of  Trent  therefore 
admonished  them  to  respect  the  old  privilege  of  im- 
munilas  realis  (Sess.  XXV  de  Ref.,  c.  xx),  but  with- 
out much  success.  In  modern  and  recent  times  the 
tendency  has  everywhere  been  to  subject  church  prop- 
erty more  and  more  to  public  taxation.  The  asser- 
tion that  the  privilege  of  immunitas  realis  was  of 
purely  secular  origin  was  declared  erroneous  by 
Pius  IX  in  the  Syllabus,  n.  30.  Here  and  there,  as 
in  Germany  and  Austria,  the  State  laws  accord  partial 
freedom  from  taxation  to  ecclesiastical  property. 
In  Italy  the  papal  property  is  alone  exempt;  in 
France  exemption  ceased  with  the  separation  of 
Church  and  State.  In  the  United  States  the  Church 
shares  in  the  exemption  generally  granted  to  all 
institutions  labouring  for  the  public  good.  The  con- 
ditions vary  much  in  the  other  lands. 

For  places  and  things  consecrated  to  the  Divine  ser- 
vice no  rights  can  be  claimed  which  involve  a  profane 
use.  Consequently,  such  objects  are  in  this  sense 
extra-commercial.  Otherwise,  in  sharp  distinction 
from  the  res  sacrm  among  the  Romans  and  contrary  to 
the  practice  of  the  early  Christian  centuries,  they  may, 
in  accordance  with  the  Germanic  conception  of  private 
churches,  be  possessed  by  private  iudividuals  and 
even  enter  into  civil  transactions  and  commerce.  In 
churches  and  cemeteries,  however,  no  judicial  trans- 
actions, political  meetings,  markets,  banquets,  theatri- 
cal performances,  secular  concerts,  dances  etc.,  may 
be  held.  The  bishop  may  in  all  cases  sanction  their 
use  outside  of  Divine  service,  provided  that  all  scan- 
dal be  avoided.  Similarly,  the  use  of  the  church- 
bell  for  secular  purposes  may  be  allowed  or  tolerated 
apart  from  cases  of  need,  where  the  propriety  of  its 
use  is  self-evident  (cc.  1,  5,  9,  X.  de  immun.  Ill,  49; 
c.  2  in  Vlto  h.  t.  Ill,  23).  Mischief,  disorder,  and 
disturbance  in  the  church  (especially  during  Divine 
service),  robbery  of  the  church,  the  injury  or  destruc- 
tion of  things  or  buildings  consecrated  to  the  Divine 
service,  disturbance  of  the  peace  proper  to  the  ceme- 
tery or  churchyard,  are  punished  by  the  State  as 
qualified  crimes. 

To  the  ecclesiastical  local  immunity  belongs  the 
right  of  asylum  of  churches.  Even  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment it  was  decreed  that  the  murderer  or  homicide 


might  be  safe  from  vengeance  in  certain  places,  until 
the  public  had  come  to  a  decision  concerning  his  sur- 
render (Ex.,  xxi,  13;  Num.,  xxxv,  6  sqq.;  Deut.,  xix, 

2  sqq.).  Among  the  Greeks,  and  especially  among 
the  Romans,  the  temples,  the  altars,  and  the  statues  of 
the  emperor  were  places  of  refuge  (1, 1,  C.  de  his  qui  ad 
statuas  confugiunt  I,  25).  Thus,  when  Christianity 
became  the  religion  of  the  State,  it  followed  as' an 
inevitable  consequence  that  the  emperor  should  also 
raise  to  the  right  of  sanctuary  the  churches  and 
bishops  (C.  Just,  de  his  qui  ad  ecclesias  confu- 
giunt I,  12).  But,  as  the  ecclesiastical  right  of 
sanctuary  was  still  very  limited,  the  Synod  of  Car- 
thage (399)  asked  the  emperor  to  remove  these  limita- 
tions. In  the  German  empires  it  was  the  Church 
which  founded  the  right  of  asylum  as  a  protection 
against  the  rude  conception  of  justice  then  prevalent 
and  against  savage  revenge,  by  decreeing  with  the 
assent  of  the  State  that  a  criminal,  who  had  reached 
the  church  or  its  immediate  neighbourhood,  might  be 
delivered  up  only  after  he  had  performed  ecclesiastical 
penance,  and  after  the  secular  judge  had  promised 
that  sentence  of  death  or  maiming  would  not  be  in- 
flicted upon  him  (cc.  19,  36,  C.  XVII,  q.  4,  Capitulare 
de  partibus  Saxonias,  775-90,  c.  2).  The  right  of 
asylum,  which  had  its  origin  in  this  manner  and  which 
was  subsequently  extended  to  the  surroundings  of  the 
church,  the  cemeteries,  the  dwellings  of  bishops  and 
parish-priests,  seminaries,  monasteries,  and  hospitals, 
was  upheld  especially  by  the  popes,  although  they 
excluded  from  the  privilege  very  great  criminals,  such 
as  highway  robbers,  murderers,  and  those  who  chose 
the  church  or  churchyard  as  the  scene  of  their  crimes 
so  as  to  enjoy  immediately  the  right  of  asylum  (cc.  6, 
10,  X  de  immun.  Ill,  49;  c.  1,  X  de  homic.  V,  12). 

Since  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  however,  State 
legislation  has  been  opposed  to  the  ecclesiastical  right 
of  asylum,  so  that  the  popes  have  been  compelled  to 
modify  it  more  and  more  (Gregory  XIV,  "Cum  alias" 
of  24  May,  1591;  Benedict  XIII,  "Ex  quo  divina", 
8  June,  1725;  Clement  XII,  "In  suprema  justitiae", 
1  Feb.,  1734;  Benedict  XIV,  "Officii  Nostri",  15 
March,  1750).  The  modern  penal  codes  no  longer 
recognize  an  ecclesiastical  right  of  asylum,  and  the 
Church  can  all  the  more  readily  acquiesce  therein,  as 
modern  justice  is  humane  and  well-regulated.  How- 
ever, even  to-day  those  who  violate  "ausu  temerario" 
the  ecclesiastical  right  of  asylum  incur  excommuni- 
calio  lalce  senlentim  simply  reserved  to  the  pope  (Pius 
IX,  "Apost.  Sedis  moderationi",  12  Oct.,  1869,  II,  6). 

KoLB,  Aquihi  certans  pro  immunitate  et  exemptione  ecclesiarum, 
monaslerioTUTti  et  status  ecdesiastici  a  potestate  saecularis  (Frank- 
fort, 1687);  Fattolini,  Theatrum  immunitalis  et  libertatis  eccle- 
siastics (Rome,  1704-30) ;  Bxjlmerincq,  Das  Asylrecht  in  seiner 
geschichtl.  Bntwicklung  u.  die  Auslieferung  fiiichtiger  Verbrecher 
(Dorpat,  1853);  Huffer  ia  Archivf.  kath.  Kirchenrecht,  III,  755 
sq.;    Grashoff    in   ibid.,  XXXV,  3   sqq.,  321    aqq.;    XXXVII, 

3  aqq.,  256  sqq.;  XXXVIII,  3  sqq.;  Widder  in  ibid., 
LXXVIII,  24  sqq.;  Poncet,  Les  privileges  des  clercs  au  moyen-dge 
(Paris,  1907);  Bindschedler,  Kirchliches  A^uhecht  {Immunitas 
ecclesiarum  localis)  u.  Freistiiiten  in  der  Schweiz  (Stuttgart,  1906) ; 
HiNSCHlus,  Das  Kirchenrecht  der  Katholiken  u,  Protestanten  in 
Deutschland  (Berlin,  1869-88),  I,  118  sqq.;  IV,  156  sqq.,  .306  sqq.; 
Wernz,  Jus  decretalium  (2nd  ed.,  Rome,  1905-8),  II,  i,  236 sqq.; 
Ill,  i,  167  sqq. ;  III,  ji,  9110  sqq. ;  Laurentitjs,  Instilutiones  juris 
ecdesiastici  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1908),  83  sqq.,  354,  559,  641; 
SagmtJller,  Lehrbuch  des  kathol.  Kirchenrechts  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg, 
1909),  205  sqq.,  731  sqq.,  861  sqq. 

Johannes  Baptist  SiGMtiLLEB. 

Proba,  Faltonia,  Christian  poetess  of  the  fourth 
century.  The  name  Faltonia  is  doubtful  and  is 
apparently  due  to  a  confusion,  as  the  MSS.  call  the 
author  simply  Proba.  As  granddaughter  of  Probus, 
consul  in  310,  daughter  of  Petronius  Probianius,  con- 
sul in  322,  wife  of  Claudius  Celcinus  Adalphius,  pre- 
fect of  Rome  in  351,  and  mother  of  C.  Clodius  Hermo- 
genianus  Olybrius,  consul  in  379,  and  of  Faltonius 
Alypius,  Proba  belonged  to  that  Roman  aristocracy 
which  upheld  the  old  pagan  religion  so  long  against 
Christianity.    Proba  was  at  first  a  pagan,  as  was  her 


PROBABILISM 


441 


PROBABILISM 


husband,  but  once  converted  she  persuaded  him  to 
follow  her  example.  She  had  celebrated  in  an  epic 
poem  now  lost  the  wars  between  Constantine  and 
Magnentius.  After  her  conversion  she  wrote  a  zento 
in  hexameter  verses  in  which  she  relates  sacred  history 
in  terms  borrowed  exclusively  from  Virgil.  The  story 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  briefly  outlined,  the  author 
dwelling  only  on  the  Creation,  the  Fall,  and  the 
Deluge.  The  larger  portion  of  the  work  recounts  the 
life  of  Christ  according  to  the  Gospels.  But  the  ac- 
tion of  the  poem  is  constrained  and  unequal,  the  man- 
ner absurd,  the  diction  frequently  either  obscure  or 
improper;  nevertheless  the  work  had  a  certain  pop- 
ularity during  the  Middle  Ages. 

(jLOVEH,  Life  and  Letters  in  the  Fourth  Century  (Cambridge, 
1901),  144;  for  the  latest  edition,  with  an  exhaustive  study,  see 
ScHENKL  in  Poet,  Christ,  rain,  I,  Corp,  script,  eccles,  lat.  (Vienna, 

1888).  Paul  Lejay. 

Probabilism  is  the  moral  system  which  holds  that, 
when  there  is  question  solely  of  the  lawfulness  or  un- 
lawfulness of  an  action,  it  is  permissible  to  follow  a 
sohdly  probable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty  even 
though  the  opposing  view  is  more  probable. 

I.  State  of  the  Question. — When  a  prohibiting 
law  is  certain,  the  subjects  of  the  law  are  bound  to 
abstain  from  performing  the  action  which  the  law  for- 
bids, unless  they  are  excused  by  one  of  the  ordinary 
exempting  causes.  On  the  other  hand,  when  it  is 
certain  that  no  law  forbids  an  action,  there  is 
no  obligation  to  abstain  from  performing  it.  Be- 
tween these  two  extremes  there  can  be  varying  degrees 
of  uncertainty  about  the  existence  or  cessation  of  a 
prohibiting  law.  There  is  doubt  in  the  strict  sense 
when  the  intellect  neither  assents  nor  dissents,  because 
either  there  are  no  positive  arguments  for  and  against 
the  law,  or  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  law  are 
equal  in  strength.  The  opinion  which  favours  the 
law,  and  which  is  technically  called  the  safe  opinion, 
can  be  more  probable  than  the  opinion  which  favours 
liberty  and  which  still  retains  solid  probability. 
Again,  the  opinion  which  favours  the  law  can  be 
most  probable,  and  the  opinion  which  favours  liberty 
only  slightly  probable.  In  the  same  way  the  opinion 
which  favours  liberty  and  which  is  technically  called 
the  less  safe  opinion,  can  be  more  probable  than  the 
opposing  view,  or  can  be  most  probable. 

In  estimating  the  degree  which  is  required  and 
which  suffices  for  solid  probability,  moralists  lay  down 
the  general  principle  that  an  opinion  is  solidly  prob- 
able which  by  reason  of  intrinsic  or  extrinsic  argu- 
ments is  able  to  gain  the  assent  of  many  prudent  men. 
All  admit  that  extrinsic  authority  can  have  sufficient 
weight  to  make  an  opinion  solidly  probable;  but  there 
is  divergence  of  view  in  estimating  what  number  of 
experts  is  able  to  give  an  opinion  this  solid  probabil- 
ity. The  prevailing  theory  amongst  Probabilists  holds 
that  if  five  or  six  theologians,  notable  for  prudence  and 
learning,  independently  adhere  to  an  opinion  their 
view  is  solidly  probable,  if  it  has  not  been  set  aside  by 
authoritative  decisions  or  by  intrinsic  arguments 
which  they  have  failed  to  solve.  Even  one  theologian 
of  very  exceptional  authority,  such  as  St.  Alphonsus 
Liguori,  is  able  to  make  an  opinion  solidly  probable, 
as  we  know  from  the  official  declarations  of  the  Holy 
See.  All  moralists  agree  that  mere  flimsy  reasons  are 
insufficient  to  give  an  opinion  solid  probability,  and 
also  that  the  support  of  many  theologians  who  are 
mere  collectors  of  the  opinions  of  others  is  unable  to 
give  solid  probability  to  the  view  which  they  maintain. 

Non-Catholics  who  bring  charges  of  laxity  against 
the  moral  systems  which  Cathohc  theologians  uphold, 
often  forget  that  the  Cathohc  Church,  in  theory  and 
in  practice,  has  condemned  various  views  in  favour 
of  liberty  which  are  based  on  insufficient  data. 

If  the  less  safe  opinion  is  speculatively  uncertain,  it 
is  unlawful  to  follow  it  in  practice,  until  all  reasonable 
effort  has  been  made  to  remove  the  uncertainty,  by 


considering  the  arguments  on  both  sides  and  by  con- 
sulting available  authorities.  It  is  unlawful,  also,  to 
act  on  the  less  safe  view  unless  the  speculative  uncer- 
tainty has  been  changed  into  practical  certainty  that 
the  action  to  be  performed  is  lawful.  The  whole 
question  at  issue  between  different  moral  systems  con- 
cerns the  way  in  which  the  speculative  uncertainty  is 
changed  into  practical  certainty;  each  system  has 
what  is  called  a  reflex  principle  of  its  own,  by  which 
practical  certainty  can  be  obtained  that  the  action  to 
be  performed  is  lawful.  Rigorism,  or,  as  it  is  fre- 
quently called,  Tutiorism,  held  that  the  less  safe 
opinion  should  be  most  probable,  if  not  absolutely  cer- 
tain, before  it  could  be  lawfully  put  into  practice, 
while  Laxism  maintained  that  if  the  less  safe  opinion 
were  slightly  probable  it  could  be  followed  with  a  safe 
conscience. 

These  two  views,  however,  never  received  serious 
support  from  Catholic  theologians,  and  were  formally 
condemned  by  the  Holy  See.  At  one  time  or  another 
in  the  history  of  the  Church  three  other  opinions 
gained  many  adherents.  Some  theologians,  who  put 
forward  the  system  known  as  Probabiliorism,  hold 
that  the  less  safe  opinion  can  be  lawfully  followed  only 
when  it  is  more  probable  than  the  safe  opinion.  Others, 
upholding  jEquiprobabilism,  maintain  that,  when  the 
uncertainty  concerns  the  existence  of  a  law,  it  is  law- 
ful to  follow  the  less  safe  opinion  when  it  has  equal  or 
almost  equal  probability  with  the  safe  opinion,  but 
that,  when  there  is  question  of  the  cessation  of  a  law, 
the  less  safe  opinion  cannot  lawfully  be  followed  un- 
less it  is  more  probable  than  the  safe  view.  Others 
again,  who  adhere  to  Probabilism,  believe  that, 
whether  there  is  question  of  the  existence  or  of  the 
cessation  of  a  law,  it  is  lawful  to  act  on  the  less  safe 
opinion  if  it  is  solidly  probable,  even  though  the  safe 
view  is  certainly  more  probable.  In  recent  years  a 
system  known  as  Compensationism  has  tried  to 
reconcile  these  three  opinions  by  holding  that  not  only 
the  degree  of  probability  attaching  to  various  opinions 
must  be  taken  into  account,  but  also  the  importance 
of  the  law  and  the  degree  of  utility  attaching  to  the 
performance  of  the  action  whose  morality  is  in  ques- 
tion. The  more  important  the  law,  and  the  smaller 
the  degree  of  probability  attaching  to  the  less  safe 
opinion,  the  greater  must  be  the  compensating  utility 
which  will  permit  the  performance  of  the  action  of 
which  the  lawfulness  is  uncertain. 

From  what  has  so  far  been  said  it  is  clear  that  these 
various  moral  systems  come  into  play  only  when  the 
question  concerns  the  lawfulness  of  an  action.  If  the 
uncertainty  concerns  the  validity  of  an  action  which 
must  certainly  be  valid,  it  is  not  lawful  to  act  on  mere 
probability  unless,  indeed,  this  is  of  such  a  nature  as 
to  make  the  Church  certainly  supply  what  is  needed 
for  the  vahdity  of  the  act.  Thus,  apart  from  neces- 
sity, it  is  not  lawful  to  act  on  mere  probability  when 
the  validity  of  the  sacraments  is  in  question.  Again, 
it  is  not  lawful  to  act  on  mere  probability  when  there 
is  question  of  gaining  an  end  which  is  obligatory,  since 
certain  means  must  be  employed  to  gain  a  certainly 
required  end.  Hence,  when  eternal  salvation  is  at 
stake,  it  is  not  lawful  to  be  content  with  uncertain 
means.  Moreover,  the  virtue  of  justice  demands 
equality,  and  as  such  excludes  the  use  of  probability 
when  the  established  rights  of  another  are  concerned. 
Consequently,  if  a  certain  debt  has  not  been  certainly 
paid,  at  least  a  payment  pro  rata  dubii  is  required  ac- 
cording to  the  prevailing  view.  It  is  evident,  then, 
that  the  question  which  arises  in  connexion  with  the 
moral  systems  has  to  do  solely  with  the  lawfulness  or 
unlawfulness  of  an  action. 

II.  History  of  Probabilism. — ProbabiUsm  as  a 
moral  system  had  no  history  prior  to  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Fathers,  doctors  and  theologians 
of  the  Church  at  times  solved  cases  on  principles  which 
apparently  were  probabilist  in  tendency.     St.  Augus- 


PROBABILISM 


442 


PROBABILISM 


tine  declared  that  marriage  with  infidels  was  not  to  be 
regarded  as  unlawful  since  it  was  not  clearly  con- 
demned in  the  New  Testament:  "Quoniam  revera 
in  Novo  Testamento  nihil  inde  praeceptum  est,  et 
ideo  aut  licere  creditiim  est,  aut  velut  dubium  dere- 
hctum"  ("De  Fide  et  Operibus",  c.  xix,  n.  35  in 
"P.  L.'',  XL,  221).  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  laid 
down,  against  a  Novatian  writer,  that  a  second  mar- 
riage was  not  unlawful,  since  the  prohibition  was 
doubtful:  "Quo  argumento  id  confirmas.  Aut  rem 
ita  esse  proba,  aut,  si  id  nequis,  ne  condemnes.  Quod 
si  res  dubia  est,  vincat  humanitas  et  facilitas" 
(Or.  39,  "In  sancta  Lumina",  n.  19  in  "P.  G.", 
XXXVI,  358).  St.  Thomas  maintained  that  a  pre- 
cept does  not  bind  except  through  the  medium  of 
knowledge:  "Unde  nullus  ligatur  per  praeceptum 
aliquod  nisi  mediante  scientia  illius"  ("De  Veritate", 
Q.  xvii,  a.  3) ;  and  Probabilists  are  accustomed  to  point 
out  that  knowledge  implies  certainty.  On  the  other 
hand  many  theologians  were  Probabiliorist  in  their 
principles  before  the  sixteenth  century.  Sylvester 
Prierias  (Opinio,  o.  2),  Conradus  (De  Contract., 
Q.  ult),  and  Cajetan  (Opinio)  were  Probabiliorists;  so 
that  Probabiliorism  had  gained  a  strong  hold  on 
theologians  when  Medina  arrived  on  the  scene. 
Bartholomew  Medina,  a  Dominican,  was  the  first  to 
expound  the  moral  system  which  is  known  as  Prob- 
abilism.  In  his  "Expositio  in  lam  2»  S.  Thomse", 
he  taught  that,  "if  an  opinion  is  probable  it  is  lawful 
to  follow  it,  even  though  the  opposing  opinion  is  more 
probable".  His  system  soon  became  the  common 
teaching  of  the  theologians,  so  that  in  the  introduction 
to  his  "Regula  Morum"  Father  Terill,  S.  J.  (d.  1676) 
was  able  to  say  that  until  1638  Catholic  theologians  of 
all  schools  were  Probabilists.  There  were  exceptions 
such  as  Rebellus  (d.  1608),  Comitolus  (d.  1626),  and 
Philalethis  (d.  1642),  but  the  great  body  of  the 
theologians  of  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  of  the  first 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century  were  on  the  side  of 
Medina.  Amongst  them  were  Sa  (d.  1596),  Toletus 
(d.  1596),  Gregorius  de  Valentia  (d.  1603),  Banez  (d. 
1604),  Vasquez  (d.  1604),  Azor  (d.  1607),  Thomas 
Sanchez  (d.  1610),  Ledesma  (d.  1616),  Suarez  (d. 
1617),  Lessius  (d.  1623),  Laymann  (d.  1625),  Bon- 
acina  (d.  1631),  Castropalaus  (d.  1633),  Alvarez  (d. 
1635),  and  Ildephonsus  (d.  1639). 

With  the  rise  of  Jansenism  and  the  condemnation  of 
"  Augustinus"  a  new  phase  in  the  history  of  the  Prob- 
abilist  controversies  began.  In  1653  Innocent  X  con- 
demned the  five  propositions  taken  from  "Augusti- 
nus", and  in  1655  the  Louvain  theologians  condemned 
Probabilism.  Tutiorism  was  adopted  by  the  Jansen- 
ists,  and  the  Irish  Jansenist  theologian,  Sinnichius  (d. 
1666),  a  professor  of  Louvain,  was  the  foremost  de- 
fender of  the  Rigorist  doctrines.  He  held  that  it  is 
not  lawful  to  follow  even  a  most  probable  opinion  in 
favour  of  liberty.  Jansenist  Rigorism  spread  into 
France,  and  Pascal  in  his  "Lettres  Provingiales "  at- 
tacked Probabilism  with  the  vigour  and  grace  of  style 
which  have  given  his  letters  their  high  place  in  litera- 
ture. The  "Lettres  Provingiales "  were  condemned 
by  Alexander  VII  in  1657,  but  Rigorism  did  not  re- 
ceive its  final  blow  till  the  year  1690,  when  Alexander 
VIII  condemned  the  proposition  of  Sinnichius:  "Non 
licet  sequi  opinionem  vel  inter  probabiles  probabihssi- 
mam". 

After  this  condemnation  a  moderate  form  of  Tutior- 
ism was  unfolded  by  theologians  like  Steyaert  (d. 
1701),  Opstraet  (d.  1720),  Henricus  a  S.  Ignatio  (d. 
1719),  and  Dens  (d.  1775).  During  this  period,  dating 
from  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  to  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  following  were  amongst 
the  notable  theologians  who  remained  true  to  Prob- 
abilism: Lugo  (d.  1660),  Lupus  (d.  1681),  Cardenas 
(d.  1684),  Deschamps  (d.  1701),  Lacroix  (d.  1714), 
Sporer  (d.  1714),  Salmanticenses  (1717-1724),  Maz- 
zotta  (d.  1748). 


Side  by  side  with  Probabihsm  and  Rigorism  a 
party  held  sway  which  favoured  Laxism,  and 
which  maintained  in  theory  or  practice  that  a 
shghtly  probable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty  could 
safely  be  followed.  The  principal  upholders  of  this 
view  were  Juan  Sanchez  (d.  1620),  Bauny  (d.  1649), 
Leander  (d.  1663),  Diana  (d.  1663),  Tamburini  (d. 
1675),  Caramuel  (d.  1082),  Moya  (d.  1684).  Laxism 
was  expressly  condemned  by  Innocent  XI  in  1679; 
and  Alexander  VII  (1665-66),  and  Innocent  XI 
(1679)  condemned  various  propositions  which  savoured 
of  Laxism. 

Besides  Rigorism,  Probabilism,  and  Laxism,  there 
was  also  a  theory  of  Probabiliorism  which  held  that 
it  is  not  lawful  to  act  on  the  less  safe  opinion  unless  it 
is  more  probable  than  the  safe  opinion.  This  view, 
which  was  in  vogue  before  the  time  of  Medina,  was 
renewed  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  as 
an  antidote  against  Laxism.  Its  revival  was  princi- 
pally due  to  the  efforts  of  Alexander  VII  and  Innocent 
XL  In  1656  a  general  chapter  of  the  Dominicans 
urged  all  members  of  the  order  to  adopt  Probabilior- 
ism. Though  previously  Dominican  theologians  like 
Medina,  Ledesma,  Baiiez,  Alvarez,  and  Ildephonsus 
were  ProbabiHsts,  subsequently  the  Dominicans  in  the 
main  were  Probabiliorists.  Amongst  them  were  Mer- 
corius  (d.  1669),  Gonet  (d.  1681),  Contenson  (d.  1674), 
Fagnanus  (d.  1678),  Natalis  Alexander  (d.  1724), 
Concina  (d.  1756),  Billuart  (d.  1757),  Patuzzi  (d. 
1769).  Probabiliorism  was  held  by  many  Jesuits  such 
as  Gonzalez  (d.  1705),  Elizalde  (d.  1678),  Antoine  (d. 
1743),  Ehrentreich  (d.  1708),  and  Taberna  (d.  1686). 
In  1700  the  Galilean  clergy,  under  Bossuet,  accepted 
Probabiliorism.  The  Franciscans  as  a  rule  were 
Probabiliorists,  and  in  1762  a  general  chapter  of  the 
order,  held  at  Mantua,  ordered  the  members  to  follow 
Probabiliorism.  In  1598  a  general  chapter  of  the 
Theatines  adopted  Probabiliorism.  The  Augustinians 
the  Carmelites,  the  Trinitarians,  and  many  Benedic- 
tines were  also  Probabiliorists.  The  most  notable 
event  in  the  history  of  the  controversy  occurred  in 
connexion  with  Thyrsus  Gonzalez,  S.J.,  a  professor 
of  Salamanca,  who  (1670-72)  wrote  a  work,  entitled 
"Fundamentum  Theologiae  Moralis",  in  favour  of 
Probabiliorism.  In  1673  the  book  was  sent  to  the 
Jesuit  General  Oliva,  who  refused  permission  for  its 
publication.  Innocent  XI  favoured  Gonzalez,  and 
in  1680  sent,  through  the  Holy  Office,  a  decree  to 
the  General  Oliva  ordering  that  liberty  be  given  to 
the  members  of  the  order  to  write  in  favour  of  Prob- 
abiliorism and  against  Probabilism.  Gonzalez  was 
elected  general  of  the  order  in  1687,  but  his  book  was 
not  published  until  1694. 

During  the  controversies  between  the  Probabilists 
and  the  Probabiliorists,  the  system  known  as  jEqui- 
probabilism  was  not  clearly  brought  into  prominence, 
^quiprobabilism  holds  that  it  is  not  lawful  to  follow 
the  less  safe  opinion  when  the  safe  opinion  is  certainly 
more  probable;  that  it  is  not  lawful  to  act  on  the  less 
safe  opinion  even  when  it  is  equally  probable  with  the 
safe  opinion,  if  the  uncertainty  regards  the  cessation 
of  a  law;  but  that  if  the  existence  of  the  law  is  in  ques- 
tion, it  is  lawful  to  follow  the  less  safe  opinion  if  it 
has  equal  or  nearly  equal  probability  with  the  safe 
opinion.  Many  of  the  moderate  Probabilists  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  foreshadowed  in 
their  writings  the  theory  to  which,  in  his  later  days, 
St.  Alphonsus  adhered.  Even  Suarez,  who  is  regarded 
as  a  typical  Probabilist,  said:  "Major  probabilitas 
est  qUEedam  moralis  certitude,  si  excessus  probabili- 
tatis  certus  est  (De  Legibus,  1.  VIII,  c.  3,  n.  19).  In 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  Amort  (d. 
1775),  Rassler  (d.  1730),  and  Mayr  (d.  1749),  who  are 
sometimes  classed  as  moderate  Probabilists,  in  reality 
defended  .(Equiprobabilism. 

This  view  gained  vigour  and  persistence  from  the 
teaching  of  St.  Alphonsus,  who  began  his  theologi- 


PROBABILISM 


443 


PROBABILISM 


cal  career  as  a  Probabiliorist,  subsequently  defended 
Probabilism,  especially  in  a  treatise  entitled  "Dis- 
sertatio  scholastico-moralis  pro  usu  moderato  opin- 
ionis  probabilis  in  concursu  probabilioris"  (1749, 
1755),  and  finally,  about  1762,  embraced  iEquiproba- 
bilism.  In  a  new  dissertation  he  laid  down  the  two 
propositions  that  it  is  lawful  to  act  on  the  less  safe 
opinion,  when  it  is  equally  probable  with  the  safe 
opinion,  and  that  it  is  not  lawful  to  follow  the  less 
safe  opinion  when  the  safe  opinion  is  notably  and  cer- 
tainly more  probable.  In  the  sixth  edition  (1767)  of 
his  "Moral  Theology  "  he  again  expressed  these  views, 
and  indeed  towards  the  end  of  his  life  frequently  de- 
clared that  he  was  not  a  Probabilist. 

Probabilists  sometimes  hold  that  St.  Alphonsus 
never  changed  his  opinion  once  he  had  discarded 
Probabiliorism  for  Probabilism,  though  he  changed 
his  manner  of  expressing  his  view  so  as  to  ex- 
clude Laxist  teaching  and  to  give  an  indication 
of  what  must  be  regarded  as  a  solidly  probable 
opinion.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  as  can  be  seen  from 
a  comparison  between  the  "Moral  Theologies"  of 
moderate  Probabilists  and  of  jEquiprobabilists,  there 
is  little  practical  difference  between  the  two  sys- 
tems, so  far  at  least  as  the  uncertainty  regards 
the  existence  as  distinguished  from  the  cessation 
of  a  law.  Since  the  time  of  St.  Alphonsus  the  pre- 
vailing moral  systems  have  been  Probabilism  and 
jEquiprobabilism.  Probabiliorism  has  to  a  great  ex- 
tent disappeared,  and  even  many  Dominican  theo- 
logians have  espoused  the  cause  of  jEquiprobabilism. 
During  the  nineteenth  century  the  principal  ^qui- 
probabilists  have  been  Konings,  Marc,  Aertnys,  Ter 
Haar,  de  Caigny,  Gaud^,  and  Wouters.  Quite  re- 
cently Ter  Haar  and  Wouters  have  been  engaged  in 
controversy  with  Lehmkuhl  who,  especially  in  his 
"Probabilismus  Vindicatus"  (1906)  and  in  the  elev- 
enth edition  of  his  "Theologia  Moralis"  (1910),  has 
strongly  supported  the  Probabilist  thesis  which  has 
been  accepted  during  the  nineteenth  century  by  the 
vast  majority  of  theologians. 

In  late  years  the  system  of  Compensationism  has 
arisen,  which  holds  that  a  compensating  reason,  pro- 
portionate to  the  gravity  of  the  law  and  to  the  degree 
of  probability  in  favour  of  the  existence  of  the  law, 
is  required  in  order  that  a  person  might  lawfully  act 
on  the  less  safe  opinion.  This  theory  was  proposed  by 
Mannier,  Laloux,  and  Potton;  but  it  has  gained  little 
support  and  has  not  yet  become  a  rival  of  the  old 
theories  of  Probabilism,  jEquiprobabilism,  or  even 
ProbabiUorism. 

III.  Probabilism. — A.  Teaching  of  Prohahilists. — 
The  central  doctrine  of  Probabilism  is  that  in  every 
doubt  which  concerns  merely  the  lawfulness  or  unlaw- 
fulness of  an  action  it  is  permissible  to  follow  a  solidly 
probable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty,  even  though  the 
opposing  view  is  more  probable.  Probabihsts  apply 
their  theory  only  when  there  is  question  merely  of  the 
lawfulness  or  unlawfulness  of  an  action,  because  in 
other  cases  certainty  might  be  demanded  on  various 
grounds,  as  happens  when  the  validity  of  the  sacra^ 
ments,  the  attainment  of  an  obligatory  end,  and  the 
estabhshed  rights  of  another  are  concerned.  They 
apply  their  doctrine  whether  the  doubt  about  the  law- 
fulness or  unlawfulness  of  an  action  be  a  doubt  of  law, 
or  a  doubt  of  fact  which  can  be  reduced  to  a  doubt  of 
law.  Thus  if  it  is  solidly  probable  that  Friday  morning 
has  not  yet  set  in,  there  is  a  doubt  of  fact  which  can  be 
reduced  to  a  doubt  of  law  as  to  whether  it  is  lawful 
in  the  circumstances  to  take  meat.  They  also  apply 
their  doctrine  not  merely  to  human  but  also  to  Divine 
and  natural  laws,  on  the  ground  that  the  Divine  legis- 
lator is  not  more  exacting  than  a  human  legislator. 
They  apply  their  principles  whether  the  existence  or 
the  cessation  of  a  law  is  concerned,  since,  in  their  esti- 
mation, liberty  is  always  in  possession.  They  also 
apply  their  doctrine  even  though  the  person  whose 


action  is  in  question  believes  that  the  safe  opinion  is 
the  more  probable  opinion.  If,  however,  he  looks  on 
the  safe  opinion  as  morally  certain,  he  cannot  lawfully 
use  the  opinion  of  others  who  differ  from  him.  Nor 
can  a  person  on  the  same  occasion  use  opposing  prob- 
abilities in  his  favour  in  reference  to  several  obliga- 
tions of  which  one  or  another  would  be  certainly 
violated;  thus  a  priest  cannot  lawfully  take  meat  on 
the  probability  that  Friday  has  already  elapised,  and 
at  the  same  time  postpone  the  reading  of  Comphn  on 
the  probability  that  Friday  will  not  elapse  for  sorne 
time.  Finally,  Probabihsts  insist  that  the  opinion  in 
favour  of  liberty  must  be  based  on  soUd  arguments  and 
not  on  mere  flimsy  reasons  which  are  insufficient  to 
gain  the  assent  of  prudent  men. 

B.  Arguments  for  Probabilism. — (1)  External  argu- 
ments: (a)  Probabilism,  if  untrue,  is  seriously  detri- 
mental to  the  spiritual  life  of  the  faithful,  since  it  per- 
mits actions  which  ought  to  be  forbidden,  and  the 
Church  cannot  tolerate  or  give  approval  to  such  a 
moral  system.  But  the  Church  during  many  cen- 
turies has  tolerated  Probabilism,  and  has  given  it 
approval  in  the  person  of  St.  Alphonsus.  Hence 
Probabilism  is  not  a  false  system  of  morals.  That  the 
Church  has  tolerated  Probabihsm  is  shown  from  the 
numerous  approved  authors,  who,  since  the  time  of 
Medina,  have  defended  it  without  interference  on  the 
part  of  ecclesiastical  authority.  That  the  Church  has 
given  positive  approval  to  Probabilism  in  the  person 
of  St.  Alphonsus  is  proved  from  the  fact  that  his  works 
including  his  treatises  in  favour  of  Probabilism,  re- 
ceived official  sanction  from  the  Decree  of  18  May, 
1803,  the  reply  of  the  Sacred  Penitentiary  of  5  July, 
1831,  the  Bull  of  Canonization  of  26  May,  1839,  and 
the  Apostolic  Letters  of  7  July,  1871  (cf.  Lehmkuhl, 
"Theologia  Moralis",  I,  nn.  165-75). 

jEquiprobabilists  reply  that  this  argument  proves 
too  much  for  Probabilists,  since  the  Church  has  also 
tolerated  jEquiprobabilism,  and  has  given  it  positive 
approval  in  the  person  of  St.  Alphonsus,  whose  works 
in  favour  of  j!)quiprobabilism  received  the  sanction 
of  the  Holy  See  in  the  official  documents  of  1803, 1831, 
1839,  and  1871.  If  jEquiprobabilism  is  false,  it  is 
seriously  detrimental  to  the  spiritual  life  of  the  faith- 
ful, since  it  imposes  burdens  which  ought  not  to  be 
imposed.  Hence,  if  any  argument  can  be  derived  for 
Probabilism  from  the  toleration  or  approval  of  the 
Church,  a  similar  argument  can  be  derived  therefrom 
for  jEquiprobabilism. 

(b)  In  interpreting  her  own  laws  the  Church  applies 
the  principles  of  Probabilism,  since  amongst  the  rules 
of  law  in  "Sexto  Decretalium"  we  read:  "Odia 
restringi,  et  favores  convenit  ampliari"  (r.  15);  "In 
obscuris  minimum  est  sequendum"  (r.  30);  "Contra 
eum  qui  legem  dicere  potuit  apertius,  est  interpre- 
tatio  facienda"  (r.  57);  "In  pcenis  benignior  est 
interpretatio  facienda"  (r.  89).  What  is  true  of  the 
Church  is  equally  true  of  other  legislators,  because 
God  is  not  a  more  exacting  Legislator  than  His 
Church,  nor  is  the  State  to  be  presumed  more  strict 
than  God  and  the  Church  (cf.  Tanquerey,  "Theologia 
Moralis  fundamentalis",  n.  413). 

jEquiprobabihsts  reply  to  this  argument  that  when 
the  less  safe  opinion  is  certainly  less  probable  than 
the  safe  opinion,  the  former  has  lost  solid  probability 
and  consequently  cannot,  so  far  as  conscience  is  con- 
cerned, obtain  the  privileges  which  the  Divine  Legis- 
lator, the  Church,  and  the  State  concede  in  the  case 
of  really  doubtful  laws.  Moreover,  many  of  these 
rules  of  law  directly  apply  to  the  external  forum 
and  ought  not,  without  due  limitation,  be  transferred 
to  the  forum  of  conscience. 

(2)  Internal  arguments:  (a)  a  law  which  has  not 
been  promulgated  is  not  a  law  in  the  full  and  strict 
sense,^  and  does  not  impose  an  obligation.  But  when 
there  is  a  solidly  probable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty, 
the  law  has  not  been  sufficiently  promulgated,  since 


PROBABILISM 


444 


PROBABILISM 


there  has  not  been  the  requisite  manifestation  of  the 
mind  of  the  legislator.  Hence,  when  there  is  a  solidly 
probable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty,  the  law  is  not  a 
law  in  the  full  and  strict  sense,  and  does  not  impose 
any  obligation  (cf.  Lehmkuhl,  "Theologia  Moralis", 
I,  nn.  176-8). 

jEquiprobabilists  reply  that,  when  there  is  a  solidly 
probable  opinion  in  favour  of  hberty,  the  law  is  prob- 
ably not  sufficiently  promulgated,  and  the  question 
remains  whether  a  law  that  is  probably  not  sufficiently 
promulgated  imposes  any  obligation  in  conscience. 
It  would  be  begging  the  question  to  assume  that  no 
obligation  is  imposed  simply  because  there  is  a  prob- 
ability that  the  law  has  not  been  sufficiently  promul- 
gated. Moreover,  if  the  safe  opinion  happens  to  be 
the  true  opinion,  a  material  sin  is  committed  by  the 
person  who,  acting  on  probability,  performs  the 
prohibited  action.  But,  unless  the  law  is  promul- 
gated, a  material  sin  cannot  be  committed  by  its 
violation,  since  promulgation  is  a  necessary  condition 
of  a  binding  law  (cf.  McDonald,  "The  Principles  of 
Moral  Science",  p.  24.5). 

(b)  An  obligation,  concerning  whose  existence  there 
is  invincible  ignorance,  is  no  obligation.  But,  so  long 
as  there  is  a  solidly  probable  opinion  in  favour  of  lib- 
erty, there  is  invincible  ignorance  about  the  obligation 
imposed  by  the  law.  Hence  a  law  does  not  impose  an 
obligation  so  long  as  the  less  safe  opinion  is  solidly 
probable  (cf.  Lehmkuhl,  "Theologia  Moralis",  I,  n. 
179). 

jEquiprobabilists  reply  that  there  is  not  invincible 
ignorance  in  regard  to  a  law  when  the  safe  opinion  is 
also  the  more  probable  opinion,  because  in  these  cir- 
cumstances a  person  is  bound  by  ordinary  prudence 
to  give  assent  to  the  safe  opinion.  Although  it  is  true 
that  an  obligation  concerning  whose  existence  there 
is  invincible  ignorance  is  no  obligation,  this  is  not  true 
when  one  is  compelled  to  give  assent  to  an  opinion  as 
the  more  probable  opinion  (cf.  Wouters,  "De  Minus- 
probabilismo",  p.  121). 

(c)  According  to  the  axiom:  lex  dubia  non  obligat, 
a  doubtful  law  does  not  bind.  But  a  law  is  doubtful 
when  there  is  a  solidly  probable  opinion  against  it. 
Hence  it  is  lawful  to  follow  a  solidly  probable  opinion 
in  favour  of  liberty  (cf.  Tanquerey,  "Theologia 
Fundamentalis",  n.  409). 

jEquiprobabilists  in  reply  say  that  the  axiom  lex 
dubia  non  obligat  holds  when  the  law  is  strictly  doubt- 
ful, i.  e.  when  the  reasons  for  and  against  the  law  are 
equal  or  nearly  equal.  A  fortiori  the  law  does  not 
bind  when  the  safe  opinion  is  more  probable  than  the 
less  safe  opinion.  It  would,  however,  be  begging  the 
question  to  assume  that  the  axiom  holds  when  the  less 
safe  opinion  is  clearly  less  probable  than  the  safe 
opinion. 

(d)  According  to  jEquiprobabilists,  it  is  lawful  to 
follow  the  less  safe  opinion,  when  it  is  more  probable 
than  the  safe  opinion.  But  they  must  admit  that 
Probabilism  is  more  probable  than  jEquiprobabilism, 
since  the  vast  majority  of  theologians  favour  the 
milder  view,  and  jEquiprobabilists  do  not  reject  ex- 
ternal authority.  Hence  on  their  own  principles  they 
ought  to  admit  the  practical  truth  of  Probabilism. 

jEquiprobabilists  reply  that  extrinsic  authority  is  of 
no  avail  when  the  arguments  on  which  the  authority 
rests  have  been  proved  to  be  invalid;  and  they  claim 
that  they  have  proved  the  invalidity  of  the  Proljabilist 
arguments.  Moreover,  a  reflex  principle  is  useless  un- 
less its  truth  is  proved  with  certainty,  since  its  sole 
utility  is  to  change  speculative  uncertainty  into  prac- 
tical certainty.  But  greater  probability  does  not  give 
certainty.  Accordingly,  even  if  jEquiprobabilists 
were  to  admit  the  greater  probability  of  Probabilism, 
that  admission  would  be  useless  for  Probabilists.  The 
case  is  different  with  jEquiprobabilism,  which  has 
practical  certainty,  since  nearly  all  theologians  now- 
adays admit  the  lawfulness  of  following  the  less  safe 


opinion  regarding  the  existence  of  a  law,  when  it  is 
equally  or  almost  equally  probable  with  the  safe 
opinion. 

(e)  Many  Probabihsts  lay  stress  oii  a  practical 
argument  in  favour  of  their  opinion,  which  is  derived 
from  the  difficulty  of  distinguishing  between  various 
grades  of  Probability.  It  is  impossible  in  practice, 
especially  for  ordinary  people,  to  tell  when  one  solidly 
probable  opinion  is  more  probable  than  another  sol- 
idly probable  opinion.  But  a  moral  system,  to  be  of 
any  serious  utility,  must  be  universal,  so  that  not 
merely  experts  in  moral  science  but  also  ordinary 
people  can  utilize  it.  Hence  the  systems  which  de- 
mand a  knowledge  of  the  various  degrees  of  prob- 
ability must  be  discarded  as  practically  useless,  and 
Probabilism  alone  must  be  accepted  as  a  working  sys- 
tem. 

jEquiprobabilists  reply  that  their  system  merely 
asks,  that  if  after  due  investigation  it  is  found  that  the 
less  safe  opinion  is  notably  and  certainly  less  probable 
than  the  safe  opinion,  the  law  must  be  observed.  The 
necessary  investigation  has  frequently  been  already 
made  by  experts;  and  others,  who  are  not  experts,  are 
safe  in  accepting  the  conclusions  to  which  the  experts 
adhere. 

C.  Arguments  against  Probabilism. — In  addition  to 
some  arguments  to  be  explained  in  connexion  with  the 
other  modern  moral  systems,  it  is  necessary  to  mention 
a  few  difficulties  which  have  been  urged  directly 
against  Probabihsm. 

(1)  When  the  less  safe  opinion  is  notably  and  cer- 
tainly less  probable  than  the  safe  opinion,  there  is  no 
true  probability  in  favour  of  liberty,  since  the  stronger 
destroy  the  force  of  the  weaker  reasons.  Hence 
Probabilists  cannot  consistently  maintain  that  it  is 
safe  in  practice  to  act  on  the  less  safe  opinion  which 
is  also  the  less  probable. 

Probabilists  reply  that  the  greater  probability  does 
not  of  necessity  destroy  the  solid  probability  of  the 
less  probable  opinion.  When  the  foundations  of  the 
opposing  probabilities  are  not  derived  from  the  same 
source,  then  at  least  the  opposing  arguments  do  not 
detract  from  one  another;  and  even  when  the  two 
probabilities  are  based  on  a  consideration  of  the  same 
argument,  one  opinion  will  retain  probability  in  so  far 
as  the  opposing  opinion  recedes  from  certainty. 

(2)  A  moral  system,  to  be  of  any  use,  must  be  cer- 
tain, since  an  uncertain  reflex  principle  cannot  give 
practical  certainty.  But  Probabilism  is  not  certain, 
because  it  is  rejected  by  all  those  theologians  who  up- 
held one  or  another  of  the  opposing  views.  Hence 
Probabilism  cannot  be  accepted  as  a  satisfactory  solu- 
tion of  the  question  at  issue. 

Probabilists  reply  that  their  system  can  be  of  no  use 
to  those  who  do  not  look  on  it  as  certainly  true;  but 
the  fact  that  many  theologians  do  not  accept  it  does 
not  prevent  its  adherents  from  regarding  it  as  cer- 
tain, since  these  can  and  do  believe  that  the  arguments 
urged  in  its  favour  are  insuperable. 

(3)  Probabilism  is  an  easy  road  to  Laxism,  because 
people  are  often  inclined  to  regard  opinions  as  really 
probable  which  are  based  on  flimsy  arguments,  and 
because  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  five  or  six  serious 
authors  who  approve  of  opinions  which  right-minded 
men  consider  lax.  The  only  sure  way  to  safeguard 
Catholic  morals  is  to  reject  the  opinion  which  opens 
the  way  to  Laxism. 

Probabilists  reply  that  their  system  must  be  pru- 
dently employed,  and  that  no  serious  danger  of  Laxism 
arises  if  it  is  recognized  that  an  opinion  is  not  solidly 
probable  unless  there  are  arguments  in  its  favour 
which  are  sufficient  to  gain  the  assent  of  many  prudent 
men.  As  for  the  authority  of  approved  authors,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  five  or  six  grave  authors  do 
not  give  solid  probability  to  an  opinion  unless  they 
are  notable  for  learning  and  prudence,  and  indepen- 
dently adhere  to  an  opinion  which  has  not  been  set 


FROBABILISM 


445 


FROBABILISM 


aside  by  authoritative  decisions  or  by  unanswered 
arguments. 

IV.  Moral  Systems  Opposed  to  Probabilism. — 
A.  Aiqui-prohahilism. — This  system  can  be  'expressed 
in  the  three  following  propositions: 

(1)  The  opinions  for  and  against  the  existence  of  a 
law  having  equal  or  nearly  equal  probabilities,  it  is 
permissible  to  act  on  the  less  safe  opinion. 

(2)  The  opinions  for  and  against  the  cessation  of  a 
law  having  equal  or  nearly  equal  probabilities,  it  is 
not  permissible  to  act  on  the  less  safe  opinion. 

(3)  The  safe  opinion  being  certainly  more  probable 
than  the  less  safe  opinion,  it  is  unlawful  to  follow  the 
less  safe  opinion. 

With  the  first  of  these  propositions  Probabilists 
agree;  but  they  deny  the  truth  of  the  second  and  third 
propositions  (cf.  Marc,  " Institutiones  Morales",  I, 
nn.  91-103). 

Arguments  for  jEquiprobabilism:  (1)  In  proof  of 
their  first  proposition  vEquiprobabilists  quote  the 
axiom:  lex  dubia  non  obligal.  When  the  opposing 
probabilities  are  equal  or  nearly  equal,  the  law  is 
doubtful  in  the  strict  sense,  and  a  doubtful  law  im- 
poses no  obligation  in  conscience.  They  also  apply 
the  rule:  in  dubio  melior  est  conditio  possidentis. 
When  the  doubt  regards  the  existence,  as  distinguished 
from  the  cessation  of  a  law,  liberty  is  in  possession, 
and  accordingly  the  opinion  which  favours  liberty 
can  be  followed  in  practice. 

(2)  In  proof  of  their  second  proposition,  jEqui- 
probabilists  quote  the  same  axiom :  in  dubio  melior  est 
conditio  possidentis.  When  the  doubt  concerns  the 
cessation  of  a  law,  the  law  is  in  possession,  and  there- 
fore the  law  must  be  observed  until  it  is  displaced  by 
a  stronger  probability  in  favour  of  liberty. 

Probabilists  reply  to  this  argument  that  liberty  is 
always  in  possession,  since  law  and  obligation  pre- 
suppose fiberty  in  the  subject. 

(3)  In  proof  of  their  third  proposition  jEquiprob- 
abilists  put  forward  various  arguments,  of  which  the 
following  are  the  most  forcible: 

(a)  A  person  is  bound  seriously  to  endeavour  to 
bring  his  actions  into  harmony  with  objective  moral- 
ity. But  a  person  who  follows  the  less  probable 
opinion  in  favour  of  liberty  fails  to  observe  this  dictate 
of  prudence,  and  consequently  acts  unlawfully  (cf. 
Wouters,  "De  Minusprobabilismo",  p.  71). 

Probabilists  reply  that  this  argument,  if  carried  to 
its  logical  conclusion,  would  end  in  Rigorism,  because 
the  only  way  efficiently  to  bring  our  actions  into  per- 
fect harmony  with  objective  morality  is  to  follow  the 
safe  opinion,  so  long  as  the  less  safe  opinion  has  not 
acquired  moral  certainty.  This  is  the  only  way  of 
preventing  all  serious  danger  of  committing  material 
sin,  and  consequently  is  the  only  way  of  observing 
perfect  harmony  with  objective  morality.  Since,  how- 
ever. Rigorism  is  universally  condemned,  the  argu- 
ment must  be  rejected,  and  the  principles  of  Proba- 
bilism must  he  adopted  which  hold  that  it  is  sufficient 
to  observe  harmony  with  objective  morahty  in  so  far 
as  this  is  known  with  moral  certainty  (cf .  Lehmkuhl, 
"Theologia  Moralis",  I,  n.  191). 

(b)  On  26  June,  1680,  the  Holy  Office,  under  the 
presidency  of  Innocent  XI,  issued,  in  connexion  with 
the  teaching  of  ThjTsus  Gonzalez,  S.J.,  a  Decree  of 
which  the  authentic  text  was  published  19  April,  1902, 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Holy  Office.  So  much  con- 
troversy has  recently  arisen  in  regard  to  the  value  of 
this  decree,  that  it  is  opportune  to  quote  the  whole 
text:  "A  report  having  been  made  by  Father  Laurea 
of  the  contents  of  a  letter  directed  by  Father  Thyrsus 
Gonzalez,  S.J.,  to  Our  Most  Holy  Lord;  the  Most 
Eminent  Lords  said  that  the  Secretary  of  State  must 
write  to  the  ApostoUc  Nuncio  of  the  Spains  [directing 
him]  to  signify  to  the  said  Father  Thyrsus  that  His 
Holiness,  having  received  his  letter  favourably,  and 
having  read  it  with  approval,  has  commanded  that  he 


[Thyrsus]  shall  freely  and  fearlessly  preach,  teach,  and 
defend  with  his  pen  the  more  probable  opinion,  and 
also  manfully  attack  the  opinion  of  those  who  a,ssert 
that  in  a  conflict  of  a  less  probable  opinion  with  a 
more  probable,  known  and  estimated  as  such,  it  is 
allowed  to  follow  the  less  probable;  and  to  inform 
him  that  whatever  he  does  and  writes  on  behalf  of  the 
more  probable  opinion  will  be  pleasing  to  His  Holi- 
ness. 

"Let  it  be  enjoined  upon  the  Father  Genera,!  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  as  by  order  [de  ordine]  of  His  Holi- 
ness, not  only  to  permit  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  to 
write  in  favour  of  the  more  probable  opinion  and  to 
attack  the  opinion  of  those  who  assert  that  in  a  con- 
flict of  a  less  probable  opinion  with  a  more  probable, 
known  and  estimated  as  such,  it  is  allowed  to  follow 
the  less  probable j  but  also  to  write  to  all  the  Univer- 
sities of  the  Society  [informing  them]  that  it  is  the 
mind  of  His  Holiness  that  whosoever  chooses  may 
freely  write  in  favour  of  the  more  probable  opinion, 
and  may  attack  the  aforesaid  contrary  [opinion];  and 
to  order  them  to  submit  entirely  to  the  command  of 
His  Holiness". 

jEquiprobabilists  say  that  in  this  Decree  there  is  a 
clear  expression  of  the  mind  of  Innocent  XI  about  the 
morality  of  teaching  that  it  is  permissible  to  act  on 
the  less  safe  opinion  when  the  safe  opinion  is  cer- 
tainly more  probable.  The  pope  disapproves  of  this 
teaching,  commends  Father  Gonzalez  for  his  opposi- 
tion to  it,  and  orders  the  General  of  the  Jesuits  to 
allow  full  liberty  so  that  anyone  who  pleases  may 
write  against  it. 

Probabilists  reply  that,  though  Innocent  XI  was 
opposed  to  Probabilism,  his  official  Decree  merely  com- 
manded that  liberty  of  teaching  be  allowed  to  the 
members  of  the  order.  Moreover,  they  point  out  that 
Gonzalez  was  not  an  Jllquiprobabifist,  but  a  Prob- 
abiliorist  of  a  strict  type  whom  St.  Alphonsus  re- 
garded as  an -extremist. 

B.  Probabiliorism. — According  to  the  teaching  of 
Probabiliorists,  it  is  unlawful  to  act  on  the  less  safe 
opinion  unless  it  is  also  the  more  probable  opinion. 
In  addition  to  an  argument  derived  from  the  Decree 
of  Innocent  XI,  the  principal  arguments  for  Probabil- 
iorism are  the  following: 

(1)  It  is  not  lawful  to  follow  the  less  safe  opinion, 
unless  it  is  truly  and  expeditely  probable.  But  an 
opinion  which  is  opposed  by  a  more  probable  opinion 
is  not  truly  and  expeditely  probable,  since  its  argu- 
ments are  annulled  by  more  potent  opposing  argu- 
ments and  cannot  in  consequence  gain  the  assent  of  a 
prudent  man.  Hence  it  is  not  lawful  for  a  person  to 
follow  the  less  safe  opinion  when  he  regards  the  safe 
opinion  as  more  probable. 

As  has  already  been  explained  in  connexion  with 
Probabilism,  Probabifists  maintain  that  the  less  safe 
opinion  does  not  necessarily  lose  its  solid  probability 
because  of  more  probable  opposing  arguments.  This 
being  so,  the  law  is  not  certain,  and  consequently  does 
not  impose  an  obligation  in  regard  to  action,  even 
though  in  regard  to  speculative  assent  it  is  rightly 
looked  on  as  more  probable. 

(2)  As  in  speculative  doubt  we  are  bound  to  give 
assent  to  the  view  which  is  more  likely  to  exclude 
error,  so  in  practical  doubt  about  lawfulness  we  are 
bound  to  adopt  the  opinion  which  is  more  likely  to 
exclude  the  danger  of  material  sin.  But  the  more 
probable  opinion  is  the  more  likely  to  exclude  this 
danger.  Consequently  in  practical  doubt  we  are 
boimd  to  adopt  the  Probabiliorist  view.  Probabilists 
reply  that  tins  argument  leads  to  Tutiorism  rather 
than  to  Probabiliorism,  because  the  only  efficacious 
way  of  excluding  reasonable  danger  of  material  sin 
is  to  act  on  the  safe  opinion  so  long  as  the  less  safe 
opinion  is  not  morally  certain.  Moreover,  Probabil- 
iorism would  impose  an  intolerable  burden  on  the  con- 
sciences of  timorous  minds,  since  it  would  demand  an 


PROBATIC 


446 


PROCESSIONS 


investigation  into  the  various  degrees  of  probability, 
so  as  to  enable  a  person  definitely  to  say  that  one 
opinion  is  more  probable  than  another.  In  view  of  the 
great  diversity  of  opinion,  which  exists  on  many  moral 
subjects,  this  definite  judgment  is  practically  impos- 
sible, especially  in  the  case  of  the  vast  majority  of 
men  who  arc  not  experts  in  moral  science. 

C.  Compensationi.sm. — This  maintains  that  a  doubt- 
ful law  is  not  devoid  of  all  binding  force,  and  that 
there  must  be  a  compensating  reason,  proportionate  to 
the  probability  and  gravity  of  the  law,  to  justify  the 
performance  of  the  action  which  is  probably  forbidden. 
This  teaching  is  based  on  an  analogy  with  an  act 
which  has  two  effects,  one  good  and  the  other  bad.  It 
is  not  lawful  to  perform  such  an  act  unless  there  is  a 
justifying  cause  proportionate  to  the  evU.  In  the 
case  of  a  doubtful  law  the  bad  effect  is  the  danger  of 
material  sin,  and  the  good  effect  is  the  benefit,  which 
arises  from  the  performance  of  the  action  which  is 
probably  forbidden.  Hence  in  this  as  in  the  former 
case,  a  compensating  cause,  proportionate  to  the 
probable  evil,  is  required  to  justify  the  performance 
of  the  action. 

Probabilists  reply  that  this  moral  system  leads  to 
Tutiorism,  because  it  implies  that  if  no  compensating 
benefit  exists,  it  is  not  lawful  to  perform  an  action  so 
long  as  it  certainly  is  not  forbidden.  Again,  Probabil- 
ists say  that  the  preservation  of  liberty  is  of  itself  a 
sufficient  compensating  reason  when  there  is  question 
of  a  law  which  is  not  certain.  Finally,  Probabilists 
are  prepared  to  admit  that,  as  a  point  of  expediency 
though  not  of  obligation,  it  is  advisable  to  look  for  a 
compensating  cause  over  and  above  the  preservation 
of  liberty  when  a  confessor  is  directing  penitents  in 
the  use  of  probable  opinions.  If  no  such  compensating 
reason  exists,  the  penitent  can  be  advised,  though  not 
under  pain  of  sin,  to  abstain  from  the  performance  of 
the  action  which  is  probably  forbidden. 

McDonald,  The  Principles  of  Moral  Science  (Dublin,  1910); 
Behthe-Cabtle,  Life  of  St.  Alphonsus  de  Liguori  (Dublin,  1905); 
Slater,  A  Short  History  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1909); 
RiCKABT,  Moral  Philosophy  (London,  1892) ;  Lea,  A  History  of 
Auricular  Confession  (Philadelphia,  1896) ;  DE  Caigny,  Apolo- 
getica  de  J^quiprobahilismo  Alphonsiano  (Tournai,  1894) ;  Arendt, 
Apolagetic(E  de  Mquiprohabilismo  Alphonsiano  historico-philosO' 
phiccE  Di^sertationis  a  R.  P.  J.  de  Caigny,  C.  SS.  R.  exaratai 
Crisis  juxia  Principia  Anijclici  Doctoris  (Freiburg,  1897);  Bal- 
LERixi,  VindicicE  Alphonsiance  (Rome,  1873) ;  Gaud^,  De  Morali 
Systemate  S.  Alphonsi  MaruT  De  Ligorio  (Rome,  1894) ;  Ter 
Haar,  De  Systemate  Morali  Antiquorum  Probabilistarum  (Pader- 
born,  1894) ;  Idem,  Ven.  Innocentii  P.  P.  XI  de  Prohabilismo 
Decreti  Historia  et  Vindicix  (Rome,  1904) ;  WouTERS,  De  Minus- 
probabilismo  (Amaterdam,  1908) ;  Lehmkuhl,  Probabilismus  Vin- 
dicatus  (Freiburg,  1906) ;  Idem,  Theologia  Moralis  (Freiburg, 
1910) ;  DiNNEEN,  De  Probabilismo  Dissertatio  (Dublin,  1898) ; 
Tanquerey,  Theologia  Moralis  Fundamentalis  (Tournai,  1905) ; 
St.  Alphonsus  Liguori,  Theologia  Moralis  (Rome,  1905) ;  Potton, 
De  Theoria  Probabilitatis  (Paris,  1874) ;  Laloux,  De  Actibus 
Humanis  (Paris,  1802) ;  Morris,  Probability  and  Faith  in  The 
Dublin  Review,  CXI  (London,  1892),  365-94;  Taeleton,  Prob- 
abilism  in  The  Month  (London,  May,  1883),  43;  Jones,  What  is 
Probabilism?  in  The  Month  (London,  January,  1868),  75;  see  also 
the  ordinary  treatises  on  moral  theology  and  moral  philosophy. 

J.  M.  Harty. 

Probatic  Pool.     See  Bbthsaida. 

Probus,  Makcus  Aurelitjs,  Roman  Emperor,  276- 
82,  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  army  in  Syria  to  suc- 
ceed Tacitus.  Of  humble  origin,  he  was  born  at 
Sirmium  in  Illyria;  by  courage  and  abihty  he  won  the 
confidence  of  the  soldiers,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  he  subdued  Palmyra  and  Egypt. 
As  emperor,  he  ordained  that  the  imperial  edicts  must 
be  ratified  by  the  senate,  and  he  returned  to  the  senate 
the  right  of  appointing  the  governors  of  the  former 
senatorial  provinces.  His  reign  was  passed  in  wars 
with  the  Germans.  He  personally  drove  the  Ala- 
manni  across  the  Rhine  and  forced  them  as  far  as  the 
fortifications,  extending  from  Ratisbon  to  Mainz. 
He  made  nine  German  kings  tributary  to  Rome,  and 
distributed  sixteen  thousand  German  warriors  among 
the  Roman  legions.  In  278  the  emperor  re-estab- 
lished peace  in  Rhsetia,  Illyria,  and  Moesia  by  cam- 


paigns against  the  Burgundians  and  Vandals.  In  the 
meantime  his  generals  had  overcome  the  Franks  on 
the  lower  Rhine.  The  next  year  the  emperor  went  to 
Asia  Minor  where  he  punished  the  Isaurians  and 
gained  their  fortified  castle  Cremna  in  Pisidia.  His 
legions  advanced  as  far  as  Syria  and  Egypt.  Probus 
settled  foreign  colonists  in  all  the  boundary  provinces. 
In  this  way,  he  brought  about  that  the  outlying  prov- 
inces were  peacefully  settled  by  German  tribes. 
During  his  long  absence  in  Asia  Minor  rival  emperors 
were  proclaimed  in  various  provinces;  e.  g.  Saturni- 
nus  at  Alexandria,  Proclus  at  Lyons,  who  controlled 
Gaul  and  Spain,  and  had  a  successor  at  Cologne  named 
Bonosus.  All  these  rivals  were  vanquished  by  the 
imperial  troops.  Probus  celebrated  triumphs  at 
Rome  over  his  enemies  and  even  hoped  to  attain  to 
an  era  of  peace  and  plenty.  In  times  of  peace  he 
employed  the  soldiers  in  constructing  public  works, 
building  temples  and  bridges,  regulation  of  rivers,  dig- 
ging canals  to  drain  marshes,  and  planting  vineyards, 
especially  in  Gaul,  Pannonia,  and  Moesia.  By  forcing 
the  soldiers,  who  no  longer  had  any  interest  in  the 
prosperity  of  the  citizens,  to  do  this  work,  Probus 
roused  them  to  revolt;  in  Rhaetia  the  prefect  of  the 
guard,  Marcus  Aurelius  Carus,  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror. The  troops  sent  against  him  by  Probus  joined 
the  rebels,  and  the  emperor  himself  was  killed  near 
his  birthplace. 

MoMMSEN,  Rom.  Gesch.,  V  (Berlin,  1885) ;  Schiller,  Gesch.  der 
rom.  Kaiser zeil,  II  (Gotha,  1887);  VON  Domaszewski,  Gesch.  der 
r6m.  Kaiser  (2  vola.,  Leipzig,  1909). 

Karl  Hcebee. 

Procedure,  Canonical.  See  Courts,  Ecclesi- 
astical. 

Processional,  Roman. — Strictly  speaking  it  might 
be  said  that  the  Processional  has  no  recognized  place 
in  the  Roman  series  of  liturgical  books.  As  the  full 
title  of  the  work  so  designated  shows,  the  book  con- 
sists of  a  single  section  of  the  Roman  Ritual  (titulus 
ix)  with  sundry  supplementary  materials  taken  from 
the  Missal  and  the  Pontifical.  What  we  read  on  the 
title-page  of  the  authentic  edition  runs  as  follows: 
"  Processionale  Romanum  sive  Ordo  Sacrarum  Pro- 
cessionum  ex  Rituali  Romano  depromptus  additis 
quae  similia  in  Missali  et  Pontificali  habentur" 
Seeing,  however,  that  the  Ritual  does  not  always 
print  in  full  the  text  of  the  hymns,  litany,  and  other 
prayers  which  it  indicates,  it  is  convenient  to  have 
these  set  out  at  length  with  the  music  belonging  to 
them.  Processionals  appropriated  to  the  special  uses 
of  various  local  churches,  e.  g.  "Processionale  ad  usum 
Sarum",  are  of  fairly  common  occurrence  among  the 
later  medieval  manuscripts.  At  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
we  have  a  good  many  printed  processionals  belonging 
to  different  churches  of  France,  England,  and  Germany. 

Zaccaria,  Bibliotheca  ritualis ,  I  (Rome,  1776),  159. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  See  Holt 
Ghost. 

Processions,  an  element  in  all  ceremonial,  are  to 
be  found,  as  we  should  expect,  in  almost  every  form 
of  religious  worship.  The  example  of  the  processions 
with  the  Ark  in  the  Old  Testament  (cf.  espec,  II 
Kings,  vi,  and  III  Kings,  viii)  and  the  triumphant 
entry  of  our  Saviour  into  Jerusalem  in  the  New  were 
probably  not  without  influence  upon  the  ritual  of 
later  ages.  Even  before  the  age  of  Constantine,  the 
funeral  processions  of  the  Christians  seem  to  have  been 
carried  out  with  a  certain  amount  of  solemnity,  and 
the  use  of  the  word  by  Tertullian  (De  Praescriptio, 
xliii)  may  possibly  have  reference  to  some  formal 
progress  or  movement  of  the  faithful  churchwards, 
which  led  afterwards  to  the  assembly  itself  or  the 
service  being  called  processio  as  well  as  synaxis  and 
collecta  (Probst,  "Sakramentarien  und  Ord.",  205). 


PROCESSIONS 


447 


PROCESSIONS 


About  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  and  possibly 
earlier,  two  forms  of  procession  played  a  great  part  in 
papal  ceremonial.  The  one  was  the  procession  to  the 
"Station ",  the  other  the  solemn  entry  of  the  celebrant 
from  the  secretarium,  or  sacristy,  to  the  altar.  A  good 
description  of  the  stational  procession  is  given  in  the 
St.  Amand  Ordo,  n.  6  (Duchesne,  "Christian  Wor- 
ship", 474).  The  pontiff,  the  clergy,  and  the  people 
assembled  in  the  appointed  church,  where  the  clergy 
vested  and  the  office  was  begun.  The  poor  people  of 
the  hospital  went  first  with  a  painted  wooden  cross; 
the  seven  stationary  crosses,  with  three  candles  each 
and  a  retinue,  followed,  and  then  the  bishops,  priests, 
and  subdeacons;  finally  came  the  pope  surrounded 
by  his  deacons,  with  two  crosses  borne  before  him  and 
the  schola  cantorum  or  choir  following  behind  him. 
As  the  procession  moved  along  to  the  stational  church 
where  Mass  was  to  be  offered  the  Kyrie  Eleison  and 
the  litanies  were  sung,  from  which  the  procession  itself 
was  often  called  litania.  The  solemn  entrance  of  the 
celebrant  as  he  proceeded  from  the  sacristy  to  the 
altar  was  of  course  a  procession  on  a  smaller  scale,  but 
this  also  is  minutely  described  in  the  first  "Ordo". 
The  pontiff  was  again  surrounded  by  his  deacons  and 
preceded  by  the  subdeacons,  one  of  whom  swung  a 
thurible,  and  a  conspicuous  feature  was  the  group  of 
seven  acolj^tes  carrying  tapers,  which  make  us  think  of 
the  seven  candles  now  lighted  on  the  altar  at  a  pon- 
tifical High  Mass.  In  this  procession  to  the  altar  the 
antiphon  of  the  introit  was  sung.  On  certain  special 
occasions,  notably  St.  Mark's  Day  (25  April),  which 
coincided  with  the  old  Roman  festival  of  the  Bobigalia, 
and  in  Gaul  on  the  three  Rogation  Days  before  the 
fea,st  of  the  Ascension,  there  were  processions  of  ex- 
ceptional solemnity  (see  Litany). 

Although  not  now  formally  recognized  as  a  pro- 
cession in  the  liturgical  books,  we  may  say  that  the 
sprinkling  of  the  congregation  with  holy  water  at  the 
beginning  of  the  parochial  Mass  on  Sundays  preserves 
for  us  the  memory  of  the  most  familiar  procession  of 
the  early  Middle  Ages.  The  rite  is  prescribed  in  the 
Capitularies  of  Charlemagne  and  of  Louis  the  Pious, 
as  well  as  in  other  ninth-century  documents.  For 
example  a  Council  of  Nantes  before  the  year  900  en- 
joins that  "every  Sunday  before  Mass,  each  priest  is 
to  bless  water  in  a  vessel  which  is  clean  and  suitable 
for  so  great  a  mystery,  for  the  people  to  be  sprinkled 
with  when  they  enter  the  church,  and  let  him  make 
the  round  of  the  yard  [atrium]  of  the  said  church  with 
the  [processional]  crosses,  sprinkling  it  with  the  holy 
water,  and  let  him  pray  for  the  souls  of  them  that  rest 
therein;'  (Mansi,  "Conciha",  XVIII,  173).  In  the 
monastic  ceremonials  of  the  same  period  this  holy 
water  procession  on  the  Sunday  morning  was  usually 
described  in  much  detail.  After  the  sprinkling  of  the 
high  altar  and  of  the  other  altars  of  the  church  in  order, 
the  whole  body  of  the  monks,  after  being  sprinkled 
themselves,  went  in  procession  through  the  cloister, 
making  stations  there,  while  the  celebrant  assisted  by 
two  lay  brothers  blessed  the  different  portions  of  the 
monastery  (see  Martene,  "De  antiq.  eccles.  rit.", 
IV,  46-9).  At  the  present  day  the  Roman  Missal, 
which  is  the  primary  liturgical  authority  for  this 
"Blessing  of  the  people  with  holy  water  to  be  im- 
parted on  Sundays"  (Benedictio  populi  cum  aqua 
benedicta  diebus  dominicis  impertienda),  says  nothing 
about  a  procession,  though  some  such  progress  of  the 
celebrant  and  assistant  clerks  around  the  church  very 
commonly  takes  place.  The  rubric  only  directs  that 
the  priest  having  intoned  the  antiphon  "Asperges 
me"  is  to  sprinkle  the  altar  and  then  himself  and  his 
assistants.  After  which  he  is  to  sprinkle  the  clergy 
and  the  people,  while  he  recites  the  Miserere  with  his 
assistants  in  a  low  voice.  The  other  ordinary  pro- 
cessions, as  opposed  to  the  extraordinary  processions, 
which  the  bishop  may  enjoin  or  permit  as  circumstances 
may  call  for  such  a  form  of  public  supplication,  are 


specified  in  the  Roman  Ritual  to  be  the  Procession  of 
Candles  on  the  Purification  of  our  Lady  (2  February), 
that  of  Palms  or  Palm  Sunday,  the  greater  litanies 
on  the  feast  of  St.  Mark  (25  April),  the  Rogation  pro- 
cessions on  the  three  days  before  the  Ascension,  and 
the  procession  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  on  the  feast 
of  Corpus  Christi.  The  prescriptions  to  be  observed 
on  all  these  occasions  are  duly  set  down  in  the  Roman 
Ritual.  For  their  history  etc.,  see  Candlemas; 
Corpus  Christi;  Holy  Week;  Litany,  etc.  We 
might  also  add  to  these  "ordinary"  processions  the 
carrying  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  to  the  altar  of 


Phocessional  Banners  of  Satin  Embroidered  in 

Gold  and  Silk 

Bologna,  XVII  Century 

repose  on  Maundy  Thursday  and  the  return  on 
Good  Friday,  as  well  as  the  visit  to  the  font  on  Holy 
Saturday  and  the  procession  which  forms  part  of  the 
rite  of  the  consecration  of  the  holy  oils  in  cathedral 
churches  on  Maundy  Thursday.  This  latter  function 
is  described  in  full  in  the  Roman  Pontifical.  In  earlier 
times  a  series  of  processions  were  usually  made  to  the 
font  after  Vespers  upon  every  day  of  Easter  week 
(Morin  in  "Rev.  benedict.",  VI,  150).  Traces  of 
this  rite  lingered  on  in  many  local  churches  down  to 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,  but  it  finds 
no  official  recognition  in  the  Roman  service  books. 

Under  the  heading  of  "extraordinary"  processions 
the  Roman  Ritual  makes  provision  for  the  following 
emergencies:  a  procession  to  ask  for  rain,  another 
to  beg  for  fine  weather,  a  third  to  drive  away  storms, 
three  others  assigned  respectively  to  seasons  of  fam- 
ine, plague,  and  war,  one  more  general  on  occasion  of 
any  calamity  (pro  quacunque  tribulatione) ,  one  rather 
lengthy  form  (in  which  a  number  of  the  Jubilate  and 
Laudate  psalms  are  indicated  for  recitation)  by  way 
of  solemn  thanksgiving,  and  finally  a  form  for  the 
translation  of  important  relics  (reliquiarum  insignium) . 
In  the  majority  of  these  extraordinary  processions  it 
is  directed  that  the  Litany  of  the  Saints  be  chanted 
as  in  the  Rogation  processions,  a  supplication  special 
to  the  occasion  being  usually  added  and  repeated,  for 
example  in  the  procession  "to  ask  for  rain"  the  peti- 


PROCESSIONS 


448 


PROCESSIONS 


tion  is  inserted:  "Ut  congruentem  pluviam  fidelibua 
tuis  concedere  digneris.  Tc  rogamus  audi  nos  "  In 
the  medieval  rituals  and  processionals  a  large  variety  of 
such  except  ional  forms  may  be  found,  connected  espe- 
cially with  supplications  for  the  produce  of  the  earth. 
A  common  feature  in  many  of  these  was  to  make  a 
station  towards  the  four  points  of  the  compass  and  to 
read  at  each  the  beginning  of  one  of  the  four  Gospels 
with  other  prayers.  The  practice  of  carrying  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  upon  such  occasions  is  frequently 
condemned  in  medieval  synods.  In  England  the 
perambulation  of  the  parishes  on  the  "Gang  days", 
as  the  Rogation  days  were  called,  lasted  far  into  the 
seventeenth  century.  Aubrey, 
for  example,  declares  in  a  pen- 
cil note  to  his  "Remaines": 
"On  Rogation  Days  the  Gos- 
pells  were  read  in  the  cornfields 
here  in  England  untill  the 
Civill  wars"  (Hazlitt,  "Faiths 
and  Folklore  " ,  II,  478) .  The 
custom  of  making  these  pro- 
cessions was  kept  up  seem- 
ingly with  a  view  to  its  utility 
in  impressing  upon  the  memory 
the  boundaries  of  the  parish, 
and  in  some  places  boys  were 
flogged  at  the  boundaries  that 
they  might  remember  the  spot 
in  old  age.  In  the  Greek  and 
some  other  Oriental  liturgies 
the  two  processions  known  as 
the  great  and  little  entrances 
form  a  very  imposing  feature 
of  the  rite.  At  the  "little  en- 
trance" the  Book  of  the  Gos- 
pels is  carried  in  by  the  dea- 
con accompanied  by  acolytes 
bearing  torches  and  two  fans. 
The  "great  entrance"  takes 
place  when  the  holy  gifts,  i.  e. 
the  bread  and  wine,  are 
solemnly  brought  to  the  altar 
while  the  choir  sing  the  famous 
"cherubic  hymn"  Similar 
features  seem  to  have  existed 
in  the  early  Galilean  Liturgy; 
even  in  the  Roman  high  Mass 
the  procession  which  heralds 
the  singing  of  the  Gospel  is  probably  the  survival  of 
a  more  imposing  ceremony  of  earlier  date. 

Martene,  De  anliquis  ecdesim  rilibus  (Venice,  1788),  III, 
177;  IV,  45  aq.,  280  sq.;  Catalani,  Commentarius  in  Rituale 
Romanum  (Rome,  1750) ;  Grbtseh,  De  vrocessionibus  in  Opera 
omnia,  V  (Ratisbon,  1735),  v;  Sandebus,  Auctarium.  de  ritu  pro- 
cessionum  (Ypres,  1640) ;  Eveillon,  De  processionibus  ecclesiasticis 
(Paris,  1641) ;  Quarto,  De  processionibus  ecclesiasticis  (Naples, 
1649);  Wordsworth,  Ceremonies  and  Processions  of  the  Cathedral 
Church  of  Salisburi/  (Cambridge,  1901);  Ceremonial  of  the  Church 
(Philadelphia,  1894).  HeeBEHT  ThuRSTON. 

Processional  Cross. — A  processional  cross  ia 
simply  a  crucifix  which  is  carried  at  the  head  of  a 
procession,  and  which,  that  it  may  be  more  easily 
seen,  is  usually  mounted  upon  a  long  staff  or  handle. 
From  an  archteological  point  of  view  this  subject  has 
already  been  briefly  dealt  with  under  Cross.  It  will 
suffice  to  note  here  that  the  processional  cross  does 
not  essentially  differ  from  what  may  be  called  the 
cross  of  jurisdiction  which  is  borne  before  the  pope, 
his  legates,  and  metropolitans  or  archbishops.  The 
pope  is  entitled  to  have  the  cross  borne  before  him 
wherever  he  may  be;  a  legate's  cross  is  used  only 
in  the  territory  for  which  he  has  been  appointed,  and 
that  of  an  arclibishop  within  the  limits  of  his  province. 
All  these  crosses,  including  that  of  the  pope,  have  in 
practice  only  one  bar.  The  double-barred  cross  is 
a  sort  of  heraldic  fiction  which  is  unknown  in  the 
ceremonial  of  the  Church.     It  is  supposed  that  every 


Processional  Cross 
XV  Century 


parish  possesses  a  cross  of  its  own  and  that  behind 
this,  as  a  sort  of  standard,  the  parishioners  are  mar- 
shalled when  they  take  part  in  some  general  pro- 
cession. It  is  usual  also  for  cathedral  chapters  and 
similar  collegiate  bodies  to  possess  a  processional 
cross  which  precedes  them  in  their  corporate  capacity; 
and  the  same  is  true  of  religious,  for  whom  usage  pre- 
scribes that  in  case  of  the  monastic  orders  the  staff 
of  the  cross  should  be  of  silver  or  metal,  but  for  the 
mendicant  orders,  of  wood.  In  the  case  of  these 
crosses  of  religious  orders,  confraternities,  etc.  it  is 
usual  in  Italy  to  attach  streamers  to  a  sort  of  pent- 
house over  the  crucifix,  or  to  the  knob  underneath 
it.  \\'hen  these  crosses  are 
carried  in  procession  the  figure 
of  Christ  faces  the  direction 
in  which  the  procession  is 
moving,  but  in  the  case  of 
the  papal,  legatine,  and  ar- 
chiepiscopal  crosses  the  fig- 
ure of  our  Saviour  is  always 
turned  towards  the  prelate  to 
whom  it  belongs.  In  England, 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  a 
special  processional  cross  was 
used  during  Lent.  It  was  of 
wood,  painted  red  and  had  no 
figure  of  Christ  upon  it.  It 
seems  probable  that  this  is 
identical  with  the  "vexillum 
cinericium"  of  which  we  read 
in  the  Sarum  processional. 

Processional  Canopies. — 
As,  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  Caremoniale 
Episcoporum,  the  altars  of  a 
church  and  especially  the  high 
altar  should  be  covered  by  a 
baldacchino  and  the  bishop's 
throne  etc.  should  be  honoured 
with  the  same  mark  of  re- 
spect, so  canopies  are  used  in 
processions  and  solemn  recep- 
tions not  only  for  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  but  also  under  cer- 
tain circumstances  for  bishops, 
legates,  and  princes  of  the 
blood  royal.  The  principal  oc- 
casions on  which  a  bishop  has 
the  right  to  use  a  canopy  are  at  his  solemn  reception 
in  his  own  cathedral  city,  and  when  he  makes  his  first 
pastoral  visitation  to  any  town  or  parish  within  his 
jurisdiction  the  Cseremoniale  Episcoporum  (I,  ii,  4) 
directs  that  in  these  receptions  the  bishop  is  to  ride  on 
horseback  wearing  his  mitre,  and  under  a  canopy  which 
is  in  the  first  instance  to  be  carried  by  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal magistrates  of  the  town.  Excepting  in  the  rare 
case  of  separate  portions  of  the  True  Cross  or  of  the 
instruments  of  the  Passion,  relics  borne  in  procession 
are  not  to  be  carried  under  a  canopy.  In  processions 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  the  colour  of  the  canopy 
must  always  be  white.  For  transporting  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  from  one  altar  to  another  or  for  taking 
the  Holy  Viaticum  to  the  sick,  it  is  customary  in 
many  places,  e.  g.  in  Rome,  to  use  an  umbella,  or 
ombrellino,  as  it  is  called  in  Italian,  which  is  simply  a 
small  canopy  with  a  single  staff. 

Processional  Banners. — Processional  banners 
have  also  been  in  common  use  in  the  Church  since 
medieval  times.  In  England  before  the  Reformation 
they  are  frequently  referred  to,  though  it  does  not 
seem  clear  that  these  vexilla  were  floating  draperies, 
such  as  we  are  now  accustomed  to  understand  by  the 
name.  The  woodcuts  which  appear  in  some  early 
editions  of  the  Sarum  Processional  rather  suggest 
a  rigid  frame  of  wood  or  metal.  In  the  Rogation 
processions  and  some  others  two  special  vexilla  were 


PROCESS 


449 


PROCONNESUS 


carried,  representing  the  one  a  lion,  the  other  a  dragon 
(Reel!;,  "The  Church  of  Our  Fathers",  1904,  IV, 
292).  The  use  of  a  number  of  richly  embroidered 
banners  in  religious  processions  of  all  kinds  is  now 
customary  in  most  parts  of  the  Church,  but  the 
Rituale  Romaiium  (tit.  IX,  cap.  i,  4,  5)  seems  to 
contemplate  only  a  single  banner.  "At  the  head  of 
the  procession  let  a  cross  be  carried,  and  where  the 
custom  obtains  a  banner  adorned  with  sacred  de- 
vices {sacris  imaginibus  insignitum) ,  but  not  made  in  a 
military  or  triangular  shape". 

Processional  Hymns. — We  may  recognize  a 
particular  class  of  hymns  which  in  the  early  Middle 
Ages  were  specially  composed  to  be  sung  in  pro- 
cessions, as  distinct  from  the  breviary  hymns.  These 
processional  hymns  were  nearly  always  provided  with 
a  refrain.  England  was  specially  rich  in  such  hymns, 
and  several  are  to  be  found  in  the  Sarum  Processional. 
In  the  Roman  liturgy  we  still  retain  the  "Gloria, 
laus  et  honor"  sung  in  the  procession  on  Palm  Sunday, 
and  in  the  ceremony  of  the  consecration  of  the  oils 
on  Maundy  Thursday  we  have  the  hymn-  "O  Re- 
demptor,  sume  carmen  temct  concinentium".  Both 
these  have  a  refrain,  as  has  also  the  Easter  hymn 
"Salve  festa  dies",  which  in  different  forms  appears 
in  the  Processionals  of  both  Sarum  and  York.  The 
hymns  "Vexilla  Regis"  and  "Pange  lingua",  though 
sung  in  processions,  lack  a  refrain  and  are  less  prop- 
erly processional  hymns. 

Barbier  de  Montault,  Traits  pratique  de  la  Construction 
etc.  des  Bglises,  I  (Paris.  1878),  382-499;  Rock,  The  Church  of 
Our  Fathers  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1904),  II,  337  sq.,  IV,  262  sq.; 
Wordsworth,  Salisbury  Ceremonies  and  Processions  (Cambridge, 

1801).  Hebbebt  Thurston. 

Process  of  Canonization.  See  Beatification 
AND  Canonization. 

Processus  and  Martinian,  Saints,  martyrs  whose 
dates  are  unknown.  The  "  Martyrologium  Hiero- 
n}anianum"  (ed.  De  Rossi-Duchesne,  85)  gives  under 
2  July  their  names.  The  Berne  manuscript  of  the 
Martjrrology  also  gives  their  burial-place,  viz.  at  the 
second  milestone  of  the  Via  Aurelia.  The  old  cata- 
logues of  the  burial  places  of  the  Roman  martyrs  like- 
wise mention  the  graves  of  both  these  saints  on  this 
road  (De Rossi,  "Roma  sotterranea",  1, 182-3).  They 
were  publicly  venerated  in  Rome  from  the  fourth  or 
perhaps  the  third  century,  although  nothing  further 
is  known.  A  legend  makes  them  the  keepers  of  the 
prison  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  (Lipsius,  "Apokryphe 
Apostelgeschich.  u.  Apostellegenden",  II,  Brunswick, 
1887,  92,  105  sqq.,  110  sq.).  It  cannot  be  shown  how 
the  legend  came  to  give  them  this  identification. 
Pope  Paschal  I  (817-24)  translated  the  bones  of  the 
two  martyrs  to  a  chapel  in  the  old  basilica  of  St. 
Peter;  they  still  rest  under  the  altar  dedicated  to  them 
in  the  right  transept  of  the  present  St.  Peter's.  Their 
feast  is  celebrated  on  2  July. 

Acta  SS.,  July,  I,  303-4;  DuFOURCQ,  Les  Gesta  martyrum 
remains,  I  (Paris,  1900),  170  sq.,  233,  327  sqq.;  Marucchi,  Les 
caiacombes  romaines  (2nd  ed.,  Rome,  1903),  46  sqq. 

J.    P.    KiBSCH. 

Proclus,  Saint,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  d. 
446  or  447.  Proclus  came  to  the  fore  in  the  time  of 
Atticus,  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  who  suc- 
ceeded (406)  Arsacius  who  had  been  intruded  upon 
the  patriarchal  throne  after  the  violent  deposition  of 
St.  John  Chrysostom  (404).  "Proclus  was  a  Lector 
at  a  very  early  age,  and,  assiduously  frequenting  the 
Schools,  became  devoted  to  the  study  of  rhetoric. 
On  attaining  manhood  he  was  in  the  habit  of  con- 
stant intercourse  with  Atticus,  having  been  constituted 
his  secretary"  (Socrates,  "H.  E.",  VII,  xl).  From 
Atticus  he  received  the  diaconate  and  priesthood 
(ibid.).  When  Atticus  died  (425),  there  was  a  strong 
party  in  favour  of  Proclus,  but  Sissinius  was  even- 
tually chosen  as  his  successor.  Sissinius  appointed 
him  Archbishop  of  Cyzicus;  but  the  Cyzicans  chose  a 
XII.— 29 


bishop  of  their  own,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to 
force  Proclus  upon  a  reluctant  people.  Sissinius  died 
at  the  end  of  427,  and  again  Proclus  was  likely  to  be 
appointed  to  the  patriarchate,  but  eventually  Nesto- 
rius  was  chosen.  Nestorius  was  deposed  at  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  (431)  and  Proclus  was  on  the 
point  of  being  made  patriarch,  but  "some  influential 
persons  interfered  on  the  ground  of  its  being  forbidden 
by  the  ecclesiastical  canon  that  a  person  nominated 
to  one  bishopric  should  be  translated  to  another" 
(Soc,  VII,  xxxv) .  In  consequence  a  priest,  Maximian, 
was  appointed,  upon  whose  death  (424)  Proclus  suc- 
ceeded. "The  Emperor  Theodosius  wishing  to  pre- 
vent the  disturbances  which  usually  attend  the 
election  of  a  bishop,  directed  the  bishops  who  were 
then  in  the  city  to  place  Proclus  in  the  episcopal 
chair  before  the  body  of  Maximian  was  interred,  for 
he  had  received  letters  from  Celestine,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  approving  of  this  election"  (Soc,  VII,  xl). 
In  438  Proclus  brought  the  body  of  St.  John  Chrysos- 
tom to  Constantinople  and  placed  it  in  the  church  of 
the  Apostles.  In  436  some  bishops  of  Armenia  con- 
sulted him  about  some  propositions  attributed  to 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  which  were  being  put  for- 
ward by  the  Nestorians.  Proclus  replied  in  an  epistle 
(often  called  the  "Tome  of  St.  Proclus"),  in  which 
he  required  the  propositions  to  be  condemned.  Here 
a  difficulty  arose.  People  were  ready  to  condemn  the 
propositions  but  not  the  memory  of  Theodore.  Pro- 
clus met  this  difficulty  by  disclaiming  any  intention  of 
attributing  the  propositions  to  Theodore.  Volusianus, 
the  uncle  of  Melania  the  Younger,  was  converted  and 
baptized  by  him.  The  writings  of  Proclus,  consisting 
chiefly  of  homilies  and  epistles,  were  first  printed  by 
Ricardus  (Rome,  1630),  reprinted  in  Gallandi,  IX; 
also  in  P.  G.,  LXV,  651.  For  Proclus  and  the 
Trisagion,  see  Trisagion. 

TiLLEMONT,  H.  E.,  704  sq.;  Ceillier,  Hist,  des  Auteurs  Sac, 
XIII,  472  sq.;   Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  October  24. 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 

Proclus,  Montanist.    See  Montanists. 

Proclus,  Neo-Platonist.    See  Neo-Platonism. 

Proconnesus  (Prceconnesus),  titular  see  in 
Hellespont.  Proconnesus  was  the  name  of  an  island 
situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Propontis,  between 
Priapus  (now  Kara  Bogha)  and  Cyzicus.  It  was  also 
the  name  of  the  capital  of  this  island  colonized  by 
Milesians  or  Samians  and  the  country  of  the  poet 
Aristeas.  In  493  b.  c.  it  was  burned  by  a  Phoenician 
fleet  in  the  service  of  Darius.  In  410  the  Athenian 
vessels  commanded  by  Alcibiades  subjected  it,  hke 
Cyzicus,  to  the  domination  of  Athens.  Later  it  was 
conquered  by  Cyzicus.  Coins  of  the  Roman  epoch 
can  still  be  seen.  Proconnesus  was  renowned  for  its 
quarry  of  white  marble,  used  in  constructing  the  ad- 
joining towns,  particularly  that  of  Cyzicus,  and  the 
tomb  of  Mausoleus  at  Halicarnassus,  later  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  latter  still  uses  the  quarry.  It  has 
given  to  the  island  its  modern  name  of  Marmora, 
which  was  given  also  to  the  Propontis.  The  ancient 
capital  seems  to  be  the  present  village  of  Palatia.  The 
island  forms  to-day  a  nahi6  of  the  vilayet  of  Brousse. 
The  island  contains  about  seventy-seven  square  miles 
and  9000  inhabitants,  nearly  all  Greek.  During  the 
Byzantine  epoch  exiles  were  frequently  sent  there, 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  the  monk  Stephen 
the  Young,  and  the  patriarch,  Saint  Nicephorus; 
Saint  Gregory  the  Decapohte,  Saint  Nicholas  the 
Studite,  and  Saint  Ignatius  the  patriarch  also  so- 
journed there.  In  1399  a  battle  took  place  between 
the  Turks  and  Venetians.  The  island  and  the  neigh- 
bouring isles  form  a  suffragan  see  for  the  schismatic 
Greeks.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  an  autocephalous 
archdiocese,  originally  dependent  on  Cyzicus.  Le 
Quien  (Oriens  christ.,  I,  783)  names  six  of  its  bishops; 
the  first  known,  John,   assisted  at  the  Council  of 


PROCOPIUS 


450 


PROCTER 


Ephesus,  431.  He  does  not  mention  a  Saint  Timothy, 
who  must  have  h\-ed  in  the  sixth  century  and  who  is 
\cneratod  as  the  patron  of  the  island. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Ro-man  scogr.,  s.  v. ;  Gedeon.  PrcBcon- 
nesus,  in  Greek  (Constantinople,  1895).  S.    PETRIDjfes. 

Procopius.     See  Hus  and  Hussites. 

Procopius  of  Caesarea,  Byzantine  historian,  b.  in 
the  latter  years  of  the  fifth  century  at  Caesarea  in 
Palestine,  d.  not  earlier  than  A.  D.  562.  We  have  no 
account  of  his  parentage  or  education,  except  that  by 
a  legal  and  literary  training  he  qualified  himself  for 
the  civil  service.  As  early  as  a.  d.  527,  before  Justin's 
death,  he  became  counsellor,  assessor,  and  secretary  to 
Belisarius,  whose  fortunes  and  campaigns  he  followed 
for  the  next  twelve  or  fifteen  years.  He  was  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  an  illustrius.  He  is  reckoned  the  great- 
est of  the  later  Greek  historians.  We  owe  to  him  an 
eyewitness's  description  of  Belisarius's  wars,  in  eight 
books.  Of  these,  two  deal  with  the  Persian  War,  two 
with  the  Vandalic,  three  with  the  Gothic;  Book  VIII 
concludes  with  a  general  survey  of  events  down  to 
A.  D.  554.  The  scope  of  the  work  is  more  than  mili- 
tary; he  is  the  best  authority  for  the  history  of 
Justinian's  reign,  and  Gibbon  eloquently  expresses 
his  regret  at  reaching  a  date  where  he  must  exchange 
Procopius  for  less  intelligent  guides.  In  style  he 
imitates  Thucydides  chiefly;  perhaps  also  in  casting 
his  work  into  eight  books.  His  range  of  reading  in- 
cluded all  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  historians  and 
geographers,  and  he  was  well  schooled  in  the  poets  and 
the  orators.  But  his  unique  value  lies  in  his  personal 
as  well  as  official  familiarity  with  the  people,  the  places, 
and  the  events  of  which  he  writes.  His  tone  in  this 
work  is  critical  and  independent.  His  account  of 
"Justinian's  Buildings"  (irepl  KTiaiiiTuv)  was  com- 
pleted in  A.  D.  558  or  559.  It  is  composed  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  courtly  panegyrics  for  which  Pliny's  en- 
comium of  Trajan  had  cast  the  model;  and  he  is 
thought  to  have  written  it  either  by  imperial  command 
or  at  least  in  order  to  vindicate  himself  from  suspi- 
cions of  disaffection.  But  the  very  extravagance 
which  prompts  him  to  credit  Justinian  with  all  the 
public  works  executed  in  the  entire  Eastern  Empire 
during  his  reign  gives  the  work  an  exhaustive  scope 
and  a  peculiar  value  for  the  archaeologist.  The  third 
of  his  books  has  gained  a  scandalous  celebrity  and 
aroused  much  question  both  as  to  its  authenticity  and 
motives.  This  is  the  "Anecdota",  which  Suidas  char- 
acterizes as  "a  satirical  attack  on  Justinian",  but 
which  is  most  commonly  known  by  the  title  of 
"Arcana  historia"  (the  secret  history).  It  is  a 
supplement  to  the  other  history,  carrying  the  narra- 
tive down  to  the  year  558-9,  where  it  breaks  off.  Into 
it,  as  into  the  pages  of  a  private  journal,  Procopius 
pours  his  detestation  of  Justinian  and  Theodora;  even 
Belisarius  and  his  wife  are  not  spared.  It  is  a  bitter, 
malignant,  and  often  obscene  invective  against  all 
the  powers  of  the  Byzantine  Church  and  State,  ap- 
parently the  tardy  revenge  of  an  ill-conditioned  man  of 
letters  for  a  lifetime  of  obsequiousness.  The  indis- 
criminate violence  of  the  pamphlet  betrays  the 
writer's  passionate  indignation,  but  spoils  his  case. 
The  authenticity  is  now  generally  allowed,  after  a 
great  deal  of  not  unbiased  discussion  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries.  (The  "Anecdota" 
was  first  published  in  162.3.) 

Dahn,  Prokopius  von  Coesarea  (Berlin,  1865).  A  auccinct  ac- 
count with  a  bibliography  is  to  be  found  in  Khtjmbacheh,  Ge- 
schichte  tier  Byzantinischen  Litteratur  vom  Justinian  bis  zum  Bnde 
des  ostTomischen  ReJrhc^  in  Muller,  Handhiicher  der  kUiss.  Alter- 
lliummmmienschaft  (Munich,  1890).  Sr-e  also  Bursian.  Jahreshe- 
richt,  XXXVIII,  255  fSr-HENKL),  and  LVIII,  62,  and  prefaces  to 
the  edition  by  Comparetti  (Rome,  1895)  and  Haury:  Byzan- 
tinisehe  Zeitschrift  (IXO.i),  II,  107-109;  Mnemosyne  N.  S  IX 
(1881),  109-112, 149-54,  160-4. 

J.  S.  Phillimore. 

Procter,  Adelaide  Anne,  poetess  and  philanthro- 
pist, b.  in  London,  England,  30  October,  1825;  d.  in 


AoELAinE  Procter 


London,  2  February,  1864.     She  was  the  eldest  daugh- 
ter of  the  poet  Bryan  Waller  Procter  ("Barry  Corn- 
wall")   and    Anne    Benson    Skepper.     As    a    child 
Adelaide   showed   precocious   intelligence.     She   at- 
tained considerable  proficiency  in  French,  German, 
and  Italian,  as  well  as  in  music  and  drawing,  and  she 
was  a  great  reader.     Brought   up   in  surroundings 
favourable  to  the  development  of  literary  leanings, 
she  began  to  write  verses  at  an  early  age,  and  at 
eighteen  contributed  to  the  "Book  of  Beauty".     In 
1851  she  and  two  of  her  sisters  became  Catholics 
without,  apparently,  any  disturbance  of  the  harmoni- 
ous   relations    of 
the   domestic  cir- 
cle.       In      1853, 
under    the    pseu- 
donym of  "Mary 
Berwick",       she 
sent    to    "House- 
hold   Words"     a 
short  poem,  which 
so  pleased  the  edi- 
tor, Charles  Dick- 
ens, that   he   not 
only    accepted    it 
but    also    invited 
further    contribu- 
tions.    It  was  not 
till  late  in  the  fol- 
lowing  year  that 
Dickens     learned 
that  his  unknown 
correspondent  was 
the  daughter  of  his 
old  friend,   Barry 
Cornwall.      To 
"Household  Words''    and    "AH   the  Year  Round" 
nearly  all  her  poetry  was  in  the  first  instance  con- 
tributed.    In  1858-60  her  poems  were  collected  and 
published  in  two  series  under  the  title  of  "Legends 
and  Lyrics".    They  had  a  great  success,  reaching  the 
tenth  edition  in  1866.     In  that  year  a  new  issue,  with 
introduction  by  Dickens,  was  printed,  and  there  have 
been  several  reprints  since. 

Miss  Procter  was  of  a  charitable  disposition:  she 
visited  the  sick,  befriended  the  destitute  and  home- 
less, taught  the  ignorant,  and  endeavoured  to  raise  up 
the  fallen  ones  of  her  own  sex.  She  was  generous  yet 
practical  with  the  income  derived  from  her  works. 
In  1859  she  served  on  a  committee  to  consider  fresh 
ways  and  means  of  providing  employment  for  women; 
in  1861  she  edited  a  miscellany,  entitled  "Victoria 
Regia",  which  had  some  of  the  leading  litterateurs  of 
the  time  as  contributors  and  which  was  set  up  in  type 
by  women  compositors;  and  in  1862  she  published  a 
slender  volume  of  her  own  poems,  "A  Chaplet  of 
Verses'',  mostly  of  a  religious  turn,  for  the  benefit  of 
the  Providence  Row  night  refuge  for  homeless  women 
and  children,  which,  as  the  first  Catholic  Refuge  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  had  been  opened  on  7  October, 
1860,  and  placed  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy.  In  her  charitable  zeal  she  appears  to  have 
unduly  taxed  her  strength,  and  her  health,  never  ro- 
bust, gave  way  under  the  strain.  The  cure  at  Malvern 
was  tried  in  vain;  and,  after  an  illness  of  fifteen 
months,  she  died  calmly,  and  was  buried  in  Kensal 
Green  Cemetery. 

Dickens  has  given  a  characteristic  testimony  to  her 
worth.  "She  was",  he  says,  "a  friend  who  inspired 
the  strongest  attachments;  she  was  a  finely  sym- 
pathetic woman  with  a  great  accordant  heart  and  a 
sterling  noble  nature."  Modest  and  cheerful,  un- 
constrained and  unaffected,  and  quick  in  repartee,  she 
had  the  gift  of  humour  herself  and  of  appreciating 
humour  in  others.  Her  works  were  very  popular; 
they  were  published  in  America  and  also  translated 
into  German.     In  1877  her  poems  were  in  greater 


PROCURATOR 


451 


PROFESSION 


demand  in  England  than  those  of  any  living  writer 
except  Tennyson.  If  her  verses  are  unambitious, 
deahng  with  simple  emotional  themes,  they  have  the 
merit  of  originality  and  give  evidence  of  much  culture. 
She  appears  perhaps  to  greatest  advantage  in  her 
narrative  poems,  several  of  which,  such  as  "The  An- 
gel's Story",  "A  Legend  of  Bregenz",  "The  Story  of 
the  Faithful  Soul",  and  "A  Legend  of  Provence",  are 
well  known  in  anthologies ;  but  some  of  her  lyrics,  like 
"Cleansing  Fires"  and  "A  Lost  Chord",  have  made 
a  very  wide  appeal.  Some  of  her  poems,  for  example, 
"Per  Pacem  ad  Lucem"  and  "Thankfulness"  are  so 
devotional  that  they  are  in  use  as  hymns. 

Dickens,  Introduction  prefixed  to  1866  edition  of  Legends  and 
Lyrics;  The  Month  (Jan.,  1866);  Barry  Cornwall  (Bryan 
Waller  Procter) ,  An  Autobiographical  Fragment,  ed.  Patmore 
(London,  1877) ;  Bruce,  The  Book  of  Noble  Englishwomen  (Lon- 
don, 1878) ;  Kemble,  Records  of  a  Girlhood  (London,  1859) ;  Idem, 
Records  of  Later  Life  (Liondon,  IS82)  ]  Faithfull,  Victoria  Regia, 
pref. :  Reid,  Life  of  Lord  Houghton;  Belloc  (Lowndes),  In  a 
Walled  Garden  (Jjondon,  1902);  Ho-witt,  Autobiography  (London, 
1889) ;  Julian,  Dictionary  of  Hymnology  (New  York,  1892) ; 
Chambers,  Cyclopoedia  of  English  Literature,  III  (London,  1904); 
Lee  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  3.  v. 

P.  J.  Lennox. 

Procurator,  a  person  who  manages  the  affairs  of 
another  by  virtue  of  a  charge  received  from  him. 
There  are  different  kinds  of  procurators:  general,  or 
particular,  according  as  he  is  authorized  to  manage  all 
the  affairs  of  another,  or  only  some  of  them;  again  a 
procurator  may  represent  another  in  judicial  matters 
[ad  lites) ,  or  in  matters  not  requiring  court  proceedings 
{ad  negotia);  special  procurators  are  the  syndicus,  a 
general  agent  of  a  university  or  corporation  and  the 
fiscal  procurator,  appointed  by  public  authority  as 
guardian  of  the  law  in  civil,  and,  especially  in  criminal 
proceedings. 

Everybody,  unless  expressly  forbidden  by  the  law, 
has  the  right  to  appoint  a  procurator  in  affairs  of 
which  he  has  the  free  management.  In  selecting  a 
procurator,  a  person  is  free,  provided  the  choice  does 
not  fall  on  someone  debarred  by  law,  as  excommuni- 
cated persons,  notorious  criminals,  regulars  without 
the  consent  of  their  superiors,  clerics  in  cases  for  which 
they  cannot  act  as  lawyers,  and  finally,  for  judicial 
cases,  persons  under  twenty-five,  for  non-judicial 
cases,  persons  under  seventeen  years  of  age. 

A  procurator  has  the  right  and  duty  to  act  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  the  charge  committed,  but  a  gen- 
eral mandate  does  not  include  cases  for  which  the  law 
requires  a  special  commission.  He  is  also  allowed  to 
elect  a  substitute,  except  in  oases  of  marriages,  and  in 
general  whenever,  owing  to  the  serious  character  of 
the  affair,  the  procurator  is  supposed  to  have  been 
chosen  with  the  understanding  that  he  should  transact 
the  business  in  person. 

The  power  to  act  as  procurator  ceases:  (a)  as  soon 
as  he  has  fulfilled  his  office;  (b)  if  with  a  sufficient 
reason  he  resigns;  (c)  if  the  principal  or  appointer 
revokes  his  mandate;  but  he  must  do  this  in  due  time, 
that  is,  while  the  affair  still  remains  untouched  {re 
integra);  this  revocation  must  be  brought  to  the 
notice  of  the  procurator  before  the  latter  completes 
the  transaction;  one  of  the  chief  exceptions  to  these 
rules  is  when  there  is  question  of  a  procuration  to  con- 
tract a  marriage,  in  which  case  the  revocation  holds 
good,  as  long  as  it  was  made  before  the  procurator 
contracted  in  the  principal's  name. 

Unless  the  procurator  acted  beyond  his  powers,  the 
principal  must  accept  whatever  the  latter  did  in  his 
name. 

Ferraris-Buccehoni,  Bibliotheca  Canonica,  VI  (Rome,  1885- 
1902),  454;  Hergenbother-Hollweck,  Lehrbuch  dee  kano- 
nischen  Kirchenrechts  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1905),  n.  643;  Dhoste- 
Messmer,  Canonical  Procedure  in  Disciplinary  and  Criminal 
Cases  of  Clerics  (New  York),  n.  41;  Smith,  Elements  of  Ecclesias- 
tical Law  (New  York) ,  n.  756. 

Hector  Papi. 
Procurator  Fiscalis.     See  Fiscal  Procubatob. 


Pro-Datary. 
Profanation. 


See  Roman  Curia. 
See  Desecration. 


Profession,  Religious.  Historical  View. — Pro- 
fession may  be  considered  either  as  a  declaration 
openly  made,  or  as  a  state  of  hfe  pubUcly  embraced. 
The  origins  of  religious  profession  date  from  the  time 
when  Christians  were  recognized  in  the  Church  as 
followers  after  perfection  in  the  practice  of  religious 
life.  We  meet  them  in  the  third  century,  under  the 
name  of  ascetics,  called  in  Greek  daKriral,  and  in  Latin 
confessores.  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  Ill,  xxxvii)  num- 
bers among  the  ascetics  the  most  illustrious  pontiffs  of 
the  first  ages,  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  St.  Ignatius  of 
Antioch,  St.  Polycarp,  and  others.  After  these,  in 
the  fourth  century,  come  the  hermits  and  monks,  fol- 
lowed in  the  eleventh  century  by  the  canons  regular, 
in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  mendicant  orders,  in 
the  sixteenth  by  the  clerks  regular,  and  lastly  by  the 
members  of  religious  congregations.  Profession  for 
a  long  time  was  made  by  clothing  with  the  religious 
habit:  the  aspirant  could  personally  put  on  the  habit 
or  receive  it,  with  or  without  ceremony,  from  the 
abbot  or  from  the  bishop.  This  clothing  laid  upon 
him  the  obligation  of  poverty  %,nd  chastity  more  as  a 
natural  consequence  of  a  donation  or  consecration  to 
God  than  as  arising  from  formal  vows,  which  did  not 
exist  at  that  time  (cf.  St.  Basil,  Regulse  fusius  trac- 
tatffi  resp.  ad  14  interrogat.  in  P.  G.,  XXXI,  949-52). 

The  community  life,  established  under  Schenoudi, 
the  great  disciple  of  St.  Pachomius,  added  an  explicit 
promise  of  fidelity  to  certain  precepts.  St.  Bene- 
dict added  an  express  promise  of  stability,  and  obedi- 
ence to  the  superior.  These  last  promises  denoted 
obligations  created  in  addition  to  those  implied  by 
taking  the  habit.  The  first  formula,  which  expressly 
mentions  poverty  and  chastity,  is  that  of  the  Con- 
stitutions of  Narbonne,  promulgated  in  1260  by  St. 
Bona  venture  for  the  Friars  Minor;  then  the  constitu- 
tions of  the  Minims  and  clerks  regular  expressly 
mention  the  three  essential  vows  of  the  religious  life, 
as  well  as  those  which  were  superadded  on  account 
of  the  special  ends  of  their  orders.  This  discipline 
is  common  to  religious  orders  and  congregations. 
Finally  the  regulations  {Normae)  of  1901,  published  in 
explanation  of  the  present  practice  of  the  Holy  See, 
do  not  permit  in  new  congregations  any  but  the  three 
essential  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience. 

In  the  Decretal,  "Quod  votum,"  unic.  De  voto  et 
voti  redemptione  (iii,  15)  in  6°,  Boniface  VIII  de- 
clared authoritatively  that  the  vow  of  chastity,  con- 
secrated by  the  reception  of  major  orders,  or  by  reli- 
gious profession  in  an  approved  institute,  created  a 
diriment  impediment  to  marriage.  Some  communi- 
ties of  tertiaries  not  belonging  to  an  approved  order 
were  the  first  to  introduce  profession  accompanied  by 
simple  vows,  which  is  now  the  ordinary  practice  in 
the  more  recent  congregations. 

The  Annals  of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict  (vol.  I, 
p.  74)  in  the  year  537  recognized  among  the  Greeks 
three  classes  of  religious:  the  novices,  who  wore  the 
simple  tunic;  the  perfect,  clothed  with  the  pallium; 
and  the  more  perfect  invested  with  the  cuculla,  or 
hood  attached  to  a  short  cloak,  covering  the  shoulders, 
which  was  considered  the  special  emblem  of  the  reli- 
gious life.  In  certain  monasteries  of  the  East,  a  dis- 
tinction was  made  between  persons  wearing  the  short 
habit,  ixiKptaxitt"";  and  those  wearing  the  long  habit, 
/«7oX6(rx')Mot,  a  distinction  against  which  St.  Theo- 
dorus  the  Studite  protested  in  his  epistles  (I,  ep.  x,  in 
P.  G.,  XCIX,  941-2)  and  which  is  still  found  among 
the  Schismatic  Coptic  monks  (see  Kathol.  Missionen, 
1  Oct.,  1910,  p.  7  sqq.).  St.  Ignatius  of  Loyola  laid 
down  that  in  his  order  there  should  be  a  simple  pro- 
fession, followed  by  more  or  less  frequent  renewal  of 
vows  until  such  time  as  the  candidate  should  be  pre- 
pared for  the  solemn  or  definitive  profession;  thia 


PROFESSION 


452 


PROFESSION 


under  Pius  IX  and  Leo  XIII  has  become  the  common 
law  of  all  religious  orders. 

Existing  Law. — Definition. — According  to  the  ex- 
isting law,  rehgious  profession  denotes  the  act  of  em- 
bracing the  religious  state  by  the  three  vows  of  pov- 
erty, chastity,  and  obedience  according  to  the  rule  of 
an  order  canonically  approved;  it  involves  then  a 
triple  vow  made  to  God,  and  binding  oneself  to  the 
rule  of  a  certain  order.  Very  often  the  rules  or  con- 
stitutions of  an  order  or  congregation  (approved  be- 
fore the  Normal  of  1901)  add  to  these  essential  vows 
certain  special  vows  inspired  by  the  purpose  of  the 
order:  thus  the  Friars  Minor  make  a  vow  of  special 
obedience  to  the  pope  and  the  Roman  Church;  the 
Poor  Clares,  a  vow  of  enclosure ;  the  Mercedarians,  a 
vow  of  devoting  themselves  to  the  redemption  of 
Christian  captives,  even  giving  themselves  as  host- 
ages; the  Minims,  a  vow  of  strict  abstinence;  the  Car- 
melite Sisters  and  discalced  Augustinians,  a  vow  of 
humility;  the  first  profession  in  the  Society  of  Jesus 
imphes  a  vow  of  indifference  in  regard  to  final  vows, 
i.  e.  whether  they  be  solemn  or  simple;  the  solemn 
profession  adds  a  vow  of  obedience  to  the  pope  for 
missions,  and  five  simple  vows  in  order  the  better  to 
ensure  the  observance  of  poverty,  and  the  eschewal  of 
ambition;  the  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  God  make  a 
vow  to  serve  the  sick;  the  Clerks  Regular  of  the  Pious 
Schools,  a  solemn  vow  to  educate  children,  and  also 
three  simple  vows  relating  to  poverty  and  the  shun- 
ning of  ambition;  the  religious  of  Penitence  (Scal- 
zetti),  a  vow  to  defend  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception;  the  Passionists,  to  promote  devotion  to 
the  Passion  of  Our  Lord;  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  vows  of  stabiUty  and  of  gratuitous  education 
of  children;  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  a  vow  of 
hospitality. 

Division. — Profession  was  express,  when  made  with 
the  usual  ceremonies;  tacit,  or  implied,  when  the  recip- 
rocal engagement  between  the  order  and  the  religious 
was  proved  by  outward  acts;  it  was  sufficient  for  this 
purpose  to  wear  the  habit  of  the  professed  members 
for  some  time  openly  and  without  objection  being 
made  in  any  one.  Pius  IX  abolished  the  tacit  solemn 
profession  for  rehgious  orders  (11  June,  1858)  and  it 
has  fallen  into  disuse  altogether. 

Profession  is  either  simple  or  solemn.  Solemn  pro- 
fession exists  at  present  only  in  the  institutes  approved 
by  the  Holy  See  as  religious  orders.  It  is  always  per- 
petual, and  dispensation  from  it  is  difficult  to  obtain; 
a  religious  who  has  been  dismissed  from  his  order  is 
still  bound  by  the  obligations  of  the  religious  life;  the 
same  is  the  case  with  one  who  obtains  from  the  Holy 
See  the  indult  of  perpetual  secularization;  professed 
who  have  left  their  order  owe  to  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese  in  which  they  reside  the  obedience  which  they 
formerly  owed  to  their  religious  superior.  Solemn 
profession  implies  a  reciprocal  engagement  between 
the  religious  and  his  order,  which  undertakes  to  main- 
tain him,  and  treat  him  as  a  member  of  its  household; 
except  in  case  of  special  privilege,  it  can  dismiss  a 
professed  religious  in  canonical  form  only  for  incor- 
rigible persistence  in  some  grave  pubhc  fault.  The 
professed  religious  who  is  dismissed  is  ipso  facto  sus- 
pended, and  the  suspension  is  reserved  to  the  Holy 
See  (.see  the  recent  decree  "Cum  singula?"  of  16 
May,  1911).  According  to  existing  law,  solemn  pro- 
fession annuls  a  marriage  previously  contracted,  but 
not  yet  consummated,  and  creates  a  diriment  im- 
pediment to  any  future  marriage;  and  also  renders 
the  professed  religious  incapable,  without  the  permis- 
sion of  the  Holy  See,  of  acquiring  or  .of  possessing  and 
disposing  of  property.  In  Belgium,  and  probably  in 
Holland,  profession  no  longer  involves  this  disability. 

Simple  profession  is  sometimes  perpetual  and  some- 
times temporary,  and  therefore  imperfect.  At  the  end 
of  a  term  of  temporary  profession,  a  religious  is  free 
to  go  back  to  the  world,  and  the  order  has  power  to 


dismiss  one  who  has  not  shown  himself  worthy  to 
renew  his  profession,  or  to  make  a  subsequent  pro- 
fession; but  a  physical  infirmity  which  was  caused 
after  the  vows,  or  the  cause  of  which  was  known  at 
the  time  of  the  vows,  does  not  justify  the  dismissal  of 
a  religious  against  his  will.  In  congregations  which 
have  no  solemn  vows,  the  Holy  See  ordinarily  pre- 
scribes a  term  of  temporary  vows,  varying  from  three 
to  six  years,  before  the  perpetual  vows.  There  are 
however  some  congregations,  such  as  the  Nuns  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  in  which  all  the  vows  are  perpetual; 
and  pious  societies  without  perpetual  vows,  such  as  the 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul;  or  even 
without  vows,  like  the  Missionaries  of  Africa,  or  White 
Fathers,  who  have  only  an  oath  of  obedience.  The 
Holy  See  insists  that  on  the  expiration  of  temporal 
vows,  these  should  be  either  renewed  or  converted 
into  perpetual  vows,  as  the  case  may  be,  without  allow- 
ing any  interval  of  time,  during  which  the  rehgious 
would  be  free  from  his  obligations. 

Simple  profession  sometimes  is  a  preparation  for 
solemn  profession,  and  sometimes  has  a  distinct  char- 
acter of  its  own.  In  all  religious  orders,  three  years 
at  least  of  simple  profession  are  a  necessary  condition 
for  the  validity  of  solemn  profession  (see  Nuns),  and 
for  lay  brothers,  six  years  of  simple  profession  and 
an  age  of  at  least  thirty  years  are  required  (Decree 
of  1  Jan.,  1911).  This  time  of  simple  profession  may 
be  considered  as  a  second  term  of  probation;  it  is  not 
difficult  for  the  religious  to  obtain  a  dispensation  from 
his  vows,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  order  may  dis- 
miss him  for  any  grave  cause  of  dissatisfaction,  the 
sufficiency  of  which  is  left  to  the  judgment  of  the 
superior.  The  dismissal  of  nuns,  however,  requires  the 
consent  of  the  Holy  See ;  religious  with  simple  or  even 
temporary  vows,  who  have  received  major  orders  in 
their  institute,  are  in  the  same  position,  in  regard  to 
dismissal,  as  those  who  have  made  their  final  pro- 
fession. Generally  speaking,  simple  profession  does 
not  prevent  a  religious  from  retaining  or  acquiring 
property;  the  administration  and  disposition  of 
property  alone  are  forbidden.  Except  in  the  Society 
of  Jesus  it  is  no  longer  a  diriment  impediment  to 
marriage,  and  it  never  annuls  a  marriage  already  con- 
tracted. 

Conditions  o}  Validity  and  Form. — It  is  essential  in 
all  cases  for  the  validity  of  a  religious  profession  that 
the  candidate  should  be  at  least  sixteen  years  of  age 
and  have  passed  one  year  in  the  novitiate.  Persons 
who,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Decree  "Ecclesia 
Christi"  of  7  September,  1909,  cannot  be  vahdly  ad- 
mitted to  the  novitiate  without  the  consent  of  the 
Holy  See,  cannot  without  the  same  consent  make  a 
valid  profession.  Admission  to  profession,  especially 
to  the  first,  is  generally  decided  by  the  chapter.  Pro- 
fession made  or  permitted  under  duress  is  null  and 
void;  and  the  Council  of  Trent  passes  sentence  of 
excommunication  on  all  persons  who  compel  a  young 
girl  to  enter  a  monastery  by  solemn  profession,  or 
who  forcibly  prevent  her  from  doing  so.  Although 
tacit  profession,  which  has  been  expressly  abolished 
for  religious  orders,  has  fallen  into  disuse  everywhere, 
no  particular  rite  or  formula  of  profession  is  essential, 
unless  distinctly  required  by  the  constitutions.  A 
general  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites 
of  14-27  August,  1874,  indicates  the  manner  in  which 
profession  should  be  made  during  Mass.  Since  the 
Decree  "  Auctis  admodum  ",  simple  but  perpetual  pro- 
fession creates  the  same  bond  between  the  religious 
and  the  congregation  as  solemn  profession  does  in  a 
rehgious  order.  Such  a  rehgious  can  be  dismissed  only 
for  incorrigible  persistence  in  some  grave  public  fault. 
Even  when  congregations  with  simple  vows  have  the 
power  to  dismiss  a  rehgious,  they  have  not  the  power 
to  dispense  him  from  his  vows :  this  is  strictly  reserved 
to  the  Holy  See. 

Common   Effects   of  Profession. — Every   perpetual 


PROFESSION 


453 


PROMISE 


profession  admits  one  to  the  religious  state  and  con- 
sequently creates  an  obligation  to  aspire  after  per- 
fection. This  obligation  is  sufficiently  fulfilled  by 
observing  the  vows  and  rules,  so  far  as  they  bind  the 
conscience.  All  previous  vows,  provided  they  do  not 
prejudice  the  right  of  a  third  party,  may  be  changed 
into  religious  profession,  as  into  something  of  a  dis- 
tinctly higher  character;  and  this  may  be  done  by  the 
religious  himself,  or  by  some  person  who  has  power  to 
commute  the  vows.  If  the  profession  be  solemn,  these 
previous  vows  are  annulled  by  canon  law.  Theolo- 
gians generally  teach  that,  when  made  in  a  state  of 
grace,  this  absolute  surrender  of  self  procures  for  the 
religious  a  remission  of  all  the  penalties  due  to  past 
sins.  The  generally  accepted  opinion,  by  which 
religious  profession  was  compared  to  a  new  baptism, 
induced  St.  Pius  V  to  permit  novices  in  houses  of 
Dominican  nuns  to  make  their  profession  when  in 
danger  of  death  even  before  completing  their  years  of 
novitiate  (Constitution  "Summi  sacerdotii",  23 
August,  1570).  This  has  since  been  extended  to  all 
religious  orders;  but  restoration  to  health  deprives 
the  profession  made  under  such  circumstances  of  all 
canonical  effects. 

Historical. — Ladeuze,  Le  cenobitisme  pakh6mien  pendant  le  IV« 
siecU'  €l  la  premiere  moitiS  du  V'^  (Louvain,  1898) ;  MARTfeNE,  De 
antiq.  monach.  ritibus.  Comment,  in  regul.  S.  P,  Benedicti; 
ScHiEwiTz,  Das  orientalische  Monchtum  (Mainz,  1904). 

Doctrinal. — Bastien,  Directoire  canonique  d  Vusage  des  con- 
grig,  a  vfEitx  simples  (Maredsous,  1911);  Battandieh,  Guide 
canon,  pour  les  constitutions  des  instituts  A  voeux  simples  (Paris, 
1908);  Bovix,  Tract,  de  jure  regularium  (Paris,  1S5G) ;  (I^ollette, 
Religiosfe  professionis  valor  satisfactorius  (Li6ge,  1887);  Mocche- 
QIANI,  Jurisprudentia  ecclesiastica,  I  (Quaracchi,  1904) ;  Pasberini, 
De  hominum  statibus.  III,  qq.  186,  189;  Pellizarius,  Manuale 
regularium,  tr.  3,  c.  1-6;  Idem,  Tractatio  de  monialibus,  cor.  by 
MoNTANi  (Rome,  1761);  Piat,  Prmlect.  juris  regularis,  I  (Tournai, 
1S9.S).  13C)-70;  Reiffenstuel,  Jus  canonicum  universum;  Ro- 
TARius,  Theotogia  moralis  regularium,  1,  III,  v;  Sanchez, 
In  Decalogum,  V,  iii,  iv,  v;  VI,  v;  ScHMALZGRtjBER,  In  lib.  3 
decretal.,  t.  31,  n.  149  aqq. ;  Suarez,  De  religione,  tr.  7,  lib.  VI, 
cc.  1,  2,  12;  Vermeersch,  De  religiosis  institutis  et  personis 
(Bruges,  1907),  sect.  3;  Idem,  De  relig.  insti.  et  pers.,  supplementa 
et  monumenta  (Brugea,  1909) ;  Idem,  De  relig.  inst.  et  pers.,  sup- 
plem.  et  mon.  periodica  (Bruges,  1905 — ) ;  Wernz,  Jus  decre- 
talium.  III  (2nded.,  Rome,  1908),  nn.  640,  648,  668,  673. 

A.  Vermeersch 

Profession  of  Faith.     See  Creed. 

Promise,  Divine,  in  Scripture. — The  term  prom- 
ise in  Holy  Writ  both  in  its  nominal  and  verbal  form 
embraces  not  only  promises  made  by  man  to  his'f  ellow- 
man,  and  by  man  to  God  in  the  form  of  vows  (e.  g. 
Deut.,  xxiii,  21-3),  but  also  God's  promises  to  man. 
A  complete  study  of  this  phase  of  the  subject  would 
require  a  review  of  the  whole  question  of  Old-Testa- 
ment prophecy  and  also  a  discussion  of  several  points 
pertaining  to  the  subject  of  Divine  grace  and  election. 
For  God's  every  word  of  grace  is  a  promise;  man's 
willingness  to  obey  His  commandments  brings  him 
many  assurances  of  grace.  When  the  children  of 
Israel  were  commanded  to  go  in  and  "possess  the 
land",  it  was  practically  already  theirs.  He  had 
"lifted  up  His  hand  to  give  it  them";  their  disobe- 
dience, however,  rendered  of  no  effect  the  promise  im- 
plied in  the  command.  There  are,  moreover,  many 
examples  of  promises  of  which  the  Patriarchs  them- 
selves did  not  receive  the  outward  fullness.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned,  the  full  possession  of  Canaan, 
the  growth  of  the  nation,  universal  blessing  through 
the  race.  For:  "  All  these  died  according  to  faith,  not 
having  received  the  promises,  but  beholding  them  afar 
off"  (Heb.,  xi,  13).  On  the  one  hand  we  find  that 
Abraham,    "patiently    enduring  obtained    the 

promise"  (Heb.,  vi,  15),  because  the  birth  of  Isaac 
was  the  beginning  of  its  fulfilment.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  is  one  of  the  fathers  who  "received  not  the 
promise",  yet  with  a  true  faith  looked  for  a  fulfilment 
of  the  promises  which  was  not  granted  to  them.  The 
New-Testament  phrase  "inherit  the  promises"  (Heb., 
vi,  12;  cf.xi,9;  Gal.,  iii,  29)  is  found  in  the  apocryphal 
Psalms  of  Solomon,  xiii,  8  (70  b.  c.  to  40  b.  c).    It  is 


believed  that  this  passage  is  the  first  instance  in  extant 
Jewish  literature  where  the  expression  "the  promises 
of  the  Lord"  sums  up  the  assurances  of  the  Messianic 
redemption.  The  word  "promise"  is  used  in  this 
technical  sense  in  the  Gospels  only  in  Luke,  xxiv,  49, 
where  we  find  that  the  promise  of  the  Father  refers  to 
the  coming  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  passages  which 
make  mention  of  promises  of  which  Christ  is  the  ful- 
filment, the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  especially 
abounds.  St.  Paul  indeed  both  in  his  speeches  and  in 
his  Epistles  looks  at  the  Christian  Gospel  from  the 
same  point  of  view.  And  we  see  that  it  was  by  a  con- 
templation of  Christ  that  men  ultimately  discovered 
what  the  "promise"  meant. 

The  New-Testament  teaching  on  the  subject  might 
be  summed  up  under  three  heads:  that  which  the 
promise  contained,  those  who  were  to  inherit  it,  and 
the  conditions  affecting  its  fulfilment.  The  contents 
of  the  "promise"  are  always  intimately  concerned 
with  Christ,  in  Whom  it  has  found  its  perfect  fulfil- 
ment. In  the  preaching  of  St.  Peter  it  is  the  risen 
Jesus,  "both  Lord  and  Christ",  in  whom  the  "promise" 
has  been  fulfilled.  The  forgiveness  of  sins,  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  the  partaking  of  the  Divine  nature 
through  grace  (II  Peter,  i,  4),  all  the  Divinely  be- 
stowed possessions  of  the  Christian  Church,  may  be 
said  to  be  its  contents.  Passing  to  St.  Paul  we  find  a 
general  conception  of  the  same  character.  Christ  and 
the  "promise"  are  practically  synonymous  terms. 
The  promises  of  God  are  all  summed  up  in  Christ. 
A  conception  of  the  "promise"  which  was  distinct- 
ively common  to  the  early  Christians  is  set  forth  in 
I  John,  ii,  25 — "And  this  is  the  promise  which  he  hath 
promised  us,  life  everlasting."  Concerning  the  in- 
heritors of  the  "promise",  it  was  given  at  first  to 
Abraham  and  his  seed.  In  Hebrews,  xi,  9,  we  find 
Isaac  and  Jacob  referred  to  as  "co-heirs  of  the  same 
promise"  A  controversy  existed  in  the  primitive 
Church  over  the  interpretation  of  the  expression  "the 
seed  of  Abraham".  St.  Paul  speaks  frankly  concern- 
ing the  prerogatives  of  Israel,  "to  whom  belongeth 
.  .  .  the  promises"  (Rom.,  ix,  4).  Of  the  Gentile 
Church  before  admission  to  Christianity,  he  says  its 
members  had  been  "strangers  to  the  covenants  of  the 
promise",  consequently  cut  off  from  all  hope.  It  was 
his  work,  however,  to  show  that  no  physical  or  his- 
torical accident,  such  as  Jewish  birth,  could  entitle 
one  to  a  claim  as  of  right  against  God  for  its  fulfil- 
ment. It  is  his  teaching  in  one  instance  that  all 
who  are  Christ's  by  faith  are  Abraham's  seed,  and 
heirs  according  to  promise.  He  is  concerned,  how- 
ever, with  the  fact  that  the  promise  is  not  being  ful- 
filled to  the  seed  of  Abraham  (referring  to  the  Jews) ; 
yet  his  heart  is  evidently  on  the  side  of  those  against 
whom  he  argues.  For  to  the  last  the  Jew  was  to  St. 
Paul  "the  root,  the  first  fruits,  the  original  and  proper 
heirs".  The  echoes  of  this  conflict  die  away  in  later 
writings:  as  instinctively  Christ  is  felt  to  be  the  Lord 
of  all,  the  scope  of  the  promise  is  universalized. 

Spontaneity  on  the  part  of  the  promiser  is  among 
the  primary  conditions  on  which  the  promise  is  ful- 
filled (e.  g.  Acts,  ii,  39).  As  the  promise  is  of  grace, 
St.  Paul  shows  that  it  is  subject  to  no  pre-existing 
merit  on  the  part  of  the  Mosaic  law,  or  of  works  of 
the  law.  The  promise  was  given  to  Abraham  and  to 
his  faith  four  hundred  and  thirty  years  before  the  law 
was  heard  of.  It  is  fulfilled  not  in  works  of  law,  but 
in  a  living  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  together  with  the  love 
and  works  that  are  the  fruits  of  such  a  faith.  Having 
God's  promise  to  go  upon,  it  is  part  of  the  function  of 
faith  to  maintain  a  strong  conviction  that  the  promise 
objectively  is  "the  substance  of  things  to  be  hoped  for, 
the  evidence  of  things  that  appear  not"  (Heb.,  xi,  1). 
But  if  the  first  grace  leading  to  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  is  gratuitous,  a  supernatural  gift  bestowed 
without  regard  to  merit  in  the  natural  order,  co-opera- 
tion with  this  and  ulterior  graces  is  required  for  the 


PROMOTIO 


454 


PROOF 


realization  of  the  fulfilment.  Through  lack  of  the 
co-operation  no  less  than  from  lack  of  faith  have  the 
Divine  promises  often  proved  of  no  avail  in  the  Old 
Testament  as  well  as  in  the  New  (see  Grace). 

CoRNELT,  Comment,  in  Epistolam  ad  Romanos  in  Cursus 
Script.  Sac.  (Paris,  Lethielleux.  1896),  203,  467-95;  Fouakd, 
Saint  Paul  and  His  Missions  (New  York,  1894);  Toussaint, 
EpUres  de  S.  Paul,  I  (Paria,  1910),  216  aqq.;  Sandat,  Epistle 
to  the  Romans  (New  York,  1903),  6,  18,  109  sqq. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 
Fromotio  per  Saltum.    See  Orders,  Holy. 

Promoter  Fidel  (Promoter  of  the  Faith),  an 
official  of  the  Roman  Congregation  of  Rites.  The 
office  was  created  by  Clement  XI,  7  April,  1708.  In 
earlier  times  the  work  now  undertaken  by  the 
Promotor  Fidei  was  entrusted  to  the  Promotor  Fis- 
calis  or  some  consistorial  advocate.  The  Promotor 
Fidei  is  also  an  official  of  the  Congregation  of  Indul- 
gences and  Sacred  Relics,  but  his  main  duty  is  per- 
formed in  the  processes  of  beatification  and  canoniza- 
tion, which  are  conducted  by  the  Congregation  of 
Rites. '  It  is  the  special  care  of  the  Promoter  of  the 
Faith  to  prevent  any  rash  decisions  concerning  mir- 
acles or  virtues  of  the  candidates  for  the  honours  of  the 
altar.  All  documents  of  beatification  and  canonization 
processes  must  be  submitted  to  his  examination,  and 
the  difficulties  and  doubts  he  raises  over  the  virtues 
and  miracles  are  laid  before  the  congregation  and 
must  be  satisfactorily  answered  before  any  further 
steps  can  be  taken  in  the  processes.  It  is  his  duty  to 
suggest  natural  explanations  for  alleged  miracles,  and 
even  to  bring  forward  human  and  selfish  motives  for 
deeds  that  have  been  accounted  heroic  virtues.  For 
the  examination  of  witnesses  outside  of  Rome,  the 
promoter  formulates  the  questions  and  he  has  the 
power  to  appoint  sub-promoters  to  assist  him.  All 
the  processes  for  beatification  and  canonization  must 
be  submitted  to  the  promoter  under  pain  of  nullity. 
Owing  to  his  peculiar  duty  of  antagonizing  the  proofs 
put  forward  on  behalf  of  persons  proposed  for  saintly 
honours,  the  Promoter  of  the  Faith  is  commonly  re- 
ferred to,  half  jocosely,  as  the  devil's  advocate. 

Hilling,  Procedure  at  the  Roman  Curia  (New  York,  1907) ; 
Baakt,  The  Roman  Court  (New  York,  1895). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Promulgation  (Lat.  promulgare,  to  make  known, 
to  post  in  pubhc). 

I.  Promulgation  in  General. — This  is  the  act  by 
which  the  legislative  power  makes  legislative  enact- 
ments known  to  the  authorities  entrusted  with  their 
execution  and  to  the  subjects  bound  to  observe  thein. 
Philosophically  it  is  a  matter  of  dispute  whether  pro- 
mulgation is  of  the  essence  of  a  law.  It  seems  indis- 
putable that  the  essential  element  of  a  law  is  the  will 
of  the  legislator,  but  it  is  clear  that  the  legislator 
should  make  known  his  wiU  and  intention  in  one  way 
or  another.  This  manifestation  is  the  promulgation 
of  the  law,  which  is  not  necessarily  distinct  from  the 
very  elaboration  of  the  law,  provided  that  this  takes 
place  by  external  acts — such  as  the  vote  of  a  legisla- 
tive assembly  or  by  royal  sanction.  Such  is  the  prac- 
tice observed  in  England  and  in  most  of  the  states  of 
the  American  Union,  but,  as  it  was  thought  too  severe, 
the  legislation  of  various  countries  requires  the  pro- 
mulgation of  laws  by  a  special  formal  act,  through 
which  the  text  of  the  law  is  made  known  to  the  com- 
munity, e.  g.  by  publication  of  this  text  in  an  official 
journal  or  bulletin  of  the  Government.  Previous  to 
this  publication  the  law  does  not  take  effect.  The 
promulgation  of  a  law  must  not  be  confounded  with 
its  publication,  the  object  of  the  first  being  to  make 
known  the  will  of  the  legislator,  of  the  second  to 
spread  the  knowledge  of  legislative  enactments  among 
subjects  bound  to  observe  them. 

II.  Promulgation  in  Canon  Law. — The  Church 
has  long  exacted  the  promulgation  of  a  law  by  a  special 
act  of  the  authorities:  "Leges  instituuntur  quum  pro- 


mulgantur'',  a  law  is  not  really  a  law  until  it  has  been 
made  known,  says  Gratian  (Decretum  Gratiani,  pt.  I, 
c.  3,  dist.  VII).  However,  no  special  form  is  pre- 
scribed for  acts  of  ecclesiastical  authorities  inferior  to 
the  pope,  even  synodal  decrees  being  considered  suffi- 
ciently promulgated  by  being  read  in  the  synod.  The 
Constitution  "  Promulgandi "  of  Pius  X  (29  Septem- 
ber, 1908)  determined  the  ordinary  method  of  pro- 
mulgating pontifical  laws,  namely  by  the  insertion  of 
the  text  of  the  law  in  the  "Acta  Apostolicae  Sedis" 
(the  official  publication  of  the  Holy  See),  after  this 
insertion  has  been  ordered  by  the  secretary  or  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  congregation  or  the  office 
through  the  medium  of  which  the  pope  has  passed 
the  law.  A  regulation  of  5  .January,  1910,  divides 
the  official  bulletin  of  the  Holy  See  into  two  parts: 
in  the  first  or  official  part  should  be  inserted  all  docu- 
ments requiring  promulgation  to  have  the  force  of 
law;  the  second  merely  serves  to  illustrate  and  sup- 
plement the  first  (Acta Apost. Sedis,  1910,p.37).  How- 
ever, the  pope  explicitly  reserves  the  right  to  deter- 
mine in  exceptional  cases  another  method  of  promulga- 
tion. Prior  to  this  law  two  systems  had  been  chiefly 
in  use  in  the  Church — provincial  promulgation,  until 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  Roman  pro- 
mulgation. During  the  first  period  promulgation 
often  took  place  in  the  different  ecclesiastical  prov- 
inces either  through  special  envoys  or  through  the 
bishops.  Nevertheless  it  is  also  a  fact  that  laws 
binding  in  one  province  were  also  binding  in  others. 
During  the  second  period  the  custom,  which  be- 
came exclusive  during  the  fifteenth  century,  devel- 
oped of  having  the  new  laws  read  and  posted  up  by 
cursores  at  Rome  only,  at  the  doors  of  the  great 
basilicas,  the  Palazzo  Cancellaria,  the  Campo  de' 
fiori,  and  sometimes  at  the  Capitol.  The  value  of  this 
means  of  promulgation  was  disputed  in  modern  times : 
some  claimed  that  the  Church  had  admitted  the 
arrangements  of  Novels  Ixvi  and  cxvi  of  Justinian, 
which  required  provincial  promulgation  for  some  laws; 
others  maintained  that  in  theory  publication  at  Rome 
was  sufficient,  but  that  the  popes  did  not  wish  to  bind 
the  faithful  before  the  laws  were  made  known  to  them 
by  the  bishops;  while  others  appealed  to  ancient  cus- 
toms, to  which  the  pope  should  conform.  This  last 
theory,  made  use  of  by  the  Galileans  and  Febronian- 
ists,  furnished  the  State  with  a  pretext  for  preventing 
the  promulgation  of  laws  which  it  did  not  like.  A 
special  method  of  promulgation  was  also  introduced 
with  the  express  or  tacit  consent  of  the  Holy  See  for 
the  decrees  of  congregations;  they  were  published  at 
the  secretariate  of  the  dicasteries  from  which  they 
emanated. 

Zaccaria,  De  varia  eccles.  prxsertim  latinw  in  promulgandis 
sacris  constitutionibus  disciplina  in  De  rebus  ad  historiam  atque 
antiquitates  ecclesice  pertinentibus  dissertationes  latincB,  II  (Ful- 
ginia,  1781),  xi;  Bouix,  De  principiis  juris  canonici  (Paris,  1852), 
196  sq.;  Bouquillon,  Theol.  moral,  fundamentalis  (Brussels, 
1890),  270  sq.;  Creagh,  The  Promulgation  of  Pontifical  Law  in 
Cath.  Univ.  Bull.,  XV  (Washington,  1909),  23  sq.;  Simier,  La 
promulgation  des  lois  eccUs.  in  Revue  augustinienne,  XV  (Louvain, 
1909),  154  sq.  A.   Van   HovE. 

Pro  Nuncio.     See  Nuncio. 

Proof,  the  establishment  of  a  disputed  or  contro- 
verted matter  by  lawful  means  or  arguments.  Proof 
is  the  result  of  evidence;  evidence  is  the  medium  of 
proof.  There  is  no  proof  without  evidence,  but  there 
may  be  evidence  without  proof.  Proof  is  judicial,  if 
offered  in  court;  otherwise  it  is  extra-judicial.  Proof 
is  perfect,  or  complete,  when  it  produces  full  con- 
viction, and  enables  the  judge  without  further  in- 
vestigation to  pronounce  sentence:  imperfect,  or  in- 
complete, if  it  begets  probability  only.  Canonists 
enunierate  six  kinds  of  perfect  proof :  the  unshaken  de- 
position of  two  witnesses,  who  are  above  all  suspicion; 
a  pubhc  document,  or  other  instrument  having  the 
force  of  a  public  document,  as,  for  instance,  a  certified 
copy  of  a  public  instrument;  conclusive  presumption 


PROOF 


455 


PROOF 


of  law;  the  decisive  oath;  judicial  confession;  evidence 
or  notoriety  of  the  fact.  Imperfect  or  semi-proof  is 
derived  from  the  testimony  of  one  witness  only,  or  of 
several  singular  witnesses,  or  of  two  witnesses  not  en- 
tirely unshaken  in  their  testimony  or  not  beyond  all 
suspicion;  writings  or  instruments  of  a  private  charac- 
ter; a  document  admitted  as  authentic  only  on  the 
strength  of  the  handwriting;  the  necessary  oath;  pre- 
sumption which  is  only  probable,  not  conclusive;  pub- 
Uc  report  when  legally  proved.  Two  imperfect  proofs 
cannot  constitute  perfect  proof  in  criminal  oases,  in 
which  proof  must  be  clearer  than  the  noonday  sun ;  in 
matrimonial  cases,  when  there  is  question  of  the  valid- 
ity of  a  marriage  already  contracted;  or  in  civil  actions 
of  a  grave  character.  With  these  exceptions  two  in- 
complete proofs  tending  to  estabhsh  the  same  point 
may  constitute  full  proof  or  conviction.  Judicial  proofs 
must  as  a  rule  be  full  and  conclusive.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  exceptions.  Thus  the  testimony  of  but  one 
witness  will  suffice  when  it  is  beneficial  to  another  per- 
son and  hurts  no  one.  Likewise  in  summary  causes  of 
little  moment  and  not  prejudicial  to  any  one,  half 
proof  is  sufficient;  also  when  the  judge  is  commissioned 
to  proceed,  having  merely  examined  into  the  truth  of 
the  fact  (sola  facli  verilale  inspecta) . 

Confession,  the  acknowledgment  by  a  person  that 
what  is  charged  or  asserted  by  his  opponent  is  true, 
is  judicial  or  extra-judicial.  Judicial  confession 
is  the  best  of  proofs.  It  must  be  made  in  clear 
and  definite  terms,  in  court,  that  is,  before  the  judge 
in  his  official  capacity,  during  the  trial,  with  certain 
knowledge  of  the  fact  and  also  of  the  consequences 
of  said  confession,  by  a  person  not  under  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  acting  with  full  liberty  and  not  through 
fear.  Such  a.  confession  makes  further  proof  un- 
necessary; renders  valid  any  previous  defective  pro- 
ceedings; and,  if  made  after  the  defendant  has  already 
been  convicted,  deprives  him  of  the  right  of  appeal. 
The  confession  may  be  revoked  during  the  same 
session  of  court  in  which  it  was  made;  after  an  inter- 
ruption the  only  remedy  available  is  to  show,  if  possi- 
ble, that  the  confession  was  illegal,  because  wanting 
in  some  requisite  quality,  as  above.  Ordinarily  a 
confession  does  not  militate  against  accomplices  or 
others,  but  only  against  the  one  confessing.  Extra- 
judicial confession,  if  properly  proved,  constitutes  in 
criminal  causes  a  grave  presumption,  but  not  perfect 
proof;  in  civil  cases  it  is  sufficient  for  the  pronouncing 
of  sentence,  if  made  in  the  presence  of  the  plaintiff  or 
his  representative  and  if  it  specifically  states  the  cause 
or  origin  of  the  obligation. 

Instruments  or  Documentary  Evidence. — A  public 
instrument  is  one  drawn  up  by  a  public  official  with  the 
required  formalities.  If  a  document  be  the  work  of  a 
private  person,  or  of  an  official  who  does  not  observe 
the  prescribed  formalities,  it  is  a  private  instrument. 
Instruments  to  possess  weight  must  be  genuine  and 
authentic.  Public  instruments  consequently  must 
bear  the  name,  title,  and  seal  of  the  official  issuing 
them.  Private  documents  should  be  written  in  the 
presence  of  witnesses  and  attested  by  them. 

Presumptions. — Circumstantial,  presumptive,  or  in- 
direct evidence,  strong  enough  to  establish  a  moral 
certainty,  is  admitted  also  in  canon  law,  but  it  must  be 
accepted  with  caution,  and  sentence  modified  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  degree  of  evidence.  The  rational 
basis  of  such  evidence  lies  in  the  connexion  of  the  facts 
or  circumstances,  known  and  proved,  with  the  fact 
at  issue.  A  presumption  consequently  is  more  or  less 
strong,  according  as  the  fact  presumed  is  a  necessary 
(vehement,  very  strong  presumption),  or  usual  (strong 
presumption),  or  infrequent  (rash,  unreasonable  pre- 
sumption), consequence  of  the  fact  or  facts  seen, 
known,  or  proven.  A  presumption  is  legal,  if  the  law 
itself  draw  the  inference.  This  is  of  two  kinds:  rebut- 
table (juris  simpliciter),  which  may  be  set  aside  by  con- 
trary proof;  conclusive  (juris  et  de jure),  agsaziBt  which 


no  direct  proof  is  admitted.  A  presumption  is  natural 
(hominis)  when  the  law  permits  the  judge  to  draw 
whatever  inference  he  considers  warranted  by  the  facts 
proved;  such  presumptions  are  sometimes  called  pre- 
sumptions of  facts.  The  general  effect  of  presump- 
tion is  to  place  the  burden  of  proof  on  him  against 
whom  the  presumption  militates.  A  rash  presump- 
tion is  little  more  than  mere  suspicion;  a  grave  or 
sound  presumption  constitutes  imperfect  proof,  while 
a  vehement  presumption  suffices  in  civil  cases  of  not 
too  great  importance.  Legal  presumptions  or  pre- 
sumptions of  law  are  of  course  stronger  than  natural 
presumptions  or  presumptions  of  facts;  while  specific 
presumptions  have  more  weight  than  those  of  a 
general  character.  Presumptions  that  favour  the 
accused  or  the  vahdity  of  an  act  already  performed 
are  preferred. 

Oaths. — Oaths,  as  proof,  are  decisive  (litis  deciso- 
rium)  or  necessary.  The  decisive  oath  is  given  by  the 
judge,  when  private  interests  are  in  question,  to  one  of 
the  litigants  at  the  instance  of  the  other.  The  case 
is  decided  in  favour  of  the  one  taking  the  oath;  if  he 
refuse  to  swear,  sentence  is  pronounced  against  him. 
The  necessary  oath  is  given  by  the  judge  on  his  own 
initiative,  not  at  the  request  of  one  of  the  litigants,  to 
complete  imperfect  proof,  and  is  called  supplementary; 
or  to  destroy  the  force  of  circumstantial  evidence,  aris- 
ing especially  from  current  rumour,  against  the  ac- 
cused, and  is  called  purgative.  This  latter  is  per- 
mitted only  when  there  is  not  at  least  semi-perfect 
proof.  The  supplementary  oath  is  permissible  only 
when  there  is  at  least  imperfect  and  yet  not  full  proof. 
It  is  not  allowed  in  criminal  actions  or  in  important 
civil  cases,  as,  for  example,  when  the  validity  of  a  mar- 
riage or  a  religious  profession  is  in  question. 

Public  Report. — Witnesses  testify  as  to  the  exist- 
ence or  non-existence,  the  origin,  extent,  and  nature 
of  a  public  report.  Their  testimony  does  not  concern 
the  truth  or  falsehood  of  the  report.  It  is  for  the 
judge  to  trace  the  report  to  its  source  and  accept  it 
at  its  proper  value.  Since,  however,  it  is  to  be  pre- 
sumed that  public  opinion  is  founded  on  fact,  in  civil 
matters  it  furnishes  semi-perfect  proof,  when  its  ex- 
istence is  properly  estabhshed.  In  criminal  matters  it 
has  less  weight  still,  being  sufficient  only  for  an  in- 
vestigation. 

Evidence  of  the  Fact. — Evidence  or  notoriety  of  the 
fact,  viz.,  when  it  is  so  open  and  evident  that  it  can- 
not be  concealed  or  denied,  needs  no  proof.  Hence  a 
judicial  inspection  or  visitation  of  the  corpus  delicti 
is  often  of  advantage.  Under  this  head  might  be 
mentioned  the  opinion  of  experts,  who  are  appointed 
by  the  judge  to  examine  certain  matters  and  to  give 
their  expert  testimony  concerning  the  same. 

Rules. — Proof  must  be  clear,  specific,  and  in  keeping 
with  the  charge  or  point  at  issue;  otherwise  confusion 
and  obscurity  will  arise.  To  establish  a  point  other 
than  the  one  in  question  will  avail  nothing.  Whether 
the  evidence  offered  be  relevant  or  not,  the  judge  will 
determine.  The  issue  must  be  established  substan- 
tially, not  necessarily  in  all  its  details.  The  burden 
of  proof  lies  with  the  plaintiff,  though  the  defendant 
must  offer  proof  in  support  of  his  allegations,  excep- 
tions etc.  What  is  evident  needs  no  proof:  in  criminal 
cases  this  axiom  applies  only  to  what  is  evident  in 
law,  i.  e.  he  who  has  the  presumption  of  all  in  his 
favour  is  exempt  from  the  necessity  of  proving  his 
contention. 

Tims  to  Introduce  Evidence. — Judicial  evidence 
must  be  introduced  during  the  trial.  Ordinarily, 
therefore,  evidence  may  not  be  presented  before  the 
hearing  of  the  petition  or  charge  and  the  answer  of  the 
defendant  to  the  same  (conteslatio  litis).  This  rule, 
however,  does  not  apply  when  the  judge  proceeds 
summarily  or  by  inquiry ;  and  likewise  in  certain  cases 
where  there  is  danger  of  the  testimony  being  lost 
through  death  or  other  cause.     Again,  as  a  rule,  no 


PROPAGANDA 


456 


PROPAGANDA 


evidence  will  be  admitted  after  the  judge  has  closed 
the  case.  This  general  rule  is  not  applied  when  the 
validity  of  a  marriage  is  in  question ;  in  criminal  cases, 
in  which  every  opportunity  of  defence  is  given  the 
accused;  and  occasionally  in  other  trials,  where  further 
testimony  is  considered  necessary  or  new  evidence 
has  been  discovered. 

Entry  of  Evidence. — Evidence  must  be  presented  to 
the  judge  or  other  person  commissioned  to  receive  it. 
It  must  be  written  down  by  the  clerk  in  the  acts  or 
minutes  of  the  trial :  date  of  presentation  of  documents 
is  noted  on  the  documents  themselves  and  attested  by 
the  signature  of  the  clerk.  Evidence  in  rebuttal, 
effected  by  witnesses,  documents,  or  otherwise,  must 
be  admitted,  the  final  word  in  criminal  actions  being 
given  to  the  defendant. 

Comparison  of  Proofs. — It  belongs  to  the  judge 
to  sift  the  depositions  of  witnesses  or  other  proof  and 
to  determine  the  relative  value  of  conflicting  evidence. 
He  must  consider  not  merely  the  respective  number  of 
witnesses  but  their  qualifications,  intellectual  and 
moral,  their  knowledge  of  the  facts  at  issue,  and  so  on. 
The  stronger  proof  must  prevail,  and  when  proof  is 
equally  divided,  the  accused  or  possessor  must  be 
favoured,  except  in  privileged  oases  (see  Examination, 
Examination  of  Witnesses) . 

Decrel.  Greg.  IX,  I.  II,  tit.  18  sqq.;  Taunton,  Lain  of  the 
Church,  8.  V.  Proof;  Deoste-Messmer,  Canonical  Procedure,  etc., 
ii;  Santi,  Pralectiones  Juris  Can.,  1.  II,  tit.  18  sqq. 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Propaganda,  Sacred  Congregation  of. — The 
Sacred  Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide,  whose 
official  title  is  "sacra  Congregatio  christiano  nomini 
propagando"  is  the  department  of  the  pontifical  ad- 
ministration charged  with  the  spread  of  Catholicism 
and  with  the  regulation  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in 
non-Catholic  countries.  The  intrinsic  importance  of 
its  duties  and  the  extraordinary  extent  of  its  authority 
and  of  the  territory  under  its  jurisdiction  have  caused 
the  cardinal  prefect  of  Propaganda  to  be  known  as  the 
"red  pope". 

I.  History. — A.  First  Period. — Its  establishment 
at  Rome  in  the  seventeenth  century  was  owing 
partly  to  the  necessity  of  communicating  with  new 
countries  then  recently  discovered,  and  partly  to 
the  new  system  of  government  by  congregations 
adopted  during  the  Counter-Reformation.  It  is 
well  known  that,  during  this  period,  the  defence  and 
propagation  of  Catholicism  suggested  to  the  Holy 
See  the  establishment  of  a  complete  system  of 
administrative  departments,  to  each  of  which  was 
assigned  some  special  branch  of  Catholic  interests. 
The  propagation  of  the  Faith  was  a  matter  of  such 
vital  importance  as  to  demand  for  its  work  an  entire 
congregation.  The  reconquest  for  the  Church  of 
the  lands  severed  from  it  was  not  of  greater  impor- 
tance than  the  evangelization  of  the  vast  regions  then 
being  explored  by  courageous  adventures.  America, 
Africa,  the  Far  East,  opened  up  new  lands,  new 
peoples,  new  conquests;  the  Church,  conscious  of  her 
natural  mission  to  evangelize  the  world,  felt  obliged 
to  act  and  to  act  quickly,  especially  as  Holland  and 
England,  while  striving  eagerly  for  commerce  and 
colonial  expansion,  were  also  bent  upon  spreading 
everywhere  the  doctrines  of  Protestantism. 

The  origin  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Prop- 
aganda has  been  variously  accounted  for;  in  reality 
it  is  the  result  of  slow  evolution.  It  is  certain  that 
it  passed  through  two  distinct  periods,  one  formative 
and  the  other  constitutive.  The  first  period  is  that 
of  the  cardinalitial  commission  de  propaganda  fide 
(before  it  had  been  constituted  a  definite  pontifical 
department  or  ministry).  This  lasted  from  the  time 
of  Gregory  XIII  (1572-85)  to  1622,  when  Gregory 
XV  established  the  congregation  properly  so-called. 
Gregory  XIII  instituted  a  primary  commission  com- 
posed of  the  three  cardinals,  Caraffa,  Medici,  and 


Santorio,  who  were  especially  charged  to  promote 
the  union  with  Rome  of  the  Oriental  Christians 
(Slavs,  Greeks,  Syrians,  Egyptians,  and  Abyssinians) . 
Their  meetings,  held  under  the  presidency  of  Cardinal 
Santorio,  known  as  the  Cardinal  of  Santa  Severina, 
revealed  certain  urgent  practical  needs — e.  g.  the 
foundation  of  foreign  seminaries,  the  printing  of 
catechisms  and  similar  works  in  many  languages. 
Its  efforts  were  successful  among  the  Ruthenians,  the 
Armenians,  Syrians,  both  Western  (as  those  of  the 
Lebanon)  and  Eastern  (as  those  of  Malabar).  After 
the  death  of  Gregory  XIII  the  rapid  succession  of 
four  popes  in  seven  years  arrested  the  progress  of  the 
commission's  work.  Clement  VIII  (1592-1605), 
a  pontiff  of  large  and  bold  aims,  was  deeply  interested 
in  the  commission,  and  caused  its  first  meeting  after 
his  election  to  be  held  in  his  presence.  He  retained 
Santorio  as  its  president :  weekly  meetings  were  held 
in  that  cardinal's  palace,  and  every  fifteen  days  the 
decisions  and  recommendations  of  the  commission 
were  referred  to  the  pontiff.  To  this  period  belongs 
a  very  notable  triumph,  the  union  with  Rome  of  the 
Ruthenian  nation  (the  Little  Russia  of  Poland) 
called  the  Union  of  Brest  (1598). 

B.  Second  Period. — The  death  of  Clement  VIII 
revealed  an  essential  weakness  of  the  institution. 
It  was  a  personal  commission,  depending  for  its  very 
existence  on  the  energy  of  its  few  members.  Even- 
tually the  meetings  of  the  three  cardinals  ceased; 
at  the  same  time  an  active  propagation  of  the  Catholic 
Faith  was  kept  up  among  both  Protestants  and  non- 
Christians.  The  practical  demise  of  the  commission 
made  evident  the  necessity  of  providing  for  its  per- 
manence. The  honour  of  accomplishing  this  be- 
longs to  Gregory  XV  (1621-23).  On  6  Jan.,  1622, 
the  pope  summoned  thirteen  cardinals  and  two  prel- 
ates, to  whom  he  announced  his  intention  of  con- 
stituting a  permanent  and  well-organized  congrega- 
tion for  the  propagation  of  Catholicism,  and  his 
hearers  were  appointed  members  of  the  congrega- 
tion. The  preliminaries  of  organization  were  dili- 
gently carried  on;  on  22  June  of  the  same  year  ap- 
peared the  Bull  "  Inscrutabili  Divinae",  by  which 
the  Sacred  Congregation  de  propaganda  fide  was  in- 
stituted, composed  of  thirteen  cardinals  and  two  prel- 
ates, to  whom  were  added  a  secretary  and  a  con- 
suitor.  Its  first  presidents  were  Cardinal  Sauli, 
dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  and  Cardinal  Ludovisi, 
nephew  of  the  pope  and  founder  of  the  Irish  College 
at  Rome.  On  the  same  day  provision  was  made 
for  the  support  of  the  congregation  by  the  Con- 
stitution "Romanum  Decet"  It  assigned  to  Prop- 
aganda the  tassa  dell'  anello  (ring -tax)  assessed  on 
each  newly  appointed  cardinal  (500  gold  scudi, 
later  600  silver  scudi).  On  14  Dec.  of  the  same  year 
was  published  the  Constitution  "Cum  Inter  Multi- 
pHces",  and  on  13  June,  1623,  another  Constitution, 
"  Cum  Nuper  " ,  both  of  which  conferred  on  the  congre- 
gation ample  privileges  and  immunities  in  order  to 
facilitate  and  accelerate  its  labours.  When  the 
financial  management  increased  in  importance,  the 
pope  ordered  that  each  of  the  thirteen  cardinals 
should  direct  it  in  turn;  at  a  later  date  a  single  car- 
dinal was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  financial  depart- 
ment. The  death  of  Gregory  XV  (1624)  prevented 
the  founder  of  the  congregation  from  completing  its 
organization;  happily,  his  successor.  Urban  VIII 
(1623-44),  was  Cardinal  Barberini,  one  of  the  orig- 
inal thirteen  members  of  the  congregation. 

After  the  death  of  Cardinals  Sauli  and  Ludovisi, 
Urban  VIII  directed  that  there  should  be  but  one 
prefect  general  of  the  congregation,  and  nominated 
to  the  office  his  brother.  Cardinal  Antonio  Barberini 
(29  Dec,  1632).  At  the  same  time  he  appointed  his 
nephew,  a  second  Cardinal  Antonio  Barberini,  as  the 
auxiliary  of  the  preceding,  and  later  made  him  his 
successor.     These  two  open   the  series  of  prefects 


PROPAGANDA 


457 


PROPAGANDA 


general  of  Propaganda.  It  was  clear  to  Urban  VIII 
that  the  impulse  given  to  the  establishment  of  ec- 
clesiastical seminaries  by  the  Council  of  Trent  had 
already  produced  excellent  results,  even  in  the  vast 
province  of  the  Propaganda,  through  the  agency  of 
the  numerous  national  colleges  then  founded,  e.  g.  at 
Rome,  the  German,  English,  Greek,  Maronite, 
Soots,  and  other  colleges.  But  he  also  saw  that  it 
was  necessary  to  establish  a  central  seminary  for  the 
missions  where  young  ecclesiastics. could  be  educated, 
not  only  for  countries  which  had  no  national  college 
but  also  for  such  as  were  endowed  with  such  institu- 
tions. It  seemed  very  desirable  to  have,  in  every 
country,  priests  educated  in  an  international  college 
where  they  could  acquire  a  larger  personal  acquain- 
tance, and  establish  in  youth  relations  that  might 
be  mutually  helpful  in  after  life.  Thus  arose  the 
seminary  of  the  Propaganda  known  as  the  Collegium 
Urbanum,  from  the  name  of  its  founder.  Urban  VIII. 
It  was  established  by  the  Bull  "Immortalis  Dei", 
of  1  Aug.,  1627,  and  placed  under  the  immediate 
direction  of  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda.  The 
congregation  itself  developed  so  rapidly  that  it  be- 
came eventually  necessary  to  divide  its  immense 
domain  into  various  secretariates  and  commissions. 
This  continuous  increase  of  its  labours  dates  from  its 
very  earliest  years.  In  the  beginning  the  meetings 
of  the  congregation  were  held  in  the  presence  of  the 
pope;  soon,  however,  the  pressure  of  business  grew 
to  be  so  great  that  the  general  prefect  and  the  general 
secretary  were  authorized  to  transact  all  current  busi- 
ness, with  the  obligation  of  placing  before  the  pope, 
at  stated  intervals,  the  more  important  matters,  which 
is  still  the  custom.  In  extent  of  territory,  in  ex- 
ternal and  internal  organization,  and  in  jurisdiction, 
the  congregation  has  undergone  modifications  ac- 
cording to  the  needs  of  the  times;  but  it  may  be  said 
that  its  definite  organization  dates  from  about  1650. 
II.  Territorial  Jurisdiction. — As  a  general 
principle,  it  was  understood  that  the  territory  of 
Propaganda  was  (apart  from  the  Catholics  of  all  the 
Oriental  rites)  conterminous  with  those  countries 
that  were  non-Catholic  in  government.  Naturally 
there  were,  and  are,  exceptions:  for  example,  Russia 
depends,  ecclesiastically,  upon  the  Congregation  of 
Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  since  it  is  neces- 
sary to  treat  all  Russian  affairs  through  governmental 
channels.  The  territorial  jurisdiction  of  Propaganda 
was  before  the  promulgation  of  the  Constitution 
"Sapienti  Consilio"  as  follows:  in  Europe,  Great 
Britain  and  Gibraltar,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Den- 
mark, Germany  (Saxony,  Anhalt,  Mecklenburg, 
Schaumburg,  Oldenburg,  Lauenburg,  Hamburg, 
Bremen,  Lilbeck,  Schleswig-Holstein),  Holland,  Lux- 
emburg, some  places  in  Switzerland  (Mesolcina  and 
Calanca  in  the  Grisons,  St.  Maurice  in  the  Canton 
of  Valais),  the  Balkan  peninsula  (Bosnia,  Her- 
zegovina, and  Greece);  in  the  New  World,  the 
United  States,  Canada,  Lower  California,  the  Lesser 
Antilles  (British  and  Danish),  Jamaica  and  Honduras, 
some  missions  in  Peru,  Patagonia;  all  Oceanica  ex- 
cept the  Philippines;  all  Asia  except  the  Russian 
possessions;  all  Africa.  As  to  the  Catholics  of 
the  Oriental  rites,  they  are  subject  personally 
(that  is,  wherever  they  may  be)  to  Propaganda. 
Their  division  by  rites  generally  corresponds  to  their 
nationality.  These  rites  are:  the  Armenian,  fre- 
quent (besides,  of  course,  in  Armenia)  in  Austria, 
Persia  and  Egypt;  the  pure  Coptic  Rite  (in  Egypt); 
the  Abyssinian  Coptic  Rite,  to  which  belong  a  few 
faithful  in  Abyssinia  and  in  the  Italian  colony  of 
Eritrea;  the  pure  Greek  Rite,  including  some  com- 
munities in  Southern  Italy  and  a  very  few  in  Tur- 
key; the  Rumanian  Greek  Rite,  with  adherents 
among  the  Rumanians  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania; 
the  Ruthenian  Greek  Rite,  or  that  of  the  Little 
Russians  in  Austria  and  Russia;  the  Bulgarian  Greek 


Rite,  in  Bulgaria  and  in  Macedonia;  the  Melchite 
Greek  Rite  (GriEco-Syrian),  which  includes  the 
Catholics  of  Greece,  also  hellenized  natives  of  Syria 
and  Palestine;  the  unmixed  Syrian  Rite  (Western 
Syrian),  or  that  of  the  Syrians  of  the  plain  of  Syria 
and  Palestine;  the  Syro-Maronite  Rite  (Western 
Syrian)  or  the  (Syrian)  Maronites  of  Mount  Lebanon; 
the  Syro-Chaldean  Rite  (Eastern  Syrian)  i.  e.  Syria 
in  the  Persian  Empire;  the  Malabar  Rite  (Eastern 
Syrian),  i.  e.  the  Catholics  of  Malabar  in  South- 
western India.  Among  most  of  these  peoples  there 
has  set  in  a  remarkable  tide  of  emigration  to  the  New 
World,  especially  to  North  America,  whither  the 
Ruthenians  and  Maronites  emigrate  in  large  numbers. 

In  the  Constitution  "Sapienti  Consilio"  of  Pius 
X  (29  June,  1908),  the  plan  was  followed  of  entrusting 
to  Propaganda  those  countries  of  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica where  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  is  not  established. 
Great  Britain,  Holland,  Luxemburg,  Canada,  and  the 
United  States  were  therefore  removed  from  its 
jurisdiction;  on  the  other  hand,  all  the  vicariates  and 
prefectures  Apostolic  of  America  and  the  Philip- 
pines, which  were  formerly  subject  to  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Extraor- 
dinary Ecclesi- 
astical Affairs, 
were  placed  under 
Propaganda.  A 
departure  from 
the  general  plan 
was  in  leaving 
Australia  under 
the  jurisdiction  of 
the  latter  congre- 
gation, with  the 
addition  of  St- 
Pierre,  in  Marti- 
nique, and  Gua- 
deloupe. Another 
restriction  of  the 
powers  of  Propa- 
ganda effected  by 
the  new  legislation  was,  that  all  matters  apper- 
taining to  faith,  the  sacraments  (particularly  matri- 
mony), rites,  and  religious  congregations — as  such, 
even  though  they  were  exclusively  devoted  to  the 
work  of  the  missions — were  assigned  to  the  care  of 
the  respective  congregations:  those  of  the  Holy 
Office,  the  Sacraments,  Rites,  and  Regulars. 

III.  External  Organization. — The  organiza- 
tion of  Propaganda  is  developed  externally  by  means 
of  delegations,  dioceses,  vicariates,  prefectures, 
simple  missions,  and  colleges.  The  Apostolic  delega- 
tions are  established  to  maintain  immediate  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Holy  See  in  places  where  they  seem 
to  be  needed  by  reason  of  the  growth  of  the  Church 
in  organization  and  in  numbers.  Their  personnel 
is  composed  of  an  Apostohc  delegate  and  an  auditor, 
subject  to  Propaganda.  They  are  as  follows:  in 
Europe,  those  of  Constantinople  and  of  Greece 
(Athens);  in  Asia,  those  of  the  East  Indies  (Kandy 
in  Ceylon),  of  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and  Armenia 
Minor  (Mosul),  of  Persia  (Urumiah),  of  Syria  (Beirut) ; 
in  Africa,  that  of  Egypt  and  Arabia  (Alexandria). 
The  dioceses  as  a  rule  consist  of  a  bishop,  who  holds 
the  title  to  the  see  and  administers  the  local  govern- 
ment with  the  aid  of  a  cathedral  chapter  and  a 
parochial  clergy.  A  diocesan  organization  (Latin 
Rite)  exists  in  the  following  Propaganda  countries: 
in  Europe,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Rumania,  Bul- 
garia, Abyssinia,  Greece;  in  America,  Guadeloupe 
and  St-Pierre,  Martinique;  in  Oceania,  Australia 
and  New  Zealand;  in  Asia,  Smyrna,  India,  and  Japan; 
in  Africa,  the  Mauritius  and  the  Seychelles.  The 
Oriental  Catholics  (Uniats),  except  those  of  the 
Abyssinian-Coptic,  the  Unmixed  Greek,  and  the 
Graeco-Bulgarian   Rites,    are  also  organized  in  dio- 


Seal  of  the  Sacred  Congregation 
OF  Propaganda 


PROPAGANDA 


458 


PROPAGANDA 


ceses.  The  vicariates  Apostolic  are  missions  at  the 
head  of  each  of  which  is  placed  a  bishop  who  acts 
as  representative  of  the  pope  in  the  local  government. 
The  prefectures  Apostohc  are  missions  of  minor  im- 
portance, each  of  which  has  at  its  head  an  ecclesaistic, 
not  a  bishop,  with  the  title  of  prefect  Apostolic. 
Those  territories  of  Propaganda  which  are  not  or- 
ganized as  dioceses  are  either  vicariates  or  prefec- 
tures; their  number  increases  rapidly,  since  every 
year  some  vicariate  Apostolic  is  divided,  or  some 
prefecture  is  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  vicariate  or 
some  new  prefecture  is  created.  The  simple  missions 
are  few  and  mostly  in  Africa.  They  represent  an 
uncertain  or  transitory  condition  that  may  be  readily 
strengthened  by  the  establishment  of  an  Apostolic 
prefecture. 

The  colleges  are  institutions  for  the  education  of 
the  clergy,  intended  either  to  supply  clergy  for  mis- 
sions that  have  no  native  clergy  or  to  give  a  better 
education  to  the  native  clergy  for  the  apostolate  in 
their  own  country.  The  central  seminary  of  Prop- 
aganda is,  as  has  been  said,  the  Urban  College, 
established  in  the  palace  of  the  congregation  at  Rome. 
The  immediate  superiors  are  two  prelates,  one  the 
general  secretary  of  the  congregation,  and  the  other 
the  rector.  In  this  college  may  be  found  students 
from  all  the  territories  subject  to  Propaganda,  but 
from  nowhere  else.  The  average  number  of  its 
resident  students  is  about  one  hundred  and  ten. 
It  has  its  own  schools,  which  are  attended  by  many 
other  students  not  subject  to  Propaganda — e.  g. 
the  Bohemian  College.  Besides  the  preparatory 
training,  these  schools  offer  courses  of  philosophy 
and  theology,  and  confer  the  academic  degrees  of 
Bachelor,  Licentiate,  and  Doctor  of  Theology.  The 
number  of  students  in  these  schools  exceeds  five 
hundred.  In  Rome  the  College  of  the  Holy  Apostles 
Peter  and  Paul,  for  Italian  missionaries  (Lower 
California  and  China),  and  the  College  of  St.  Anthony, 
for  Franciscan  missionaries  (especially  in  China), 
are  subject  to  Propaganda,  which  also  exercises 
jurisdiction  over  the  following  missionary  colleges 
outside  of  Rome:  St.  Calocerus,  at  Milan,  for  Italian 
missionaries  to  China  and  India;  St.  Charles,  at 
Parma  (China);  Brignole-Sale,  at  Genoa  (without 
local  designation  of  mission):  Instituto  per  la 
Nigrizia  (for  negroes  of  the  Sudan),  at  Verona; 
College  for  African  Missions,  at  Lyons,  especially  for 
French  missionaries  to  Africa;  Seminary  of  Foreign 
Missions,  at  Paris  (India,  Indo-China,  China,  Japan); 
Mill  Hill  Seminary,  near  London,  for  the  missionaries 
of  the  Society  of  St.  Joseph  (India,  Central  Africa, 
Malay  Peninsula);  House  of  St.  Joseph,  Rozendaal 
(for  Dutch  students  of  the  Mill  Hill  Society) ;  House 
of  St.  Joseph,  Brixen  in  the  Tyrol  (for  German  stu- 
dents of  the  same  society) ;  four  colleges  of  the  Society 
of  the  Divine  Word,  at  Steyl  (Holland),  at  Heiligen- 
kreuz  (Germany),  and  at  St.  Gabriel,  near  Vienna, 
for  the  students  of  the  same  society  whose  missionary 
fields  are  in  the  United  States,  South  America, 
Oceania,  China,  and  Africa;  College  of  All  Hallows, 
Dublin,  for  Irish  missionaries;  American  College  at 
Louvain,  for  missionaries  to  the  United  States. 
The  national  colleges  at  Rome  subject  to  the  Prop- 
aganda are:  the  Greek,  Ruthenian,  Armenian,  and 
Maronite  colleges.  It  also  exercises  jurisdiction 
over  the  Albanian  College  at  Scutari,  the  College  of 
Pulo-Penang  (Prince  of  Wales  Island)  in  Indo- 
China,  belonging  to  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions 
at  Paris  tor  the  native  Indo-Chinese  clergy.  Before 
the  appearance  of  the  Constitution  "Sapienti 
Consilio",  the  American,  Canadian,  English,  Irish, 
and  Scots  Colleges  at  Rome,  the  English  College  at 
Lisbon,  the  English  and  the  Scots  College  at  Valla- 
dolid,  and  the  Irish  College  at  Paris  were  all  subject 
to    Propaganda. 

The  auxiliaries  of  this  vast  organization  are  all 


religious  orders  and  regular  congregations  of  men  and 
women  to  which  foreign  missions  are  confided.  Their 
number  is  very  great.  The  principal  orders  (Bene- 
dictine, Franciscan,  Dominican,  Carmelite,  Jesuit 
etc.)  have  charge  of  numerous  missions.  During 
the  nineteenth  century  many  regular  societies  of  mis- 
sionary priests  and  missionary  sisters  entered  ac- 
tively, and  with  great  success,  on  missionary  labours 
under  the  direction  of  the  congregation.  The  prin- 
cipal colleges  of  these  auxiUary  bodies  (not  directly 
subject  to  Propaganda)  are:  at  Rome,  the  Colleges 
of  St.  Fidelis  (Capuchin)  and  St.  Isidore  (Irish 
Franciscans),  and  the  Irish  Augustinian  College; 
outside  of  Rome,  the  college  at  Schooten  near  Brussels 
(Missionaries  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary), 
the  seminary  of  the  African  Missions  at  Lyons 
(White  Fathers)  etc. 

IV.  Internal  Organization. — The  internal  or- 
ganization of  Propaganda  is  the  result  of  almost  three 
centuries  of  experience.  All  its  works  are  carried 
on  by  means  of  a  general  cardinalitial  congregation, 
two  cardinalitial  prefectures,  and  several  permanent 
commissions.  The  general  congregation  is  composed 
of  all  the  cardinals  of  Propaganda  chosen  by  the  Pope 
"Eminentissimi  Patres  Consilii  Christiano  nomini 
Propagando".  The  chief  authority  of  Propaganda 
resides  in  this  body.  The  creation  and  division  of 
dioceses,  vicariates,  and  prefectures,  the  selection 
of  bishops  and  other  ordinary  superiors  of  missions, 
matrimonial  causes,  ecclesiastical  appeals,  and  the 
like,  all  come  under  its  jurisdiction.  It  holds  a  regular 
meeting  twice  a  month  and  deals  alternately  with  the 
affairs  of  the  Latin  and  the  Oriental  rites.  Only 
the  cardinal-members  of  Propaganda  are  present, 
together  with  two  prelates,  the  general  secretary,  and 
the  secretary  of  the  Oriental  rites.  To  the  general 
prefect  of  Propaganda,  a  cardinal,  belongs  the  duty 
of  despatching  all  current  business  and  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  General  Congregation.  He  is  the 
ordinary  head  of  Propaganda.  The  General  Pre- 
fecture has  subject  to  it  two  secretariates:  the  Gen- 
eral Secretariate  and  the  Secretariate  of  Oriental 
rites.  The  general  secretary  (always  a  prelate, 
Monsignor)  is  the  chief  assistant  of  the  cardinal  pre- 
fect, and  the  immediate  head  of  the  General  Secre- 
tariate. He  countersigns  all  letters  addressed  by 
the  cardinal  prefect  to  persons  outside  of  Rome,  and 
signs  all  letters  from  the  prefecture  destined  to  points 
in  Rome  (except  to  cardinals  and  ambassadors, 
letters  for  whom  are  signed  by  the  cardinal  prefect 
alone).  An  under-secretary  has  been  added  by  the 
Constitution  "Sapienti  Consilio".  The  Secretary 
of  the  Oriental  rites  is  the  head  of  his  secretariate, 
and  is  charged  with  duties  analogous  to  those  of  the 
general  secretary,  of  whom  he  is  independent. 

Each  of  the  secretariates  has  its  minulanti,  scrittori, 
and  protocollisti.  There  are  also  the  General  Ar- 
chives, and  a  Despatch  Office.  The  minutanti  (so 
called  because  one  of  their  duties  is  to  prepare  the 
minutes  of  decrees  and  letters  which  are  afterwards 
re-copied  by  the  scrittori)  are  officials  occupied  with 
the  subordinate  affairs  of  certain  regions.  We  may 
note  here  the  simplicity  and  the  industry  of  the  Prop- 
aganda secretariate:  only  six  minutanti  attend  to 
the  affairs  of  the  countries  of  the  Latin  Rite  subject 
to  the  congregation.  Apropos  of  the  authority  of 
Propaganda  we  shall  see  what  a  vast  deal  of  work 
is  involved  in  the  ordinary  despatch  of  this  work. 
The  minutanti,  in  addition  to  making  minutes  of  the 
ordinary  acts  of  the  secretariate,  prepare  the  ponenze, 
i.  e.  the  printed  copies  of  the  propositions  or  cases 
destined  to  come  before  the  general  cardinalitial 
congregation.  Every  week  each  of  the  two  secre- 
tariates holds  a  meeting  (congresso)  in  the  presence 
of  the  cardinal  prefect,  of  its  own  secretary,  and  of 
the  head  of  the  other  secretariate.  At  this  meeting 
each  minutante  reports  on  all  matters  for  the  settle- 


PROPAGANDA 


459 


PROPAGANDA 


ment  of  which  reference  to  the  pertinent  set  of 
documents  may  be  necessary,  he  gives  oral  informa- 
tions etc.  After  hearing  the  report  of  the  minutante 
and  the  opinion  of  the  Secretary  concerned,  sometimes 
of  all  others  present,  the  cardinal  prefect  issues  an 
order  to  reply,  or  to  defer  the  case,  or  to  send  it  up 
to  the  general  congregation.  The  scrittori  copy  all 
documents  that  are  to  be  despatched,  while  the 
protocollisti  stamp,  number,  and  register  all  papers 
received  and  sent  out.  Records  of  the  earliest  pro- 
ceedings of  the  congregation,  dating  from  its  first 
estabMshment,  are  preserved  in  the  General  Archives, 
or  Record  Office.  Finally,  there  is  the  Despatch 
Office  {ufficio  di  spedizione),  which  keeps  its  own  regis- 
ter of  all  documents  issuing  from  Propaganda,  and 
sees  to  their  actual  forwarding.  The  office  of  con- 
suitor  is  filled  gratuitously  by  a  number  of  prelates, 
to  whom  the  secretariates  send  such  of  the  ponenze 
as  are  of  litigious  na- 
t  u  r  e  —  matrimonial 
causes,  diocesan  dif- 
ficulties, etc.  These 
consultors  are  re- 
quested to  express 
their  opinions,  which 
are  then  attached 
to  the  ponenze  and 
presented  therewith 
to  the  cardinals  at 
the  General  Congre- 
gation. The  Oriental 
Secretariate  employs 
interpreters  —  eccle- 
siastics who  translate 
all  current  correspon- 
dence in  Arabic,  Ar- 
meman,etc.,  and  who 
are  sworn  to  perform 
their  work  faithfully. 
The  method  of 
treatment  applied 
by  Propaganda  to  an 
ordinary  case  may 
be  described  as  fol- 
lows: A  letter  ad- 
dressed to  the  con- 
gregation is  opened 
by  the  cardinal  pre- 
fect who  annotates 
it  with  some  terse  official  formula  in  Latin,  embodying 
his  first  instructions  (e.g.  that  a  precis  of  the  antecedent 
correspondence  relating  to  this  matter  is  to  be  made) . 
Then  the  letter  goes  to  the  Protocollo,  where  it  is 
stamped  and  registered,  and  its  object  noted  on  the 
outside.  The  chief  minutante  reports  on  its  object 
and  on  the  note  made  by  the  cardinal  to  the  secre- 
tary concerned,  and  writes  the  corresponding  order 
of  the  secretary.  Supposing  the  order  should  be  to 
write  a  letter,  the  folio  is  given  to  the  minutante, 
who  draws  up  his  minute  according  to  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  cardinal  prefect  and  of  the  secretary, 
he  then  passes  it  on  to  the  scrittore,  who  copies  it, 
and  verifies  the  copy.  This  copy,  with  all  the  cor- 
respondence in  the  case,  is  returned  (supposing  it  to 
be  matter  to  be  sent  away  from  Rome)  to  the  cardinal 
prefect,  who  signs  it  and  remits  it  to  the  secretary. 
The  secretary  countersigns  it  and  passes  it  on  to  the 
Despatch  Office,  which,  after  returning  to  the  pro- 
tocollo (for  preservation)  the  other  correspondence  of 
the  case  under  consideration,  registers  it,  encloses  all 
matter  to  be  forwarded  in  an  envelope,  writes  thereon 
the  postal  weight,  and  sends  it  on  to  the  Account- 
ing Office.  Here  the  postal  weight  is  verified,  the 
stamps  affixed,  and  the  letter  forwarded  to  the  Post 
Office.  By  this  system  everything  is  under  control, 
from  the  subject-matter  of  the  correspondence  to 
the  cost  of  postage.     The  whole  routine  is  completed 


with  rapidity  and  regularity  under  the  immediate 
responsibility  of  the  several  persons  who  have  charge 
of  the  matter  in  its  various  stages. 

Before  the  Constitution  "Sapienti  Consilio" 
the  second  cardinalitial  Prefecture  of  Propaganda 
was  that  of  the  cardinal  prefect  of  finance,  to  whom 
are  entrusted  the  finances  of  Propaganda,  the  ex- 
penses, subsidies  etc.  Decisions  regarding  subsidies 
pertained  either  to  the  cardinal  prefect  or  to  the 
General  Congregation,  or  to  the  Board  of  Finance 
(congresso  economico),  which  met  as  an  executive 
committee  for  the  transaction  of  the  most  important 
ordinary  business  with  which  the  General  Congre- 
gation was  entrusted.  This  Prefecture  of  Finance 
was  composed  of  the  general  prefect,  the  cardinal 
prefect  of  finance,  and  of  some  other  cardinal  of 
the  General  Congregation.  Pius  X,  however,  by 
the  above  mentioned   Constitution,  suppressed   the 

Prefecture  of  Fi- 
nance, and  its  func- 
tions are  now  dis- 
charged by  the  Gen- 
eral Prefecture. 
With  the  Prefecture 
of  Finance  was 
joined  the  executive 
office  of  the  Rev- 
erend Chamber  of 
Chattels  {Azienda 
delta  Reverenda  Ca- 
mera degli  Spogli), 
i.  e.  the  effective 
administration  of  the 
revenues  ■  collected 
from  vacant  bene- 
fices (spogli),  one  of 
the  sources  of  rev- 
enue of  Propaganda. 
The  two  perma- 
nent commissions  of 
Propaganda  are:  one 
for  the  revision  of 
Synodal  Decrees 
(provincial  or  dio- 
cesan) in  countries 
subject  to  Propa- 
ganda and  one  for 
the  revision  of  litur- 
gical books  of  the 
Oriental  rites.  Each  of  these  Commissions  is  presided 
over  by  a  cardinal,  has  for  secretary  a  prelate,  and 
is  always  in  close  communication  with  its  own  secre- 
tariate. 

V.  Faculties.— The  faculties  (authority)  of  the 
Congregation  of  Propaganda  are  very  extensive. 
To  the  other  pontifical  congregations  are  assigned 
quite  specific  matters:  the  only  restriction  on  Prop- 
aganda is  that  of  territory,  i.  e.  while  one  congre- 
gation is  concerned  with  rites,  a  second  with  bishops 
and  regulars,  a  third  with  marriage,  a  fourth  with 
subsidies  etc..  Propaganda  deals  with  all  such  matters, 
in  a  practical  way,  for  all  the  countries  subject  to  it. 
Thus,  the  nomination  of  a  bishop,  the  settlement  of  a 
matrimonial  case,  the  granting  of  an  indulgence,  are 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  Propaganda.  The  limits 
of  its  jurisdiction  are  practical  rather  than  theoretical; 
in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  Propaganda  is  au- 
thorized to  deal  with  matters  peculiar  to  the  other 
congregations,  when  such  matters  are  presented  as 
practical  cases,  i.  e.  when  they  do  not  raise  questions 
of  a  technical  character,  or  of  general  bearing,  or  are 
not  of  a  class  specifically  reserved  to  some  other  de- 
partment of  the  pontifical  administration.  This  is 
more  particularly  true  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Holy  Office.  Matrimonial  cases  are  very  frequently 
brought  before  Propaganda,  especially  those  in  which 
the  marriage  is  alleged  to  be  invalid,  either  as  null 


Palace  of  Propaganda,  Piazza  di  Spagna,  Rome 


PROPAGANDA 


460 


PROPAGANDA 


from  the  beginning  or  because  it  was  never  consum- 
mated. The  procedure  in  such  cases  is  as  simple 
as  it  is  practical:  Propaganda  having  been  appealed 
to  by  one  party,  directs  the  local  episcopal  court  to 
hold  a  canonical  trial  and  to  report  its  results  to  the 
congregation,  it  being  understood  that  both  parties, 
defendant  and  plaintiff,  may  protect  themselves  by 
legal  counsel  at  their  own  expense.  When  the  con- 
gregation has  received  the  record  of  the  local  court, 
it  transmits  the  same  to  a  consultor  with  a  request 
for  his  opinion  on  the  objective  status  of  the  ques- 
tion at  issue  (pro  rei  veritate).  If  the  opinion  be  in 
favour  of  the  nullity  or  of  the  non-consummation  of 
the  marriage,  then  the  record,  together  with  the 
opinion  of  the  consultor,  is  sent  on  to  a  second  con- 
sultor (pro  vinculi  defensione),  whose  duty  it  is  to 
set  forth  the  grounds,  more  or  less  conclusive,  that 
can  be  adduced  in  favour  of  the  validity,  or  con- 
summation, of  the  marriage,  and  therefore  of  its 
indissolubihty.  The  local  record  and  the  opinions 
of  the  consultors  iponcnza)  are  then  printed  in  as 
many  copies  as  there  are  cardinal-judges  in  the  con- 
gregation. This  printed  ponenza  is  sent  to  each  of 
these  cardinals  (the  printed  document  is  held  to  be 
secret,  being  looked  on  as  manuscript)  that  they  may 
examine  the  matter.  One  of  them  (cardinale  po- 
nente)  is  selected  to  summarize  the  entire  case, 
and  to  him  are  finally  turned  over  the  local  record 
and  the  opinions  of  the  consultors,  with  the  obliga- 
tion of  reporting  on  the  case  at  the  next  General 
Congregation.  At  this  meeting,  the  cardinals,  after 
mature  discussion,  pronounce  judgment.  Their 
decision  is  immediately  submitted  to  the  pope,  who 
ratifies  it,  if  he  sees  fit,  and  orders  the  proper  decree 
to  be  issued. 

It  should  be  added  that  all  these  proceedings  are 
absolutely  without  expense  to  the  litigants  (gratis 
quocumque  iitulo),  i.  e.  no  one  is  ever  called  on  for 
any  payment  to  the  congregation  because  or  on  ac- 
count of  any  favour  or  decision.  Thus,  the  wealth- 
iest Catholic  in  America,  Great  Britain,  Holland,  or 
Germany,  who  has  brought  a  matrimonial  case  before 
Propaganda,  pays  hterally  nothing,  whatever  the 
judgment  may  be.  There  are  no  chancery  expenses, 
and  nothing  is  collected  even  for  the  printing  of  the 
diocesan  records,  consultors'  opinions,  etc.  This  fact 
shows  how  absurd  are  certain  calumnies  uttered 
against  the  Holy  See,  especially  in  connexion  with 
matrimonial  cases,  as  though  the  annulment  of  a 
marriage  could  be  procured  at  Rome  by  the  use  of 
money.  Were  such  the  purpose  of  the  Roman  Curia, 
it  would  not  exempt  the  richest  countries  of  the 
world — those  precisely  in  which  it  is  easiest  for  per- 
sons of  opulence  to  institute  legal  proceedings — ■ 
from  any  expense,  great  or  small,  direct  or  indirect. 

VI.  Incidental  Features.  —  Propaganda  for- 
merly possessed  a  valuable  museum,  the  Museo  Bor- 
giano  (situated  in  the  palace),  so  called  because  it 
was  given  by  Cardinal  Stefano  Borgia,  who  was 
general  prefect  early  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
It  once  contained  precious  Oriental  codices,  es- 
pecially Sahidic  (Coptic  of  the  Thebaid)  now 
preserved  with  other  Coptic  codices  in  the  Vatican  Li- 
brary, for  the  greater  convenience  of  students.  It  pos- 
sesses at  the  present  time  an  important  cabinet  of 
medals  and  many  ethnological  curiosities  sent  as  gifts 
by  missionaries  in  far  distant  lands,  and  scattered 
through  the  Palace  of  Propaganda  are  many  valuable 
paintings  of  the  old  masters.  Propaganda  also 
conducted,  until  within  recent  years,  the  famous 
Polyglot  printing  press  whence,  for  some  centuries, 
issued  liturgical  and  catechetical  books,  printed 
in  a  multitude  of  alphabets.  Among  its  most  note- 
worthy curios  is  a  Japanese  alphabet  in  wooden 
blocks,  one  of  the  first  seen  in  Europe.  The  Prop- 
aganda Press  issued,  among  other  publications,  an 
official  statistical  annual  of  the  missions  conducted 


by  the  congregation  (Missiones  Catholicae  cura  S. 
Congreg.  de  Propaganda  Fide  descriptae),  as  well  as 
the  "Collectanea",  a  serial  record  of  pontifical  acts 
relating  to  the  business  of  the  congregation.  In  1884 
the  Italian  Government  liquidated  the  real  estate 
of  Propaganda,  leaving  it  only  its  palace,  the  neigh- 
Isouring  Mignanelli  palace  for  the  use  of  its  schools, 
its  printing  press,  and  two  villas  used  as  summer 
resorts  for  the  students  of  the  Urban  College. 

One  of  the  customs  of  Propaganda,  worthy  of 
special  mention,  is  the  gift  of  a  fan  to  all  employees 
at  the  beginning  of  the  summer.  This  custom  ap- 
pears to  have  arisen  in  the  early  days,  when  fans  were 
sent  from  China  by  the  missionaries.  It  is  cus- 
tomary for  the  Urban  College  to  hold,  at  Epiphany, 
a  solemn  "Accademia  Polyglotta",  to  symbolize 
the  world-wide  unity  of  the  Catholic  Church.  At 
this  accademia  the  Propaganda  students  recite  poems 
in  their  respective  mother  tongues.  Invited  guests 
always  find  it  very  interesting  to  listen  to  this  medley 
of  the  strangest  languages  and  dialects.  Another 
custom  of  the  Urban  College  is  that  every  graduate 
student  (alumna),  wherever  he  may  be  in  the  pursuit 
of  his  ministry,  is  bound  to  write  every  year  a  letter 
to  the  cardinal  prefect,  to  let  him  know  how  the  writer's 
work  is  progressing  and  how  he  fares  himself.  The 
cardinal  answers  immediately,  in  a  letter  of  paternal 
encouragement  and  counsel.  By  this  means  there  is 
maintained  a  bond  of  affection  and  of  mutual  good- 
will between  the  "great  mother" — as  the  "Prop- 
agandists", or  the  alumni  of  Propaganda,  designate 
the  congregation — and  her  most  distant  sons. 

The  names  of  many  distinguished  persons  appear 
in  the  records  of  Propaganda,  notably  in  the  catalogue 
of  its  cardinals,  prelates,  and  officials.  Among  the 
cardinal  prefects  entitled  to  special  mention  are  the 
following:  Giuseppe  Sagripanti  (d.  1727),  a  meri- 
torious reformer  of  Roman  judicial  procedure;  the 
very  learned  Barnabite  Sigismondo  Gerdil  (d.  1802); 
Stefano  Borgia,  patron  of  Oriental  studies,  protector 
of  the  savant  Zoega  (d.  1804);  Ercole  Consalvi  (d. 
1824),  the  great  diplomatist.  Secretary  of  State  to 
Pius  VII,  at  whose  death  he  was  made  prefect  gen- 
eral of  Propaganda  by  Leo  XII;  Mauro  Cappellari, 
later  Gregory  XVI,  who  was  prefect  general  from  1826 
to  his  election  as  pope  (1831).  Among  the  General 
Secretaries  (who  usually  become  cardinals)  the  fol- 
lowing are  particularly  worthy  of  special  mention: 
Domenico  Passionei,  created  cardinal  in  1738; 
Nicol6  Fortiguerra,  a  distinguished  man  of  letters 
(d.  1739) ;  the  erudite  Angelo  Mai,  secretary  from 
1833  to  1838.  The  list  of  missionaries  sent  forth  by 
Propaganda  has  been  long  and  glorious,  containing 
the  names  of  many  martyrs.  The  protomartyr  of 
Propaganda  is  St.  Fidelis  of  Sigmaringen,  a  German 
Capuchin  missionary  in  Grisons,  Switzerland. 
The  Calvinists  killed  him  in  the  village  of  Sercis, 
24  April,  1622.  He  was  canonized  by  Benedict 
XIV  in  1746.  Propaganda  holds  at  all  times  a 
grateful  memory  of  the  Discalced  Carmelites.  It 
was  they  who  vigorously  urged  the  Holy  See  to  found 
the  congregation,  foremost  among  them  being 
Domenico  di  Gesii  e  Maria,  general  of  the  order.  In 
the  original  act  of  its  foundation  he  appears  as  a 
member.  Tommaso  da  Gesu,  another  Carmelite, 
opportunely  published  in  1613,  at  Antwerp,  a  Latin 
work  on  the  obligation  of  preaching  the  Gospel  to  all 
nations. 

Many  authors  have  treated  of  Propaganda  very  inaccurately, 
and  have  confused  the  ancient  and  recent  systems  of  adminis- 
tration. The  moat  reUable  of  the  earlier  writers  are:  De  Luca, 
II  Cardinale  Pratico;  Cornelius,  Iiiformazioni  intorno  al 
Cardinalato  (Rome,  1653);  Beyer  and  Menzel,  Breve  com- 
pendium hist.  S.  Congr.  de  Prop.  Fide  (Konigsberg,  1721): 
Pollard,  Les  ministres  ecclesiastiques  du  S.  Si^ge  (Lyons,  1878); 
Lega,  Prcelectiones  in  textum  juris  cononici  (Rome,  1898); 
Anon.,  La  Propaganda  e  la  conversione  de'  suoi  beni  immobili 
(Rome,  1884);  Humphrey,  Urba  el  Orbis  (London,  1899),  380- 
386.  Cf.  also  Meyer,  Die  Propaganda,  ihre  Provinzen  und  ihr 
Recht;   Bangen,  Die  rSmische  Curie  (Miinster,  1854) ;   Peipeb  in 


PROPAGATION 


461 


PROPAGATION 


Rdmische  Quartalschrift,  I  (1889),  for  the  Archivea.  For  the 
most  important  Coptic  codices  formerly  preserved  by  Propaganda 
see  ZoEQA,  Catalogus  Codic.  Copt.  MSS.  Muscei  Borgiani  (Rome, 
1810) ;  Meier,  Die  Propaganda  (Gottingen,  1852) ;  Leitner, 
De  Curia  Romana  (1909). 

U.  Benigni. 

Propagation  of  the  Faith,  The  Society  fob  the, 
is  an  international  association  for  the  assistance  by 
prayers  and  alms  of  Catholic  missionary  priests, 
brothers,  and  nuns  engaged  in  preaching  the  Gospel 
in  heathen  and  non-Catholic  countries. 

I.  Origin  and  Development. — It  was  founded  in 
Lyons,  France,  in  1S22,  as  a  result  of  the  distress  of 
missions  in  both  East  and  West.  In  1815,  Bishop 
Dubourg  of  New  Orleans  was  in  Lyons  collecting  alms 
for  his  diocese,  which  was  in  a  precarious  condition. 
To  a  Mrs.  Petit,  whom  he  had  known  in  the  United 
States,  he  expressed  the  idea  of  founding  a  charitable 
association  for  the  support  of  Ijouisiana  missions, 
which  suggestion  she  cordially  embraced,  but  could 
procure  only  small  alms  among  her  friends  and 
acquaintances.  In  1820,  Pauline  Jaricot  of  Lyons 
received  a  letter  from  her  brother,  a  student  at  the 
Seminary  of  St-Sulpice,  in  which  he  described  the 
extreme  poverty  of  the  members  of  the  Foreign 
Missions  of  Paris.  She  conceived  the  idea  of  forming 
an  association  whose  members  would  contribute  one 
cent  a  week  for  the  missions.  The  membership  rose 
to  a  thousand  and  the  offerings  were  sent  to  Asia. 
In  1S22,  Father  Inglesi,  Vicar-General  of  New  Or- 
leans, was  sent  to  Lyons  by  Bishop  Dubourg  to  visit 
his  benefactors  and  reanimate  their  zeal.  Seeing  the 
success  of  Miss  Jaricot,  they  thought  at  first  of  estab- 
lishing a  similar  society  for  American  missions,  but 
decided  to  unite,  instead  of  dividing,  efTorts. 

A  meeting  of  the  friends  of  the  missions  called  by 
Father  Inglesi  was  attended  by  twelve  ecclesiastics 
and  laymen,  and  on  3  May,  1822,  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith  was  formally  established. 
Its  object  was  declared  to  be  to  help  Catholic  mission- 
aries by  prayers  and  alms.  It  was  understood  that 
the  new  association  should  be  catholic,  that  is,  en- 
deavour to  enhst  the  sympathy  of  all  Catholics,  and 
assist  all  missions,  without  regard  to  situation  and 
nationality.  However,  it  is  not  the  aim  of  the  society 
to  help  "Catholic  countries",  no  matter  how  great 
their  needs  may  be,  for  that  reason  France,  Italy, 
Austria,  Spain,  Portugal,  etc.  have  never  received 
help  from  it.  For  the  same  reason,  as  soon  as  missions 
are  able  to  exist  by  their  own  efforts  the  society  with- 
draws its  aid,  because  demands  are  many  and  re- 
sources inadequate.  In  1823,  a  delegate  was  sent  to 
Rome  and  Pius  VII  heartily  approved  the  new  under- 
taking and  granted  the  indulgences  and  other  spiritual 
privileges  that  permanently  enrich  the  society,  which 
judgment  has  been  ratified  by  all  his  successors.  In 
1840,  Gregory  XVI  placed  the  society  in  the  rank  of 
Universal  Catholic  institutions,  and  on  25  March, 
1904,  in  the  first  year  of  his  pontificate,  Pius  X  recom- 
mended it  to  the  charity  of  all  the  faithful,  praising 
its  work,  confirming  its  privileges,  and  raising  the 
feast  of  its  patron,  St.  Francis  Xavier,  to  a  higher  rite. 
A  large  number  of  provincial  and  national  councils 
(especially  the  III  Council  of  Baltimore,  1884),  as  well 
as  thousands  of  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
have  likewise  enacted  decrees  and  published  letters  in 
favour  of  its  development.  It  receives  contributions 
from  all  parts  of  the  Christian  world. 

Organization. — The  organization  is  extremely 
simple.  To  become  a  member  it  is  necessary  to  recite 
daily  a  prayer  for  the  missions,  and  contribute  at  least 
five  cents  monthly  to  the  general  fund.  As  the  society 
is  ordinarily  organized  in  the  parishes,  the  usual 
method  for  gathering  the  contributions  is  to  form  the 
associates  into  bands  of  ten,  of  whom  one  acts  as  a 
promoter.  These  offerings  are  turned  over  to  some 
local  or  diocesan  director  and  finally  forwarded  to  the 


general  committee.  Besides  the  ordinary  members, 
there  are  special  members  who  contribute  personally 
six  dollars  a  year,  and  perpetual  members  who  con- 
tribute at  one  time  a  sum  of  at  least  forty  dollars.  The 
official  organ  of  the  society  is  the  "Annals  of  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith",  the  firist  number  of  which 
appeared  in  France  in  1822.  At  present  350,000 
copies  of  that  publication  are  printed  hi-monthly  in 
French,  English,  German,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
Dutch,  PoUsh,  Flemish,  Basque,  Maltese,  and  the 
dialects  of  Brittany.  The  "Annals"  contains  letters 
from  missionaries,  news  of  the  missions,  and  reports  of 
all  money  received  and  apportioned  by  the  society. 
An  illustrated  magazine,  "Catholic  Missions",  is  also 
published  by  the  society  in  Italy,  France,  England, 
Germany,  Holland,  Spain,  Poland,  Hungary,  and  the 
United  States. 

Administration. — The  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Faith  takes  no  part  in  selecting  missionaries, 
appointing  them  to  their  field  of  work,  or  training 
them  for  it,  and  does  not  concern  itself  with  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  missions.  Its  aim  is  merely  to 
assist  missionaries  chosen,  trained,  and  sent  forth  by 
the  usual  authorities  of  the  Church.  The  society  is 
administered  by  two  central  councils,  each  composed 
of  twelve  clergymen  and  laymen  of  recognized  ability 
and  knowledge  of  business  affairs,  and  distinguished 
for  zeal  and  piety.  These  councils,  one  of  which  is  in 
Lyons  and  the  other  in  Paris,  are  self-recruiting,  and 
the  work  performed  by  their  members  is  entirely 
gratuitous.  They  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  mis- 
sions, serve  as  headquarters  for  the  distribution  of  the 
alms  received  from  the  delegates  of  the  society,  to 
whom  they  pass  successively  from  the  diocesan  and 
parochial  directors,  and  the  promoters  of  bands  of  ten. 
Every  year,  at  the  end  of  January,  the  offerings  of  the 
members  of  the  society  all  over  the  world  are  for- 
warded to  these  central  bureaux,  and  the  total  amount 
is  divided  among  all  the  missions  of  the  earth.  With 
conscientious  care  and  impartiality  the  reports  of  the 
superiors  of  the  missions,  bishops,  vicars  and  prefects 
Apostolic  are  studied  and  all  allotments  recom- 
mended, in  accordance  with  the  extent  and  necessities 
of  each  mission,  and  in  consideration  of  the  desires  of 
the  pope  and  the  data  furnished  by  the  Congregation 
of  the  Propaganda.  The  Lyons  Central  Council  first 
goes  over  this  work.  The  result  of  its  labours  is  re- 
vised by  the  Paris  Central  Council,  which,  with  close 
attention  and  solicitude,  approves,  augments,  or  re- 
duces the  sum  recommended  as  it  considers  necessary 
or  advisable.  Then  both  councils  agree  upon  the 
allotments  which  are  sent  to  each  mission.  It  is  a  law 
of  the  society  to  make  its  affairs  public,  and  each  year 
an  integral  account  of  all  money  received,  all  appro- 
priations made,  and  all  expenditures  is  published  in  the 
"Annals".  The  society  does  not  deal  in  investments 
and  has  no  permanent  fund.  At  the  beginning  of  each 
year  the  total  sum  collected  during  the  pa.st  year  is 
distributed,  and  the  missions  are  always  at  the  mercy 
of  the  faithful. 

Results  Obtained. — In  1822,  the  society  collected 
a  little  more  than  $4000.00.  The  sum  was  divided  in 
three  parts,  of  which  one  was  assigned  to  the  Eastern 
missions,  the  other  two  to  Louisiana  and  Kentucky. 
At  present  about  three  hundred  dioceses,  vicariates 
and  prefectures  Apostolic  receive  assistance  and  the 
total  amount  collected  up  to  1910,  inclusively,  is  $78,- 
846,872.51.  The  following  will  show  the  part  each 
country  has  taken  in  furnishing  this  sum.  and  in  what 
year  the  society  was  established  there: 
Society  established: — 

1822,  France $48,829,632.53 

1825,  Belgium 4,421,992.00 

1827,  Germany  and  Austria-Hun- 
gary      7,393,275.52 

1827,  Italy 5,814,294.95 

1827,  Switzeriand 970,494.03 


PROPERTY 


462 


PROPERTY 


1827,  Balkan  States $364,835.95 

1833,  Canada,  Mexico,  West  Indies.  .  1,384,418.59 

1837,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 2,593,644.88 

1837,  Holland 1,325,100.98 

1837,  Portugal 502,619.84 

1837,  Russia  and  Poland 72,353.50 

1S39,  Spain 866,570.50 

1840,  United  States 2,749,436.11 

1840,  South  America 1,029,972.39 

1843,  Oceanica 103,737.52 

1848,  Asia 88,140.14 

1857,  Africa 310,573.68 

Countries  not  mentioned 25,779.40 

$78,846,872.51 
The  foregoing  sum  has  been  distributed  as  follows: 

To  missions  in  America $10,747,397.45 

To  missions  in  Europe 11,066,975.88 

To  missions  in  Asia 32,061,680.43 

To  missions  in  Africa 11,552,228.26 

To  missions  in  Oceanica 7,309,152.81 

Special  donations,  transportation  of 
missionaries,  publications,  man- 
agement      6,109,437.68 

On  25  March,  1904,  Pius  X  addressed  an  encyclical 
letter  to  the  Catholic  world  recommending  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Faith  to  the  charity  of  all  the  faithful,  in 
which  he  says:  "If  the  messengers  of  the  Catholic 
doctrine  are  able  to  reach  out  to  the  most  distant 
lands,  and  the  most  barbarous  peoples,  it  is  to  the 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  that  credit 
must  be  given.  Through  that  Society  salvation  began 
for  numberless  peoples  ,  through  it  there  has 

been  gathered  a  harvest  of  souls  .  .  .  ."  In  1S84,  His 
Eminence  Cardinal  Gibbons,  writing  to  the  directors 
of  the  society  in  the  name  of  the  American  hierarchy 
assembled  at  Baltimore  for  the  third  national  Council, 
said:  "If  the  grain  of  mustard  seed  planted  in  the 
virgin  soil  of  America  has  struck  deep  roots  and  grown 
into  a  gigantic  tree,  with  branches  stretching  from  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  to  the  coasts  of  the 
Pacific,  it  is  mainly  to  the  assistance  rendered  by 
your  admirable  Society  that  we  are  indebted  for  this 
blessing." 

Annates  de  la  Propagation  de  la  Foi  (82  vols.,  Lyons,  1822- 
1910),  passim;  Les  missions  catholiques  (42  vols.,  Lyons,  1867- 
1910),  passim;  GuASCO,  UcEuvre  de  la  Propagation  de  la  Foi  (Paris, 
1904) ;  Freri,  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  and  the 
Catholic  Missions  (Baltimore,  1902) ;  Idem,  The  Missionary  Work 
of  the  Church  (New  York,  1906);  Idem,  Fads  and  Figures  (New 
York,  1908);  Biographic  de  M.  Didier  Petit  de  Mcurville  (Lyons, 
1873)  •    Maurin,  Pauline  Marie  Jaricot  (New  York,  1906) . 

Joseph  Freri. 

Property. — I.  Notion  of  Propertt. — The  pro- 
prietor or  owner  of  a  thing,  in  the  current  acceptation 
of  the  word,  is  the  person  who  enjoys  the  full  right 
to  dispose  of  it  in  so  far  as  is  not  forbidden  by  law. 
The  thing  or  object  of  this  right  of  disposal  is  called 
property,  and  the  right  of  disposal  itself,  ownership. 
Talien  in  its  strict  sense,  this  definition  applies  to 
absolute  ownership  only.  As  long  as  the  absolute 
owner  does  not  exceed  the  hmits  set  by  law,  he  may 
dispose  of  his  property  in  any  manner  whatsoever ; 
he  may  use  it,  alienate  it,  lease  it  etc.  But  there  is 
also  a  qualified  ownership.  It  may  happen  that 
several  persons  have  different  rights  to  the  same  thing, 
one  subordinate  to  the  other :  one  has  the  right  to  the 
substance,  another  to  its  use,  a  third  to  its  usufruct, 
etc.  Of  all  these  persons  he  alone  is  called  the  pro- 
prietor who  has  the  highest  right,  viz.,  the  right  to 
the  substance;  the  others,  whose  rights  are  subor- 
dinate, are  not  called  proprietors.  The  tenant,  for 
example,  is  not  said  to  be  the  proprietor  of  the  land 
he  tills,  nor  the  lessee  proprietor  of  the  house  in  which 
he  dwells;  for  though  both  have  the  right  of  use  or 
usufruct,  they  have  not  the  highest  right,  namely  the 
right  to  the  substance.     There  are  two  reasons  why 


he  to  whom  the  substance  of  a  thing  belongs  is  called 
its  proprietor:  first,  because  the  right  to  the  substance 
is  the  highest  right;  secondly,  because  this  right  nat- 
urally tends  to  grow  into  absolute  ownership.  The 
tenant,  for  instance,  enjoys  the  usufruct  of  a  thing 
only  through  a  cause  which  hes  outside  the  thing  itself, 
i.  e.  through  a  contract.  If  this  cause  is  removed, 
then  he  loses  his  right,  and  the  thing  reverts  to  him 
to  whom  the  substance  belongs.  The  right  to  the 
substance  necessarily  implies  the  absolute  right  of  dis- 
posal as  soon  as  any  accidental,  external  limitations 
are  removed.  This  is  probably  the  reason  why  law- 
makers, when  establishing  the  definition  of  property, 
take  into  consideration  only  absolute  ownership. 
Thus  the  French  civil  code  (544)  defines  ownership 
as  "the  right  to  make  use  and  dispose  of  a  corporeal 
thing  absolutely  provided  it  be  not  forbidden  by  law 
or  statute";  the  code  of  the  German  Empire  (903) 
says:  "The  proprietor  of  a  thing  may  use  it  as  he 
likes  and  exclude  from  it  all  outside  interference,  as 
long  as  the  law  or  the  rights  of  others  are  not  violated" 
and  in  Blackstone  (Comm.  I,  138)  we  read  that  the 
right  of  property  "consists  in  the  free  use,  enjoy- 
ment and  disposal  of  all  acquisitions,  without  any 
control  or  diminution,  save  only  by  the  laws  of  the 
land" 

The  statement  has  been  made  that  the  Roman  law 
set  up  a  definition  of  property  which  is  absolute  and 
excludes  all  legal  restrictions.  This  is  not  correct. 
The  Roman  jurists  were  too  vividly  conscious  of  the 
principle  Solus  publica  suprema  lex  to  exempt  private 
property  from  all  legal  restrictions.  No  clearer  proof 
is  needed  than  the  numerous  easements  to  which  the 
Roman  law  subjected  property  (cf.  Puchta,  "Kursus 
der  Institutionen",  II,  1842,  551  sqq.).  Precisely 
in  order  to  exclude  this  erroneous  conception,  the 
Roman  jurists,  following  the  example  of  Bartolus, 
generally  define  perfect  ownership  as  the  right  to 
dispose  perfectly  of  a  material  thing  in  so  far  as  is 
not  forbidden  by  law  (Jus  perfecte  disponendi  de  re 
corporali  nisi  lege  prohibeatur) .  Again,  man  is  es- 
sentially a  social  being.  Consequently,  all  rights 
granted  him  are  subject  to  the  necessary  restrictions 
which  are  demanded  by  the  common  welfare  and  more 
accurately  determined  by  law.  This  right  of  dis- 
posal which  the  civil  power  exercises  over  property 
has  been  called  dominium  altum,  but  the  term  is 
misleading  and  should  be  avoided.  Ownership  gives 
to  a  person  the  right  to  dispose  of  a  thing  for  his 
private  interests  as  he  sees  fit.  The  Government 
has  no  right  to  dispose  of  the  property  of  its  subjects 
for  its  private  interests,  but  only  as  far  as  the  common 
weal  requires. 

II.  Classes  of  Property. — If  the  holder  of  the 
right  of  ownership  is  considered,  property  is  either 
individual  or  collective,  according  as  the  owner  is  an 
individual  (a  physical  person)  or  a  community  (a 
moral  person).  Individual  property  is  also  called 
private  property.  Again,  collective  property  differs 
as  the  community.  Those  estates  are  not  collective 
property  which  have  for  ever  been  set  aside  for  a 
fixed  purpose  and  are,  by  a  sort  of  fiction,  considered 
as  a  person  {persona  juridica,  field),  for  example, 
endo\\Tnents  for  pious  purposes  or  for  the  public 
benefit:  hospitals  orphanages  etc.  For  the  actual 
administrators  or  usufructuaries  are  not  to  be  regarded 
as  proprietors  of  the  endowment.  Furthermore, 
property  may  be  either  public  or  private.  Public 
property  is  the  property  of  a  public  community, 
namely,  the  State  and  the  Church.  Everything 
else  is  private  property.  However,  the  distinction 
between  private  and  public  property  arises  not  only 
from  difference  in  ownership,  but  also  from  difference 
in  purpose.  Public  property  is  intended  to  serve 
the  interests  of  the  community  at  large;  private 
property,  the  interests  of  a  limited  circle.  Family 
property  is  private  property,   even  if  it  belongs  to 


PROPERTY 


463 


PROPERTY 


the  family  as  a  whole.  Not  all  collective  property 
is  public  property.  The  property  of  a  community 
remains  private  as  long  as  that  community  is  able 
to  exclude  outsiders  from  participating  in  its  enjoy- 
ment. But  when  a  community  can  no  longer  pre- 
vent outsiders  from  settling  down  in  its  midst  and, 
like  the  rest,  sharing  in  its  property,  that  property 
ceases  to  be  private.  If  we  consider  the  object 
of  ownership,  property  may  be  movable  or  immovable. 
Immovable  property  consists  in  land  (real  estate),  and 
in  everything  so  attached  to  the  land  that,  as  a  rule,  it 
cannot  be  transferred  from  one  place  to  another  with- 
out undergoing  a  change  in  its  nature.  AH  the  rest 
is  movable  property.  Lastly,  the  purpose  distin- 
guishes property  into  goods  of  consumption  and  goods 
of  production,  according  as  the  goods  are  directly 
intended  either  for  production,  i.  e.  for  producing 
new  goods,  or  for  consumption. 

III.  Possession  differs  essentially  from  property. 
At  times,  possession  denotes  the  thing  possessed,  but 
generally  it  means  the  state  of  possessing  something. 
He  possesses  a  thing  who  has  actual  control  over  it 
and  intends  to  keep  it.  Possession  may  be  unjust, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  thief  who  has  knowingly  taken 
the  property  of  another.  Since  such  possession  is 
manifestly  unjust,  it  gives  the  possessor  no  right 
whatever.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  happen  that 
one  is  bona  fide  possessor  of  another's  property. 
Such  possession  implies  certain  rights.  It  is  incum- 
bent on  the  owner  to  prove  that  the  thing  does  not 
belong  to  the  possessor.  If  he  is  unable  to  furnish 
this  evidence,  the  law  protects  the  actual  possessor 
of  the  thing  under  dispute.  The  basic  reason  why 
possession  must  not  be  neglected  when  ownership 
is  disputed  is  that  under  normal  conditions  posses- 
sion is  the  result  of  ownership.  For,  generally 
speaking,  the  possessor  is  the  owner  of  a  thing.  This 
being  the  normal  state  of  affairs,  the  law  favours  the 
presumption  that  the  actual  possessor  is  also  the 
legal  possessor  and  consequently  holds  that  nobody 
has  the  right  to  evict  him  unless  the  illegality  be 
proved.  He  who  seeks  to  overturn  existing  conditions 
as  being  unjust  must  bear  the  burden  of  proof. 
Should  this  principle  be  denied,  the  security  of  prop- 
erty would  be  greatly  endangered. 

IV.  Opponents  of  Private  Pkoperty. — The  pres- 
ent order  of  society  is  largely  based  on  the  private 
property  of  individuals,  families,  and  communities. 
Now  there  are  many  communists  and  socialists  who 
condemn  this  kind  of  ownership  as  unjust  and  in- 
jurious, and  who  aim  at  abolishing  either  all  private 
property  or  at  least  the  private  ownership  of  produc- 
tive goods,  which  they  wish  to  replace  by  a  com- 
munity of  goods.  Their  intention  may  be  good, 
but  it  proceeds  from  a  total  misunderstanding  of 
human  nature  as  it  is,  and,  if  carried  out,  would  re- 
sult in  disastrous  failure  (cf.  Communism  and 
Socialism).  The  so-called  agrarian  socialists,  among 
whom  must  be  numbered  the  single-taxists,  do  not 
propose  to  abolish  private  ownership  of  all  productive 
goods,  but  maintain  only  that  the  land  with  the  nat- 
ural bounties  which  it  holds  out  to  mankind  es- 
sentially belongs  to  the  whole  nation.  As  a  logical 
conclusion  they  propose  that  ground  rent  be  confis- 
cated for  the  community.  This  theory,  too,  starts 
from  false  premises  and  arrives  at  conclusions  which 
are  impracticable.     (See  Agearianism.) 

V.  Insufficient  Justification  of  Private  Prop- 
erty.— Outside  the  communistic  and  socialistic 
circles  all  concede  that  private  property  is  justified; 
but  in  regard  to  its  foundation  opinions  differ  widely. 
Some  derive  the  justice  of  private  property  from 
personality  (personality  theory).  They  look  upon 
private  property  as  a  necessary  supplement  and  ex- 
pansion of  personality.  Thus  H.  Ahrens  ("Natur- 
recht",  6th  ed.,  1871,  §68)  thinks  that  the  "in- 
dividuality of  every  human  mind,  in  choosing  and 


attaining  its  ends,  requires  property,  i.  e.  the  free 
contract  and  disposal  of  holdings,  whereby  the  entire 
personality  is  brought  into  action.  Similar  views 
are  held  by  Bluntschli,  Stable,  and  others.  This 
theory  admits  of  a  correct  explanation,  but  is  in 
itself  too  indefinite  and  vague.  If  it  is  understood 
to  mean  only  that,  as  a  rule,  private  property  is 
necessary  for  the  free  development  of  the  human 
personality  and  for  the  accomplishment  of  its  tasks, 
then  it  is  correct,  as  will  appear  in  the  course  of  our 
discussion.  But  if  these  theorists  remain  within  the 
pure  notion  of  personality,  then  they  cannot  derive 
from  it  the  necessity  of  private  property,  at  least  of 
productive  goods  or  land.  At  most  they  might  prove 
that  everybody  is  entitled  to  the  necessary  means  of 
subsistence.  But  this  is  possible  without  private 
property  strictly  so  called.  Those  who  are  either 
voluntarily  or  involuntarily  poor  and  live  at  the  ex- 
pense of  others  possess  no  property  and  yet  do  not 
cease  to  be  persons.  Though  the  children  of  a  family 
are  without  property  during  the  lifetime  of  their 
parents,  still  they  are  true  persons.  Others  derive 
private  property  from  a  primitive  contract,  express 
or  tacit  (contract  theory),  as  Grotius  (De  jure 
belli  et  pacis,  II,  c.  2,  §  2),  Pufendorf,  and  others. 
This  theory  is  founded  on  the  supposition,  which  has 
never  been  and  never  can  be  proved,  that  such  a 
contract  ever  has  or  must  have  taken  place.  And 
even  supposing  the  contract  was  actually  made, 
what  obliges  us  to-day  to  abide  by  it?  To  this  ques- 
tion the  theory  is  unable  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer. 

Others  again  derive  the  justice  of  private  property 
from  the  laws  of  the  State  (legal  theory).  The  first 
to  advance  this  hypothesis  was  Hobbes  (Leviathan, 
c.  2).  He  considers  the  laws  of  the  State  as  the  foun- 
tain-head of  all  the  rights  which  the  subjects  have, 
and  consequently  also  as  the  source  of  private  owner- 
ship. The  same  view  is  taken  by  Montes- 
quieu, Trendelenburg,  Wagner,  and  others,  as  far 
as  ownership  is  concerned.  Kant  (Rechtslehre, 
p.  1,  §§  8,  9)  grants  indeed  a  provisory  proprietorship 
in  the  condition  of  nature  prior  to  the  formation  of 
the  State;  but  definite  and  peremptory  ownership 
arises  only  through  the  civil  laws  and  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  coercive  power  of  Government.  Most 
of  the  partisans  of  this  theory,  like  Hobbes,  proceed 
from  the  wrong  supposition  that  there  is  no  natural 
right  properly  so  called,  but  that  every  genuine  right 
is  a  concession  of  the  civil  power.  Besides,  their 
appreciation  of  actual  facts  is  superficial.  It  is  true 
that  the  laws  everywhere  protect  private  property. 
But  why?  A  fact,  like  private  property,  which  we 
meet  in  one  form  or  another  with  all  nations,  ancient 
or  modern,  cannot  have  its  last  and  true  reason  in  the 
civil  laws  which  vary  with  time  and  clime.  A  uni- 
versal, constant  effect  supposes  a  universal,  constant 
cause,  and  the  civil  laws  cannot  be  this  cause.  If 
they  were  the  onlj'  basis  of  private  property,  then  we 
might  abolish  it  by  a  new  law  and  introduce  commu- 
nism. But  this  is  impossible.  Just  as  the  individual 
and  the  family  existed  prior  to  the  State,  so  the  rights 
necessary  for  both,  to  which  belongs  the  right  of 
property,  existed  prior  to  the  State.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  State  to  bring  these  rights  into  harmony  with 
the  interests  of  the  community  at  large  and  to  watch 
over  them,  but  it  does  not  create  them. 

John  Locke  saw  the  real  foundation  of  private  prop- 
erty in  the  right  which  every  man  has  to  the  prod- 
ucts of  his  labour  (labour  theory).  This  theory  was 
loudly  applauded  by  the  political  economists,  es- 
pecially by  Adam  Smith,  Ricardo,  Say,  and  others. 
But  it  is  untenable.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
labour  is  a  powerful  factor  in  the  acquisition  of 
property,  but  the  right  to  the  products  of  one's 
labour  cannot  be  the  ultimate  source  and  basis  of  the 
right  of  property.  The  labourer  can  call  the  product  of 
his  work  his  own  only  when  the  material  on  which  he 


PROPERTY 


464 


PROPERTY 


works  is  his  property,  and  then  the  question  arises 
how  he  came  to  be  the  owner  of  the  material.  Sup- 
pose, for  instance,  that  a  number  of  workmen  have 
been  engaged  to  cultivate  a  vineyard;  after  the  work 
is  done,  they  may  indeed  claim  their  wages,  but  the 
products  of  their  labour,  the  grapes  and  the  wine, 
do  not  belong  to  them,  but  to  the  owner  of  the  vine- 
yard. Then  the  further  question  may  be  asked: 
How  did  the  owner  of  the  vineyard  acquire  his  prop- 
erty? The  final  answer  cannot  be  the  right  to  the 
product  of  his  labour.  There  were  some  who  asserted 
that  the  Roman  law  derived  private  property  solely 
from  the  right  of  first  occupation  (jiis  primi  occupan- 
tis),  as  for  instance  Wagner  (Grundlegung  1,  c. 
§102).  But  they  confound  two  things.  Though 
the  Roman  jurists  regarded  occupation  the  original 
title  of  acquisition,  they  supposed  as  self-evident  the 
right  of  private  property  and  the  right  to  acquire  it. 

VI.  The  Docteine  of  the  Catholic  Church. — 
The  Catholic  Church  has  always  regarded  private 
property  as  justified,  even  though  there  may  have 
existed  personal  abuses.  Far  from  abolishing  the 
commandments  of  the  Old  Law  (Thou  shalt  not  steal; 
thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbour's  house,  nor  any- 
thing that  is  his)  Christ  inculcated  them  anew  (Matt., 
xix,  18-19;  Mark,  x,  19;  Rom.,  xiii,  9).  And  though 
the  Catholic  Church,  following  in  the  footsteps  of  her 
Founder,  has  always  recommended  voluntary  poverty 
as  an  evangelical  counsel,  yet  she  has  at  the  same 
time  asserted  the  justice  and,  as  a  rule,  the  necessity 
of  private  property  and  rejected  the  contrary  theories 
of  the  Circumcellions,  Waldenses,  Anabaptists  etc. 
Moreover,  theologians  and  canonists  have  at  all  times 
taught  that  private  ownership  is  just.  Leo  XIII, 
especially  in  several  encyclicals,  strongly  insisted  on 
the  necessity  and  justice  of  private  ownership. 
Thus  the  encyclical  "Rerum  novarum"  expressly 
condemns  as  unjust  and  pernicious  the  design  of  the 
socialists  to  abolish  private  property.  The  right  of 
acquiring  private  property  has  been  granted  by  na- 
ture, and  consequently  he  who  would  seek  a  solution 
of  the  social  question  must  start  with  the  principle 
that  private  property  is  to  be  preserved  inviolate 
iprivata^  possessiones  inviolate  servandas).  And  Pius 
X,  in  his  Motu  Proprio  of  IS  Dec,  1903,  laid  down  the 
following  two  principles  for  the  guidance  of  all  Catho- 
lics: (1)  "Unlike  the  beast,  man  has  on  earth  not 
only  the  right  of  use,  but  a  permanent  right  of  owner- 
ship; and  this  is  true  not  only  of  those  things  which 
are  consumed  in  their  use,  but  also  of  those  which 
are  not  consumed  by  their  use";  (2)  " Private  prop- 
erty is  under  all  circumstances,  be  it  the  fruit  of 
labour  or  acquired  by  conveyance  or  donation,  a 
natural  right,  and  everybody  may  make  such  reasonable 
disposal  of  it  as  he  thinks  fit." 

VII.  Economic  Theory  Based  on  the  Natural 
Law. — The  doctrine  of  the  Church  as  here  explained 
points  out  the  right  way  to  a  philosophical  justifica- 
tion of  private  property.  It  is  derived  from  the  nat- 
ural law,  since  the  present  order  in  general  demands 
it  for  the  individual  as  well  as  for  the  family  and  the 
community  at  large;  hence  it  is  a  postulate  of  reason 
and  everyboily  receives  by  nature  the  right  to  acquire 
private  property.  This  justification  of  private  prop- 
erty, which  is  outlined  by  Aristotle  (Polit.,  2,  c.  2), 
may  be  called  the  "economical  theory  based  on  the 
natural  law"  The  necessity  of  private  ownership 
arises  partly  from  the  external  conditions  of  life 
under  which  the  human  race  actually  exists,  partly 
and  especially  from  human  nature  as  we  know  it  by 
experience,  with  all  its  needs  and  faculties,  inclina- 
tions both  good  and  bad,  which  the  average  man  re- 
veals at  all  times  and  in  all  places.  This  theory  does 
not  assert  that  there  should  be  nothing  else  than 
private  property,  much  less  that  there  should  be 
pri\-ute  property  of  individuals  only.  Families,  pri- 
vate corporations,  communities,  and  states,  as  well 


as  the  Church,  may  own  property.  Its  distribution 
is  not  something  settled  by  nature  uniformly  and 
immutably  for  all  times  and  circumstances,  but  full 
play  is  given  to  human  liberty-.  Generally  speaking, 
what  is  necessary  is  that  private  property  should 
also  exist.  The  boundaries  between  private  and 
public  property  may  vary  from  age  to  age;  but,  as 
a  rule,  private  ownership  becomes  the  more  necessary 
and  the  more  prevalent  the  farther  the  civilization 
of  a  people  progresses. 

In  order  to  gain  a  clear  insight  into  the  basis  of 
property,  we  must  carefully  distinguish  three  things: 
(1)  The  institution  of  private  property,  i.  e.  the 
.  ctual  existence  of  private  property  with  all  its  es- 
sential rights.  In  general,  it  is  necessary  that  pri- 
vate property  should  exist,  at  least  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, or,  in  other  words,  the  natural  law  demands  the 
existence  of  private  property.  From  the  necessity 
of  private  property  follows  immediately  (2)  every 
man's  right  to  acquire  property.  The  institution 
of  private  property  supposes  this  right ;  for  the  former 
cannot  rightly  exist  unless  everybody  has  the  right 
to  acquire  private  property.  Nature,  or  rather  the 
Author  of  nature,  requires  the  institution  of  private 
property;  hence  He  must  also  will  the  means  necessary 
for  it,  namely,  the  right  of  everyone  to  acquire  private 
property.  'This  right  refers  to  no  object  in  particular; 
it  is  merely  the  general  capacity  of  acquiring  property 
by  licit  means,  just  as  one  may  say  that  owing  to  the 
freedom  of  trade  everybody  has  the  right  to  engage 
in  any  legitimate  business.  The  right  to  acquire 
property  belongs  to  every  man  from  the  first  moment 
of  his  existence;  even  the  child  of  the  poorest  beggar 
has  this  right.  (3)  From  the  right  of  acquisition 
arises  the  right  of  owning  a  certain  concrete  object 
through  the  medium  of  some  fact.  Nobody,  basing 
his  claim  on  his  existence  alone,  can  say:  this  field 
or  this  house  is  mine.  God  did  not  distribute  im- 
mediately the  goods  of  this  earth  among  men.  He 
left  this  distribution  to  man's  activity  and  to  his- 
torical development.  But  since  private  property 
and  consequently  the  acquisition  of  a  definite  object 
by  a  definite  person  is  necessary,  there  must  also  be 
some  facts  on  which  such  acquisition  may  be  based. 
Among  these  facts  the  first  in  time  and  by  nature 
is  simple  occupation.  Originally  the  goods  of  this 
earth  were  without  a  definite  owner,  i.  e.  there  was 
nobody  who  could  call  them  his  exclusive  property. 
But  since  they  had  been  given  to  man  and  since 
everybody  had  the  right  of  acquiring  property,  the 
first  men  could  take  as  much  of  these  goods  by  simple 
occupation  as  seemed  useful  to  them.  Later  genera- 
tions, too,  could  make  their  own  such  goods  as  were 
still  without  a  master.  As  time  went  on  and  the 
earth  was  populated,  its  goods  passed  more  and  more 
into  the  hands  of  individuals,  families,  or  whole 
tribes.  Now  in  order  to  acquire  or  occupy  something, 
the  mere  will  to  possess  it  as  private  property  is  not 
sufficient;  the  object  must,  by  some  exterior  fact, 
be  brought  under  our  control  and  must  be  perma- 
nently marked  as  our  own.  These  marks  may  be  of 
various  kinds  and  depend  on  custom,  agreement  etc. 

Philosophical  Explanation. — We  shall  prove  first 
of  all  that,  generally  speaking,  the  institution  of 
private  property  is  necessary  for  human  society  and 
that  it  is  consequently  a  postulate  of  the  natural 
law;  this  established,  it  follows  at  once  that  the  right 
of  acquiring  property  is  a  natural  right.  The  first 
reason  for  the  necessity  of  private  property  is  the 
moral  impossibility  of  any  other  disposition  of  prop- 
erty. If  all  goods  remained  without  a  master  and 
were  common  to  all,  so  that  anybody  might  dispose 
of  them  as  he  saw  fit,  then  peace  and  order  would  be 
impossible  and  there  would  be  no  sufficient  incentive 
to  work.  Who  indeed  would  care  to  cultivate  a 
field  or  build  a  house,  if  everybody  else  were  allowed 
to  harvest  the  crop  or  occupy  the  building?     Con- 


PROPERTY 


465 


PROPERTY 


sequently,  the  right  of  ownership  must  rest  either 
wholly  with  communities,  as  the  communists  and 
socialists  maintain,  or  with  private  persons.  It  is 
impossible  to  reduce  the  doctrines  of  communism  and 
socialism  to  practice.  All  attempts  hitherto  made 
have  ended  in  failure.  Of  longest  duration  were  the 
experiments  of  some  sects  which  were  founded  on  a 
religious  basis.  But  it  is  manifest  that  communities 
based  on  religious  fanaticism  cannot  become  the 
general  rule.  History,  too,  testifies  to  the  necessity 
of  private  property.  An  institution  which  meets  us 
everywhere  and  at  all  times  with  only  a  few  negligible 
exceptions,  which  develops  more  and  more  among 
the  nations  as  their  civilization  ad\'ances,  which  has 
always  been  recognized  and  protected  as  just  cannot  be 
an  arbitrary  invention,  but  must  be  the  necessary 
outcome  of  the  tendencies  and  needs  of  human 
nature.  For  a  universal  and  permanent  phenomenon 
supposes  a  universal  and  permanent  cause,  and  this 
cause  in  the  present  question  can  only  be  human 
nature  with  its  wants  and  inclinations,  which  remain 
essentially  the  same.  Besides,  only  private  property 
is  a  sufficient  stimulus  for  man  to  work.  The  earth 
does  not  furnish  the  products  and  fruits  which  man 
needs  for  the  sustenance  and  development  of  soul 
and  body,  except  at  the  expense  of  hard,  continued 
labour.  Now  men  will  not  undertake  this  labour  un- 
less they  have  a  guarantee  that  they  can  freely  dis- 
pose of  its  fruits  for  their  own  benefit  and  can  exclude 
all  others  from  their  enjoyment.  This  argument, 
however,  does  not  bind  us  to  the  labour  theory  re- 
futed above.  This  theory  maintains  that  each  one 
can  call  his  property  all  that  and  only  that  which 
is  the  product  of  his  labour.  This  is  wrong.  The 
correct  theory  on  the  other  hand  says,  if  man  had  not 
the  right  to  acquire  private  property,  the  necessary 
stimulus  to  work  would  be  wanting;  and  the  fruit 
of  labour  in  this  theory  signifies  private  property  in 
the  widest  sense,  for  instance,  wages. 

Private  ownership  alone  is  able  to  harmonize  order 
and  freedom  in  the  social  life.  If  no  one  could  ex- 
clude others  from  using  his  property,  order  would 
be  impossible.  Nobody  could  lay  down  in  advance  a 
plan  of  his  life  and  activity,  or  procure  in  advance 
the  means  and  the  material  for  his  livelihood.  If 
on  the  other  hand  productive  goods  were  the  property 
of  the  community  and  subject  to  its  administration, 
liberty  would  be  impossible.  Man  is  not  really  free 
unless  he  can,  at  least  to  a  certain  degree,  dispose 
of  external  goods  at  will,  not  only  of  goods  of  con- 
sumption but  also  of  productive  goods.  The  largest 
portion  of  human  activity,  directly  or  indirectly, 
aims  at  procuring  external,  useful  goods;  without 
private  property,  all  would  lapse  into  abject  depend- 
ence on  the  community,  which  would  be  obliged  to 
assign  to  each  man  his  office  and  his  share  of  the  work. 
But  with  private  property,  both  freedom  and  order 
can  exist  as  far  as  the  imperfection  of  all  human  con- 
ditions allows  it.  This  is  proved  by  history  and  by 
daily  experience.  Thus  also  the  peace  of  society  is 
best  guaranteed.  True  it  is  that  in  spite  of  private 
property  many  disputes  arise  about  "mine  and  thine." 
But  these  are  settled  by  the  law  courts  and  do  not 
disturb  the  essential  order  of  society.  In  any  other 
disposition  of  property  among  free  men,  the  disputes 
would  be  far  more  numerous  and  violent,  and  this 
would  necessarily  lead  to  quarrels  and  feuds.  Just 
as  for  the  individual,  so  private  property  is  necessary 
for  the  family.  The  family  cannot  exist  as  an  in- 
dependent organizm  unless  it  can  freely  manage  its 
internal  affairs,  and  unless  the  parents  have  to  pro- 
vide for  the  maintenance  and  education  of  their  chil- 
dren, and  this  without  any  external  interference. 
All  this  demands  property,  the  exclusive  use  of  a 
dwelling,  food,  clothes,  and  other  things,  which  fre- 
quently must  be  procured  in  advance  so  that  a  well- 
regulated  and  secure  family  life  may  be  made  possible. 
XII.— 30 


Like  the  individual,  the  family,  when  deprived  of  all 
property,  easily  falls  into  a  vagabond  life  or  becomes 
wholly  dependent  on  the  will  of  others.  The  duty 
to  care  for  the  preservation  and  education  of  the 
family  urges  the  father  and  mother  to  work  unceas- 
ingly, while  the  consciousness  that  they  are  respon- 
sible for  their  children  before  God  and  men  is  a  power- 
ful stay  and  support  of  their  moral  lives.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  consciousness  of  the  children  that 
they  are  wholly  dependent  on  their  parents  for  their 
maintenance  and  start  in  life  is  a  very  important  ele- 
ment in  their  education.  The  socialists  are  quite 
logical  in  seeking  to  transfer  not  only  the  possession 
of  productive  goods,  but  also  the  care  of  the  education 
of  children  to  the  community  at  large.  But  it  is  ob- 
vious that  such  a  scheme  would  end  in  the  total  de- 
struction of  the  family,  and  hence  that  socialism  is 
an  enemy  of  all  genuine  civilization. 

Private  property  is  also  indispensable  for  human 
society  in  general.  Progress  in  civilization  is  possible 
only  when  many  co-operate  in  large  and  far-reaching 
enterprises;  but  this  co-operation  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion unless  there  are  many  who  possess  more  than  ia 
required  for  their  ample  maintenance  and  at  the  same 
time  have  an  interest  in  devoting  the  surplus  to  such 
enterprises.  Private  interest  and  public  welfare  here 
meet  each  other  half  way.  Private  owners,  if  they 
consult  their  own  interest,  will  use  their  property  for 
public  enterprises  because  these  alone  are  perma- 
nently paying  investments.  The  advances  and  dis- 
coveries of  the  last  century  would  not  have  been 
accomplished,  at  least  the  greater  part  of  them,  with- 
out private  property.  If  we  but  recall  the  extensive 
net-work  of  railroads,  steamship  lines,  telegraphs, 
and  telephones,  which  is  spread  around  the  world,  the 
gigantic  tunnels  and  canals,  the  progress  made  in 
electricity,  aerial  navigation,  aviation,  automobiles 
etc.,  we  must  confess  that  private  property  is  a 
powerful  and  necessary  factor  in  civilization.  Not 
only  economic  conditions,  but  also  the  higher  fields 
of  culture  are  bettered  by  the  existence  of  wealthy 
proprietors.  Though  they  themselves  do  not  become 
artists  and  scholars,  still  they  are  indirectly  the  oc- 
casion for  the  progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Only 
the  rich  can  order  works  of  art  on  a  large  scale,  only 
they  have  the  means  that  frequently  are  necessary 
for  the  education  of  artists  and  scholars.  On  the 
other  hand,  poverty  and  want  are  the  reason  why 
many  become  eminent  artists  and  scholars.  Theit 
advance  in  life  and  their  social  position  depend  on 
their  education.  How  many  brilliant  geniuses 
would  have  been  crippled  at  their  birth  if  fortune  had 
granted  them  every  comfort.  Lastly,  we  must  not 
overlook  the  moral  importance  of  private  property. 
It  urges  man  to  labour,  to  save,  to  be  orderly,  and 
affords  both  rich  and  poor  frequent  opportunity 
for  the  exercise  of  virtue. 

Though  private  property  is  a  necessity,  still  the  use 
of  earthly  goods  should  in  a  manner  be  general,  as 
Aristotle  intimated  (Polit.,  1.  2,  c.  5)  and  as  Chris- 
tian philosophy  has  proved  in  detail  (St.  Thomas, 
"Summa"  II-II,  Q.  Ixvi,  a.  2;  Leo  XIII's  encycl., 
"De  conditione  opificum").  This  end  is  obtained 
when  the  rich  not  only  observe  the  laws  of  justice, 
by  not  taking  unjust  advantage,  but  also,  out  of 
charity  and  liberality,  share  their  abundance  with  the 
needy.  Earthly  goods  are  meant  to  be,  in  a  certain 
manner,  useful  to  all  men,  since  they  have  been  created 
for  all  men,  and  consequently  the  rich  are  strictly 
obliged  to  share  their  superfluities  with  the  poor. 
True  Christian  charity  will  even  go  beyond  this 
strict  obligation.  A  wide  and  fertile  field  is  thus 
opened  up  to  its  activity,  through  the  existence  of 
poverty.  For  the  poor  themselves,  poverty  is  a 
hard,  but  beneficial,  school  of  trust  in  God,  humility, 
renunciation.  It  is  of  course  self-evident  that  pov- 
erty should  not  degenerate  into  wretchedness,  which 


PROPERTY 


466 


PROPERTY 


is  no  less  an  abundant  source  of  moral  dangers  than 
is  excessive  wealth.  It  is  the  function  of  a  wise 
Government  so  to  direct  the  laws  and  administration 
that  a  moderate  well-being  may  be  shared  by  as  many 
as  possible.  The  civil  power  cannot  reach  this  end 
by  taking  away  from  the  rich  in  order  to  give  to  the 
poor,  for  "this  would  be  at  bottom  a  denial  of  private 
property";  but  by  regulating  the  titles  of  income  in 
strict  accordance  with  the  demands  of  public  welfare. 
Thus  far  we  have  spoken  of  the  necessity  of  private 
property  and  the  right  to  acquire  it.  It  remains  only 
to  discuss  the  title  of  acquisition  by  which  one  be- 
comes the  proprietor  of  a  certain  concrete  thing: 
a  piece  of  land,  a  house,  a,  tool  etc.  As  explained 
above,  the  primitive  title  is  occupation.  The  first 
who  took  possession  of  a  piece  of  land  became  its 
proprietor.  After  a  whole  country  has  thus  been 
turned  into  property,  occupation  loses  its  significance 
as  conferring  a  title  to  real  estate.  But  for  movable 
goods  it  still  remains  important.  It  is  sufficient 
to  recall  fishing  and  hunting  on  unclaimed  ground, 
searching  and  digging  for  gold  or  diamonds  in  re- 
gions which  have  not  yet  passed  over  into  private 
ownership.  Many  regard  labour  as  the  primitive 
title  of  acquisition,  that  is,  labour  which  is  different 
from  mere  occupation.  But  in  this  they  are  wrong. 
If  one  works  at  an  object,  then  the  product  belongs 
to  him  only  when  he  is  proprietor  of  the  object,  the 
material;  if  not,  then  the  product  belongs  to  another, 
though  the  workman  has  the  right  to  demand  hia 
reward  in  money  or  other  goods.  Now  the  question 
again  recurs:  How  did  this  other  man  obtain  pos- 
session of  these  goods?  Finally  we  shall  arrive  at  a 
primitive  title  different  from  labour,  and  this  is  oc- 
cupation. Besides  occupation  there  are  other  titles 
of  acquisition,  which  are  called  subordinate  or  de- 
rived titles,  as,  for  instance,  accession,  fructification, 
conveyance  by  various  kinds  of  contracts,  prescrip- 
tion, and  especially  the  right  of  inheritance.  By  oc- 
cupation an  ownerless  thing  passes  into  the  possession 
of  a  person,  by  accession  it  is  extended,  by  the  other 
derivative  titles  it  passes  from  one  possessor  to  an- 
other. Though  all  the  titles  mentioned,  with  the 
exception  of  prescription,  are  valid  by  the  law  of 
nature,  and  hence  cannot  be  abolished  by  human  laws, 
still  they  are  not  precisely  and  universally  applied  by 
natural  law.  To  define  them  in  individual  cases  in 
accordance  with  the  demands  of  the  public  weal  and 
with  due  regard  to  all  concrete  circumstances  is  the 
task  of  legislation. 

St.  Thomas,  Summa,  II-II,  Q.  Ixvi. ;  Soto,  De  justitia  et  jure; 
DE  Lugo,  De  justitia  et  jure,  disp.  6;  Meyer,  Institutiones  juris 
naluralis,  II  (1900),  no.  129  sqq.;  ScHlFFlNI.  Disputationes 
philosophise  moralis,  II,  no.  309  sqq. ;  Pesch,  Lehrbuch  der  Na~ 
iionaldkonomie,  I  (1905),  179  sqq.;  Wagner,  Lehr-u.  Handbuch 
der  polit.  Oekonomie,  1;  Grundlegutig ,  II;  Abl.  (1901),  181  sqq.; 
Vermeersch,  QucEstiones  de  justitia  (1901),  187  sqq. ;  Garhiguet, 
Reoime  de  la  propriete  (1907) ;  Walter,  Das  Eigentum  nach  der 
Lehre  des  hi.  Thomas  von  Aquin  u.  der  Sozialismus  (1895) ; 
Schaub,  Die  Eigentumdehre  nach  Thomas  von  Aquin  u.  dem 
7nod<rnen  ,Sozinli.^mus  (1898);  Castelein,  Le  Socialisme  et  le 
droit  de  propriete;  Willems,  Philosophia  moralis  (1908),  295  sqq. ; 
Stammler.  Eigentum  u.  Besitz  in  Handbuch  der  Staatswissen- 
schaften;  Berolzheimer,  System  der  Rechls  u.  Wirtschaftsphi- 
losophie,  IV;  Philosophic  des  Vermogens  (1907),  38  sqq.;  Cath- 
REIN,  Moralphilosophie,  II  (5th  ed.,  19li),  1.  2;  Devas, 
Political  Economy  (London,  1901) ;  Rickaby,  Moral  Philos- 
ophy (London,  1910) ;  Kerby,  Pru^ate  Property  as  it  is  in  Catho- 
lic Warll,  XCII  (New  York,  1911),  577;  Idem,  The  Indictment 
of  Private  Property,  ibid.,  XCIII,  30;  Ryan,  Henry  George  and 
Private  Property,  ibid.,  XCIII,  2S9;  Idem,  The  Ethired  Argu- 
ments of  Henr'j  Georqe  against  Private  Onmership  of  Lnnd,  ibid., 
XCIII,  483;  Cain,  Origin  of  Private  Property,  ibid.,  XLVII, 
54."i;  Idem,  Ownership  of  Private  Property,  ibid.,  XLV„  433; 
Dillon,  Riohls  and  Duties  of  Property  in  our  Legal  and  Social 
Systems,  XXIX  (St.  Louis,  1S95),  161;  Bryce,  Studies  in  His- 
tory and  Jurisprudence  (London,   1901). 

V.  Cathbein. 

Property  Ecclesiastical.— .15s/roc<  Right  of 
Ownership. — That  the  Church  has  the  right  to  acquire 
and  possess  temporal  goods  is  a  proposition  which 
may  now  probably  be  considered  an  established 
principle.     But  though  almost  self-evident  and  uni- 


versally acted  upon  in  practice,  this  truth  has  met 
with  many  contradictors.  Scandalized  by  frequent 
examples  of  greed,  or  misled  by  an  impossible  ideal 
of  a  clergy  entirely  spiritualized  and  raised  above 
human  needs,  Arnold  of  Brescia,  the  Waldenses,  then 
somewhat  later  Marsilius  of  Padua,  and  finally  the 
Wycliffites,  formulated  various  extreme  views  re- 
garding the  lack  of  temporal  resources  which  befitted 
ministers  of  the  Gospel.  Under  John  XXII  the  doc- 
trine of  Marsilius  and  his  forerunners  had  provoked 
the  two  Decrees  "Cum  inter  nonnullos"  (13  Nov., 
1323)  and  "Licet  juxta  doctrinam"  (23  Oct.,  1323) 
by  which  it  was  affirmed  that  our  Lord  and  His 
Apostles  held  true  ownership  in  the  temporal  things 
which  they  possessed,  and  that  the  goods  of  the 
Church  were  not  rightfully  at  the  disposition  of  the 
emperor  (see  Denzinger-Bannwart,  nn.  494-5) .  Some- 
what less  than  a  century  later  the  errors  of  Wyclif 
and  Hus  were  condemned  at  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance (Denzinger-Bannwart,  nn.  586,  598,  612, 684-6, 
etc.)  and  it  was  equivalently  defined  that  ecclesias- 
tical persons  might  without  sin  hold  temporal  pos- 
sessions, that  the  civil  authorities  had  no  right  to 
appropriate  ecclesiastical  property,  and  that  if  they 
did  so  they  might  be  punished  as  guilty  of  sacrilege. 
In  later  times  these  positions  have  been  still  more 
explicitly  reaffirmed  and  in  particular  by  Pius  IX, 
who  in  the  Encyclical  "Quanta  cura''  (1864)  con- 
demned the  opinion  that  the  claims  advanced  by  the 
civil  Government  to  the  ownership  of  all  Church 
property  could  be  reconciled  with  the  principles  of 
sound  theology  and  the  canon  law  (Denzinger-Bann- 
wart, n.  1697,  and  the  appended  Syllabus,  props.  26 
and  27). 

But  apart  from  these  and  other  similar  pronounce- 
ments the  right  of  the  Church  to  the  complete  con- 
trol of  such  temporal  possessions  as  have  been  be- 
stowed upon  her  is  grounded  both  on  reason  and 
tradition.  In  the  first  place  the  Church  as  an  or- 
ganized and  visible  society,  performing  public  duties 
whether  of  worship  or  administration,  requires  ma- 
terial resources  for  the  orderly  discharge  of  these 
duties.  Neither  could  this  end  be  sufficiently  at- 
tained if  the  resources  were  entirely  precarious  or  if 
the  Church  were  hampered  in  her  use  of  them  by  the 
constant  interference  of  the  civil  authority.  In  the 
second  place  Old  Testament  analogy  (see,  e.  g.. 
Num.,  xviii,  8-25),  the  practice  of  the  Apostles 
(John,  xii,  6;  Acts,  iv,  34r-5)  with  certain  explicit 
utterances  of  St.  Paul,  for  example,  the  argument  in 
I  Cor.,  ix,  3  sq.,  and  finally  the  interpretation  of 
the  doctors  and  pastors  of  the  Church  at  all  periods, 
recognize  no  dependence  upon  the  State,  but  show 
plainly  that  the  principle  of  absolute  ownership 
and  free  administration  of  ecclesiastical  property  has 
always  been  maintained.  It  may  be  further  noted 
that  in  some  of  the  sternest  of  her  disciplinary  enact- 
ments the  Church  has  proved  that  she  takes  for 
granted  her  dominion  over  the  goods  bestowed  upon 
her  by  the  charity  of  the  faithful.  The  twelfth  canon 
of  the  QEcumenical  Council  of  Lyons  (1274)  pro- 
nounces excommunication  ipso  facto  against  those 
lay  persons  who  seize  and  detain  the  temporal  pos- 
sessions of  the  Church  (see  Friedberg,  "Corpus 
Juris",  II,  953  and  1059)  and  the  Council  of  Trent 
followed  suit  in  its  Sess.  XXII  (De  ref.,  C.  xi)  by 
launching  excommunications  latce  sentenlice  against 
those  who  usurped  many  different  kinds  of  ecclesias- 
tical property. 

Subject  of  Rights  of  Property. — But  while  the  ab- 
stract right  of  the  Church  and  her  representatives 
to  hold  property  is  clear  enough,  there  has  been  in 
past  ages  much  vagueness  and  diversity  of  view  as  to 
the  precise  subject  in  whom  this  riglit  was  vested 
The  idea  of  a  corporate  body,  as  that  of  an  organized 
group  of  men  (universiteis)  which  has  rights  and  duties 
other  than  the  rights  and  duties  of  all  or  any  of  its 


PROPERTY 


467 


PROPERTY 


members,  existed,  no  doubt,  at  least  obscurely  in  the 
early  centuries  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Before  the 
time  of  Justinian  it  was  pretty  clearly  apprehended 
that  the  members  of  such  a  group  formed  legally  but 
a  single  unit  and  might  be  regarded  as  a  "fictitious 
person",  though  this  conception  of  the  persona 
ficta,  dear  to  the  medieval  legists  and  perpetuated 
by  men  like  Savigny,  is  not  perhaps  quite  so  much  in 
vogue  among  modern  students  of  Roman  law  (cf. 
Gierke,  "Das  deutsche  Genossenschaftsrecht",  III, 
129-36).  It  was  at  any  rate  recognized  that  this 
"fictitious  person",  or  "group-person",  was  not 
subject  to  death  like  the  individuals  of  which  it  was 
composed,  and  on  the  other  hand  that  it  could  not 
be  called  into  existence  by  private  agreement.  It 
required  a  senatus  consultum  or  something  of  the  sort 
to  be  legally  constituted. 

These  well-understood  principles,  we  might  sup- 
pose, could  easily  have  been  invoked  to  regulate  the 
ownership  of  property  in  the  case  of  the  Christian 
communities  established  in  the  Roman  Empire,  but 
the  question  in  point  of  fact  was  complicated  by  a 
survival  of  the  ideas  which  attached  to  what  were 
called  res  sacroe  in  the  old  days  of  paganism.  This 
title  of  "sacred  things"  was  given  to  all  property  or 
utensils  consecrated  to  the  gods,  though  it  was  re- 
quired that  there  should  be  some  authoritative 
recognition  of  such  consecration.  As  res  sacrm  these 
things  were  regarded  as  in  a  sense  withdrawn  from 
the  exercise  of  ordinary  ownership,  and  formed 
a  category  apart.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  the 
gods  themselves  in  pagan  times  were  often  conceived 
of  as  the  owners.  This  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that 
while  it  was  ruled  that  the  gods,  i.  e.,  their  temples, 
could  not  inherit  at  law,  still  certain  deities  were  ex- 
phcitly  exempted  from  this  inhibition  and  were  allowed 
to  inherit  as  any  private  individual  inherited.  Such 
deities  were,  for  example,  Jupiter  Tarpeius  at  Rome, 
Apollo  Didymseus  of  Miletus,  Diana  of  the  Ephe- 
sians,  and  others  (Ulpian,  "Frag.",  22,  6).  In  similar 
wise  when  Christianity  became  the  established  faith 
of  the  empire,  "Jesus  Christ"  was  often  appointed 
heir,  and  Justinian  construed  such  an  appointment 
as  a  gift  to  the  Church  of  the  place  of  the  testator's 
domicile  (Codex  1,  2,  25).  The  same  principles  were 
followed  when  an  archangel  or  a  martyr  was  appointed 
heir,  and  this,  Justinian  tells  us,  was  sometimes 
done  by  educated  people.  The  gift  was  understood 
to  be  made  to  some  shrine  or  church  bearing  that 
dedication  which  the  circumstances  indicated,  and, 
failing  such  indication,  to  the  church  of  the  testator's 
domicile  (Cod.  1,  2,  25).  The  civil  power  in  any  case 
seems  to  have  assumed  a  certain  protective  control 
over  res  sacrce  probably  with  the  view  of  safeguarding 
their  inviolability.  "Sacred  things",  we  read,  "are 
things  that  have  been  duly,  that  is  by  the  priests 
{■pontifices) ,  consecrated  to  God — sacred  buildings, 
for  instance,  and  gifts  duly  dedicated  to  the  service 
of  God.  And  these  we  by  our  constitution  have  for- 
bidden to  be  alienated  or  burdened  (obligari)  except 
only  in  order  to  ransom  captives.  But  if  a  man  by 
his  own  authority  estabhsh  a  would-be  sacred  thing 
for  himself,  it  is  not  sacred,  but  profane.  A  place, 
however,  in  which  sacred  buildings  have  been  erected, 
even  if  the  buildings  be  pulled  down,  remains  still 
sacred,  as  Papinian  too  wrote"  (Institutes,  II,  i,  8). 
As  regards  ahenation,  however,  we  may  compare 
Cod.  1,  2,  21,  which  allowed  the  sale  of  church  prop- 
erty to  sustain  the  lives  of  men  during  a  famine, 
and  "Novel.",  cxx,  10,  permitting  the  sale,  in  case 
of  debt,  of  a  church's  superfluous  vessels  but  not  of 
its  immovables  or  things  really  necessary.  _ 

These  and  similar  provisions  have  been  invoked  to 
support  very  divergent  theories  as  to  the  ownership 
of  church  property  under  the  empire.  The  real  fact 
seems  to  be  that  among  the  jurists  of  the  early  cen- 
turies no  clear  conception  as  to  the  precise  subject  of 


these  rights  was  ever  adopted.  In  later  times  many 
canonists,  like  Phillips  and  Lammer,  have  maintained 
that  the  property  was  vested  in  the  Church  (ecclesia 
calhoLica)  as  a  whole.  Others  like  Seitz  and  Thomas- 
sinus  favour  a  supernatural  ownership  by  which  God 
Himself  was  regarded  as  the  true  proprietor.  To 
others  again,  and  notably  to  Savigny,  the  theory  has 
commended  itself  that  the  Church  held  property  as  a, 
community,  while  many  still  more  modern  authorities, 
with  Friedberg,  Sagmiiller,  and  Meurer,  defend  the 
view  that  each  separate  local  church  was  regarded  as 
an  institution  with  proprietary  rights  and  was  iden- 
tified, at  least  popularly,  with  its  patron  saint.  Ac- 
cording to  this  conception  the  saints  were  the  succes- 
sors of  the  pagan  gods,  and  whereas  previously  Jupiter 
Tarpeius,  or  Diana  of  the  Ephesians,  had  owned  land 
and  revenues  and  sacred  vessels,  so  now  under  the 
Christian  dispensation  St.  Michael  or  St.  Mary  or  St. 
Peter  were  regarded  as  the  proprietors  of  all  that  be- 
longed to  the  churches  that  were  respectively  dedi- 
cated to  them. 

No  doubt  this  view  obtains  some  apparent  support 
from  the  fact  that  almost  everywhere,  and  notably 
in  England,  at  the  dawn  of  the  Middle  Ages  we  find 
testators  bequeathing  property  to  saints.  In  the 
oldest  Kentish  charter  of  which  the  text  is  preserved 
the  newly-converted  Ethelbert  says:  "To  thee  St. 
Andrew,  and  to  thy  church  at  Rochester  where  Justus 
the  bishop  presides,  do  I  give  a  portion  of  my  land." 
Even  as  late  as  the  Domesday  inquisition  the  saint 
is  often  depicted  as  the  landowner.  "St.  Paul  holds 
land,  St.  Constantine  holds  land,  the  Count  of 
Mortain  holds  lands  of  St.  Petroc — the  church  of 
Worcester,  an  episcopal  church,  has  lands,  and  St. 
Mary  of  Worcester  holds  them'  (Pollock  and  Mait- 
land,  "Hist,  of  English  Law",  I,  501).  But  the  most 
recent  authorities,  and  amongst  others  Professor 
Maitland  himself  in  his  second  edition,  are  inclined 
to  regard  such  phrases  as  mere  popular  locutions,  a 
personification  which  must  not  be  pressed  as  if  it 
involved  any  serious  theory  as  to  the  ownership  of 
ecclesiastical  goods.  The  truth  seems  to  be,  as 
Knecht  has  shown  (System  des  Justinianischen 
Kirchenvermogensrechts,  pp.  5  sq.),  that  the  Chris- 
tian Church  was  a  unique  institution  which  it  was 
impossible  for  the  traditional  conceptions  of  Roman 
law  to  assimilate  successfully.  The  Church  had  in 
the  end  to  build  up  its  own  system  of  jurisprudence. 
In  the  meantime  the  rights  of  ecclesiastical  property 
were  protected  efficiently  enough  in  practice  and  the 
questions  of  legal  theory  did  not  occur,  or  at  any  rate 
did  not  press  for  a  solution. 

From  the  time  of  the  Edict  of  Milan,  issued  by 
Constantine  and  Lioinius  in  313,  we  hear  of  the 
restoration  of  the  property  of  Christians  "known  to 
belong  to  their  community,  that  is  to  say  their 
churches,  and  not  to  the  individuals "  ("ad  jus  corporis 
eorum,  id  est  ecclesiarum,  non  hominum  singulorum 
pertinentia" — Lactantius,  "De  morte  pers.",  xlviii), 
while  a  few  years  later  by  the  Edict  of  321  the  right 
of  bequeathing  property  by  will  "to  the  most  holy 
and  venerable  community  {concilio)  of  the  Catholic 
faith"  was  guaranteed.  Practically  speaking  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  this  Christian  "concilium", 
"collegium",  "corpus"  or  " conventiculum "  (the 
words  principally  used  to  indicate  the  body  of  true 
believers)  denoted  primarily  the  local  Christian  assem- 
blies represented  by  their  bishop  and  that  it  was  to 
the  bishop  that  the  administration  of  such  property 
was  committed.  What  stands  out  most  clearly  from 
the  enactments  of  the  time  of  Justinian  was  the 
recognition  of  the  right  of  individual  Churches  to 
hold  property.  Despite  the  recent  attempt  of  Bon- 
droit  (De  capacitate  possidendi  ecclesia?,  123-36)  to 
revive  the  old  conception  of  a  dominium  eminens 
vested  in  the  universal  Church  Catholic,  there  is  not 
much  evidence  to  show  that  such  a  view  was  current 


PROPERTY 


468 


PROPERTY 


among  the  jurists  of  that  age  though  it  undoubtedly 
grew  up  later  (see  Gierke,  "Genossenschaftsrecht", 
III,  8;.  ^o  far  as  property  went,  Justinian  busied 
himself  with  the  rights  of  particular  ^kkXt/o-^oi,  not 
with  those  of  the  general  ^KxXijo-ia,  but  at  the  same 
time  he  did  encourage  a  centralizing  tendency  which 
left  a  supreme  jurisdiction  in  the  bishop's  hands 
within  the  limits  of  the  civitas,  his  own  sphere  of 
authority. 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that,  with  the 
exception  of  the  monasteries  which  possessed  their 
goods  as  indep(>ndent  institutions,  though  even 
then  under  the  superintendence  of  the  bishop  (see 
authorities  inKnecht,  op.  cit.,  p.  .58),  the  whole  ecclesi- 
astical property  of  the  diocese  was  subject  to  the 
bishop's  control  and  at  his  disposal.  His  powers  were 
very  large,  and  his  subordinates,  the  diocesan  clergy, 
received  only  the  stipends  which  he  allowed  them, 
while  not  only  the  support  of  his  ecclesiastical  assist- 
ants, who  generally  shared  a  common  table  in  the 
bishop's  house,  but  also  the  sums  devoted  to  the  relief 
of  the  sick  and  the  poor,  to  the  ransom  of  captives,  as 
well  as  to  the  upkeep  and  repair  of  churches,  all  de- 
pended immediately  upon  him.  No  doubt  custom 
regulated  in  some  measure  the  distribution  of  the 
resources  available.  Popes  Simplicius  in  475,  Gelasius 
in  494  (Jafre-^\  attenbach,  "Regesta",  636),  and  Greg- 
ory the  Great  in  his  answer  to  Augustine  (Bede,  "Hist, 
eccl.",  I,  xx^-ii)  quote  as  traditional  the  rule  "that 
all  emoluments  that  accrue  are  to  be  divided  into  four 
portions — one  for  the  bishop  and  his  household  be- 
cause of  hospitality  and  entertainments,  another  for 
the  clergy,  a  third  for  the  poor,  and  a  fourth  for  the 
repair  of  churches",  and  then  texts  naturally  were 
incorporated  at  a  later  date  in  the  "Decretum"  of 
Gratian. 

Church  Property  in  the  Middle  Ages. — Centraliza- 
tion of  this  kind,  however,  leaving  ever3rthing,  as  it 
did,  in  the  bishop's  hands,  was  adapted  only  to 
peculiar  local  conditions  and  to  an  age  which  was  far 
advanced  in  commerce  and  orderly  government.  For 
the  sparsely  settled  and  barbarous  regions  occupied 
by  the  Teutonic  invaders  changes  would  sooner  or 
later  become  necessary.  But  at  first  the  Franks, 
Angles,  and  others,  who  accepted  Christianity  took 
over  the  system  already  existing  in  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. The  Council  of  Orleans  in  511  enacted  in  its 
fifteenth  decree  that  every  kind  of  contribution  or 
rent  offered  by  the  faithful  was  in  accordance  with  the 
ancient  canons  to  remain  entirely  at  the  disposition 
of  the  bishop,  though  of  the  gifts  actually  presented 
at  the  altar  he  was  to  receive  only  a  third  part.  So 
with  regard  to  the  Church's  right  of  ownership,  her 
freedom  to  receive  legacies  and  the  inviolability  of  her 
property,  the  pages  of  Gregory  of  Tours  bear  ample 
evidence  to  the  generosity  with  which  religion  was 
treated  during  the  early  Merovingian  period  (cf. 
Hauck,  "Kirriiengeschichte  Deutschlands " ,  I,  134-7) 
— so  much  so  that  Chilperio  (c.  580)  complained  that 
the  royal  treasury  was  exhausted  because  all  ■  the 
wealth  of  the  kingdom  had  been  transferred  to  the 
churches. 

Almost  everywhere  the  respect  due  to  the  rights  of 
the  clergy  was  put  in  the  foremost  place.  As  Mait- 
land  has  remarked  (Hist,  of  Eng.  Law,  I,  499), 
"God's  property  and  the  Church's,  twelvefold"  are 
the  first  written  words  of  English  law.  The  conscious- 
ness of  all  that  was  involved  in  this  code  of  King 
Ethelbert  of  Kent  (c.  610)  had  evidently  made  a  deep 
impression  upon  the  mind  of  Bede.  "Among  other 
benefits",  he  says,  "which  he  [Ethelbert]  conferred 
upon  the  nation,  he  also,  by  the  advice  of  wise  persons, 
introduced  judicial  decrees,  after  the  Roman  model, 
which,  being  written  in  English,  are  still  kept  and 
observed  by  them.  Among  which  he  in  the  first  place 
set  down  what  satisfaction  should  be  given  by  those 
who  should  steal  anything  belonging  to  the  Church, 


the  bishop  or  the  other  clergj',  resolving  to  give  pro- 
tection to  those  whose  doctrine  he  had  embraced" 
(Hist,  eccl.,  II,  5).  Even  more  explicit  is  the  fa- 
mous privilege  of  \\'ihtred.  King  of  Kent,  a  hundred 
years  later  (c.  696):  "I,  \A'ihtred,  an  earthly  king, 
stimulated  by  the  heavenly  King  and  kindled  with 
the  zeal  of  righteousness,  have  learned  from  the  insti- 
tutes of  our  forefathers  that  no  layman  ought  with 
right  to  appropriate  to  himself  a  church  or  any  of  the 
things  which  to  a  church  belong.  And  therefore 
strongly  and  faithfully  we  appoint  and  decree,  and 
in  the  name  of  Almighty  God  and  of  all  saints  we 
forbid  to  all  Kings  our  successors,  and  to  all  earldom, 
and  to  all  laymen,  e'^'er  any  lordship  over  churches, 
and  over  any  of  their  possessions  which  I  or  my  prede- 
cessors in  days  of  old  have  given  for  the  glory  of 
Christ,  and  our  lady  St.  Mary  and  the  holy  Apostles" 
(Hadden  and  Stubbs,  "Councils",  III,  244). 

This  touches  no  doubt  upon  a  difficulty  which  had 
just  begun  to  be  felt  and  which  for  many  centuries 
to  come  was  to  be  a  menace  to  the  religious  peace  and 
well  being  of  Christendom.  As  already  suggested, 
the  primitive  idea  of  a  single  church  in  each  civitas, 
governed  by  a  bishop,  who  was  assisted  by  presbi- 
terium  of  subordinate  clergy,  was  unworkable  in  rude 
and  sparselj'  populated  districts.  In  those  more 
northerly  regions  of  Europe  which  now  began  to 
embrace  Christianity,  village  churches  remote  from 
one  another  had  to  be  provided,  and  though  many 
no  doubt  were  founded  and  maintained  by  the  bishops 
themselves  (cf.  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  "La  monarchic 
franque",  517)  the  rehgious  centres,  which  became  the 
parishes  of  a  later  date,  developed  in  most  cases  out 
of  the  private  oratories  of  the  landowners  and  thegns. 
The  great  man  built  his  church  and  then  set  himself 
to  find  a  clerk  who  the  bishop  might  ordain  to  serve 
it.  It  was  not  altogether  surprising  if  he  looked  upon 
the  church  as  his  church  seeing  that  it  was  built  upon 
his  land.  But  the  bishop's  consent  was  also  needed. 
It  was  for  him  to  consecrate  the  altar  and  from  him 
that  the  ordination  of  the  destined  incumbent  had  to 
be  sought.  He  will  not  act  unless  a  sufficient  provision 
of  worldly  goods  is  secured  for  the  priest.  Here  we 
see  the  origin  of  patronage.  This  "advowson"  (advo- 
catio),  or  right  to  present  to  the  benefice,  is  in  origin 
an  ownership  of  the  soil  upon  which  the  church  stands 
and  an  ownership  of  the  land  or  goods  set  apart  for 
the  sustenance  of  the  priest  who  serves  it.  Obviously 
the  sense  of  proprietorship  engendered  by  this  relation 
was  very  dangerous  to  peace  and  to  ecclesiastical 
liberty.  Where  such  advowsons  rested  in  the  hands 
of  the  clergy  or  monastic  institutions,  there  was 
nothing  very  unseemly  in  the  idea  of  the  patron  "own- 
ing" the  church,  its  lands,  and  its  resources.  In  point 
of  fact  a  large  and  ever-increasing  number  of  parish 
churches  were  made  over  to  religious  houses.  The 
monks  provided  a  "vicar"  to  discharge  the  duties  of 
parish-priest,  but  absorbed  the  revenues  and  tithes, 
spending  them  no  doubt  for  the  most  part  in  works 
of  utility  and  charity.  But  while  the  idea  of  a  bishop 
of  Paderborn  for  example  presenting  a  parish  church 
to  a  monastery  "proprietario  jure  po.ssidendum",  "to 
be  held  in  absolute  ownership  ",  excites  no  protest,  the 
case  was  different  when  laymen  took  back  to  their 
own  use  the  revenues  which  their  fathers  had  allocated 
to  the  parish-priest,  or  when  kings  began  to  assert  a 
patronage  over  ancient  cathedrals,  or  again  when  the 
emperor  wanted  to  treat  the  Church  Catholic  as  a 
sort  of  fief  and  private  possession  of  his  own. 

In  any  case  it  is  plain  that  the  general  tendency  of 
the  parochial  movement,  more  especially  when  the 
churches  originated  in  the  private  oratories  of  the 
landowners,  was  to  take  much  of  the  control  of  church 
property  out  of  the  hands  of  the  bishops.  A  canon  of 
the  Third  Council  of  Toledo  (589),  re-enacted  sub- 
sequently elsewhere,  speaks  very  significantly  in  this 
connexion.    "There  are  many",  it  says,  "who  against 


PROPERTY 


469 


PROPERTY 


the  canonical  rule,  seek  to  get  their  own  churches  con- 
secrated upon  such  terms  as  to  withdraw  their  endow- 
ment {dotein)  from  the  bishop's  power  of  disposition. 
This  we  disapprove  in  the  past  and  for  the  future 
forbid"  (cf.  Chalons  in  INIansi,  X,  119).  On  the  other 
hand  many  ordinances,  for  example  that  of  the  Council 
of  Carpentras  in  .527  (JNIansi,  VIII,  707),  make  it 
quite  clear  that  while  the  bishop's  right  was  main- 
tained in  theory,  the  practicu;  prevailed  of  leaving  the 
offerings  of  the  faithful  to  the  church  in  which  they 
were  made  so  long  as  they  were  there  needed.  The 
payment  of  tithes,  which  seems  first  to  have  been  put 
forward  as  a  contribution  of  general  obligation  by 
certain  bishops  and  synods  in  the  sixth  century  (sec 
Selborne,  "Ancient  facts  and  fiction",  caj).  xi),  must 
have  told  in  the  same  direction.  It  seems  tolerably 
plain  that  this  collection  must  always  have  been  un- 
dertaken locally,  and  the  threefold  partition  of  tithes 
which  is  spoken  of  in  the  so-called  "Capitulare  epis- 
coporum"  and  which  reappears  in  the  "Egbertine 
Excerptions"  takes  no  account  of  any  bishop's  share. 
The  tithes  are  to  be  devoted  first  to  the  upkeep  of  the 
church,  secondly  to  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  of  pil- 
grims, and  thirdly  to  the  support  of  the  clergy  them- 
selves. Even  if,  according  to  the  celebrated  ordinance 
of  Charlemagne  in  778-9,  the  tithes  which  everyone 
was  bound  to  give  "were  to  be  dispensed  according 
to  the  bishop's  commandment",  local  custom  and 
tradition  were  everywhere  placing  checks  upon  any 
arbitrary  apportionment .  Usage  varied  considerably, 
but  in  almost  all  cases  the  resources  so  provided  seem 
to  have  been  expended  parochially  and  not  upon  the 
general  needs  of  the  diocese. 

It  was  in  the  ninth  century  particularly  that  not 
only  in  the  matter  of  tithes  but  in  the  revenues  of 
bishoprics  and  monasteries  a  general  apportionment 
began  to  be  arrived  at.  Both  bishop  and  abbot  had 
now  become  great  personages,  maintaining  a  certain 
state  which  could  not  be  kept  up  without  considerable 
expenditure.  The  common  expenses  of  the  diocese 
and  the  monastery  tended  more  and  more  to  become 
the  private  property  of  the  bishop  and  the  abbot. 
Disputes  naturally  arose,  and  before  long  there  came 
a  di\'ision  of  these  resources.  The  bishop  shared  the 
revenues  with  the  chapter  and  separate  establish- 
ments, or  menscE,  were  created.  Similarly  the  abbot 
lived  apart  from  his  monks  and  in  a  large  measure 
the  two  systems  became  mutually  independent. 
Naturally  in  the  case  of  cathedral  chapters  the  proc- 
ess of  division  went  further  and  although  the  chap- 
ters still  held  property  in  common  and  administered 
it  through  a  steward,  or  "oeconomus",  each  of  the 
canons  in  the  course  of  time  acquired  a  separate  preb- 
end, the  administration  of  which  was  left  entirely 
in  his  hands.  The  same  freedom  was  gradually  con- 
ceded to  parish-priests  and  other  members  of  the 
clergy,  once  they  had  duly  been  put  in  possession  of 
their  benefices.  To  all  intents  and  purposes  it  might 
be  said  that  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  the  parish- 
priest,  whether  rector  or  vicar,  had  succeeded,  so  far 
as  concerned  the  limits  of  his  own  jurisdiction,  to 
the  administrative  duties  formerly  exercised  by  the 
bishop. 

Still  the  old  idea  that  all  church  property  was  "the 
patrimony  of  the  poor"  was  not  lost  sight  of.  In 
theory  always,  and  most  commonly  in  practice,  the 
rector  collected  the  revenues  of  his  benefice,  his 
tithes  and  other  dues  and  offerings  in  trust  for  the 
poor  of  the  parish,  reserving  only  what  was  necessary 
for  his  own  reasonable  support  and  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  church  and  its  services.  In  England 
there  was  a  general  and  well-understood  rule  that  the 
rector  of  the  parish  kept  the  chancel  of  the  church  in 
repair,  while  the  parishioners  were  bound  to  see  that 
the  nave  and  the  rest  of  the  fabric  was  maintained 
in  proper  condition  (see  Bishop  Quivil's  "Exeter 
Decrees",   cap.   ix;    Wilkins,   "Concilia",   II,   138). 


The  long-protracted  process  of  division  and  adjust- 
ment which  led  up  to  the  comparatively  stable  and 
well-defined  ownership  of  church  property  in  the 
later  Middle  Ages  was  also,  as  might  be  expected, 
fertile  in  abuses.  The  impropriation  of  tithes  by  the 
monasteries  set  an  example  which  unscrupulous  and 
powerful  laymen  were  not  slow  to  follow,  with  more 
or  less  pretence  of  respecting  the  forms  of  law.  Great 
landowners  assuming  patronal  rights  over  the  monas- 
teries situated  within  their  domains  named  them- 
selves or  other  secular  persons  to  be  abbots  and  seized 
the  revenues  which  the  abbot  separately  enjoyed, 
while  the  patrons,  or  (ulmcali,  of  individual  parish 
churches  were  continually  attempting  to  make 
simoniacal  compacts  with  those  whom  they  proposed 
to  present  to  such  benefices.  But  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  from  the  eleventh  century  onwards  the 
more  centralized  government  of  the  Church,  as  well 
as  the  marked  progress  made  in  the  study  of  canon 
law,  did  much  to  check  these  abuses  even  during  the 
worst  times  of  the  Great  Schism. 

Acquisition. — Turning  from  early  history  to  ques- 
tions of  principle  we  find  it  laid  down  by  the  canonists 
that  as  regards  the  acquisition  of  property  the  Church 
stands  on  the  same  footing  as  any  corporation  or  any 
private  individual.  There  is  nothing  in  the  nature 
of  things  to  prevent  her  from  receiving  legacies  or 
gifts  either  of  movable  or  immovable  goods,  and  she 
may  also  allow  her  possessions  to  grow  by  invest- 
ments, by  occupation,  by  prescription,  or  by  the 
emoluments  resulting  from  any  legitimate  form  of 
contract.  Indeed  if  the  civil  power  interferes  sub- 
stantially with  the  freedom  of  collecting  alms  and 
receiving  donations  the  rights  of  the  Church  are 
thereby  invaded.  The  laws  which  were  enacted  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  both  in 
England  and  in  France  to  check  the  passing  of  prop- 
erty into  "mortmain"  were  for  this  reason  always 
regarded  as  wrong  in  principle,  though  the  loss  oc- 
casioned to  the  feudal  lord  by  the  cessation  of  reliefs, 
escheats,  wardships,  marriages,  etc.,  when  the  land 
was  made  over  to  ecclesiastical  uses  could  not  be 
denied.  No  doubt  this  legislation  of  the  civil  power 
was  in  practice  acquiesced  in  while  licenses  to  ac- 
quire land  in  mortmain  were  obtainable  without  great 
difficulty  upon  adequate  compensation  being  made 
(this  was  known  in  France  as  the  droit  d' amortisation, 
see  VioUet,  "Institutions  politiques",  II,  398-413), 
but  the  restrictions  thus  imposed  were  never  accepted 
in  principle.  Such  papal  pronouncements  as  the 
"Clericis  laicos"  of  Boniface  VIII  claimed  that  the 
Church  possessed  the  right  to  acquire  property  by 
the  donations  of  the  faithful  independently  of  any 
interference  on  the  part  of  the  State  and  that  if 
compensation  was  made  it  should  be  done  through 
the  free  action  of  the  Holy  See,  in  whom  the  dominion 
of  all  church  goods  ultimately  rested,  acting  in  willing 
response  to  any  reasonable  representations  that  might 
be  addressed  to  it. 

Later  on  and  especially  since  the  Reformation  in 
countries  where  no  state  provision  or  endowment 
exists  for  the  maintenance  of  the  clergy,  custom, 
generally  endorsed  by  the  enactments  of  provincial 
synods  and  the  sanction  of  the  Holy  See,  has  intro- 
duced besides  certain  traditional  jura,  or  rights,  for 
spiritual  services  various  exceptional  methods  of 
adding  to  the  slender  resources  of  the  missions  or 
stations:  Such  are  for  example  bench-rents  or 
charges  for  more  advantageous  seats,  collections, 
charity  sermons,  and  out-door  collections  made  from 
house  to  house.  At  the  same  time  the  dangers  of 
abuse  in  this  direction  are  jealously  watched.  It  is 
particularly  insisted  upon  that  there  should  be  a  suf- 
ficiency of  free  seats  to  allow  the  poor  readily  to  dis- 
charge the  obligation  of  attending  Sunday  Mass. 
The  bishops  are  charged  to  see  that  bazaars  and  en- 
tertainments got  up  for  church  purposes  are  not  an 


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470 


PROPERTY 


occasion  of  scandal.  In  particular  any  refusal  of  the 
sacraments  to  the  sick  and  dying  on  the  ground  of  a 
neglect  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  mission 
is  severely  condemned.  So  also  are  certain  unseemly 
methods  of  soliciting  alms,  as  for  example  when  the 
priest  quits  the  altar  during  the  celebration  of  Mass 
to  go  round  the  church  to  make  the  collection  himself 
or  when  promises  of  Masses  and  other  spiritual 
favours  in  return  for  contributions  are  conspicuously 
made  in  the  advertisement  sheets  of  public  journals 
or  when  the  names  of  particular  singers  are  placarded 
as  soloists  in  the  music  performed  at  liturgical  func- 
tions (cf.  Laurentius,  "Juris  eccles.  inst.",  640).  In  the 
past  certain  definite  forms  of  alms  were  recognized  as 
the  ordinary  sources  through  which  the  possessions  of 
the  Church  were  acquired.  A  word  may  be  said 
upon  some  of  the  more  noteworthy  of  these. 

(1)  Firslfruits. — The  offering  of  firstfruits  which 
we  meet  in  the  Old  Testament  (Ex.,  xxiii,  16; 
xxxiv,  22;  Deut.,  xxvi,  1-11)  seems  to  have  been 
taken  over  as  a  traditional  means  of  contributing  to 
the  support  of  the  pastors  of  the  Church  by  the  early 
Christians.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  "Didache", 
the  "Didasoalia",  "Apostolic  Constitutions",  etc., 
but  though  for  a  while  it  was  customary  to  make  some 
similar  contributions  in  kind  at  the  Offertory  of  the 
Mass  (a  late  mention  may  be  found  in  the  Council 
of  Trullo  in  Mansi,  "  Concilia",  XI,  956)  still  the  prac- 
tice gradually  fell  into  disuse  or  took  some  other 
form,  e.  g.  that  of  tithes,  more  particularly  perhaps 
the  "small  tithes",  sometimes  known  as  "altalage" 

(2)  Tithes. — This  also  was  an  Old-Testament  or- 
dinance (see  Deut.,  xiv,  22-7)  which  many  believe  to 
have  been  identical  in  origin  with  firstfruits.  Like 
the  latter  due,  tithes  were  probably  taken  over  by 
the  early  Christian  Church  at  least  in  some  districts, 
e.  g.  Syria.  They  are  mentioned  in  the  "Didascalia" 
and  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions",  but  there  is 
very  little  to  show  that  the  payment  was  at  first  re- 
garded as  of  strict  obligation.  Still  less  can  we  be 
certain  that  there  was  continuity  between  the  usage 
referred  to  in  the  Eastern  Church  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury and  the  institution  which,  as  already  mentioned 
above,  we  find  described  by  the  Council  of  Macon  in 
585.     (See  Tithes.) 

(3)  Dues,  rather  ill-defined  and  still  imper- 
fectly understood,  which  were  known  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  as  "church-shot".  We  meet  them  first  in  the 
laws  of  King  Ine  in  693,  but  they  continued  through- 
out all  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  and  later.  This  is 
commonly  considered  to  have  been  a  contribution 
not  paid  according  to  the  wealth  and  quality  of  the 
person  paying  it,  but  according  to  the  value  of  the 
house  in  which  he  was  living  in  the  winter  and  iden- 
tical with  the  see  dues  (catheiJraiicum)  of  a  later  age 
(see  Kemble,  "Saxons  in  England",  II,  .5.59  sq.). 
Other  dues  equally  difficult  to  identify  with  exact- 
ness were  the  "light-shot"  and  the  "soul-shot" 
Thus  we  find  among  the  canons  passed  at  Eynsham  in 
1009  such  an  ordinance  as  the  following:  "  Let  God's 
rights  be  paid  every  year  duly  and  carefully,  i.  e. 
plough-alms  15  nights  after  Easter,  tithe  of  young  by 
Pentecost  and  of  all  fruits  of  the  earth  by  All  Hallows 
Mass  (Nov.  1).  And  the  Rome-fee  by  Peter's  Mass 
(Aug.  1).  And  the  Church-shot  at  St.  Martins  Mass 
(Nov.  11)  and  light-shot  thrice  a  year,  and  it  is  most 
just  that  the  men  pay  the  soul-shot  at  the  open 
grave." 

(4)  Funrrnl  Dues. — The  la.st-mentioned  contri- 
bution of  "soul-.shot",  the  precise  signification  of 
which  is  imperfectly  understood,  is  typical  of  a  form 
of  offering  which  at  many  different  epochs  has  been  a 
recognized  source  of  income  to  the  Church.  Even 
if  we  look  upon  the  pavments  to  certain  clerks  pre- 
scribed by  Justinian  (Novel.,  lix)  as  a  fee  for  a  ma- 
terial service  rendered,  rather  than  an  offering  to  the 
Church,  still  from  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Braga 


(can.  xxi  in  Mansi,  IX,  779)  in  563,  such  money  con- 
tributions though  quite  voluntary  were  constantly 
made  in  connexion  with  funerals.  In  medieval  Eng- 
land the  mortuary  in  the  case  of  a  person  of  knightly 
dignity  commonly  took  the  form  of  his  war-horse 
with  all  its  trappings.  The  horse  was  led  up  the 
church  at  the  Offertory  and  presented  at  the  altar 
rails.  No  doubt  it  was  afterwards  sold  or  redeemed 
for  a  money  payment. 

(5)  Ordination  Dues  and  other  Offerings  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Sacraments. — Just  as  it  is  recognized 
that  Mass  stipends,  supposing  the  conditions  to  be 
observed  which  custom  and  ecclesiastical  authority 
prescribe,  may  be  accepted  without  simony,  so  at 
almost  all  periods  of  the  Church's  history  offerings 
have  been  made  in  connexion  with  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments.  One  of  the  commonest  of  these 
was  the  payment  made  to  a  bishop  by  the  newly- 
ordained  at  the  time  of  ordination.  Though  in  the 
end  prohibited  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXI, 
de  ref.,  cap.  i),  such  offerings  had  been  customary 
from  quite  early  ages.  In  some  localities  a  payment 
was  made  at  the  time  of  the  annual  confession,  but  the 
dangers  of  abuse  in  this  case  were  obvious  and  many 
synods  condemned  the  practice.  Less  difficulty  was 
felt  in  the  case  of  baptism  and  matrimony  and  the 
exaction  of  such  dues  from  those  who  can  afford  it 
may  almost  be  described  as  general  in  the  Church. 

(6)  Investments  and  Landed  Property. — But  the 
most  substantial  source  of  revenue,  and  one  that  in 
view  of  the  precarious  nature  of  all  other  offerings 
may  be  considered  as  necessary  to  the  Church's 
well-being,  is  land,  or  in  more  modern  times  invest- 
ments bearing  interest.  Even  before  the  toleration 
edict  of  Milan  (313),  it  is  clear  from  the  restitu- 
tion there  spoken  of  that  the  Church  must  have 
owned  considerable  landed  possessions,  and  from  that 
time  forward  donations  and  legacies  of  property 
yielding  annual  revenues  naturally  multiplied.  As 
already  pointed  out,  the  Church's  right  to  receive 
such  donations  whether  by  will  or  inter  vives  was  re- 
peatedly acknowledged  and  confirmed.  In  medieval 
England  it  was  usual  by  way  of  symbolical  investiture, 
by  which  possession  was  given  to  the  Church,  to  lay 
some  material  object  upon  the  altar,  for  example  a 
book,  or  parchment  deed,  or  a  ring,  or  most  frequently 
of  all  a  knife.  This  knife  was  often  broken  by 
the  donor  before  it  was  laid  upon  the  altar  (see 
Reichel,  "Church  and  Church  Endowments"  in 
"Transactions  of  the  Devonshire  Association", 
XXXIX,  1907,  377-81). 

The  modern  exponents  of  the  canon  law,  basing 
their  teaching  on  the  pronouncements  of  the  Holy 
See  and  the  decrees  of  provincial  synods,  lay  great 
stress  upon  the  principle  that  the  offerings  of  the 
faithful  are  to  be  expended  according  to  the  intention 
of  the  donors.  They  also  insist  that  where  that  in- 
tention is  not  clearly  made  known  certain  reasonable 
presumptions  must  be  followed;  for  example  in  mis- 
sionary centres  where  a  church  has  not  yet  been 
built  and  organized  donations  are  presumed  to  be 
made  in  view  of  the  ultimate  erection  of  such  a  church. 
So  again  money  given  at  the  Offertory  in  any  quasi- 
parochial  church,  or  collected  by  the  faithful  from 
house  to  house  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  personal 
gift  to  the  priest  in  charge  but  as  intended  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  mission.  Certain  difficult  questions 
which  arise  with  regard  to  such  contributions  of  the 
faithful  in  places  where  parochial  duties  are  under- 
taken by  the  religious  orders  are  legislated  for  in  the 
Constitution  "Romanos  pontifices"  (q.  v.)  of  Leo 
XIII,  8  May,  1881. 

Fowi.dalions. — By  these  are  understood  a  transfer- 
ence of  property  to  the  Church  or  to  some  particular 
ecclesiastical  institut  e  in  view  of  some  service  pr  work  to 
be  done  either  perpetually  or  for  a  long  time.  They  are 
not  valid  until  they  are  formally'  accepted,  and  for 


PROPERTY 


471 


PROPERTY 


that  purpose  they  have  to  be  approved  by  the  bishops 
and  for  all  institutions  under  their  jurisdiction.  It  is 
for  the  bishop  to  decide  whether  the  endowment  is 
sufficient  for  the  charge,  but  the  foundation  once  made, 
especially  when  the  interests  of  a  third  party  are 
involved,  the  conditions  cannot  ordinarily  be  changed, 
at  least  without  appeal  to  the  Holy  See.  In  particular 
where  a  charge  of  Masses  to  be  said  has  been  accepted, 
and  the  foundation  no  longer  meets  that  charge,  ap- 
plication must  be  made  to  the  Holy  See  before  the 
number  can  be  reduced. 

Alienation. — That  the  Church  herself  has  the 
right  to  alienate  ecclesiastical  property  follows  as  a 
consequence  of  the  complete  ownership  by  which  she 
holds  it,  and  for  the  same  reason  in  the  exercise  of  this 
right  she  is  entirely  independent  of  the  civil  authority. 
Still  as  the  Church  is  only  a  persona  moralis,  she  is  in 
the  position  of  a  minor,  and  disposes  of  her  property 
through  her  prelates  and  administrators.  No  one  of 
these,  not  even  the  pope,  has  the  power  to  alienate 
ecclesiastical  property  validly,  without  some  pro- 
portionate reason  (Wernz,  "Jus  Decret.",  Ill,  i,  179). 
Further,  the  alienation,  which  in  accordance  with  num- 
berless decrees  and  canons  of  synods  (see  the  second 
part  of  the  Decret.,  C.  xii,  q.  2,  canons  20,  41,  52)  is 
thus  forbidden,  comprehends  not  only  the  transfer- 
ence of  the  ownership  of  church  goods  but  also  all 
proceedings  by  which  the  property  is  burdened,  e.  g., 
by  mortgages,  or  lessened  in  value  or  exposed  to  the 
risk  of  loss,  or  by  which  its  revenues  are  for  any  nota- 
ble time  diverted  from  their  proper  uses.  It  is  to 
this  inalienability  of  all  the  possessions  of  the  Church, 
which  like  the  "hand  of  a  dead  man"  never  loosens 
its  grip  of  what  it  once  has  clutched,  that  the  prej- 
udice already  referred  to  against  property  held  in 
"mortmain"  grew  up  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Still  the  prohibition  of  alienation  is  not  absolute. 
It  is  prohibited  only  when  done  without  just  reason 
and  without  the  requisite  formalities.  As  "just 
reasons"  the  canonists  recognize:  (1)  urgent  neces- 
sity, for  example,  when  a  church  is  in  debt  and  has 
no  other  means  of  raising  the  money  needed;  (2) 
manifest  utility,  such  as  may  occur  when  an  oppor- 
tunity presents  itself  of  acquiring  a  much-desired 
piece  of  land  on  exceptionally  advantageous  terms; 

(3)  piety,  c.  g.,  if  church  goods  are  sold  to  ransom 
captives  or  to  feed  the  starving  poor;  and  (4)  con- 
venience, as  in  the  case  when  the  upkeep  of  certain 
possessions  involves  more  trouble  than  they  are  worth. 
Besides  a  just  reason,  there  is  required,  for  the  alien- 
ation of  immovable  goods  (such  as  lands,  houses,  stock 
and  other  titles  and  rent-bearing  investments)  and 
movable  goods  of  value,  the  observance  of  certain 
formalities.  We  may  enumerate :  (1)  the  preliminary 
discussion  (tractalus),  e.  g.,  between  the  bishop  and 
the  chapter;  (2)  the  consent  of  the  bishop  in  those 
matters  in  which  it  is  required;  (3)  a  formal  mandate 
for  the  act  of  alienation  issued  by  competent  authority, 
e.  g.,  the  vicar-general  if  he  is  empowered  to  do  this; 

(4)  the  formal  consent  of  interested  parties  and  in 
many  cases  of  the  cathedral  chapter. 

Finally  the  important  constitution  "  Ambitiosse"  of 
Paul  II,  confirmed  by  Urban  VIII,  7  Sept.,  1624,  and 
by  Pius  IX  in  the  Constitution  "Apostohcae  Sedis", 
12  Oct.,  1869,  requires  under  penalty  of  excommunica- 
tion the  consent  of  the  Holy  See  for  the  alienation  of 
immovable  property  of  great  value.  At  one  time  it 
was  contended  that  the  Constitution  "Ambitiosae" 
had  fallen  into  desuetude,  but  most  canonists  hold 
that  in  the  face  of  the  "Apostohcffi  Sedis"  this  cannot 
now  be  maintained  (see  e.  g.,  Wernz,  III,  n.  165, 
Siigmiiller,  879).  Still  the  requirements  of  the  "Am- 
bitiosse" are  much  mitigated  in  practice  by  the 
faculties  commonly  conceded  to  bishops  by  the  Holy 
See  for  ten  years  at  a  time  to  authorize  the  alienation 
of  church  property  up  to  a  not  inconsiderable  amount. 
In  the  United  States  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of 


Baltimore  (1884)  laid  down  that  all  acts  of  alienation 
or  any  equivalent  disposition  of  property  involving  a 
sum  greater  than  $5000  required  papal  permission, 
the  consent  of  the  diocesan  consultors  having  been 
previously  obtained.  But,  as  the  Plenary  Council  of 
Latin-America  in  1899  (n.  870)  also  points  out,  "much 
depends  on  circumstances  of  time  and  place  in  deciding 
what  ought  to  be  regarded  as  property  of  small  value 
[valor  exiguus],  hence  in  this  matter  a  decision  to  meet 
the  case  ought  to  be  obtained  by  each  country  sepa- 
rately from  the  Apostolic  See." 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  all  forms  of 
hypothecation  or  the  raising  of  money  upon  the 
security  of  church  property  must  be  regarded  as  sub- 
ject to  the  same  conditions  as  alienation.  In  cap.  iii, 
X,  de  pign.  iii,  21,  the  "Corpus  Juris"  has  preserved 
a  decretal  of  Alexander  III  addressed  to  the  Bishop 
of  Exeter  and  deciding  that  in  a  case  where  the 
parish-priest  had  pawned  a  silver  chalice  and  a  Brev- 
iary and  had  died  before  redeeming  them,  his  heirs 
were  to  be  compelled  under  pain  of  excommunication 
to  recover  and  restore  the  property  to  the  church  to 
which  it  belonged. 

Prescription. — With  regard  to  prescription,  also, 
ecclesiastical  property  has  special  privileges.  Amongst 
private  individuals  the  canon  law  recognized  that 
possession  with  an  unchallenged  title  for  ten,  twenty, 
or  at  most  thirty  years  suffices  to  confer  ownership, 
but  in  the  case  of  immovable  church  property  forty 
years  are  required,  and  against  the  Holy  See  one 
hundred  years.  As  to  the  much  controverted  question 
regarding  the  true  owner  {subjectum  dominii)  of  eccle- 
siastical property,  the  more  approved  view  at  the 
present  day  looks  upon  each  institution  as  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  goods  belonging  to  it,  but  always  in 
subordination  to  the  supreme  jurisdiction  vested  in 
the  Holy  See  (Wernz,  "Jus  Decretalium",  III,  n.  138). 
As  Wernz  forcibly  argues,  if  the  Universal  Church  were 
itself  the  proprietor  it  would  also  be  bound  by  all  the 
debts  by  which  any  and  every  ecclesiastical  institution 
was  burdened.  But  neither  the  Universal  Church  nor 
the  Holy  See  have  ever  admitted  such  an  obligation, 
neither  have  they  ever  declared  that  one  institution 
was  liable  for  the  debts  incurred  by  another.  At  the 
same  time,  if  the  aim  and  purpose  of  any  particular 
ecclesiastical  institution  comes  to  an  end,  and  its 
moral  personality  is  destroyed,  its  property  passes 
by  right  to  the  ownership  of  the  Universal  Church,  of 
which  the  institution  in  question  was  by  supposition 
a  member  or  part.  Further,  since  it  is  in  virtue  of  its 
connexion  with  the  Universal  Church  that  the  right 
of  acquiring  and  owning  property  belongs  to  any 
ecclesiastical  organization,  it  is  commonly  held  that 
if  it  revolt  from  the  obedience  of  the  Church  and 
apostatize  from  the  Catholic  Church  it  has  no  longer 
any  claims  to  the  property  which  it  originally  acquired 
for  Catholic  purposes  as  a  member  of  the  Church. 

Upon  the  principle  that  the  civil  power,  as  such, 
has  neither  the  supreme  dominion  nor  any  just  control 
over  the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  property,  ex- 
cept in  so  far  as  the  Church  by  concordats  or  other 
agreements  may  freely  concede  certain  powers  to  the 
State,  all  approved  writers  within  the  Church  are 
agreed.  Neither  can  there  be  any  question  that  the 
Decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXII,  de  ref., 
cap.  ii),  upheld  by  the  Constitution  "Apostolicae 
Sedis"  of  Pius  IX,  which  pronounces  an  excommuni- 
cation and  other  censures  against  the  usurpers  of 
church  goods,  is  still  in  full  vigour.  It  must  be  plain, 
then,  that  the  recent  wholesale  confiscations  in  Italy, 
France,  and  other  countries,  have  given  rise  to  a  vast 
number  of  very  difficult  questions  as  to  the  extent 
to  which  those  who  in  various  ways  have  participated 
in  these  confiscations  are  subject  to  the  censures  pro- 
nounced against  the  usurpers  of  the  Church's  goods. 
The  position  of  those  who  participate  in  the  act  of 
spoliation  by  aid,  counsel,  or  favour,  in  the  case  of  the 


PROPERTY 


472 


PROPERTY 


ecclesiastical  property  of  the  Papal  States,  is  different 
from  those  who  co-operate  in  the  same  way  elsewhere. 
The  Encyclical  "  Respicientes "  of  1  Nov.,  1870,  deal- 
ing with  the  former  class  clearly  extends  the  excom- 
munication to  all  who  co-operate,  whereas  in  France 
and  elsewhere  offenders  fall  only  under  the  common 
law  of  the  Church,  and  by  this,  those  who  merely  take 
part  in  the  liquidation  of  property,  or  act  as  clerks, 
for  instance,  in  the  proceedings,  do  not  seem  to  incur 
the  censures,  but  only  those  who  are  the  actual  spoli- 
ators and  usurpers  of  the  property  or  those  who  order 
and  plan  it;  the  law  affects,  in  other  words,  the  prin- 
cipals and  not  those  who  are  merely  accessories.  The 
question  of  the  application  of  these  censures  is  very 
fully  discussed,  amongst  other  recent  authorities, 
by  Card.  Gennari  (Consultations,  I)  and  by  the 
Abb6  Boudinhon  in  the  "Canoniste  Contemporain " 
(March,  1909-Oct.,  1910). 

Apart  from  such  determined  acts  of  spoliation  as 
those  which  followed  the  occupation  of  Rome  (1870) 
and  the  recent  Associations  and  Separation  Laws  in 
France,  the  clergy  are  generally  instructed  to  comply, 
as  far  as  may  be  possible  without  sacrifice  of  principle, 
with  the  requirements  of  the  civil  law,  if  only  in  the 
interest  of  the  property  of  which  they  are  the  admin- 
istrators. These  and  similar  points  are  dwelt  upon 
in  the  Decrees  of  the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  West- 
minster (1885),  which  dealt  at  some  length  with  the 
question  of  ecclesiastical  property.  For  example,  the 
Fathers  of  the  Council  direct  that  "no  administrator 
of  a  mission  should  draw  up  any  legal  document  con- 
cerning church  property,  without  the  express  author- 
ity of  the  bishop,  who  will  not  fail  to  consult  lawyers 
most  skilled  in  these  matters,  and  subject  everything 
to  the  most  careful  revision"-  So,  too,  it  directs  that 
"all  buildings  belonging  to  a  mission  should  be  most 
carefully  insured  against  fire",  and  lays  down  rules 
as  to  the  destination  of  Mass  offerings,  stole  fees  (jura 
stolce),  etc. 

For  Ireland  some  similar  regulations  were  made  in 
the  Maynooth  Synod  of  1875,  and  we  may  note  how 
the  synod,  after  directing  that  a  two-fold  inventory  of 
church  property  should  be  made,  one  copy  to  be  kept 
by  the  bishop  in  the  diocesan  archives  and  the  other 
to  be  kept  among  the  parish  records,  lays  down  the 
following  wise  rules  respecting  the  requirements  of  the 
civil  law:  " Lest  ecclesiastical  property  fall  into  other 
hands  on  account  of  the  defects  of  the  law,  the  bishop 
will  take  heed  that  the  titles  or  deeds  may  be  accu- 
rately drawn  up  according  to  the  civil  law  and  in  the 
name  of  three  or  four  trustees  (curatorum) .  The 
trustees  are  to  be  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  the 
parish-priest  or  other  whose  property  is  concerned, 
the  vicar-general  or  other  person,  prudent,  well  known 
for  uprightness,  and  for  being  versed  in  matters  of 
this  sort.  These  trustees  should  meet  once  a  year,  so 
as  to  provide  for  the  security  of  the  aforesaid  goods. 
And  if  one  of  them  die  the  others  are  bound  to  ap- 
point another  in  his  place.  All  bishops  or  priests 
having  possession  or  administration  in  any  way  of 
such  property  are  bound  to  make  their  wills,  and  these 
wills  are  to  be  kept  by  the  bishop;  and  to  no  one  in 
extremis  will  the  last  sacraments  be  given  unless  he 
makes  his  will  or  promises  to  do  so." 

The  great  and  classical  work  dealing  with  the  whole  question 
of  church  property  is  Thomassin,  Viiiis  et  nova  ecclexirc  disciplina 
circa  beneficia  et  hcveficiario.'^,  of  which  several  eclitions  have  been 
published,  including  one  at  least  in  French.  All  the  more  copious 
treatises  upon  canon  law,  such  as  those  of  Phillips,  Vering, 
Sphmalzgrubeh,  necessarily  deal  with  the  matter'  at  some 
length,  and  among  modern  authorities  special  mention  should  be 
made  of  Werxz,  Jus  DecretnHum,  III  (Rome,  190S) ;  SXGMtJLLEH, 
Kirchenrecht  (Freiburg,  1909);  Laurextttts,  T>i.vfil.  juris  cccl. 
(Freiburg,  1908) ;  see  also  Mamachi,  DeJ  iHrilto  Wuto  della  chiesa 
di  acgui^tare  e  possedcre  boni  temporali  (Venire,  1766):  Metjrbr, 
Der  Begriff  nnd  Eiqcniiimer  der  heiligen  Sachen  ("Dussr-Idorfi 
1«S:.");  BoNDBOlT,  De  Capacitate  possidendi  ecctesia'  (Louvain! 
1900):  ScHEYS,  De  jure  ecclesicp  acquirendi  (Louvain,  1892): 
Knecht,  Sijitem  des  justiiiianischen  Kirchenvermogensrechts 
(Stuttgart,  1905);  Moflirt,  L'fglise  el  I'etat  (Paris,  1902); 
Gennari,  Consultations  de  morale,  de  droit  canonique  et  de  liturgi'e 


(1907-9);  BonniNHON,  Biens  d'eglise  et  peines  canoniques,  in 
Canoniste  contemporain  (April,  1909-Oct.,  1910);  Fol-rneret 
in  Diet,  de  theol.  Cnfh.,  s.  v.  Biens  ccclesiastiques;  Taunton,  Law 
of  the  Church  (London,  1905). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Property  Ecclesiastical,  in  the  United 
States. — The  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 
decreed  (tit.  IX,  cap.  i,  n.  264):  "We  must  hold, 
holily  and  inviolably,  that  the  complete  right  of  owner- 
ship and  dominion  over  ecclesiastical  goods  resides  in 
the  Church."  In  English-speaking  countries,  how- 
ever, the  State  as  a  rule  does  not  recognize  this  in- 
herent right  of  the  Church,  but  claims  for  itself  the 
supreme  dominion  over  temporal  possessions.  "The 
State  refuses  to  recognize  the  Church  as  an  actual 
corporation  with  the  power  of  holding  property  in  her 
own  name;  hence  the  civil  power  deals  only  with 
specific  individuals"  (Taunton,  op.  cit.  infra,  p.  310). 
The  fathers  of  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 
say  on  this  subject :  ' '  On  account  of  the  grave  dangers 
to  which  temporal  goods  are  often  exposed  when 
bishops  are  not  allowed  to  control  them  according  to 
the  prescriptions  of  the  Church,  it  is  much  to  be  re- 
gretted that  in  many  parts  of  the  LTnited  States  the 
civil  laws  concerning  the  possession  and  administra- 
tion of  temporal  goods  rest  upon  principles  which  the 
Church  cannot  admit  without  departing  from  the 
rule  wliich  she  has  always  held  from  the  time  when  she 
first  became  free  to  put  her  religious  principles  into 
practice"  (tit.  IX,  cap.  ii,  n.  266).  The  many  painful 
incidents  arising  in  the  United  States  from  insecure 
methods  of  holding  ecclesiastical  property  (schism, 
usurpation  of  church  goods,  etc.)  caused  the  bishops 
to  make  stringent  rules  for  safeguarding  ecclesiastical 
possessions.  Dissensions  frequently  arose  owing  to 
the  abuse  of  power  by  lay  trustees  (see  Trustee  Sys- 
tem), in  whose  name  the  property  was  often  held. 

The  various  councils  of  Baltimore  endeavoured  to 
find  a  remedy  for  this  deplorable  state  of  things.  The 
First  Provincial  Council  (n.  5)  declared  that  no 
church  should  be  erected  oi  consecrated  unless  (where 
possible)  it  had  first  been  deeded  to  the  bishop 
iinslniinento  scripto  assignata).  Administrators  of 
temporal  goods  were  exhorted  to  observe  the  prescrip- 
tions of  the  Council  of  Trent  concerning  church 
property.  The  Third  Provincial  Council  (n.  43)  says: 
"We  admonish  bishops,  priests  and  all  others  who 
have  care  of  movable  or  immovable  property  given 
for  ecclesiastical  uses,  to  take  measures  as  soon  as 
possible  to  secure  the  carrying  out  of  the  intentions 
of  the  donors,  according  to  the  safest  method  pre- 
scribed by  the  civil  laws  in  the  various  States."  The 
Fourth  Council  adds  (n.  56):  "that  if  this  security 
can  be  obtained  in  no  other  way,  then  the  property 
is  to  be  handed  on  by  means  of  last  wills  and  testa- 
ments, drawn  up  according  to  the  provisions  of  the 
civil  law"  In  1840  Propaganda  issued  a  decree  that 
each  bishop  should  make  some  fellow-bishop  his  heir, 
and  that,  on  the  death  or  resignation  of  the  former,  the 
latter  should  then  hand  over  the  property  to  the  new 
bishop.  This  condition  was  not,  however,  to  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  testament,  but  signified  in  writing  to 
the  chosen  heir,  who  was  then  to  burn  the  letter. 
The  fathers  of  the  Fifth  Provincial  Council  asked  for 
a  modification  of  this  decree,  as  the  laws  of  various 
states  would  make  it  difficult  of  execution;  they  de- 
sired that  each  bishop,  within  three  months  after  his 
consecration,  should  make  a  will  and  deposit  a  dupli- 
cate of  it  with  the  archbishop  (n.  59).  The  First 
Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  occupied  itself  with  the 
vexed  question  of  church  property,  decreeing:  "We 
warn  priests  who  administer  churches,  the  title  to 
which  has  been  given  to  the  bishop,  not  to  constitute 
lay-trustees  without  episcopal  sanction,  or  permit 
them  to  be  elected  by  the  faithful,  lest  an  impediment 
arise  to  their  free  administration"  (n.  94).  In  like 
manner,  the  Second  Plenary  Council  made  new  de- 


PROPHECY 


473 


PROPHECY 


crees  concerning  church  property.  The  Fathers  of 
this  council  seem  to  have  been  hopeful  that  the 
prescriptions  of  canon  law  would  find  free  play  in  the 
United  States.  They  say:  " In  these  United  S( atcs  it 
is  the  right  of  all  citizens  to  live  freely  according  to 
the  precepts  of  their  religion,  and  as  the  civil  laws 
recognize  and  declare  the  same,  it  seems  that  there 
is  no  obstacle  to  the  exact  obser\-ance  of  the  laws 
decreed  by  councils  and  popes  for  the  legitimate 
acquisition  and  preservation  of  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty, the  Fathers  desire,  therefore,  that  the  right 
of  the  Church  be  vindicated  in  the  eyes  of  all  and 
publicly  before  the  .State,  so  that  Catholics  may  be 
allowed  to  observe  the  laws  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  acquiring,  holding  and  preser\-ing  ecclesiastical 
goods,  such  as  lands  for  church  edifices,  presbyteries, 
schools,  cemeteries  etc.  This  complete  liberty,  how- 
ever, can  be  said  to  exist  only  when  the  laws  and 
ordinances  of  the  Church  are  recognized  by  the  civil 
tribunals  and  thus  recei^'e  civil  effect.  By  such  pro- 
visions the  rights  of  all  will  be  preserved,  possible 
abuses  will  l^e  obviated,  and  the  power  of  the  bishops, 
instead  of  being  increased,  will  rather  be  diminished 
by  the  regulations  made  by  the  Church  herself.  For, 
at  present,  in  order  to  obtain  protection  from  the 
improper  interference  of  lay  tribunals,  which  in  prac- 
tice scarcely  acknowledge  the  ecclesiastical  laws, 
nothing  now  remains  to  the  bishops  for  carrying  out 
ecclesiastical  decrees  but  to  claim  for  themselves  the 
fullest  administration  of  property  before  the  civil 
power.  As,  however,  church  regulations  are  not 
acknowledged  as  yet  in  some  States,  it  is  our  duty  to 
see  that  in  those  places  where  no  provision  has  been 
made  by  the  civil  law,  the  impediments  to  the  liberty 
of  the  Church  and  to  the  security  of  ecclesiastical 
property  be  removed  or  diminished "  (tit.  IV,  cap.  i, 
nn.  199,  200).  The  council  then  lays  down  regula- 
tions regarding  lay  trustees. 

The  Third  Plenary  Council  (tit.  IX,  cap.  ii,  nn. 
267-8)  defined  more  exactly  what  was  meant  by  secure 
methods  of  ownership  according  to  civil  law,  directing 
that:  (1)  The  bishop  himself  be  constituted  a  cor- 
poration sole  for  possessing  and  administering  the 
goods  of  the  whole  diocese;  or  (2)  that  the  bishop 
hold  the  goods  in  trust  in  the  name  of  the  diocese; 
or  (3)  that  the  bishop  hold  and  administer  the  church 
property  in  his  own  name  (in  fee  simple)  by  an  abso- 
lute and  full  legal  title.  In  the  last  case,  the  bishop 
is  to  remember  that,  though  before  the  civil  law  he  is 
the  absolute  owner,  yet  by  the  sacred  canons  he  is 
only  procurator.  By  whichever  title  the  bishop  holds 
the  property,  he  is  to  keep  inventories,  carefully  dis- 
tinguishing between  the  church  property  and  his  own 
personal  property.  Since  the  Third  Plenary  Council 
the  question  of  holding  church  property  has  more  than 
once  been  discussed  by  the  American  bishops,  and  at 
the  present  time,  in  addition  to  the  fee  simple  and 
the  corporation  sole  methods,  a  modified  system  of 
the  trustee  method  has  found  considerable  favour. 
Concerning  this,  the  "St.  Paul  Catholic  Bulletin", 
says  (I,  no.  20):  "Not  only  is  it  not  true  that  the 
archbishops  (at  their  meeting  in  1911)  discouraged  the 
holding  of  church  property  by  local  churches,  but  on 
the  contrary,  they  declared  it  to  be  the  very  best 
solution  of  the  problem  under  consideration.  And 
while  in  some  States,  owing  to  pecuhar  legislative 
enactments,  other  methods  of  holding  church  property 
are  in  vogue,  yet  it  was  admitted  by  the  assembled 
prelates  that  the  holding  of  church  property  by  local 
parish  corporations  was  by  far  the  safest  method.  In 
the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Paul,  each  church  is  incor- 
porated separately  and  independently  of  all  others. 
Members  of  this  corporation  are  ex-officio  the  Ordi- 
nary of  the  Diocese,  his  vicar-general,  and  the  pastor 
of  the  parish,  who  select  two  laymen  from  the  parish 
to  represent  the  congregation.  In  addition  to  these 
separate  parochial  corporations,   there  is  a  general 


diocesan  corporation  known  as  'The  Diocese  of  St. 
Paul',  in  which  is  invested  the  control  of  all  the 
property  belonging  to  the  diocese,  not  directly  con- 
trolled by  the  aforesaid  parish  corporations."  The 
laws  of  the  Church  are  fully  observed,  as  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese  exercises  sufficient  control  over  all  the 
property;  without  him,  the  other  members  of  the 
corporation  can  take  no  action  binding  in  law,  and  he 
assumes  no  unreasonable  obligations  inasmuch  as  he 
himself  is  powerless  to  act  without  the  consent  and 
co-operation  of  the  others.  Dr.  P.  A.  Baart  ("Catho- 
lic Fortnightly  Review",  XIV,  no.  4)  says:  "The 
Church,  through  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Propa- 
ganda, whose  decision  and  decree  were  approved  by 
the  Pope,  has  declared  that  the  corporation  system 
which  recognizes  the  rights  of  the  hierarchy  is  pref- 
erable to  the  fee  simple  tenure  by  the  bishops  as  indi- 
viduals before  the  civil  law." 

Concilia  Provinriulia  rl  Ptenaria  BaUimorcnsia;  Baart  in 
The  CalhoUc  Fmtnighlly  Rvriew,  VI,  VII,  XIV  (St.  Loui-s);  Taun- 
ton, Law  of  the  Church  (Lumlon,  lilOll),  s.  v.  Ecclesiastical  Prop- 
ertij;  SuiTHy  Elements  of  Erctcsiasliral  Law,  I  (New  York,  1895); 
Idem,  Notes  on  Second  Plenary  Covnnl  of  Baltimore  (New  York, 

1874).  William  H.  '\\^  Fanning. 

Prophecy. — Meaning. — As  the  term  is  used  in 
mystical  theology,  it  applies  both  to  the  prophecies 
of  canonical  Scripture  and  to  private  prophecies. 
Understood  in  its  strict  sense,  it  means  the  foreknowl- 
edge and  foretelling  of  future  events,  though  it  may 
sometimes  apply  to  past  events  of  which  there  is  no 
memory,  and  to  present  hidden  things  which  cannot 
be  known  by  the  natural  light  of  reason.  St.  Paul, 
speaking  of  prophecy  in  I  Cor.,  xiv,  does  not  confine 
its  meaning  to  predictions  of  future  events,  biit  in- 
cludes under  it  Divine  inspirations  concerning  what  is 
secret,  whether  future  or  not.  As,  however,  the  mani- 
festation of  hidden  present  mysteries  or  past  events 
comes  under  revelation,  we  have  here  to  understand 
by  prophecy  what  it  is  in  its  strict  and  proper  sense, 
namely,  the  re\-elation  of  future  events.  Prophecy 
consists  in  knowledge  and  in  the  manifestation  of 
what  is  known.  The  knowledge  must  be  supernatural 
and  infused  by  God  because  it  concerns  things  beyond 
the  natural  power  of  created  intelligence;  and  the 
knowledge  must  be  manifested  either  by  words  or 
signs,  because  the  gift  of  prophecy  is  given  primarily  for 
the  good  of  others,  and  hence  needs  to  be  manifested. 
It  is  a  Divine  light  by  which  God  reveals  things  con- 
cerning the  unknown  future  and  by  which  these  things 
are  in  some  way  represented  to  the  mind  of  the  prophet, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  manifest  them  afterwards  to  others. 

Division. — Writers  on  mystical  theology  consider 
prophecies  with  reference  to  the  illumination  of  the 
mind,  to  the  objects  revealed,  and  to  the  means 
by  which  the  knowledge  is  conveyed  to  the  hu- 
man mind.  By  reason  of  the  illumination  of  the 
mind  prophecy  may  be  either  perfect  or  imperfect. 
It  is  called  perfect  when  not  only  the  thing  revealed, 
but  the  revelation  itself  is  made  known,  that  is,  when 
the  prophet  knows  that  it  is  God  who  speaks.  The 
prophecy  is  imperfect  when  the  recipient  does  not 
know  clearly  or  sufficiently  from  whom  the  revelation 
proceeds,  or  whether  it  is  the  prophetic  or  individual 
spirit  that  speaks.  This  is  called  the  prophetic  in- 
stinct, wherein  it  is  possible  that  a  man  may  be  de- 
ceived, as  it  happened  in  the  case  of  Nathan  who  said 
to  David  when  he  was  thinking  of  building  the 
Temple  of  God:  "Go,  do  all  that  is  in  thy  heart, 
because  the  Lord  is  with  thee"  (II  Kings,  vii,  3). 
But  that  very  night  the  Lord  commanded  the  Prophet 
to  return  to  the  king  and  say  that  the  glory  of  the 
building  of  the  temple  was  reserved,  not  for  him,  but 
for  his  son.  St.  Gregory,  as  quoted  by  Benedict  XIV, 
explains  that  some  holy  prophets,  through  the  fre- 
quent practice  of  prophesying,  have  of  themselves 
predicted  some  things,  believing  that  therein  they 
were  influenced  by  the  spirit  of  prophecy. 

By  reason  of  the  object  there  are  three  kinds  of 


PROPHECY 


474 


PROPHECY 


prophecy  according  to  St.  Thomas  (Summa,  II-II, 
Q.  clxxiv,  a.  1):  prophecy  of  denunciation,  of  fore- 
knowledge, and  of  predestination.  In  the  first  kind 
God  reveals  future  events  according  to  the  order  of 
secondary  causes,  which  may  be  hindered  from  taking 
effect  by  other  causes  which  would  require  a  mirac- 
ulous power  to  prevent,  and  these  may  or  may  not 
happen,  though  the  prophets  do  not  express  it  but 
seem  to  speak  absolutely.  Isaias  spoke  thus  when  he 
said  to  Ezechias:  "Take  order  with  thy  house,  for 
thou  shaft  die,  and  not  live"  (Is.,  xxxviii,  1).  To  this 
kind  belongs  the  prophecy  of  promise,  as  that  men- 
tioned in  I  Kings,  ii,  30:  "  I  said  indeed  that  thy  house, 
and  the  house  of  thy  father  should  minister  in  my 
sight,  for  ever",  which  was  not  fulfilled.  It  was  a  con- 
ditional promise  made  to  Heli  which  was  dependent 
upon  other  causes  which  prevented  its  fulfilment. 
The  second  kind,  that  of  foreknowledge,  takes  place 
when  God  reveals  future  events  which  depend  upon 
created  free  will  and  which  He  sees  present  from  eter- 
nity. The}'  have  reference  to  life  and  death,  to  wars 
and  dynasties,  to  the  affairs  of  Church  and  State,  as 
well  as  to  the  affairs  of  individual  life.  The  third  kind, 
the  prophecy  of  predestination,  takes  place  when  God 
reveals  what  He  alone  will  do,  and  what  He  sees 
present  in  eternity  and  in  His  absolute  decree.  This 
includes  not  only  the  secret  of  predestination  to  grace 
and  to  glory,  but  also  those  things  which  God  has  abso- 
lutely decreed  to  do  by  His  own  supreme  power,  and 
which  will  infallibly  come  to  pass. 

The  objects  of  prophecy  may  also  be  viewed  in 
respect  to  human  knowledge:  (1)  when  an  event  may 
be  beyond  the  possible  natural  knowledge  of  the 
prophet,  but  may  be  within  the  range  of  human 
knowledge  and  known  to  others  who  witness  the  oc- 
currence, as,  for  instance,  the  result  of  the  battle  of 
Lepanto  revealed  to  St.  Pius  V;  (2)  when  the  object 
surpasses  the  knowledge  of  all  men,  not  that  it  is  un- 
knowable but  that  the  human  mind  cannot  naturally 
receive  the  knowledge,  such  as  the  mystery  of  the 
Holy  Trinity,  or  the  mystery  of  predestination;  (3) 
when  the  things  that  are  beyond  the  power  of  the 
human  mind  to  know  are  not  in  themselves  knowable 
because  their  truth  is  not  yet  determined,  such  as 
future  contingent  things  which  depend  upon  free  will. 
This  is  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  object  of  prophecy, 
because  it  is  the  most  general  and  embraces  all 
events  that  are  in  themselves  unknowable. 

God  can  enlighten  the  human  mind  in  any  way  He 
pleases.  He  often  makes  use  of  angeho  ministry  in 
prophetic  communications,  or  He  Himself  may  speak 
to  the  prophet  and  illuminate  his  mind.  Again  the 
supernatural  light  of  prophecy  may  be  conveyed  to 
the  intellect  directly  or  through  the  senses  or  the  im- 
agination. Prophecy  may  take  place  even  when  the 
senses  are  suspended  as  in  ecstasy,  but  this  in  mystical 
terminology  is  called  rapture.  St.  Thomas  teaches 
that  there  is  no  suspension  of  the  sense  activities  when 
anything  is  presented  to  the  mind  of  the  prophet 
through  impressions  of  the  senses,  nor  is  it  necessary 
when  the  mind  is  immediately  enlightened  that  activ- 
ity of  the  senses  should  be  suspended;  but  it  is  neces- 
sary that  this  should  be  the  case  when  the  manifesta- 
tion is  made  by  imaginative  forms,  at  least  at  the 
moment  of  the  vision  or  of  the  hearing  of  the  revela- 
tion, because  the  mind  is  then  abstracted  from  external 
things  in  order  to  fix  itself  entirely  on  the  object  mani- 
fested to  the  imagination.  In  such  a  case  a  perfect 
judgment  cannot  be  formed  of  the  prophetic  vision 
during  the  transport  of  the  soul,  because  then  the 
senses  which  are  necessary  for  a  right  understanding 
of  things  cannot  act,  and  it  is  only  when  a  man  comes 
to  himself  and  awakens  from  the  ecstasy  that  he  can 
properly  know  and  discern  the  nature  of  his  vision. 

Recipiext  op  Prophecy. — The  gift  of  prophecy  is 
an  extraordinary  nnxce  bestowed  by  God.  It  has  ne\-er 
been  confined  to  any  particular  tribe,  family,  or  class 


of  persons.  There  is  no  distinct  faculty  in  human 
nature  by  which  any  normal  or  abnormal  person  can 
prophesy,  neither  is  any  special  preparation  required 
beforehand  for  the  reception  of  this  gift.  Hence 
Cornely  remarks:  "Modern  authors  speak  inaccu- 
rately of  'schools  of  prophets',  an  expression  never 
found  in  the  Scriptures  or  the  Fathers"  (Comp.  Intro- 
duct,  in  N.  T.,  n.  463).  Neither  was  there  ever  any 
external  rite  by  which  the  office  of  prophet  was  in- 
augurated; its  exercise  was  always  extraordinary  and 
depended  on  the  immediate  call  of  God.  The  pro- 
phetic light,  according  to  St.  Thomas,  is  in  the  soul 
of  the  prophet  not  as  a  permanent  form  or  habit,  but 
after  the  manner  of  a  passion  or  passing  impression 
(Summa,  II-II,  Q.  clxxi,  a.  2).  Hence  the  ancient 
prophets  by  their  prayers  petitioned  for  this  Divine 
light  (I  Kings,  viii,  6;  Jer.,  xxxii,  16;  xxiii,  2  sq.; 
xlii,  4  sq.),  and  they  were  liable  to  error  if  they  gave 
an  answer  before  invoking  God  (II  Kings,  vii,  2,  3). 

Writing  on  the  recipients  of  prophecy,  Benedict 
XIV  (Heroic  Virtue,  III,  144,  150)  says:  "The  recip- 
ients of  prophecy  may  be  angels,  devils,  men,  women, 
children,  heathens,  or  gentiles;  nor  is  it  necessary  that 
a  man  should  be  gifted  with  any  particular  disposi- 
tion in  order  to  receive  the  light  of  prophecy  provided 
his  intellect  and  senses  be  adapted  for  making  mani- 
fest the  things  which  God  reveals  to  him.  Though 
moral  goodness  is  most  profitable  to  a  prophet,  yet  it 
is  not  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  the  gift  of  proph- 
ecy." He  also  tells  us  that  the  angels  by  their  own 
natural  penetration  cannot  know  future  events  which 
are  undetermined  and  contingent  or  uncertain,  neither 
can  they  know  the  secrets  of  the  heart  of  another, 
whether  man  or  angel.  When  therefore  God  reveals  to 
an  angel  as  the  medium  through  which  the  future  is 
made  known  to  man,  the  angel  also  becomes  a 
prophet.  As  to  the  Devil,  the  same  author  tells  us 
that  he  cannot  of  his  own  natural  knowledge  foretell 
future  events  which  are  the  proper  objects  of  prophecy, 
yet  God  may  make  use  of  him  for  this  purpose.  Thus 
we  read  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  that  when  the  Devil 
saw  Jesus  he  fell  down  before  Him  and,  crying  out  with 
a  loud  voice,  said:  "What  have  I  to  do  with  thee, 
Jesus,  Son  of  the  most  high  God?"  (Luke,  viii,  28). 
There  are  instances  of  women  and  children  prophesy- 
ing in  Holy  Scripture.  Mary,  the  sister  of  Moses,  is 
called  a  prophetess;  Anna,  the  mother  of  Samuel, 
prophesied;  Elizabeth,  the  mother  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, by  a  Divine  revelation  recognized  and  confessed 
Mary  as  the  Mother  of  God.  Samuel  and  Daniel  as 
boys  prophesied;  Balaam,  a  Gentile,  foretold  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Messias  and  the  devastation  of  Assyria  and 
Palestine.  St.  Thomas,  in  order  to  prove  that  the 
heathens  were  capable  of  prophecy,  refers  to  the  in- 
stance of  the  Sibyls,  who  make  clear  mention  of  the 
mysteries  of  the  Trinity,  of  the  Incarnation  of  the 
Word,  of  the  Life,  Passion,  and  Resurrection  of  Christ. 
It  is  true  that  the  Sibylline  poems  now  extant  became 
in  course  of  time  interpolated ;  but,  as  Benedict  XIV 
remarks,  this  does  not  hinder  much  of  them,  especially 
what  the  early  Fathers  referred  to,  from  being  genuine 
and  in  no  wise  apocryphal. 

That  the  gift  of  private  prophecy  exists  in  the 
Church  is  clear  from  Scripture  and  the  acts  of  canon- 
ization of  the  saints  in  every  age.  To  the  question, 
what  credence  is  to  be  given  to  these  private  proph- 
ecies, Cardinal  Cajetan  answers,  as  stated  by  Bene- 
dict XIV:  "Human  actions  are  of  two  kinds,  one  of 
which  relates  to  public  duties,  and  especially  to  eccle- 
siastical affairs,  such  as  preaching,  celebrating  Mass, 
pronouncing  judicial  decisions,  and  the  like;  with 
respect  to  these  the  question  is  settled  in  the  canon 
law,  where  it  is  said  that  no  credence  is  to  be  publicly 
given  to  him  who  says  he  has  privately  received  a 
mission  from  God,  unless  he  confirms  it  by  a  miracle 
or  a  special  testimony  of  Holy  Scripture.  The  other 
class  of  human  actions  consists  of  those  of  private 


PROPHECY 


475 


PROPHECY 


persons,  and  speaking  of  these,  he  distinguishes  be- 
tween a  prophet  who  enjoins  or  advises  them,  accord- 
ing to  the  universal  laws  of  the  Church,  and  a  prophet 
who  does  the  same  without  reference  to  those  laws. 
In  the  first  case  every  man  may  abound  in  his  own 
sense  whether  or  not  to  direct  his  actions  according  to 
the  will  of  the  prophet;  in  the  second  case  the  prophet 
is  not  to  be  listened  to"  (Heroic  Virtue,  III,  192). 

It  is  also  important  that  those  who  have  to  teach 
and  direct  others  should  have  rules  for  their  guidance 
to  enable  them  to  distinguish  true  from  false  prophets. 
A  summary  of  those  prescribed  by  theologians  for  our 
guidance  may  be  useful  to  show  practically  how  the 
doctrine  is  to  be  applied  to  de^'out  souls  in  order  to 
save  them  from  errors  or  diabolical  delusions:  (1)  the 
recipient  of  the  gift  of  prophecy  should,  as  a  rule,  be 
good  and  virtuous,  for  all  mystical  writers  agree  that 
for  the  most  part  this  gift  is  granted  by  God  to  holy 
persons.  The  disposition  or  temperament  of  the 
person  should  also  be  considered,  as  well  as  the  state 
of  health  and  of  the  brain;  (2)  the  prophecy  must  be 
conformable  to  Christian  truth  and  piety,  because  if 
it  propose  anything  against  faith  or  morals  it  cannot 
proceed  from  the  Spirit  of  Truth;  (3)  the  prediction 
should  concern  things  outside  the  reach  of  all  natural 
knowledge,  and  have  for  its  object  future  contingent 
things  or  those  things  which  God  only  knows;  (4)  it 
should  also  concern  something  of  a  grave  and  im- 
portant nature,  that  is  something  for  the  good  of  the 
Church  or  the  good  of  souls.  This  and  the  preceding 
rule  will  help  to  distinguish  true  prophecies  from  the 
puerile,  senseless,  and  useless  predictions  of  fortune- 
tellers, crystal-gazers,  spiritualists,  and  charlatans. 
These  may  tell  things  beyond  human  knowledge  and 
yet  within  the  scope  of  the  natural  knowledge  of 
demons,  but  not  those  things  that  are  strictly  speaking 
the  objects  of  prophecy;  (5)  prophecies  or  revelations 
which  make  known  the  sins  of  others,  or  which  an- 
nounce the  predestination  or  reprobation  of  souls  are 
to  be  suspected.  Three  special  secrets  of  God  have 
always  to  be  deeply  respected  as  they  are  very  rarely 
revealed,  namely:  the  state  of  conscience  in  this  life, 
the  state  of  souls  after  death  unless  canonized  by  the 
Church,  and  the  mystery  of  predestination.  The 
secret  of  predestination  has  been  revealed  only  in 
exceptional  cases,  but  that  of  reprobation  has  never 
been  revealed,  because  so  long  as  the  soul  is  in  this  life, 
its  salvation  is  possible.  The  day  of  General  Judg- 
ment is  also  a  secret  which  has  never  been  revealed; 
(6)  we  have  afterwards  to  ascertain  whether  the  proph- 
ecy has  been  fulfilled  in  the  way  foretold.  There 
are  some  limitations  to  this  rule:  (a)  if  the  prophecy 
was  not  absolute,  but  containing  threats  only,  and 
tempered  by  conditions  expressed  or  understood,  as  ex- 
emplified in  the  prophecy  of  Jonas  to  the  Ninivites,  and 
that  of  Isaias  to  King  Ezechias;  (b)  it  may  sometimes 
happen  that  the  prophecy  is  true  and  from  God,  and 
the  human  interpretation  of  it  false,  as  men  may  inter- 
pret it  otherwise  than  God  intended.  It  is  by  these 
limitations  we  have  to  explain  the  prophecy  of  St. 
Bernard  regarding  the  success  of  the  Second  Crusade, 
and  that  of  St.  Vincent  Ferrer  regarding  the  near 
approach  of  the  General  Judgment  in  his  day. 

Chief  Particular  Prophecies. — The  last  pro- 
phetic work  which  the  Church  acknowledges  as  Di- 
vinely inspired  is  the  Apocalypse.  The  prophetic 
spirit  did  not  disappear  with  the  Apostolic  times,  but 
the  Church  has  not  pronounced  any  work  prophetic 
since  then,  though  she  has  canonized  numberless 
saints  who  were  more  or  less  endowed  with  the  gift  of 
prophecy.  The  Church  allows  freedom  in  accepting 
or  rejecting  particular  or  private  prophecies  according 
to  the  evidence  for  or  against  them.  We  should  be 
slow  to  admit  and  slow  to  reject  them,  and  in  either 
case  treat  them  with  respect  when  they  come  to  us 
from  trustworthy  sources,  and  are  in  accordance  with 
Catholic  doctrine  and  the  rules  of  Christian  morality. 


The  real  test  of  these  predictions  is  their  fulfilment; 
they  may  be  only  pious  anticipations  of  the  ways  of 
Providence,  and  they  may  sometimes  be  fulfilled  in  part 
and  in  part  contradicted  by  events.  The  minatory 
prophecies  which  announce  calamities,  being  for  the 
most  part  conditional,  may  or  may  not  be  fulfilled. 
Many  private  prophecies  have  been  verified  by  sub- 
sequent events,  some  have  not;  others  have  given 
rise  to  a  good  deal  of  discussion  as  to  their  genuine- 
ness. Most  of  the  private  prophecies  of  the  saints 
and  servants  of  God  were  concerned  with  individuals, 
their  death,  recovery  from  illness,  or  vocations.  Some 
foretold  things  which  would  affect  the  fate  of  nations, 
as  France,  England,  and  Ireland.  A  great  number 
have  reference  to  popes  and  to  the  papacy;  and  finally 
we  have  many  such  prophecies  relating  to  the  end  of 
the  world  and  the  approach  of  the  Day  of  Judgment. 

The  more  noteworthy  of  the  prophecies  bearing  upon 
"latter  times"  seem  to  have  one  common  end,  to  an- 
nounce great  calamities  impending  over  mankind, 
the  triumph  of  the  Church,  and  the  renovation  of  the 
world.  All  the  seers  agree  in  two  leading  features  as 
outlined  by  E.  H.  Thompson  in  his  "Life  of  Anna 
Maria  Taigi"  (ch.  xviii):  "First  they  all  point  to 
some  terrible  convulsion,  to  a  revolution  springing 
from  most  deep-rooted  impiety,  consisting  in  a  formal 
opposition  to  God  and  His  truth,  and  resulting  in  the 
most  formidable  persecution  to  which  the  Church  has 
ever  been  subject.  Secondly,  they  all  promise  for  the 
Church  a  victory  more  splendid  and  complete  than 
she  has  ever  achieved  here  below.  We  may  add 
another  point  in  which  there  is  a  remarkable  agree- 
ment in  the  catena  of  modern  prophecies,  and  that  is 
the  peculiar  connection  between  the  fortunes  of 
France  and  those  of  the  Church  and  the  Holy  See,  and 
also  the  large  part  which  that  country  has  still  to  play 
in  the  history  of  the  Church  and  of  the  world,  and  will 
continue -to  play  to  the  end  of  time." 

Some  prophetic  spirits  were  prolific  in  the  forecasts 
of  the  future.  The  biographer  of  St.  Philip  Neri 
states  that  if  all  the  prophecies  attributed  to  this 
saint  were  narrated,  they  alone  would  fill  entire  vol- 
umes. It  is  sufficient  to  give  the  following  as  exam- 
ples of  private  prophecies. 

(1)  Prophecy  of  Si.  Edward  the  Confessor. — Ambrose 
Lisle  Philipps  in  a  letter  to  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury 
dated  28  October,  1850,  in  giving  a  sketch  of  English 
Catholic  history,  relates  the  following  vision  or  proph- 
ecy made  by  St.  Edward:  "During  the  month  of 
January,  1066,  the  holy  King  of  England  St.  Edward 
the  Confessor  was  confined  to  his  bed  by  his  last  ill- 
ness in  his  royal  Westminster  Palace.  St.  jElred, 
Abbott  of  Recraux,  in  Yorkshire,  relates  that  a  short 
time  before  his  happy  death,  this  holy  King  was  wrapt 
in  ecstasy,  when  two  pious  Benedictine  monks  of 
Normandy,  whom  he  had  known  in  his  youth,  during 
his  exile  in  that  country,  appeared  to  him,  and  re- 
vealed to  him  what  was  to  happen  in  England  in  future 
centuries,  and  the  cause  of  the  terrible  punishment. 
They  said:  'The  extreme  corruption  and  wickedness 
of  the  Enghsh  nation  has  provoked  the  just  anger  of 
God.  When  malice  shall  have  reached  the  fulness  of 
its  measure,  God  will,  in  His  wrath,  send  to  the  Eng- 
lish people  wicked  spirits,  who  will  punish  and  afl[lict 
them  with  great  severity,  by  separating  the  green  tree 
from  its  parent  stem  the  length  of  three  furlongs.  But 
at  last  this  same  tree,  through  the  compassionate 
mercy  of  God,  and  without  any  national  (govern- 
mental) assistance,  shall  return  to  its  original  root, 
reflourish  and  bear  abundant  fruit.'  After  having 
heard  these  prophetic  words,  the  saintly  King  Edward 
opened  his  eyes,  returned  to  his  senses,  and  the  vision 
vanished.  He  immediately  related  all  he  had  seen 
and  heard  to  his  virgin  spouse,  Edgitha,  to  Stigand, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  to  Harold,  his  succes- 
sor to  the  throne,  who  were  in  his  chamber  praying 
around  his  bed."     (See  "Vita  beati  Edwardi  regis  et 


PROPHECY 


476 


PROPHECY 


confessoris ",   from  MS.  Selden  55   in   Bodleian  Li- 
brary, Oxford.) 

The  interpretation  given  to  this  prophecy  is  remark- 
able when  applied  to  the  events  which  have  happened. 
The  spirits  mentioned  in  it  were  the  Protestant  inno- 
vators who  pretended,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  to 
reform  the  Catholic  Chm-ch  in  England.  The  sever- 
ance of  the  green  tree  from  its  trunk  signifies  the 
separation  of  the  English  Church  from  the  root  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  from  the  Holy  Roman  See.  This 
tree,  however,  was  to  be  separated  from  its  life-giving 
root  the  distance  of  "three  furlongs".  These  three 
furlongs  are  understood  to  signify  three  centuries,  at 
the  end  of  which  England  would  again  be  reunited  to 
the  Cathohc  Church,  and  bring  forth  flowers  of  virtue 
and  fruits  of  sanctity.  The  prophecy  was  quoted  by 
Ambrose  Lisle  Philipps  on  the  occasion  of  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Cathohc  hierarchy  in  England 
by  Pope  Pius  IX  in  1850. 

(2)  Prophecies  of  St.  Malacky. — Concerning  Ire- 
land.— This  prophecy,  which  is  distinct  from  the 
prophecies  attributed  to  St.  Malachy  concerning  the 
popes,  is  to  the  effect  that  his  beloved  native  isle 
would  undergo  at  the  hands  of  England  oppression, 
persecution,  and  calamities  of  every  kind,  during  a 
week  of  centuries;  but  that  she  would  preserve  her 
fidelity  to  God  and  to  His  Church  amidst  all  her  trials. 
At  the  end  of  seven  centuries  she  would  be  delivered 
from  her  oppressors  (or  oppressions),  who  in  their  turn 
would  be  subjected  to  dreadful  chastisements,  and 
Catholic  Ireland  would "  be  instrumental  in  bring- 
ing back  the  British  nation  to  that  Divine  Faith  which 
Protestant  England  had,  during  three  hundred  years, 
so  rudely  endeavoured  to  wrest  from  her.  This 
prophecy  is  said  to  have  been  copied  by  the  learned 
Benedictine  Dom  Mabillon  from  an  ancient  1\IS. 
preserved  at  Clairvaux,  and  transmitted  by  him  to  the 
martyred   successor   of   Oliver   Plunkett. 

Concerning  the  Popes. — The  most  famous  and 
best  known  prophecies  about  the  popes  are  those  at- 
tributed to  St.  JIalachy  (q.  v.).  In  1139  he  went  to 
Rome  to  give  an  account  of  the  affairs  of  his  diocese 
to  the  pope.  Innocent  II,  who  promised  him  two 
palliums  for  the  metropolitan  Sees  of  Armagh 
and  CasheL  While  at  Rome,  he  received  (accord- 
ing to  the  Abb6  Cucherat)  the  strange  vision  of  the 
future  wherein  was  unfolded  before  his  mind  the  long 
list  of  illustrious  pontiffs  who  were  to  rule  the  Church 
until  the  end  of  time.  The  same  author  tells  us 
that  St.  Malachy  gave  his  MS.  to  Innocent  II 
to  console  him  in  the  midst  of  his  tribulations, 
and  that  the  document  remained  unknown  in  the 
Roman  Archives  until  its  discovery  in  1590  (Cu- 
cherat, "Proph.  de  la  succession  des  papes",  ch.  xv). 
They  were  first  published  by  Arnold  de  Wyon,  and 
ever  since  there  has  been  much  discussion  as  to 
whether  they  are  genuine  predictions  of  St.  Malachy 
or  forgeries.  The  silence  of  400  years  on  the  part  of 
so  many  learned  authors  who  had  written  about  the 
popes,  and  the  silence  of  St.  Bernard  especially,  who 
wrote  the  "Life  of  St.  Alalachy",  is  a  strong  argument 
against  their  authenticity,  but  it  is  not  conclusi\e  if 
we  adopt  Cucherat's  theory  that  they  were  hidden  in 
the  Archives  during  those  400  years. 

These  short  prophetical  announcements,  in  number 
112,  indicate  some  noticeable  trait  of  all  the  future 
popes  from  Celestine  II,  who  was  elected  in  the  year 
1130,  until  the  end  of  the  world.  They  are  enunciated 
under  mystical  titles  Those  who  have  undertaken 
to  interpret  and  explain  these  symbolical  prophecies 
have  succeeded  in  discovering  some  trait,  allusion, 
point,  or  similitude  in  their  application  to  the  individ- 
ual popes,  either  as  to  their  country,  their  name,  their 
coat  of  arms  or  insignia,  their  birth-place,  their  talent 
or  learning,  the  title  of  their  cardinalate,  the  dignities 
which  the>'  held  etc.  For  example,  the  prophecy  con- 
cerning Urban  VIII  is  Lilium  et  rosa  (the  lily  and  the 


rose) ;  he  was  a  native  of  Florence  and  on  the  arms 
of  Florence  figured  a  fleur-de-lis ;  he  had  three 
bees  emblazoned  on  his  escutcheon,  and  the  bees 
gather  honey  from  the  lilies  and  roses.  Again,  the 
name  accords  often  with  some  remarkable  and  rare 
circumstance  in  the  pope's  career:  thus  Peregrinus 
apostolicus  (pilgrim  pope),  which  designates  Pius  VI, 
appears  to  be  verified  by  his  journey  when  pope  into 
Germany,  by  his  long  career  as  pope,  and  by  his  ex- 
patriation from  Rome  at  the  end  of  his  pontificate. 
Those  who  have  lived  and  followed  the  course  of 
events  in  an  intelligent  manner  during  the  pontificates 
of  Pius  IX,  Leo  XIII,  and  Pius  X  cannot  fail  to  be 
impressed  with  the  titles  given  to  each  by  the  proph- 
ecies of  St.  Malachy  and  their  wonderful  appropriate- 
ness: Crux  de  cruce  (Cross  from  a  Cross)  Pius  IX; 
Lumen  in  coelo  (Light  in  the  Sky)  Leo  XIII;  Ignis 
ardens  (Burning  Fire)  Pius  X.  There  is  something 
more  than  a  coincidence  in  the  designations  given  to 
these  three  popes  so  many  hundred  years  before  their 
time .  We  need  not  have  recourse  either  to  the  family- 
names,  armorial  bearings  or  cardinalitial  titles,  to  see 
the  fitness  of  their  designations  as  given  in  the  proph- 
ecies. The  afflictions  and  crosses  of  Pius  IX  were 
more  than  fell  to  the  lot  of  his  predecessors;  and  the 
more  aggravating  of  these  crosses  were  brought  on  by 
the  House  of  Savoy  whose  emblem  was  a  cross.  Leo 
XIII  was  a  veritable  luminary  of  the  papacy.  The 
present  pope  is  truly  a  burning  fire  of  zeal  for  the 
restoration  of  all  things  in  Christ. 

The  last  of  these  prophecies  concerns  the  end  of 
the  world  and  is  as  follows:  "In  the  final  persecution 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Church  there  will  reign  Peter 
the  Roman,  who  will  feed  his  flock  amid  many  trib- 
ulations, after  which  the  seven-hilled  city  will  be 
destroyed  and  the  dreadful  Judge  will  judge  the 
people.  The  End."  It  has  been  noticed  concerning 
Pelrus  Romanus,  who  according  to  St.  Malachy's 
list  is  to  be  the  last  pope,  that  the  prophecy  does  not 
say  that  no  popes  shall  intervene  between  him  and 
his  predecessor  designated  Gloria  olivce.  It  merely 
says  that  he  is  to  be  the  last,  so  that  we  may  suppose 
as  many  popes  as  we  please  before  "Peter  the 
Roman".  Cornelius  a  Lapide  refers  to  this  proph- 
ecy in  his  commentary  "On  the  Gospel  of  St. 
John"  (C.  xvi)  and  "On  the  Apocalypse"  (cc. 
xvii-xx),  and  he  endeavours  to  calculate  according 
to  it  the  remaining  years  of  time. 

(3)  Prophecy  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross. — During 
more  than  fifty  years  this  saint  was  accustomed  to 
pray  for  the  return  of  England  to  the  Catholic 
Faith,  and  on  several  occasions  had  visions  and  revela- 
tions about  its  re-conversion.  In  spirit  he  saw  the  Pas- 
sionists  established  in  England  and  labouring  there 
for  the  conversion  and  sanctification  of  souls.  It 
is  well  known  that  several  of  the  leaders  of  the  Oxford 
Movement,  including  Cardinal  Newman,  and  thou- 
sands of  converts  have  been  received  into  the  Church 
in  England  by  the  Passionist  missionaries. 

There  are  many  other  private  prophecies  concern- 
ing the  remote  and  proximate  signs  which  will 
precede  the  General  Judgment  and  concerning 
Antichrist,  such  as  those  attributed  to  St.  Hildegarde, 
St.  Bridget  of  Sweden,  Venerable  Anna  Maria  Taigi, 
the  Curi5  d'Ars,  and  many  others.  These  do  not 
enlighten  us  any  more  than  do  the  Scriptural  proph- 
ecies as  to  the  day  and  the  hour  of  that  judgment, 
which  still  remains  a,  Divine  secret. 

Benedict  XIV,  Heroic  Virtue  in  Oratorian  Series  (London, 
1851);  Devine,  Mi/slimJ  Theology  (London,  190.3);  MAn^CHAUX, 
Le  merveillenx  diviii  ct  le  merveilleux  d^trwniinjue  (Paris,  1901); 
Ribet,  La  mystique  divine  (Paris,  1895);  St.  Thomas,  Summa 
(Turin,  1891),  II-II,  QQ.  clxxi-iv;  Schham.  Theolorjia  mystica 
(Augsburg,  1707) ;  O'Bhien,  Prophecu  of  St.  Malachy  (Dublin, 
1880);  Gehmano,  Vila  del  g.  p.  s.  Mnlarhia  (Naples,  lfi70) ; 
Pavinius,  Epitome  liomanorum.  pontificvm  (Venice,  1553): 
Senesio,  Profetia  veredtca  di  tutti  ■•^ummi  pontifici  sin'  al  fine  del 
mundo  fatta  a  San  Mnlarhia  (Venice,  167.5);  Wiox,  Lignum  vitm 
(Venice,  1595) ;    /  futuri  destini  degli  siati  e  delle  nazioni  (Turin, 


PROPHECY 


477 


PROPHECY 


1864);  Recueil  complet  des  propheliques  (L.\ons,  1870);  Derniers 
avis  propheliques  (Paris,  1872). 

Arthur  Devine. 

Prophecy,    Prophet,    and    Prophetess. — I.   In 

THE  Old  Testament.  A.  Inlroduclion. — Jahve  had 
forbidden  Israel  all  kinds  of  oracles  in  vogue  among 
the  pagans.  It,  for  a  time,  he  oonsenteil  to  reply  by 
Urim  and  Thummim  (apparently  a  species  of  sacred 
lots  which  the  high-priest  carried  in  the  cincture  of 
his  ephod,  and  consulted  at  the  request  of  the  public 
authorities  in  matters  of  graver  moment),  yet  He 
always  abominated  those  who  had  recourse  to  divina- 
tion and  magic,  practiced  augury  and  enclumtment, 
trusted  in  charms,  consulted  soothsayt^rs  or  wizards, 
or  interrogated  the  spirits  of  the  dead  (Deut.,  xviii, 
9  sqq.).  Speaking  of  orthodox  Jahveism,  Balaam 
could  truthfully  say  "There  is  no  soothsaying  in 
Jacob,  nor  di^■ination  in  Israel.  In  their  times  it 
shall  be  told  to  Jacob  and  to  Israel  what  God  hath 
wrought"  (,Xum.,  xxiii,  23).  For  the  absence  of 
other  oracles,  the  Chosen  People  were  indeed  more 
than  compensated  by  a  gift  unique  in  the  annals  of 
mankind,  to  wit,  the  gift  of  prophecy  and  the  pro- 
phetic office. 

B.  General  Idea  and  the  Hebrew  Names.  (1) 
General  Idea. — The  Hebrew  Prophet  was  not  merely, 
as  the  word  commonly  implies,  a  man  enlightened  by 
God  to  foretell  events,  he  was  the  interpreter  and 
supernaturally  enlightened  herald  sent  by  Jahve 
to  communicate  His  will  and  designs  to  Israel. 
His  mission  consisted  in  preaching  as  well  as  in  fore- 
telling. He  had  to  maintain  and  develop  the  knowl- 
edge and  practice  of  the  Old  Law  among  the  Chosen 
People,  lead  them  back  when  they  strayed,  and 
gradually  prepare  the  way  for  the  new  kingdom  of 
God,  which  the  Messias  was  to  establish  on  earth. 
Prophecy,  in  general,  signifies  the  supernatural 
message  of  the  Prophet,  and  more  especially,  from 
custom,  the  predictive  element  of  the  prophetic 
message. 

(2)  The  Hebrew  Names. — The  ordinary  Hebrew 
word  for  prophet  is  naM .  Its  etymology  is  uncertain. 
According  to  many  recent  critics,  the  root  nabl' ,  not 
employed  in  Hebrew,  signified  to  speak  enthusias- 
tically, "to  utter  cries,  and  make  more  or  less  wild 
gestures  ",  like  the  pagan  mantics.  Judging  from  a 
comparative  examination  of  the  cognate  words  in 
Hebrew  and  the  other  Semitic  tongues,  it  is  at  least 
equally  probable  that  the  original  meaning  was 
merely:  to  speak,  to  utter  words  (cf.  Laur,  "Die 
Prophetennamen  des  A.  T.",  Fribourg,  1903,  14-38). 
The  historic  meaning  of  nabi  established  by  biblical 
usage  is  "  interpreter  and  mouthpiece  of  God  "  -  This 
is  forcibly  illustrated  by  the  passage,  where  Moses, 
excusing  himself  from  speaking  to  Pharao  on  account 
of  his  embarrassment  of  speech,  was  answered  by 
Jahve;  "Behold  I  have  appointed  thee  the  God  of 
Pharao:  and  Aaron  thy  brother  shall  be  thy  prophet. 
Thou  shalt  speak  to  him  all  that  I  command  thee ;  and 
he  shall  speak  to  Pharao,  that  he  let  the  children  of 
Israel  go  out  of  his  land"  (Ex.,  vii,  1-2).  Moses 
plays  towards  the  King  of  Egypt  the  role  of  God, 
inspiring  what  is  to  be  uttered,  and  Aaron  is  the 
Prophet,  his  mouthpiece,  transmitting  the  inspired 
message  he  shall  receive.  The  Greek  Trpocp^Tijs 
(from  TTpii-ipdvai,  to  speak  for,  or  in  the  name  of 
some  one)  translates  the  Hebrew  word  accurately. 
The  Greek  prophet  was  the  revealer  of  the  future, 
and  the  interpreter  of  divine  things,  especially  of 
the  obscure  oracles  of  the  pythoness.  Poets  were 
the  prophets  of  the  muses:  Inspire  me,  muse,  thy 
prophet  I  shall  be"  (Pindar,  Bergk,  Fragm.  127). 

The  word  nabt'  expresses  more  especially  a  func- 
tion. The  two  most  usual  synonyms  ro'eh  and 
hozeh  emphasize  more  clearly  the  special  source  of 
the  prophetic  knowledge,  the  vision,  that  is,  the  Divine 
revelation   or   inspiration.     Both   have   almost   the 


same  meaning;  hozeh  is  employed,  however,  much 
more  frequently  in  poetical  language  and  almost 
always  in  connexion  with  a  supernatural  vision, 
whereas  rd'ah,  of  which  roeh  is  the  participle,  is  the 
usual  word  for  to  see  in  any  manner.  The  com- 
piler of  the  first  Book  of  Kings  (ix,  9)  informs  us  that 
before  his  time  roeh  was  used  where  nabi'  was  then 
employed.  Hozeh  is  found  much  more  frequently 
from  the  days  of  Amos.  There  were  other  less 
specific  or  more  unusual  terms  employed,  the  meaning 
of  which  is  clear,  such  as,  messenger  of  God,  man  of 
God,  servant  of  God,  man  of  the  spirit,  or  inspired 
man,  etc.  It  is  only  rarely,  and  at  a  later  period, 
that  prophecy  is  called  nebA'ah,  a  cognate  of  naM ; 


The  Goodly  Fellowship  of  the  Prophets 
Fra  Angelico  and  Signorelli,  Cathedral  of  Orvieto 

more  ordinarily  we  find  hazon,  vision,  or  word  of 
God,  oracle  (ne  utn)  of  Jahve,  etc. 

C.  Brief  Sketch  of  the  History  of  Prophecy. — 
(1)  The  first  person  entitled  nabi'  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  Abraham,  father  of  the  elect,  the  friend  of 
God,  favoured  with  his  personal  communications 
(Gen.,  XX,  7).  The  next  is  Moses,  the  founder  and 
lawgiver  of  the  theocratic  nation,  the  mediator  of  the 
Old  Covenant  holding  a  degree  of  authority  un- 
equalled till  the  coming  of  Jesus  Christ.  "And  there 
arose  no  more  a  prophet  in  Israel  like  unto  Moses, 
whom  the  Lord  knew  face  to  face,  in  all  the  signs  and 
wonders,  which  he  sent  by"  him,  to  do  in  the  land  of 
Egypt  to  Pharao,  and  to  all  his  servants,  and  to  his 
whole  land,  and  all  the  mighty  hand,  and  great 
miracles,  which  Moses  did  before  all  Israel"  (Deut., 
xxxiv,  10  sqq.).  There  Were  other  Prophets  with 
him,  but  only  of  the  second  rank,  such  as  Aaron  and 
Maria,  Eldad  and  Medad,  to  whom  Jahve  manifested 
himself  in  dreams  and  vision,  but  not  in  the  audible 
speech  with  which  He  favoured  him,  who  was  most 
faithful  in  all  His  house  (Num.,  xii,  7). 

Of  the  four  institutions  concerning  which  Moses 
enacted  laws,  according  to  Deuteronomy  (xiv,  18- 
xviii),  one  was  prophecy  (xviii,  9-22;  cf.  xiii,  1-5, 
and  Ex.,  iv,  1  sqq.).  Israel  was  to  listen  to  the  true 
Prophets,  and  not  to  heed  the  false  but  rather  to 


PROPHECY 


478 


PROPHECY 


extirpate  them,  even  had  they  the  appearance  of 
mu-acle-workers.  The  former  would  speak  in  the 
name  of  Jahve,  the  one  God;  and  foretell  things  that 
would  be  accomplished  or  be  confirmed  by  miracles. 
The  latter  were  to  come  in  the  name  of  the  false  gods, 
or  teach  a  doctrine  evidently  erroneous,  or  vainly 
endeavour  to  foretell  events.  Later  prophetic 
writers  added  as  other  signs  of  the  false  Prophets, 
cupidity,  flattery  of  the  people  or  the  nobles,  or  the 
promise  of  Divine  favour  for  the  nation  weighed  down 
with  crime.  Balaam  is  both  a  Prophet  and  a  sooth- 
sayer; a  professional  soothsayer  it  would  seem,  of 
whom  Jahve  makes  use  to  proclaim  even  in  Moab 
the  glorious  destiny  of  the  Chosen  People,  when  He 
was  about  to  lead  them  into  the  Promised  Land 
(Num.,  xxii-xxiv). 

In  the  time  of  the  Judges,  in  addition  to  an  un- 
named Prophet  (Judges,  vi,  8-10),  we  meet  with 
Debbora  (Judges  iv-v),  "a  mother  in  Israel",  judg- 
ing the  people,  and  communicating  the  Divine  orders 
concerning  the  War  of  Independence  to  Barac  and  the 
tribes.  The  word  of  God  was  rare  in  those  days  of 
anarchy  and  semi-apostasy,  when  Jahve  partly 
abandoned  Israel  to  render  it  conscious  of  its  feeble- 
ness and  its  sins.  In  the  days  of  Samuel,  on  the 
contrary,  prophecy  became  a  permanent  institution. 
Samuel  was  a  new  but  lesser  Moses,  whose  Divine 
mission  it  was  to  restore  the  code  of  the  elder, 
and  to  supervise  the  beginning  of  the  royalty.  Un- 
der his  guidance,  or  at  least  closely  united  to  him, 
we  find  for  the  first  time  the  nebi'im  (I  Sam.,  x;  xix) 
grouped  together  to  sing  the  praises  of  God  to  the 
accompaniment  of  musical  instruments.  They  are 
not  Prophets  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  nor 
are  they  disciples  of  the  Prophets  destined  to  be- 
come masters  in  their  turn  (the  so-called  "schools  of 
Prophets").  Did  they  wander  about  spreading  the 
oracles  of  Samuel  among  the  people?  Possibly; 
at  all  events,  in  order  to  waken  the  faith  of  Israel  and 
increase  the  dignity  of  Divine  worship,  they  seem  to 
have  received  charismata  similar  to  those  bestowed 
upon  the  early  Christians  in  the  Apostolic  days. 
They  may  not  ineptly  be  compared  with  the  families 
of  singers  gathered  around  David,  under  the  direction 
of  their  three  leaders,  Asaph,  Heman,  and  Idithum 
(I  Par.,  xxv,  1-8).  Doubtless  the  bene-nebl'tm  of  the 
days  of  Elias,  and  Eliseus  the  "disciples  of  the 
Prophets",  or  "members  of  the  confraternities  of  the 
Prophets",  forming  at  least  three  communities, 
domiciled  respectively  at  Gilgal,  Bethel,  and  Jericho, 
must  be  regarded  as  their  successors.  St.  Jerome 
seems  to  have  understood  their  character  aright,  when 
he  saw  in  them  the  germ  of  the  monastic  life  (P.  L., 
XXII,  .583,  1076). 

Are  we  to  consider  as  their  degenerate  and  faith- 
less successors  those  false  Prophets  of  Jahve  whom 
we  meet  at  the  Court  of  Achab,  numbering  four  hun- 
dred, and  later  very  numerous,  also  fighting  against 
Isaias  and  Micheas  and  especially  against  Jeremias 
and  Ezechiel?  A  definite  answer  cannot  as  yet  be 
given,  but  it  is  wrong  to  consider  them,  as  certain 
critics  do,  as  authentic  as  the  true  Prophets,  dif- 
fering from  them  only  by  a,  more  retrograde  spirit, 
and  less  brilliant  intellectual  gifts.  After  Samuel 
the  first  Prophets  properly  so  called  who  are  ex- 
plicitly mentioned  are  Nathan  and  Gad.  They 
assist  David  by  their  counsels,  and,  when  necessary, 
confront  him  with  energetic  protests.  Nathan's 
parable  of  the  little  sheep  of  the  poor  man  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  passages  in  prophetic  history 
(II  Kings,  xii,  1  sqq.).  The  Books  of  Kings  and 
Paralipomenon  mention  a  number  of  other  "men  of 
the  spirit"  exercising  their  ministry  in  Israel  or  in 
Juda.  Wc  may  mention  at  least  Ahias  of  Silo,  who 
announced  to  Jeroboam  his  elevation  to  the  throne 
of  the  Ten  Tribes,  and  the  ephemeral  character  of  his 
djmasty,  and  Micheas,  the  son  of  Jemla,  who   pre- 


dicted to  Achab,  in  presence  of  the  four  hundred 
flattering  court  Prophets,  that  he  would  be  defeated 
and  killed  in  his  war  against  the  Syrians  (III  Kings, 
x.xii). 

But  the  two  greatest  figures  of  prophecy  between 
Samuel  and  Isaiah  are  Elias  and  Eliseus.  Jahveism 
was  again  endangered,  especially  by  the  Tyrian 
Jezabel,  wife  of  Achab,  who  had  introduced  into 
Samaria  the  worship  of  her  Phenician  gods,  and 
Israel's  faith  was  tottering,  as  it  divided  its  worship 
between  Baal  and  Jahve.  In  Juda  the  danger  was 
not  less  menacing.  King  Joram  had  married  Athalia, 
a  worthy  daughter  of  Jezabel.  At  that  moment 
Elias  appeared  like  a  mysterious  giant,  and  by  his 
preaching  and  his  miracles  led  Israel  back  to  the  true 
God  and  suppressed,  or  at  least  moderated,  their 
leaning  towards  the  gods  of  Chanaan.  At  Carmel 
he  won  a  magnificent  and  terrible  victory  over  the 
Prophets  of  Baal;  then  he  proceeded  to  Horeb  to  re- 
new within  him  the  spirit  of  the  Covenant  and  to 
be  present  at  a  marvellous  theophany;  thence  he 
returned  to  Samaria  to  proclaim  to  Achab  the  voice  of 
justice  calling  out  for  vengeance  for  the  murder  of 
Naboth.  When  he  disappeared  in  the  fiery  chariot, 
he  left  to  his  disciple  Ehseus,  with  his  mantle,  a 
double  share  of  his  spirit.  Eliseus  continued  the 
master's  work  against  the  Chanaanite  idolatry  with 
great  success,  and  became  such  a  bulwark  to  the 
Kingdom  of  the  North,  that  King  Joas  wept  for  his 
death  and  took  his  farewell  with  these  words:  "My 
father!  my  father!  chariot  of  Israel  and  its  horse-, 
men"!  Not  all  the  Prophets  left  their  oracles  in 
writing.  Several  of  them,  however,  have  written 
the  history  of  their  times.  Gad  and  Nathan,  for  in- 
stance, the  history  of  David;  and  Nathan  that  of 
Solomon ;  also  Semeias  and  Addo  the  annals  of  Roboam ; 
Jehu,  son  of  Hanani  those  of  Josaphat.  .  .  Is  it 
possible  that  the  historical  books  of  Josue,  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings  were  called  in  the  Jewish  canon 
the  "earlier  Prophets"  because  of  the  belief  that  they 
were  written  by  the  Prophets  or  at  least  based  on 
their  writing?     To  this  query  there  can  be  no  solution. 

(2)  Prophetic  Writers. — The  prophetic  books  were 
entitled  in  the  same  canon  the  "later  Prophets". 
Gradually  the  custom  of  calling  their  authors  the 
prophetic  writers  crept  in.  There  are  four  Greater 
Prophets,  that  is  those  whose  works  are  of  consider- 
able length.  Isaias,  Jeremias,  Ezechiel,  and  Daniel, 
and  twelve  Minor  Prophets,  whose  works  are 
briefer — Osee,  Joel,  Amos,  Abdias,  Jonas,  Micheas, 
Nahum,  Habacuc,  Sophonias,  Aggeus,  Zacharias, 
and  Malachias.  The  Book  of  Baruch,  which  is 
not  included  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  is  united  in  our 
Bibles  to  the  Book  of  Jeremias.  The  ministry  of 
Amos,  the  most  ancient  perhaps  of  the  prophetic 
writers,  is  placed  about  the  years  760-50.  Osee  fol- 
lows him  immediately.  Next  come  Isaias  (about 
740-700),  and  his  contemporary  Micheas.  Sophonias, 
Nahum,  and  Habacuc  prophesied  towards  the  last 
quarter  of  the  seventh  century.  Jeremias  about 
626-586;  Ezechiel  between  592-70.  The  prophecy 
of  Aggeus  and  in  part  that  of  Zacharias  are  dated 
exactly  in  520  and  520-18.  Malachias  belongs  to 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  As  for  Daniel, 
Abdias,  Joel,  Baruch,  as  well  as  portions  of  Isaias, 
Jeremias,  Zacharias,  their  dates  being  disputed,  it 
is  necessary  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  special  articles 
treating  of  them. 

(3)  The  Prophetesses. — The  Old  Testament  gives 
the  name  nehl  ah,  to  three  women  gifted  with  pro- 
phetic charismata:  Mary,  the  sister  of  Moses; 
Debbora;  and  Holda,  «  contemporary  of  Jeremias 
(IV  Kings,  xxii,  14);  also  to  the  wife  of  Isaias  mean- 
ing the  spouse  of  a  nabi' ;  finally  to  Noadia,  a  false 
Prophetess  if  the  Hebrew  text  is  accurate,  for  the 
Scptuagint  and  Vulgate  speak  of  a  false  Prophet 
(Xeh.,  vi,  14). 


PROPHECY 


479 


PROPHECY 


(4)  Cessation  of  Israeliiic  Prophecy. — The  pro- 
phetic institution  had  ceased  to  exist  in  the  time  of  the 
Machabees.  Israel  clearly  recognized  this,  and  was 
awaiting  its  reappearance.  Its  necessity  had  ceased. 
Religious  revelation  and  the  moral  code  expressed  in 
Holy  Writ  were  full  and  clear.  The  people  were 
being  instructed  by  the  scribes  and  doctors — a 
living  magistracy,  fallible,  it  is  true,  and  bound  over- 
much by  letter  of  the  law,  but  withal  zealous  and 
learned.  There  was  a  feeling  that  the  promises 
were  about  to  be  fulfilled  and  the  consequent 
apocalypse  increased  and  intensified  this  feeling. 
It  was  not  unfitting,  therefore,  for  God  to  allow  an 
interval  to  elapse  between  the  prophets  of  the  Old 
Covenant  and  Jesus  Christ,  who  was  to  be  the  crown 
and  consummation  of  their  prophecies. 

D.  Vocation  and  Supernatural  Knowledge  of  the 
Prophets. — (1)  The  Prophetic  Vocation.^"  For  proph- 
ecy came  not  by  the  will  of  man  at  any  time:  but 
the  holy  men  of  God  spoke,  inspired  by  the  Holy 
Ghost"  (II  Pet.,  i,  21).  The  Prophets  were  ever 
conscious  of  this  Divine  mission.  I  am  not  a  pro- 
fessional or  a  voluntary  Prophet,  Amos  practically 
said  to  Amasias,  who  wished  to  prevent  him  from 
prophesying  at  Bethel.  "I  am  a  herdsman  plucking 
wild  figs.  And  the  Lord  took  me  when  I  followed 
the  flock,  and  the  Lord  said  to  me:  Go,  prophesy  to 
my  people  Israel"  (vii,  14  sq.).  Again  "the  lion  shall 
roar,  who  will  not  fear?  The  Lord  God  hath  spoken, 
who  shall  not  prophesy?"  (iii,  8).  Isaias  saw  Jahve 
seated  on  a  throne  of  glory,  and  when  a  seraph  had 
purified  his  lips  he  heard  the  command:  "Go!" 
and  he  received  his  mission  of  preaching  to  the  people 
the  terrible  judgments  of  God.  God  made  known  to 
Jeremias  that  he  had  consecrated  him  from  his 
mother's  womb  and  appointed  him  the  Prophet  of 
nations;  He  touched  his  lips  to  show  that  He  made 
them  His  instrument  for  proclaiming  His  just  and 
merciful  judgments  (i,  10),  a  duty  so  painful,  that 
the  Prophet  endeavoured  to  be  excused  and  to  con- 
ceal the  oracles  entrusted  to  him.  Impossible; 
his  heart  was  consumed  by  a  flame,  which  forced  from 
him  that  touching  complaint:  "Thou  hast  deceived 
me,  O  Lord,  and  I  am  deceived:  thou  hast  been 
stronger  than  I,  and  thou  hast  prevailed"  (xx,  7). 
Ezechiel  sees  the  glory  of  God  borne  on  a  fiery  chariot 
drawn  by  celestial  beings.  He  hears  a  voice  com- 
manding him  to  go  and  find  the  children  of  Israel, 
that  rebellious  nation,  with  hardened  heart  and 
brazen  face,  and  without  prevarication  deliver  to 
them  the  warnings  he  was  to  receive. 

The  other  Prophets  are  silent  on  the  subject  of 
their  vocation;  doubtless  they  also  received  it  as 
clearly  and  irresistibly.  To  the  preaching  and  predic- 
tions of  the  false  Prophets  uttering  the  fancies  of  their 
hearts  and  saying  "the  word  of  Jahve"  when  Jahve 
spoke  to  them  not,  they  fearlessly  oppose  their  own 
oracles  as  coming  from  heaven  and  compelling  ac- 
ceptance under  penalty  of  revolt  against  God.  And 
the  manifest  sanctity  of  their  lives,  the  miracles 
wrought,  the  prophecies  accomplished  demonstrate 
to  their  contemporaries  the  truth  of  their  claims. 
We  also  separated  from  them  by  thousands  of  years 
should  be  convinced  by  two  irrefragable  proofs 
among  others:  the  great  phenomenon  of  Messianism 
culminating  in  Christ  and  the  Church,  and  the 
excellence  of  the  religious  and  moral  teaching  of  the 
Prophets. 

(2)  Supernatural  knowledge:  inspiration  and  rev- 
elation.— (a)  The  fact  of  revelation. — The  Prophet 
did  not  receive  merely  a  general  mission  of  preaching 
or  predicting  in  Jahve's  name:  each  of  his  words 
is  Divine,  all  his  teaching  is  from  above,  that  is,  it 
comes  to  him  by  revelation  or  at  least  by  inspiration. 
Among  the  truths  he  preaches,  there  are  some  which 
he  knows  naturally  by  the  light  of  reason  or  ex- 
perience.    It  is  not  necessary  for  him  to  learn  them 


from  God,  just  as  if  he  had  been  entirely  ignorant  of 
them.  It  suffices  if  the  Divine  illumination  places 
them  in  a  new  light,  strengthens  his  judgment  and 
preserves  it  from  error  concerning  these  facts,  and  if 
a  supernatural  impulse  determines  his  will  to  make 
them  the  object  of  his  message.  This  oral  inspiration 
of  the  Prophets  bears  an  analogy  to  the  Scriptural 
inspiration,  in  virtue  of  which  the  Prophets  and 
hagiographers  composed  our  canonical  books. 

The  entire  contents  of  the  prophetic  message  is 
not,  therefore,  within  the  compass  of  the  natural 
faculties  of  the  Divine  messenger.  The  object  of  all 
strictly  so-called  prediction  requires  a  new  manifesta- 
tion and  illumination;  unaided  the  Prophet  would 
remain  in  more  or  less  absolute  obscurity.  This, 
then,  is  revelation  in  the  full  sense  of  the  term. 

(b)  Manner  of  the  revelatory  communications; 
Canons  for  the  interpretation  of  the  prophecies  and 
their  fulfilment. — In  the  words  of  St.  John  of  the 
Cross — and  the  doctors  of  mysticism  have  a  special 
right  to  be  heard  in  this  matter — "God  multiplies 
the  means  of  transmitting  these  revelations;  at  one 
time  he  makes  use  of  words,  at  another  of  signs, 
figures,  images,  similitudes;  and,  again,  of  both  words 
and  symbols  together"  (The  Ascent  of  Carmel,  II, 
xxvii):  To  grasp  accurately  the  meaning  of  the 
Prophets  and  judge  of  the  fulfilment  of  their  predic- 
tions, these  words  must  be  remembered  and  com- 
pleted :  The  material  element  perceived  in  the  vision 
may  have  a  strictly  literal  jneaning  and  simply 
signify  itself.  When  Micheas,  the  son  of  Jemla, 
beholds  "all  Israel  scattered  upon  the  hills,  like  sheep 
that  have  no  shepherd",  and  hears  Jahve  say, 
"These  have  no  master;  let  every  man  of  them  re- 
turn to  his  house  in  peace"  (III  Kings,  xxii,  17),  he 
sees  exactly  what  will  be  the  outcome  of  Achab's 
expedition  against  the  Syrians  at  Ramoth  of  Galaad. 
Again,  the  meaning  may  be  entirely  symbolic.  The 
almond  branch  shown  to  Jeremias  (i,  11  sq.)  is  not 
shown  for  itself;  it  is  intended  solely  to  represent  by 
its  name  "Ipiff  (vigilant),  the  Divine  watchfulness, 
which  will  not  allow  the  word  of  God  to  be  unful- 
filled. Between  these  two  extremes  there  exists  a 
whole  series  of  intermediary  possibilities,  of  signifi- 
cations imbued  with  varying  degrees  of  reality  or 
symbolism.  The  son  promised  to  David  in  Nathan's 
prophecy  (II  Kings,  vii)  is  at  once  Solomon  and  the 
Messianic  king.  In  the  last  verse  of  Aggeus  Zoro- 
babel  signifies  himself  and  also  the  Messias. 

Neither  the  Prophets  nor  their  clear-sighted,  sen- 
sible hearers  were  ever  misled.  It  is  wronging 
Isaias  to  say  he  believed  that  at  the  end  of  time  the 
hill  of  Sion  would  physically  surpass  all  the  moun- 
tains and  hills  on  the  earth  (ii,  2).  Examples  might 
be  multiplied  indefinitely.  Yet  we  are  not  forced 
to  believe  that  the  Prophets  were  always  able  to 
distinguish  between  the  literal  and  the  symbolical 
significations  of  their  visions.  It  was  sufficient  for 
them  not  to  give,  and  to  be  unable  to  give,  in  the 
name  of  God  any  erroneous  interpretation.  It  has 
likewise  been  long  known  that  the  vision  very  fre- 
quently disregards  distance  of  time  and  place,  and 
that  the  Messias  or  the  Messianic  era  almost  always 
appears  on  the  immediate  horizon  of  contemporary 
history.  If  to  this  we  add  the  frequently  conditional 
character  of  the  oracles  (cf.  Jer.,  xviii;  xxiv,  17  sqq. 
etc.),  and  remember  moreover  that  the  Prophets 
convey  their  message  in  words  of  eloquence,  expressed 
in  Oriental  poetry,  so  rich  in  striking  colours  and  bold 
figures,  the  pretended  distinction  between  realized 
and  unrealized  prophecies,  predictions  substantially 
accurate  but  erroneous  in  detail,  will  disappear. 

(c)  State  of  the  Prophet  during  the  Vision. — Or- 
dinarily the  vision  occurred  when  the  Prophet  was 
awake.  Dreams,  of  which  the  false  Prophets  made 
ill  use,  are  scarcely  ever  mentioned  in  the  case  of  the 
true    Prophets.      Much   has   been   said   about   the 


PROPHECY 


480 


PROPHECY 


ecstatic  state  of  the  latter.  Possibly  the  soul  of  the 
Prophet  may  have  been  at  times,  as  happened  to  the 
mystics,  so  absorbed  by  the  activity  of  the  spiritual 
faculties  that  the  activity  of  the  senses  was  suspended, 
xhough  no  definite  instance  can  be  cited.  In  any  case, 
we  must  remember  what  .St.  Jerome  (In  Isaiam, 
Prolog,  in  P.  L.,  XXIV,  19)  and  St.  John  Chrysostom 
(In  I  Cor.  homil.  XXIX  in  P.  G.,  LXI,  240  sqq.) 
remarked  that  the  Prophets  always  retained  their 
self-consciousness  and  were  never  subject  to  the 
disordered  and  degrading  psychic  conditions  of  the 
pagan  soothsayers  and  pythias;  and,  instead  of 
enigmatical  and  Duerile  sibylline  oracles,  their  pro- 
nouncements were  often  sublime  and  always  worthy 
of  God. 

E.  The  Teaching  of  the  Prophets. — (1)  The  ex- 
terior form. — They  usually  taught  orally.  To 
this  they  often  added  symbolical  acts  which  accorded 
with  Oriental  tastes  and  caught  the  attention  of 
their  hearers.  Jeremias,  for  instance,  wandered 
through  Jerusalem  under  a  wooden  yoke,  sym- 
bolizing the  approaching  subjugation  of  the  nations 
by  the  King  of  Babjdon.  The  false  Prophet  Hananias, 
having  taken  this  yoke  and  broken  it  on  the  ground, 
receives  this  answer,  in  the  name  of  Jahve  "Thou 
hast  broken  chains  of  wood,  and  thou  shalt  make  for 
them  chains  of  iron"  (xxviii,  13).  Jeremias  and 
Ezechiel  make  frequent  use  of  this  method  of  in- 
struction. Amos  was  probably  the  first  who  was  in- 
spired to  unite  the  written  to  the  spoken  word.  His 
example  was  followed.  The  Prophets  thus  exercised 
wider  and  more  lasting  influence,  and  left  moreover 
an  indisputable  proof  that  God  had  spoken  by  them 
(cf.  Isaias,  viii,  16).  Some  prophecies  seem  to  have 
been  made  exclusively  in  writing,  for  instance,  prob- 
ably the  second  part  of  Isaias  and  all  Daniel.  The 
greater  part  of  the  prophetic  books  is  couched  in 
rhythmic  language  perfectly  adapted  to  the  popular 
and,  at  the  same  time,  sublime  character  of  the 
oracles.  Hardly  any  kind  of  Hebrew  poesy  is  absent; 
epithalamia  and  lamentations;  little  satirical  songs; 
odes  of  wonderful  lyrism  etc.  The  fundamental  law 
of  Hebrew  poetry,  the  parallelism  of  the  stichs,  is 
usually  observed.  The  metric  seems  to  be  based 
essentially  on  the  number  of  accents  marking  a 
raised  intonation.  Most  exhaustive  researches  upon 
the  construction  of  the  strophes  have  been  made, 
but  without  many  definitely  accepted  conclusions. 

(2)  The  Teaching. — (a)  Preaching:  religion  and 
morals,  in  general. — Samuel  and  Elias  sketch  out 
the  programme  of  the  religious  and  moral  preaching 
of  the  later  Prophets.  Samuel  teaches  that  the 
idols  are  vanity  and  nothingness  (I  Kings,  xii,  21); 
that  Jahve  alone  is  essentially  true,  and  immutable 
(xv,  29);  that  He  prefers  obedience  to  sacrifice  (xv, 
22).  For  Elias  also  Jahve  alone  is  God,  Baal  is 
nothing.  Jahve  chastises  all  iniquity  and  punishes 
the  injustice  of  the  powerful  for  the  feeble.  These 
are  the  fundamental  points  emphasized  more  and 
more  by  the  prophetic  writers.  Their  doctrine  is 
based  on  the  existence  of  one  God  alone,  possessing 
all  the  attributes  of  the  true  Divinity — sanctity  and 
justice,  mercy  and  fidelity,  supreme  dominion  over 
the  material  and  moral  world,  the  control  of  the 
cosmic  phenomena  and  of  the  course  of  history. 
The  worship  desired  by  God  does  not  consist  in  the 
profusion  of  sacrifices  and  offerings.  They  are 
nauseous  to  Jahve  unless  accompanied  by  adoration 
in  spirit  and  in  truth.  \^'ith  what  greater  indigna- 
tion and  disgust  will  He  not  turn  away  from  the  cruel 
or  unclean  practice  of  human  sacrifice  and  the  pros- 
titution of  sacred  things  so  common  among  the 
neighbouring  nations.  On  being  asked  with  what 
one  should  approach  and  kneel  before  the  Most 
High  God,  He  replies  by  the  mouth  of  Micheas: 
"I  will  show  thee,  O  man,  what  is  good,  and  what  the 
Lord  requireth  of  thee;   Verily  to  do  judgment,  and 


to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  solicitous  with  thy  God" 
(vi,  8).  So  religion  joins  morality,  and  formulates 
and  imposes  its  dictates.  Jahve  will  call  the  nations 
to  account  for  violating  the  natural  law,  and  Israel, 
in  addition,  for  not  observing  the  Mosaic  legislation 
(cf.  Amos,  i-ii,  etc.).  And  He  will  do  this,  so  as  to 
conciliate  in  a  Divine  manner  the  rights  of  justice 
with  the  realization  of  the  promises  made  to  Israel 
and  mankind. 

(b)  Prophetic  predictions.  The  Day  of  Jahve; 
the  Saved;  Messianism;  Eschatology. — The  con- 
stant subjects  of  the  great  prophetic  predictions  of 
Israel,  the  punishment  of  the  guilty  nations,  and  the 
realization  for  all  of  the  ancient  promises.  Directly 
or  indirectly  all  the  prophecies  are  concerned  with 
the  obstacles  to  be  removed  before  the  coming  of  the 
new  kingdom  or  with  the  preparation  of  the  New  and 
final  Covenant.  From  the  days  of  Amos,  and  clearly 
it  was  not  even  then  a  new  expectation,  Israel  was 
awaiting  a  great  day  of  Jahve,  a  daj',  which  it  deemed 
one  of  extraordinary  triumph  for  it  and  its  God. 
The  Prophets  do  not  deny,  but  rather  declare  with 
absolute  certainty  that  the  day  must  come.  They 
dispel  the  illusions  concerning  its  nature.  For 
Israel,  faithless  and  burdened  with  crimes,  the  day 
of  Jahve  will  be  "darkness  and  not  light"  (Amos, 
v,  18  sqq.).  The  time  is  approaching  when  the  house 
of  Jacob  will  be  sifted  among  the  nations  as  wheat 
is  shaken  in  the  sieve  and  not  a  good  seed  drops  to 
the  ground  (ix,  9).  Alas!  the  good  seed  is  rare  here. 
The  bulk  will  perish.  A  remnant  alone  will  be  saved, 
a  holy  germ  from  which  the  Messianic  kingdom  will 
arise.  The  pagan  nations  will  serve  as  sieves  for 
Israel.  But  as  they  have  wandered  still  further  from 
the  right  path,  the  day  of  Jahve  will  come  for  them 
in  turn;  finally  the  remnant  of  Israel  and  the  con- 
verts of  the  nations  will  unite  to  form  a  single  people 
under  the  great  king,  the  Son  of  David.  The 
remnant  of  Ephrsem  or  of  Juda  remaining  in  Pales- 
tine at  the  time  of  the  Exile,  the  remnant  returning 
from  the  Captivity  to  form  the  post-Exilic  com- 
munity, the  Messianic  kingdom  in  its  militant  state 
and  its  final  consummation — all  these  stages  of  the 
history  of  salvation  are  mingled  here  and  there  in 
one  prophetic  view.  The  future  life  looms  up  but 
little,  the  oracles  being  addressed  principally  to  the 
body  of  the  nation,  for  which  there  is  no  future  life. 
However,  Ezechiel  (xxxvii)  alludes  to  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead;  the  apocalypse  of  Isaias  (xxvi,  19 
sqq.)  mentions  it  explicitly;  Daniel  speaks  of  a  res- 
urrection unto  life  everlasting  and  a  resurrection 
unto  eternal  reproach  (xii,  2  sq.).  The  broad  day- 
light of  the  Christian  Revelation  is  coming. 

II.  In  the  New  Testament. — When  this  dawn  is 
about  to  break,  prophecy  then  long  silent  finds  voices 
anew  to  tell  the  good  tidings.  Zachary  and  Elizabeth, 
Mary  the  Virgin-Mother,  the  old  man  Simeon  and 
Anna  the  Prophetess  are  enlightened  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  unfold  the  future.  Soon  the  Precursor  ap- 
pears, filled  with  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elias.  He 
finds  anew  the  accents  of  olden  prophecy  to  preach 
penance  and  announce  the  coming  of  the  kingdom. 
Then  it  is  the  Messias  in  person  who,  long  foretold  and 
awaited  as  a  Prophet  (Deut.,  xviii,  15,  18;  Is.,  xhx, 
etc.),  does  not  disdain  to  accept  this  title  and  to  fulfil 
its  signification.  His  preaching  and  His  predictions 
are  much  closer  to  the  prophetic  models  than  are  the 
teachings  of  the  rabbis.  His  great  predecessors  are  as 
far  below  Him  as  the  servants  are  below  the  only  Son. 
Unlike  them  He  does  not  receive  from  without  the 
truth  which  He  preaches.  Its  source  is  within  Him. 
He  promulgates  it  with  an  authority  thereunto  un- 
known. His  revelation  is  the  definite  message  of  the 
Father.  To  understand  its  meaning  more  and  more 
clearly  the  Church  which  He  is  about  to  establish  will 
have  throughout  all  ages  the  infallible  assistance  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.    However,  during  the  Apostolic  times, 


PROPOSITIONS 


481 


PROSE 


God  continues  to  select  certain  instruments  like  unto 
the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Law  to  make  known  His  will 
in  an  extraordinary  manner  and  to  foretell  coming 
events:  such,  for  instance,  are  the  Prophets  of  Antioch 
(Acts,  xiii,  1,  8),  Agabus,  the  daughters  of  the  Evan- 
gelist Philip,  etc.  And  among  the  charismata  (ef. 
Prat,  "La  th6ologie  de  Saint  Paul",  1  pt.,  note  H,  p. 
180-4)  conferred  so  abundantly  to  hasten  and  fortify 
the  incipient  progress  of  the  faith,  one  of  the  principal, 
next  after  the  Apostolic,  is  the  gift  of  prophecy.  It  is 
granted  "unto  edification,  and  exhortation,  and  com- 
fort" (I  Cor.,  xiv,  3).  The  writer  of  the  "Didache" 
informs  us  that  in  his  day  it  was  fairly  frequent  and 
widespread,  and  he  indicates  the  signs  by  which  it  may 
be  recognized  (xi,  7-12).  Finally  the  Canon  of  the 
Scriptures  closes  with  a  prophetic  book,  the  Apoc- 
alypse of  St.  John,  which  describes  the  struggles  and 
the  victories  of  the  new  kingdom  while  awaiting  the 
return  of  its  Chief  at  the  consummation  of  all  things. 

CoRNELY,  Historica  ct  crit.  introd.  in  A''.  T.  libros  sacros,  II,  2 
(Paris,  1897),  diss.  Ill,  i,  267-30.5;  Giqot,  Special  Introd.  to 
the  Study  of  the  Old  Testament,  II  (New  York,  1906)  189-202. 

Jean  Cal^s. 

Propositions  Condemned.  See  Censures,  The- 
ological; Excommunication. 

Proprium. — The  Proprium  de  tempore  and  the 
Proprium  Sanctorum  form  in  the  present  liturgy  the 
two  principal  portions  of  our  Breviary  and  Missals; 
the  first  comprises  the  parts  appointed  for  the  days 
of  the  year  having  special  Masses  or  Offices  (introits, 
prayers,  lessons,  responses,  versicles,  antiphons,  etc.); 
the  second  is  devoted  to  the  Offices  of  the  Saints.  The 
Proprium  de  tempore  begins  with  the  first  Sunday  of 
Advent  and  ends  with  the  last  Sunday  after  Pentecost. 
It  includes,  after  Advent,  the  parts  assigned  for  the 
Christmas  season  (six  Sundays) ;  Septuagesima,  three 
weeks;  Lent,  six  weeks;  Paschal  time,  fifty  days; 
Pentecost,  and  the  twenty-four  Sundays  after.  Most 
of  the  Sundays  comprising  this  cycle,  and  often  week- 
days, have  special  Offices  which  composed  the  Pro- 
prium de  tempore. 

The  Proprium  Sanctorum  comprises  all  the  saints' 
days  with  special  Offices,  from  St.  Andrew  on  30 
November.  The  Offices  of  the  saints,  like  those  de 
tempore,  are  composed  of  lessons,  antiphons,  responses, 
hymns,  or  other  liturgical  passages  special  to  these 
saints'  feasts.  It  is  unnecessary  to  remark  that  this 
arrangement  is  not  primitive.  Ages  passed  before 
the  present  liturgical  cycle  was  evolved.  In  the 
Liturgical  Books  before  the  ninth  or  eighth  century, 
the  Sundays  after  Pentecost  form  groups,  called  after 
some  solemn  festival,  St.  John  the  Baptist,  the 
Apostles,  or  St.  Michael;  the  season  of  Septuagesima 
did  not  yet  exist,  at  least  in  its  entirety.  A  century 
or  two  later  the  Christmas  season  had  not  been 
evolved,  even  the  weeks  of  Advent  had  practically  no 
special  Offices.  In  the  first  ages  of  the  Church,  except 
for  the  Feast  of  Easter,  Christmas  Day,  and  Sundays, 
the  liturgical  cycle  did  not  exist.  The  Divine  Office 
and  the  Liturgy  of  the  Mass  were  performed  with  the 
help  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments, 
and  consisted  in  the  chanting  of  psalms  or  canticles, 
readings,  exhortations,  and  impromptu  prayers.  The 
liturgical  cycle,  that  is,  the  feasts  of  the  year  or  of  the 
martyrs  exerted  hardly  any  influence  on  the  Liturgy, 
and  in  this  sense  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  beginning 
there  was  neither  a  Proprium  de  tempore  nor  a 
Proprium  Sanctorum.  Probst  (op.  cit.  infra)  thinks 
that  it  was  at  Rome,  in  the  fourth  century  under  Pope 
Damasus,  that  this  liturgical  "reform"  took  place, 
especially  in  arranging  the  liturgical  prayers  to  suit 
the  season  and  the  feasts  of  the  saints.  This  may  be 
accepted  with  some  reservations,  as  it  is  indisputable 
that  even  then  the  cycle  had  exerted  its  influence  on 
the  liturgy,  in  certain  special  circumstances.  It  seems 
certain  that  the  origin  of  the  Common  of  the  Saints  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Propria,  and  that  it  was  at 
XII.— 31 


first  a  Proprium;  for  instance,  the  Common  of  the 
Apostles  was  originally  the  Proprium  of  the  Apostles 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul;  and  the  Common  of  a  Martyr 
was  originally  the  Proprium  of  St.  Stephen  and  St. 
Lawrence. 

Zacharia,  Onomasticon,  a.  v.  Missa  de  Sanctis,  de  tempore,  37, 
40;  Probst,  Liturgie  dea  vierten  Jahrhunderts  und  deren  Reform 
(Mdnster,  1893) ;  Hotham  in  Diet.  Christ.  Antiq.,  s.  v.  Office,  the 
Divine;  Baumer-Biron,  Hisioire  du  breviaire,  I,  256,  424  sq.; 
II,  48,  203,  343,  454,  etc. ;  Baudot,  The  Roman  Bretiary  (Lon- 
don, 1909).  F.  Cabeol. 

Proschko,  Fkanz  Isidor,  well-known  Austrian 
author,  b.  at  Hohenfurt,  Bohemia,  2  April,  1816; 
d.  at  Vienna,  6  February,  1891.  Throughout  his 
life  he  was  engaged  in  various  departments  of  the 
public  service.  A  monument  was  erected  on  his 
grave  [in  his  honour  (1906) .]  Of  his  numerous  writings, 
always  characterized  by  a  Catholic  spirit,  the  most 
important  are :  "Leuchtkaferchen"  (1849)  and  "Feier- 
stunden"  (1854),  books  for  the  young;  "HoUenmas- 
chine"  (2  vols.,  1854),  "Der  Jesuit"  (2  vols.,  1857), 
"Die  Nadel"  (2  vols.,  1858),  and  "Pugatschew" 
(2  vols.,  1860),  historical  romances;  "Ausgewahlte 
Erzahlungen  und  Gedichte"  (1873).  His  complete 
works  were  edited  in  six  volumes  ("Franz  Isidor 
Proschko,  Gesammelte  Schriften",  1901-09)  by  his 
daughter,  Hermione  (b.  at  Linz,  29  July,  1851), 
who  is  also  a  distinguished  Catholic  writer,  and  whose 
works  include:  " Heimatklange "  (poems,  2nd  ed., 
1879);  "Unter  Tannen  und  Palmen"  (1880);  "Aus 
Oesterreichs  Lorbeerhain"  (1891);  "In  Freud  und 
Not"   (1893);    "Gott  lenkt"   (1895). 

Thomas  Kennedy. 

Proselyte  (irpo<ri}XuTos;  13,  stranger,  or  new- 
comer; Vulgate,  advena). — The  English  term  "pros- 
elyte" occurs  only  in  the  New  Testament  where  it 
signifies  a  convert  to  the  Jewish  religion  (Matt., 
xxiii,  15;  Acts,  ii,  11;  vi,  5;  etc.),  though  the  same 
Greek  word  is  commonly  used  in  the  Septuagint  to 
designate  a  foreign  sojourner  in  Palestine.  Thus  the 
term  seems  to  have  passed  from  an  original  local  and 
chiefly  political  sense,  in  which  it  was  used  as  early  as 
300  B.  c,  to  a  technical  and  religious  meaning  in  the 
Judaism  of  the  N.  T.  epoch.  Besides  the  proselytes 
in  the  strict  sense  who  underwent  the  rite  of  circum- 
cisionand  conformed  to  theprecepts  of  the  JewishLaw, 
there  was  another  class  often  referred  to  in  the  Acts 
as  "fearers  of  God"  (Acts,  x,  2,  22;  xiii,  16,  26), 
"worshippers  of  God"  (Acts,  xvi,  14),  "servers  of 
God"  (Acts,  xiii,  43;  xvii,  4,  17).  These  were  sym- 
pathetic adherents  attracted  by  the  Monotheism  and 
higher  ideals  of  the  Jewish  religion.  St.  Paul  ad- 
dressed himself  especially  to  them  in  his  missionary 
journeys,  and  from  them  he  formed  the  beginning 
of  many  of  his  Churches. 

Allen  in  The  Expositor,  X  (London,  1894),  267-75:  Davidson, 
They  that  fear  the  Lord  in  Expository  Times,  III  (1892),  49Isqq. 

James  F.  Dbiscoll. 

Prose  or  Sequence. — I.  Definition  and  Gen- 
eral Description. — The  Sequence  (Sequentia) — ■ 
or,  more  accurately  as  will  be  seen  further  on,  the 
Prose  (Prosa) — is  the  liturgical  hymn  of  the  Mass, 
in  which  it  occurs  on  festivals  between  the  Gradual  and 
the  Gospel,  while  the  hymn,  properly  so  called,  be- 
longs to  the  Breviary.  The  Sequence  differs  also  in 
structure  and  melody  from  the  hymn;  for  whilst  all 
the  strophes  of  a,  hymn  are  always  constructed  ac- 
cording to  the  same  metre  and  rhythm  and  are  sung 
to  the  same  melody  as  the  first  strophe,  it  is  the 
peculiarity  of  the  Sequence,  due  to  its  origin,  that  (at 
least  in  those  of  the  first  epoch)  each  strophe  or  pair 
of  strophes  is  constructed  on  a  different  plan.  A 
sequence  usually  begins  with  an  independent  in- 
troductory sentence  or  an  Alleluia  (an  intonation  with 
its  own  melody) ;  then  follow  several  pairs  of  strophes, 
each  pair  with  its  own  melody;  in  the  earlier  periods 


PROSE 


482 


PROSE 


the  conclusion  is  uniformly  an  independent  sentence 
of  shorter  or  longer  form.  Each  pair  of  strophes 
is  composed  of  strophe  and  antistrophe,  which  ex- 
actly agree  in  their  length  and  the  number  of  their 
syllables  (later  also  in  rhythm  and  rhyme).  The 
execution  was  entrusted  to  two  choirs  (usually  of  men 
and  boys,  respectively),  the  strophe  being  sung  by 
one  and  the  antistrophe  by  the  other  to  the  same 
melody.  Thus,  in  contrast  with  the  monotony  of  the 
hymn,  the  Sequence  shows  manifold  diversity  in  out- 
ward construction,  in  melody,  and  in  method  of 
execution.  The  various  transformations  which  this 
original  plan  underwent  in  the  course  of  the  centuries, 
and  according  to  which  we  divide  sequences  into  those 
of  the  first,  the  transitional,  and  the  second  periods, 
will  be  considered  in  the  next  paragraph. 

II.  Origin,  Development,  and  Classification. 
— That  the  Sequence  started  from  the  Alleluia  is  gen- 
erally admitted,  and  may  be  considered  as  certain; 
but  the  manner  of  its  origin  and  the  various  phases 
of  its  development  before  we  get  to  what  are  termed 
the  "versus  ad  sequentias"  (which  are  the  imme- 
diate predecessors  of  the  Sequence),  are  still  shrouded 
in  obscurity  and  caimot  now  be  determined  with 
certainty,  as  the  oldest  documents  are  not  contempo- 
rary, and  from  those  which  we  possess  no  sufficiently 
definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn.  With  the  aid  of 
the  "Analecta  hymnica  medii  aevi" — especially  the 
material  of  the  last  volume  (LIII)  edited  by  the  Rev. 
H.  M.  Bannister  and  the  writer  of  the  present  article 
— and  with  the  assistance  of  the  material  gathered 
by  Baimister  for  his  forthcoming  work  on  the  Se- 
quence melodies  of  all  Western  countries,  we  may 
trace  the  most  probable  development  of  the  Sequence 
as  below: 

(1)  The  starting-point  of  the  Sequence  is  the  Alle- 
luia with  its  melisma  (i.  e.  a  more  or  less  long  melo- 
dious succession  of  notes  on  its  concluding  a);  in 
other  words,  the  Alleluia  which  precedes  the  versus 
alleluiaticus.  This  succession  of  notes  was  called 
seguentia  (or  sequela,  "that  which  follows"); 
synonymous  terms  are  jnbilus,  juhilaiio,  neuma, 
melodia,  as  was  later  explained  by  Abbot  Gerbert  of 
Saint-Blasien:  "Nomen  sequentiarum  antea  jubila^ 
tionibus  ejusmodi  proprium  fuit,  haud  dubie,  quia 
soni  illi  ultimam  verbi  syllabam  sea  vocalem  se- 
quebantur.  'Sequitur  jubilatio',  ut  habetur  in  Or- 
dine  Romano  II,   'quam  sequentiam  vocant'    . 

In  citatis  his  loois  agitur  de  Alleluia,  in  cujus  ultima 
syllaba  hujusmodi  neumae  haud  raro  satis  longae  com- 
parent  in  veteribus  codicibus.  .  .  .  Ipsa  ilia  repetitio 
a  a  a  cum  modulatione  sequentia  dicebatur.  'Post 
Alleluia  quaedam  melodia  neumatum  cantatur,  quod 
sequentiam  quidam  appellant',  ait  S.  Udalricus  lib. 
I  consuet.  Cluniac.  cap.  II.  Belethus  idem  affirmat: 
'Moris  enim  fuit,  ut  post  Alleluia  cantaretur  neuma; 
nominatur  autem  neuma  cantus  qui  sequebatur  Alle- 
luia.' Quod  tamen  ita  intclligi  debet,  ut  ipsi  ultimae 
vocali  A  conjungeretur"  (Gerbertus,  "De  cantu  et 
musica sacra ",Typis St.  Blasianis,  I,  1774,  pp.  3.38  sq.; 
cf.  "Analecta  hymnica",  XLVII,  11  sqq.;  XLIX, 
266  sqq.).  Hence  sequentia  is  originally  only  a 
musical  term;  etymologically  it  is  the  same  as  the 
Greok  iKoXovBla.,  although  the  latter  word  actually 
means  something  else  (cf.  Christ  and  Paranikas, 
"Anthologia  grseca",  Leipzig,  1871,  p.  Ivii).  How 
far,  however,  we  are  justified  in  supposing  Grseco- 
Oriental  influence  from  the  similarity  of  the  terms 
sequentia  and  iKoKovBla  must  be  left  undecided,  es- 
pecially as  the  Hymn  too,  though  borrowed  from  the 
Greek  O/iTOs,  must  be  regarded  as  a  genuine  West- 
em  product  without  traces  of  anything  essentially 
Eastern. 

(2)  It  was  the  length  of  the  melisma  or  jubilus 
over  the  ending  a  (when  and  how  this  length  arose 
is  not  here  in  question)  -n-hich  probably  led  to  its 
being   divided   into   several   parts    [incisa,   musical 


phrases).  Each  division  was  then  called  sequentia, 
and  the  whole,  as  comprising  several  such  divisions, 
sequentias.  The  reason  for  this  division  was  a  purely 
practical  one,  viz.  to  allow  the  singers  time  to  take 
breath,  and  to  effect  this  the  more  easily  the  practice 
was  introduced,  so  it  would  seem,  of  having  these 
divisions  of  the  melody  (or  sequentice)  sung  by  alter- 
nate choirs,  each  musical  phrase  being  sung  twice; 
exception  was  made  in  the  case  of  a  few  jubili,  appar- 
ently the  shorter  ones,  which  have  no  such  repetition. 
This  is  the  origin  of  the  alternate  choirs,  and  of  the 
consequent  repetition  of  all  or  nearly  all  the  divisions 
of  the  melody.  In  the  old  musical  manuscripts  the 
repetition  is  indicated  by  a  d  (=dereMO  or  dupplex  or 
dis  for  bis;   cf.  discantus  for  biscantus). 

(3)  A  much  more  important  advance  was  made 
when  some  of  the  divisions  of  the  melody  or  se- 
quentice— for  it  did  not  as  yet  apply  to  all  of  them — 
were  provided  with  a  text;  this  text,  consisting  of 
short  versicles,  was  appropriately  termed  in  the 
"Prooemium"  of  Notker  "versus  ad  aliquot  se- 
quentias" (i.  e.  the  verses  or  text  to  some  of  the 
divisions  of  the  melody),  in  which  expression  the 
proper  meaning  of  sequentia  is  preserved.  When  we 
reach  these  versus  ad  sequentias  we  are  on  safer  his- 
torical ground.  In  the  "Analecta  hymnica",  XLIX, 
nn.  515-30,  we  have  examples  of  them  preserved  in 
some  old  French  and  English  tropers;  not  a  single 
example  comes  from  Germany.  For  the  purpose  of 
illustration  we  may  give  the  first  paragraphs  of  the 
jubilus  "Fulgens  prseclara"  from  the  Winchester 
Troper: 

"Fulgens   praeclara^' 


::^ 


■■'v   s    II  iy 


P-  \,^  •- — ]  ■  P-  '•'  J   E 


^^^^^^^g 


it± 


^'>%f 


■  fi  i    !■ 


(Rex  in   ae-ter-nun,l    sus-ci-pe      be-nig«us    )  piae.co -n)  •  a     no  -  stra) 
'  Vic- tor  u  -  bi  -  que    I  mor-te    su  -pe-ra-ta      |     at  -  que  tri-uni-pha -ta; 


t     l-.y.  j.||.^.^.-i-  ^^1>-v,  -r-i-H"  '"■ 


The  first  three  divisions  of  the  jubilus  are  here 
without  any  text;  they  are  pure  melody  sung  to  the 
vowel  a:  a  text  is  then  provided  for  the  fifth  division 
and  its  repeat;  this  is  again  followed  by  a  on  which 
the  melody  was  sung ;  a  text  has  been  composed  for  the 
eighth  and  twelfth  divisions  as  for  the  fifth;  the  end- 
ing is  three  divisions  of  the  melody  without  any  text. 

(4)  From  these  "versus  ad  sequentias"  to  the 
real  Sequence  was  no  great  step;  a  text  was  now  set 
to  all  the  scquentim  or  divisions  of  the  melody  with- 
out exception,  and  we  thus  have  what  we  call  a 
sequence.  The  proper  and  natural  title  of  such  a 
melody  with  its  text  (a  text  which  has  neither  rhythm, 
metre,  nor  rhyme)  is  doubtless  "sequentia  cum 
prosa"  (melody  with  its  text),  a  title  found  in  old 
French  sources.  As  this  text  (prosa)  gradually  be- 
came more  prominent,  and  as  it  had  to  be  marked 
before  the  melody,  the  use  of  the  term  "Prosa" 
for  both  melody  and  verse  was  only  natural.  France 
adopted  and  retained  this  term;  on  the  other  hand, 
Germany,  whether  from  imperfect  knowledge  of  the 
development  or  because  the  original  meaning  of 
sequentia  was  lost,  or  from  opposition  to  France 
which  is  frequently  evinced  in  the  language  of  the 
sequences,  or  from  whatever  other  reason,  em- 
ployed  almost  exclusively  the  title  Sequentia.     In 


PROSE 


483 


PROSE 


this  connexion  it  is  interesting  to  quote  the  remark 
of  William  of  Hirsohau  in  his  "Consuetudines": 
"  .  pro  signo  prosse,  quam  quidam  sequentiam 
vocant".  From  the  single  title  "Sequentia  cum 
prosa"  developed  the  two  titles,  "Prosa"  and  "Se- 
quentia" (Prose  and  Sequence),  which  are  now  used 
promiscuously;  the  first  is  the  older  and  more  ac- 
curate, the  second  the  more  usual.  (As  a  matter  of 
curiosity  we  may  mention  that  there  have  been  people 
who  took  in  earnest  the  interpretation  of  prosa  as 
=  pro  so,  i.  e.  pro  sequentia.) 

This  sketch  of  the  development  of  the  Prose  or 
Sequence  explains  many  peculiarities  in  the  oldest 
sequences.  Originally  the  text  was  adapted  to  a 
melody  which  already  existed;  as  the  divisions  of 
this  melody  (dausuliv),  with  the  exception  of  the 
introductory  and  closing  ones,  were  usually  repeated 
by  alternative  choirs  (cf.  above  II,  2),  there  arose 
double  strophes  of  the  same  length  and  sung  to  the 
same  melody — in  other  words,  symmetrically  con- 
structed parallel  strophes.  These  somewhat  long 
pieces  of  melody  (a  musical  division  corresponding  to 
the  strophe  of  the  text)  were  further  subdivided  into 
smaller  divisions,  shorter  musical  phrases  with  short 
half-pauses,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  melody  was 
divided  into  a  number  of  short  musical  phrases  of 
different  lengths.  As  the  text  had  to  follow  this 
peculiarity,  the  strophe  was  divided  into  different 
verses  of  different  lengths.  Under  these  circum- 
stances it  was  natural  that  at  the  beginning  neither 
rhythm  nor  metre  (still  less  rhyme,  which  is  of  rel- 
atively late  origin)  was  taken  into  practical  account, 
and  the  whole  presented  an  appearance  and  form  very 
different  from  what  we  usually  understand  by  a  poem. 
On  the  whole  then  the  Prosa  was  true  to  its  name  in 
being  prose,  except  that  the  fact  that  the  antis- 
trophe  had  to  be  as  long  as  the  strophe  and  that  the 
end  of  the  verse  had,  so  far  as  possible,  to  corre- 
spond with  the  end  of  the  word  imposed  a  certain  re- 
straint. Moreover,  as  it  seems,  the  first  writers  of 
sequences  felt  themselves  especially  bound  by  an- 
other law  (frequently  observed  also  in  later  times), 
which,  it  is  important  to  note,  prevailed  with- 
out exception  in  the  versus  ad  sequentias,  the  prede- 
cessors of  the  Sequence,  and  which,  therefore,  may 
not  be  considered  the  product  of  a  later  date;  the 
jubUus  of  the  Alleluia  was  built  on  its  concluding  a, 
and  is  thus  the  melody  of  the  a.  This  a,  the 
original  text  of  the  jubilus,  ought  therefore  naturally 
to  be  prominent  in  the  text  which  was  introduced  to 
replace  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  all  versus  ad 
sequentias  and  in  many  old  sequences  (especially  the 
earliest),  not  only  the  strophes  but  often  all  the  verses 
end  in  a.  But  we  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  in 
those  of  German  origin  this  law  is  seldom  observed  or, 
more  properly  speaking,  is  still  only  occasionally 
used  (cf.  Analecta  Hymnica,  LIII,  nn.  150,  160,  161, 
185,  186),  and  even  then  it  is  not  the  verses  but  only 
the  strophes  which  end  in  a.  As  an  example  of  these 
peculiarities  we  may  quote  the  first  strophes  of  the 
sequence  "Eia  reoolamus"  (Anal.  Hymn.,  LIII,  16), 
once  a  favourite  Christmas  sequence  in  all  countries : — ■ 

1.  Eia,  recolamus  laudibua  piia  digna 


2a.  Huius  diei  carmina, 

in  qua  nobis  lux 

oritur  gratissima; 
3a.  Hodie  aaeculo 

maris  Stella 

est  enixa 

novae  salutis  gaudia; 
4a.  Gemit  capta 

pestis  antiqua 

coluber  lividus  perdit 

spolia : 


2b, 


3b, 


Noctis  interit  nebula, 
poreunt  nostri 
criminis  umbracula. 
Quem  tremunt  barathra, 
mors  cruenta 
pavet  ipsa, 
a  quo  poribit  mortua. 
4b.  Homo  Lapsus 
ovis  abducta 
revocatur  ad  aeterna 
gaudia,  etc. 


Some  few  sequences  of  the  older  period  do  not  show 
the  strophes  in  pairs,  their  strophes  lacking  antis- 
trophes.  A  short  example  is  the  following  Advent- 
sequence  (Anal.  Hymn.,  LIII,  n.  3): — 


2.  Qui  regis  sceptra 
forti  dextra 
solus  cuncta, 

3.  Tu  plebi  tuam 
ostende  magnam 
excitando  potentiam; 


1.  Alleluia; 

4.  Praesta  dona  illi  salutaria. 

5.  Quem  pr^dixerunt  prophetica 
vaticinia, 

a  clara  poli  regia 

in  nostra, 

Jesu,  veni,  Domine,  arva. 


All  unpaired  and  unsymmetrical  sequences  of  this 
sort  are  thus  short,  and  their  origin  is  probably  to  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  a  few  relatively  short 
Alleluia-jubili  were  left  without  repeats.  As  the 
divisions  of  the  melody  have  no  repeat,  the  strophes 
set  to  them  are  also  not  repeated  (i.  e.  they  have  no 
antistrophe  or  parallel  strophe).  If  this  explanation 
is  right,  there  is  no  ground  for  the  suggestion  that 
sequences  without  parallel  strophes  are  older  than 
those  with  them;  they  may  date  from  the  same  period, 
but  they  had  a  very  short  life,  as  sequences  without 
symmetrical  pairs  of  strophes  soon  became  so  unusual 
that  antistrophes  were  added  to  those  earlier  without 
them.  With  the  sequence  developed  in  the  way  thus 
indicated,  viz.  by  adapting  a  text  to  an  already  exist- 
ing melody,  it  became  natural  in  time  to  have  se- 
quences composed  with  a  melody  of  their  own.  The 
text  in  this  case  had  no  need  to  follow  the  AUeluia- 
jubilus;  text  and  melody  would  be  composed  at  the 
same  time,  and,  if  need  be,  the  melody  might  be  ac- 
commodated to  the  text.  This  led  to  a  freer 
treatment  of  the  text,  which  otherwise  would  have  to 
follow  syllable  by  syllable  the  notes  of  the  melody, 
and  so  gradually  more  attention  was  paid  to  rhythm 
and  symmetry  in  the  construction  of  the  verse,  as  is 
required  by  the  exigencies  of  poetry. 

Even  when  the  text  was  set  to  a  melody  already 
in  use,  care  was  soon  taken  to  observe  a  certain 
rhythm  in  the  words.  In  this  connexion  rhythm  does 
not  depend  on  the  quantity  of  the  syllables  (with 
which  the  sequence  has  practically  no  concern),  but 
simply  on  the  accent  of  the  word.  In  many  se- 
quences we  find  in  a  few  of  their  verses  and  strophes 
this  type  of  symmetrical  rhythm  (i.  e.  a  rhythm 
which  occurs  regularly  in  a  verse  and  its  correspond- 
ent); in  other  sequences  we  find  it  in  almost  all 
the  verses  (e.  g.  in  two  sequences,  for  St.  Stephen's 
Day  and  the  feast  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  ascribed 
to  Notker  Balbulus).  In  the  St.  Stephen  sequence 
"Hanc  concordi  famulatu"  (Anal.  Hymn.,  LIII,  n. 
215)  the  rhythm  in  the  first  two  pairs  of  strophes 
which  follow  the  introductory  verse  is  of  this  kind; 
the  acute  accent  placed  above  the  words  represents 
the  natural  intonation  of  the  words: — 


2a.  Auct6ris  illius 

6x6mpIo 

d6cti  benigno 
3a.  O  St^phane, 

signifer  r^gis 

summe  b6ni,  nds  exal!idi, 


2b.  Pro  p^rsecut6rum 

precdntis 

fralide  su6rum. 
3b.  Proficue 

qui  es  pro  tliis 

6xaudltus  inimicis. 


Exactly  the  same  rhythm  in  strophe  and  antis- 
trophe, in  the  verse  and  its  parallel,  can  be  seen  in  the 
Apostles'  sequence  which  follows  the  same  plan: — 


2a.  Eccl6siam  v^stris 

doctrinis 

illumin^tam 
3a.  Nam  Ddminus, 

P6tre,  caeldrum, 

tibi  clAves  d6no  d6dit 


2b.  Per  circulum  t^rrae 

precAtus 

ddiuvet  vaster. 
3b.  Armigerum 

B^niamin,  Chrlstus 

t6  scit  suurn  vdsque  el6ctum. 


In  both  these  sequences  the  end  of  all  the  strophes  is 
paroxytone. 

Like  rhythm,  assonance,  the  precursor  of  rhyme, 
was  also  gradually  introduced;  now  a  single  verse, 
now  several  verses,  began  to  end  with  the  same  or 
equivalent  vowel  (e  and  i,  o  and  u).  This  was  the 
beginning  of  that  process  which  gradually  led  to  the 
development  of  sequences  characterized  by  regular 
rhythm  and  rhyme  and  complete  uniformity  in  the 
construction  of  the  verses  (frequently  also  of  the 
strophes),  and  thus  revealing  in  structure  and  tech- 
nique a  strong  contrast  to  the  older  types,  in  which 


PROSE 


484 


PROSE 


the  text  had  almost  exclusively  the  character  of  prose, 
the  strophes  being  dissimilar  and  the  verses  of  un- 
equal length,  of  different  structure,  and  without 
rhyme  or  regular  rhythm.  These  latter  are  therefore 
called  the  sequences  of  the  first  epoch;  none  have 
been  preserved  in  the  liturgy  of  to-day. 

(5)  The  tran.sition  from  the  sequences  of  the  first 
to  those  of  the  second  epoch  occupied  more  than  a 
century,  viz.  from  the  end  of  the  tenth,  when  the 
change  made  itself  visible  here  and  there,  to  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth,  when  the  new  style  reached 
its  perfection.  Sequences  with  more  or  less  numerous 
traces  of  the  transition  process  are  so  numerous  that 
they  may  be  placed  in  a  class  by  themselves.  While 
maintaining  the  structure  of  sequences  of  the  first 
epoch,  these  sequences  add  a  greater  or  less  degree 
of  the  element  of  rhyme  (although  not  yet  pure 
rhyme)  and  greater  uniformity  of  rhythm.  They 
may  be  entitled  sequences  of  the  transitional 
style,  not  of  the  transitional  period;  for  many 
sequences  of  the  transitional  period  still  bear  the 
distinct  stamp  of  the  older  ones,  and  moreover, 
when  sequences  of  the  second  period  were  in  high- 
est favour,  some  writers  of  proses  utilized  the 
structure  of  the  early  period,  while  employing  rhyme 
according  to  the  style  of  the  second  period.  It 
should  also  be  observed  that  not  a  few  sequences  are 
so  very  akin  to  those  of  the  first,  whilst  others  on 
the  contrary  are  so  nearly  related  to  those  of  the 
second  epoch,  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  decide  to 
what  group  they  should  be  referred.  A  sharp  line 
of  division  cannot  be  drawn,  since  the  development 
from  the  older  to  later  forms  (sometimes  in  strong 
contrast  with  the  first)  was  not  only  slow  but  steady, 
revealing  no  abrupt  transition  or  change.  A  good 
example  of  the  transition  style  is  the  Easter  sequence 
which  is  still  used,  but  now  a  little  altered  in  the  "Mis- 
sale  Romanum",  and  which  probably  was  composed 
by  Wipo  the  Burgundian  (d.  after  1048) : — • 

1.  Victimse  paschali  laudes  immolent  Christiani. 
2a.  Agnus  redemit  oves,  2b.  Mors  et  vita  duello 

Christus  innocens  Patri  conflixere  mirando . 

reconciliavit  dux  vitte  mortuus 

peccatores.  regnat  vivus. 

3a.  Die  nobis,  Maria,  3b.  Angelicos  testes, 

quid  vidisti  in  via?  sudarium  et  vestes. 

Sepulcrum  Christi  viventis  Surrexit  Christus  spes  mea; 

et  gloriam  vidi  resurgentis.  prseeedet  sues  in  GalilEea, 

4a.  Credendum  est  4b.  Scimug  Christum 

magis  soli  surrexisse 

Marige  veraci,  a  mortuis  vere; 

quam  Judseorum  tu  nobis,  victor, 

turbae  fallaci.  Rex,  miserere. 

(6)  The  final  phase  of  the  development  is  seen  in 
the  sequences  of  the  second  epoch  already  described, 
in  which  uniformity  of  rhythm,  purity  of  rhyme,  and 
strict  regularity  in  structure  characterize  the  verses, 
though  the  strophes  still  evince  manifold  variety. 
Not  infrequently  most  (sometimes  even  all)  of  the 
pairs  of  strophes  are  composed  of  verses  so  uniform 
that  the  outward  difference  between  these  sequences 
and  hymns,  though  not  completely  removed,  is  con- 
sideratjly  lessened.  The  present  sequence  for  Cor- 
pus Christi,  composed  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  in 
1263,   may  serve  as  an  example: — 

la.   Lauda  Sion  salvatorem,  lb.  Quantum  potes,  tantum 

Lauda  duceni  et  pastorem  aude, 

In  hymnis  et  canticis.  Quia  major  omni  laude, 

Nee  laudare  sufficig. 

If  we  institute  a  comparison  between  this  and  a 
strophe    of    a   sequence   of   the   first   epoch   and  a 
strophe  of  the  following  hymn: — 
Pange  lingua  gloriosi 

C'jrporis  mysterium 
Sanguinisque  pretiosi. 

Quem  in  mundi  pretium 
Fructus  ventria  generosi 
Rex  effudit  gentium 

— it  is  at  once  e-i'ident  how  far  the  sequence  strophe 
given  above  differs  structurally  from  one  of  the  first 


epoch,  and  how  nearly  it  approaches  the  form  of  the 
hymn  strophe.  With  the  latter,  it  has  the  same 
kind  of  verse  with  its  masculine  and  feminine  rhymes 
and  a  similar  rhythm,  the  only  difference  being  that 
the  order  of  the  catalectic  and  acatalectic  verses  is 
dissimilar.  Moreover,  in  the  Corpus  Christi  se- 
quence all  the  pairs  of  strophes  are  like  the  first 
except  that  the  third  pair  consists  of  a  strophe  and 
antistrophe  each  composed  of  six  verses,  of  which 
the  fourth  and  fifth  introduce  another  rhythm,  and 
the  last  two  pairs  of  strophes  increase  the  number  of 
verses  by  one  and  two  verses  respectively.  The 
three  other  sequences  which  remain  in  the  liturgy — 
viz.  the  "Veni  sancte  Spiritus",  "Stabat  mater 
dolorosa",  and  "Dies  irse  dies  ilia",  of  which  the  last 
two  were  originally  rhymed  prayers — show  even 
greater,  and  In  fact  complete,  symmetry  in  all  the 
strophes — the  sequences  for  Whitsuntide  and  the 
requiem  Mass  show  uniformity  even  in  all  the  verses. 
In  other  respects,  however,  many  sequences  of  the 
second  epoch,  despite  their  uniformity,  evince  such 
variety  in  the  structure  of  the  pairs  of  strophes  that, 
in  contrast  with  the  monotony  of  the  hymn,  they 
present  considerable  diversity.  But  the  element 
which  is  wanting  in  all  of  them  is  the  connexion  with 
the  Alleluia-jubilus  and  its  melody,  and  it  is  only  in 
the  repetition  of  the  melody  in  the  antistrophe  and  in 
the  change  of  melody  in  the  individual  strophes  that 
its  origin  from  the  jubilus  can  still  be  observed. 

Of  the  above-mentioned  six  phases  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sequence  the  first  and  second  are  very 
obscure  in  two  respects,  as  regards  (1)  the  appearance 
of  the  Alleluia-jubilus  without  the  text  and  (2)  its 
relation  to  the  so-called  Gregorian  Alleluia.  To 
answer  the  first  question,  we  are  naturally  tempted 
to  point  to  the  fact  that  in  some  of  the  earliest 
tropers  (e.  g.  Cod.  Sangallen.,  484),  the  Alleluia- 
jubilus  has  no  text.  It  is  quite  true  that  melodies 
without  text  are  found  there,  but  the  earlier  opinion 
that  these  are  melodies  to  which  texts  were  sub- 
sequently added  is  not  true:  they  are  melodies  to 
previous  sequence-texts,  as  is  shown  in  the  intro- 
duction to  "Anal,  hymn.",  LIII,  pp.  xxii  sq.  The 
expression  "melodies  without  text"  is  liable  to  be, 
and  in  fact  has  been,  misunderstood,  and  should  be 
replaced  by  "melodies  to  an  existing  but  unwritten 
text".  No  one  has  as  yet  found  a  single  Alleluia 
jubilus  without  text,  whence  might  have  been  deduced 
the  existence  of  jubili  in  this  form  before  the  text 
and  independent  of  it.  The  prior  existence  of  such 
jubili  must  indeed  be  admitted,  but  no  example 
has  as  yet  been  discovered,  nor  is  the  discovery  of 
such  jubili  hereafter  probable.  For,  in  spite  of  long 
and  careful  research,  no  liturgical  MS.  with  neums 
or  melodies  has  been  discovered  of  a  date  earlier 
than  the  ninth  century,  with  the  one  exception  of  a 
Pontifical  of  Poitiers  (Cod.  Parisin.  Arson.,  227), 
which  is  either  eighth-  or  ninth-century;  even  of  the 
ninth  century  we  have  only  one  certain  and  three 
or  four  probable  ones.  One  might  hazard  the 
opinion  that  it  was  only  in  the  ninth  century  that  the 
melodies,  which  were  previously  known  by  heart, 
came  to  be  inserted  in  the  choir-books.  In  the 
ninth  century,  however,  the  textless  AUeluia-jubili 
were  already  replaced  by  the  versus  ad  sequentias 
and  many  sequences;  the  form  of  the  textless  jubilus 
can  be  only  provisionally  conjectured  on  the  basis 
of  the  jubili  with  the  versus  ad  sequentias  (see  above, 
II,   3). 

For  this  reason  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  give  a 
decided  answer  to  the  second  question  as  to  the  con- 
nexion between  the  jubilus,  which  forms  the  basis  of 
the  sequence-melodies,  and  the  Gregorian  Alleluia. 
If  we  take  it  for  granted  that  the  latter  have  been 
handed  on  unaltered  and  retain  the  original  form  in 
the  oldest  known  sources  (though  these  do  not  go 
further  back  than  the  ninth  century),  in  other  words, 


PROSE 


485 


PROSE 


that  the  Alleluia  before  the  Alleluia-verse  had  in  the 
time  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  the  form  which  the 
Benedictines  of  Solesmes  have  established  for  it  in 
their  valuable  publications,  then  we  must  admit  that 
the  melismata  of  the  Gregorian  Alleluia,  even  the 
longest  of  them,  are  much  shorter  than,  and  are  dif- 
ferent in  kind  from,  the  melismata  of  the  jubilus 
to  which  the  versus  ad  sequentias  and  the  sequences 
proper  were  attached.  According  to  the  "  Prooemium 
of  Notker",  the  text  of  the  sequences  is  so  set  to 
the  melodim  longissimm  of  the  AUeluia-jubilus  that 
practically  one  syllable  of  the  text  corresponds  to 
one  note  of  the  jubilus.  What  then  was  the  origin 
of  this  comparatively  long  melisraa?  Was  it  de- 
veloped from  the  Gregorian  Alleluia  by  similar 
melismatic  interpolations  and  musical  embellish- 
ments, just  as  responsorics  of  the  Breviary  with  their 
final  melisma  grew  into  the  tropes  and  verbeta  with 
their  more  extensive  text  and  music?  This  view 
cannot  be  accepted;  for  we  always  straightway  rec- 
ognize the  original  melisma  of  the  responsory  as  the 
basis  or  leitmotiv  of  the  melody  of  the  verbeta,  which 
at  the  end  of  each  division  and  at  the  conclusion 
regularly  returns  to  the  shorter  original  melody. 
Quite  diiTerent  is  the  case  with  respect  to  the  sequences 
of  the  first  epoch.  The  introduction,  it  is  true, 
follows  the  melody  of  its  Alleluia;  a  few  words  which 
follow  are  frequently  adapted  to  the  first  notes  of  the 
melisma  to  the  Gregorian  Alleluia,  but  the  melody 
of  the  sequence  then  entirely  deserts  the  melisma  of 
the  Alleluia  and  never  returns  to  it.  Various  modern 
liturgiologists  have  beheved  that  the  long  jubilus 
may  be  referred  to  Byzantine  influence  during  the 
eighth  century;  however,  no  direct  positive  evidence 
has  hitherto  been  forthcoming,  and  no  example  of 
Byzantine  music,  which  might  have  served  as  a 
model  for  the  long  Alleluia  jubilus,  has  come  to 
hght.  Moreover,  assuming  a  Byzantine  model, 
it  is  more  than  enigmatical  why  writers  of  proses 
often  adhered  so  conscientiously  to  the  melody  of  the 
Alleluia  proper  and  to  the  first  notes  of  its  con- 
cluding a;  assuming  that  the  verses  were  written 
to  fit  foreign  melodies,  we  are  at  a  loss  to  explain 
why  a  part  is  not  foreign.  Perhaps  the  difficulty 
may  be  explained  if  we  assume  that  Gregory  the 
Great  found  a  long  Alleluia,  presumably  derived  from 
the  Greeks,  and  gave  it  the  short  form  preserved  in 
the  chou:-books  of  the  West.  We  know  that  he 
shortened  many  parts  of  the  Sacramentary.  If 
this  surmise  be  true,  the  long  jubili  may  have  con- 
tinued to  exist  in  some  places  alongside  of  the  shorter 
ones,  and  may  have  served  later  as  the  basis  of  the 
sequence  text.  While  this  attempt  at  a  solution  of 
the  great  riddle  has  much  in  its  favour,  it  is  still 
only  an  attempt. 

III.  Melody  and  Title  of  the  Melody. — From 
what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  two 
classes  of  sequence  melodies:  (1)  those  which  ori- 
ginally formed  the  Alleluia-jubilus.  These  are  the 
melodies  to  which  a  sequence  text  was  later  composed; 
(2)  those  which  originated  simultaneously  with  the 
text,  both  being  composed  by  the  same  person,  or 
those  which  were  composed  by  a  musician  for  a  text 
written  by  a  prosator.  Not  every  sequence  has  its 
own  melody;  often  several  sequences  were  written 
to  one  and  the  same  melody,  and,  if  this  were  very 
popular,  many  sequences  were  written  to  it.  Hence 
many  sequences  have  the  same  plan  and  the  same 
melody.  In  such  sequences  the  obvious  thing  was  to 
identify  the  melody  by  some  distinctive  word;  this 
word  was  and  is  called  the  title  of  the  melody.  About 
300  titles  of  sequences  of  the  first  and  transitional 
period  are  found  in  the  old  MSS. ;  this  does  not  imply 
that  only  300  old  melodies  are  known,  for  many 
melodies  have  come  down  to  us  without  title. 

It  was  natural  that  the  title  should  be  chosen  from 
the  initial  word  of  the  original  sequence,  to  the  melody 


of  which  later  sequences  were  adapted;  as  examples 
we  may  cite  such  titles  as  "Almiphona",  "Creator 
poh",  "Digna  cultu",  "Exsultet  elegantis",  "Ful- 
gens  praeclara",  etc. 

It  was  also  natural,  if  indeed  not  even  more  appro- 
priate, to  provide  as  the  title  of  a  sequence  melody 
the  beginning  of  the  Alleluia-verse  whose  Alleluia- 
jubilus  gave  the  melody  for  the  sequence.  Hence 
we  explain  such  titles  as  "Ostende",  "Lsetatus  sum", 
"Excita",  "Veni  Domine",  "Dominus  regnavit", 
"Dies  sanotificatus",  "Multifarie",  and  several 
others.  Thus  the  AUeluia-versicle  of  the  Gradual  for 
the  first  Sunday  in  Advent  is  "Ostende  nobis  Domine 
misericordiam  tuam  etc.";  for  the  second  Sunday, 
"Lsetatus  sum  in  his  etc.  ;  for  the  third,  "Excita 
Domine  potentiam  tuam  etc.",  and  so  on.  In  the 
further  development  of  the  Sequence,  as  the  list  of 
titles  increased,  as  the  sense  of  the  connexion  of  the 
Sequence  with  the  Alleluia  and  its  versicle  gradually 
disappeared,  and  as  for  some  reason  or  other  the  de- 
sire for  novelty  arose,  titles  were  adopted  which  seem 
to  us  rather  far-fetched.  Important  words  from  the 
beginning  or  middle  of  a  sequence  were  taken  aa 
titles.  In  the  sequence  "Quid  tu  virgo  mater  ploras" 
(Anal,  hymn.,  LIII,  n.  239),  the  words  "virgo" 
and  "ploras"  gave  the  title  "Virgo  plorans";  from 
"Hanc  concordi  famulatu"  (Anal,  hymn.,  LIII., 
n.  215)  was  taken  the  title  "Concordia";  in  the 
sequence  "Virginis  venerandse"  (Anal,  hymn.,  LIII, 
n.  246),  the  second  strophe  commences  "Filiae 
matris",  whence  was  taken  the  title  "Filia  matris"; 
the  sequence  "Summi  triumphum  regis"  (Anal, 
hymn.,  LIII,  n.  67)  belongs  to  the  alleluia-versicle, 
"Dominus  in  Sina  in  sancto  ascendens  in  altum 
captivam  duxit  captivitatem ",  and  the  conspicuous 
words  "captivam  .  .  captivitatem"  produced  the 
title  "Captiva";  the  same  is  the  case  with  other 
titles,  e.  g.  "Amoena",  "Mater",  "Maris  stella", 
"Planctus  cygni",  etc.  Several  titles  are  evidently 
formed  on  the  principle  of  analogy;  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sequences  "Lyra  pulchra  regem"  (Anal, 
hymn.,  LIII,  n.  52)  and  "Nostra  tuba  nunc  tua" 
(ibid.  n.  14),  titles  (namely  "Lyra"  and  "Nostra 
tuba")  which  indicated  musical  instruments  were  in- 
troduced; analogous  to  these  are  such  titles  as 
"Bucca",  "Cithara",  "Fidicula",  "Fistula",  "Or- 
gana",  "Tuba",  "Tympanum".  Perhaps  "Sym- 
phonia"  is  founded  on  the  analogy  of  "Concordia", 
and  the  title  "Chorus"  related  to  it.  Of  somewhat 
less  obvious  origin,  although  they  indicate  the  actual 
or  supposed  origin  of  the  melody,  are  such  titles  as 
"Graeca",  "Romana",  "Metensis",  " Occidentana " 
Far-fetched  and  now  scarcely  explicable  are  the 
titles  "Cignea",  "Frigdola",  "Planctus  sterilis", 
"Duo  tres",  "Hypodiaconissa",  "Vitelha",  etc. 
If  the  conjecture  be  accurate  that  the  title  of  a  melody 
is  simpler  and  more  natural  the  nearer  it  is  to  its 
origin,  then  the  titles,  taken  in  connexion  with  other 
facts,  provide  the  means  of  explaining  the  question 
as  to  the  original  home  of  the  various  sequences. 
France  preferably  chose  titles  from  the  Incipit  of  the 
Sequence  or  Alleluia-verse;  St.  Gall  and  Germany  on 
the  contrary  never  chose  titles  from  the  Incipit  of  the 
Sequence,  but  used  many  unusual  titles  which  to  us 
have  little  or  no  meaning. 

IV.  History  op  the  Sequence. — Formerly  the 
origin  of  the  Sequence  was  always  sought  at  St. 
Gall,  and  Notker  Balbulus  was  universally  accredited 
as  its  inventor.  The  basis  for  this  supposition  was 
furnished  by  the  so-called  "Prooemium  of  Notker", 
in  which  Notker  tells  us  that  it  was  the  "Antiphona- 
rium"  of  a  monk  of  Jumifeges  (in  which  "aliqui  versus 
ad  sequentias  erant  modulati"),  which  had  suggested 
to  him  to  place  the  words  of  a  text  under  the  melodim 
longissimre  of  the  Alleluia-jubilus  in  such  a  way  that 
each  word  of  the  text  corresponded  to  a  note  of  the 
melody.     But  does  this  prove  that  Notker  was  the 


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486 


PROSKE 


first  person  who  did  this?  In  St.  Gall,  certainly;  but 
elsewhere  this  might  have  taken  place  long  before- 
hand. Besides  it  is  very  doubtful  on  other  grounds 
whether  the  "Prooemium  of  Notker"  is  genuine  and 
authentic.  Until  the  last  two  decades  our  knowledge 
of  sequence  material  was  entirely  inadequate.  The 
older  sequences,  and  especially  their  melodies,  were 
only  known  to  us  through  the  St.  Gall  tropers,  whose 
importance  was  enhanced  by  their  number;  other 
old  tropers  from  Germany,  of  which  scarcely  six  were 
known,  were  treated  as  copies  of  those  of  St.  Gall. 
What  France,  England,  or  Italy  had  done  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sequences  was  scarcely  suspected,  and  one 
had  no  idea  at  all  of  the  relation  which  their  melodies 
had  to  the  St.  Gall  melodies.  Subsequently  it  be- 
came plain  that  the  St.  Gall  composer  was  more  than 
once  influenced  by  an  older  French  exemplar;  what 
has  been  said  above  as  to  the  development  of 
the  Sequence — it  was  based  on  the  most  extensive 
collection  of  original  material — undoubtedly  goes 
to  prove  that  all  the  peculiarities  of  the  sequences 
in  their  early  stage  are  found  in  those  of  France, 
whilst  those  of  St.  Gall  (i.  e.  the  German  ones)  show 
signs  of  a  relatively  later  period  and  of  a  phase  of 
greater  development,  even  in  the  matter  of  the  name 
of  the  sequence  and  of  titles  of  melodies.  Further 
proofs  cannot  be  given  here,  and  we  must  content 
ourselves  with  referring  to  the  discussion  in  "Ana- 
lecta  hymnica",  LIII,  the  results  of  which  may  be 
summed  up  in  three  sentences:  (1)  proses  or  se- 
quences did  not  originate  in  St.  Gall.  Notker  Bal- 
bulus  was  not  their  first  inventor,  although  he  was 
their  first  and  most  prominent  exponent  in  Germany. 
Their  origin  goes  further  back,  probably  to  the 
eighth  century;  (2)  failing  more  definite  evidence, 
it  is  difficult  to  say  exactly  what  sequences  are  to  be 
attributed  to  Notker  Balbulus;  meanwhile,  we  cannot 
determine  what  sequences  of  the  first  epoch  and 
clearly  of  German  origin  come  from  St.  Gall  and  what 
from  other  German  abbeys  or  dioceses;  (3)  all  that 
has  hitherto  been  discovered  as  to  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  sequences  shows  France  to  have  been 
the  original  home  of  the  "versus  ad  sequentias"  and 
of  the  "sequentia  cum  prosa".  As  to  the  precise 
locality  of  that  home  in  France — whether  it  was 
Luxeuil,  or  Fleury-sur-Loire,  or  Moissac,  or  St- 
Martial,  must  be  a  matter  for  conjecture. 

In  what  countries  and  to  what  extent  France  made 
its  influence  felt  in  the  composition  of  sequences  can- 
not yet  be  decided  with  accuracy.  At  the  end  of  the 
tenth  and  especially  in  the  eleventh  century  se- 
cjuences  were  certainly  very  widely  spread  and  popular 
in  all  countries  of  the  West — even  in  Italy,  which 
until  lately  has  been  overlooked  as  having  scarcely 
any  share  in  this  branch  of  composition.  Not  only 
in  Northern  but  also  in  Southern  Italy,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Benevento  and  Monte  Cassino, 
were  schools  for  sequences,  as  the  discoveries  of  Bannis- 
ter at  Benevento  have  proved.  Of  all  these  sequences 
of  the  first  epoch  there  were  some  in  the  eleventh 
century  which  were  found  only  in  a  given  country 
and  were  therefore  local  products;  others  (but  they 
were  relatively  few)  were  the  common  liturgical  prop- 
erty of  all  countries  of  the  West.  Besides  these, 
there  are  two  particular  groups  to  be  distinguished, 
viz.  such  as  were  used  only  in  France,  England,  and 
Spain,  and  such  as  were  used  only  in  Germany, 
Italy,  and  the  Netherlands.  This  being  the  case,  we 
may  classify  sequences  as  Gallo-Anglican  or  Germano- 
Italian:  to  the  first  class  belong  the  Spanish;  to  the 
second  those  of  Holland  and  Belgium.  Between  the 
countries  which  belong  to  one  class,  there  existed 
a  more  or  less  free  exchange  of  sequences,  whilst 
sequences  which  belong  to  the  other  class  were  as  a 
whole  excluded  and  only  rarely  introduced.  Thus, 
between  France  and  Italy,  as  well  as  between  Eng- 
land and  Germany,  there  existed  sometimes  a  friendly 


exchange,  but  scarcely  ever  between  France  and  Ger- 
many. This  fact  probably  played  some  role  in  the 
development  of  sequences  in  various  countries  and 
in  the  influence  which  one  country  exercised  upon 
another.  Of  the  composers  of  sequences  unfor- 
tunately only  a  few  names  have  been  preserved; 
after  the  great  Notker  Balbulus  of  St.  Gall  (d.  912), 
the  first  rank  is  taken  by  Ekkehard  I  of  St.  Gall 
(d.  973),  Abbot  Berno  of  Reichenau  (d.  1048),  Her- 
mann Contractus  (d.  1054),  and  Gottschalk  of  Lim- 
burg  (d.  1098).  If  the  honour  of  the  invention  of 
sequences  belongs  to  France,  the  honour  of  bringing 
sequences  to  perfection  during  the  first  epoch  be- 
longs to  Germany. 

During  the  second  epoch  the  picture  changes: 
in  the  abbey  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Victor  in 
Paris  the  Sequence  with  rhythm  and  rhyme  reached 
artistic  perfection,  combining  spendour  of  form  with 
depth  and  seriousness  of  conception.  This  was  the 
case  with  Adam  of  St.  Victor  (d.  1192);  it  is  un- 
fortunately uncertain  whether  many  of  the  sequences 
ascribed  to  him  are  really  his  or  belong  to  his  prede- 
cessors or  imitators.  The  new  style  met  with  an 
enthusiastic  reception.  The  sequences  of  Adam  of 
St.  Victor  came  into  liturgical  use  almost  everywhere, 
and  found  eager  and  frequently  even  successful 
imitation.  In  French  Graduals  almost  all  the  se- 
quences of  the  first  epoch  were  supplanted  by  the 
later  ones,  whereas  in  Germany,  together  with  the 
new  ones,  a  considerable  number  of  those  which  are 
supposed  to  be  Notker's  remained  in  use  as  late  as 
the  fifteenth  century.  Some  precious  contributions 
were  furnished  by  England.  Italy  on  the  other  hand 
falls  quite  behind  during  the  second  epoch.  How- 
ever, the  two  noble  sequences  still  in  use,  the"Stabat 
mater"  and  the  "Dies  irse",  are  the  works  of  two 
Italian  Franciscans,  their  composition  being  with 
some  probability  assigned  to  Jacopone  da  Todi 
(d.  1305)  and  Thomas  of  Celano  (d.  about  1250); 
both  these  works,  however,  were  originally  written 
as  rhymed  prayers  for  private  use  and  were  only 
afterwards  used  as  sequences.  St.  Thomas  of 
Aquinas  too  (d.  1274)  has  bequeathed  to  us  the  im- 
mortal sequence,  "Lauda  Sion  salvatorem",  but  that  is 
the  only  one  he  wrote.  Sequences  like  hymns  declined 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  reached  their  lowest 
stage  of  decadence  where  they  had  most  flourished 
in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  (viz.  in  France). 
5000  sequences  of  the  most  varying  value  have  al- 
ready come  to  light;  they  are  a  testimony  to  the  Chris- 
tian hterary  activity  in  the  West  during  seven  centu- 
ries, and  are  especially  significant  for  the  influence  they 
exercised  on  the  development  of  poetry  and  music. 
For  the  Gregorian  melodies  were  taken  over  by  them 
and  preserved  with  fidelity  and  conservatism;  with 
the  admission  of  sequences  and  tropes  into  the 
liturgy,  ecclesiastical  music  found  its  opportunity 
for  further  development  and  glorious  growth. 

Trench,  Sacred  Latin  Poetry  chiefly  Lyrical  (London,  1849, 
1864,  and  1874) ;  Neale,  Sequentim  ex  missalibus  .  .  .  collectm 
(London,  1852):  Fbere,  The  Winchester  Troper  (London,  1894); 
Weale  and  MrssET,  Analecta  liiurg.  (London  and  Lille,  1888- 
92);  Julian,  Diet,  of  Hymnology  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1907); 
Bartsch,  Die  latein.  Sequemen  des  MitteUilters  (Rostock,  1868) ; 
ScHUBiGER,  Die  Sdngerschule  St.  Gallens  (Einsiedeln  and  New 
York,  1858) ;  Kehrein,  Latein.  Sequenzen  des  Mittelalters 
(Mainz,  1873);  Werner,  Notkers  Sequenzen  (Aarau,  1901); 
Mahxer,  Zur  spatmittelalterl.  Choralgesch.  St.  Oallens  (St.  Gall, 
1908);  MissET  and  Aubrey,  Les  proses  d'Adam  de  Saint- 
Victor  (Paris,  1900);  Blumb  and  Dreves,  Analecta  hymnica 
medii  aivi.  VII-X,  XXXIV,  XXXVII,  XXXIX,  XL,  XLII, 
XLIV,  LIII  (Leipzig,  1889-1911);  vols  VII-X  were  edited  by 
Dreves,  XL  by  Bannister,  LIII  by  Bltjme  and  Bannister, 
and  the  others  by  Blume;  vols.  LIV  and  LV  will  conclude  the 
collection  of  all  proses  or  sequences.         ClemENS  BluME. 

Proske,  Karl,  b.  at  Grobing  in  Upper  Silesia, 
11  Feb.,  1794;  d.  20  Dec,  1861.  He  took  his  degree 
as  Doctor  of  Medicine  at  Halle,  after  which  he  be- 
came court  physician  at  Oppein.  From  1813  to  1820 
he  followed  the  profession  of  medicine,  and  was  army 


PROSPER 


487 


PROSPER 


surgeon  in  the  campaign  of  1813-5.  He  was  also  an 
enthusiastic  lover  of  ecclesiastical  chant.  At  length 
in  1821  he  determined  to  become  a  priest,  and  was 
ordained  at  Ratisbon,  11  April,  1826.  Henceforward 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  acquisition  of  ancient 
church  music,  and  spent  the  whole  of  his  private  in- 
come as  well  as  the  emoluments  from  his  church  pre- 
ferments, searching  through  Italian  and  other  musical 
archives.  In  1830  he  was  made  Canon  and  Kappel- 
meister  of  Ratisbon  cathedral,  of  which  he  had  been 
vicar  choral  since  1827.  With  unwearied  patience  he 
collected  and  transcribed  hundreds  of  musical  scores, 
and  in  1853  started  the  publication  of  his  invaluable 
"Musica  Divina",  the  fourth  volume  of  which  ap- 
peared in  1862;  this  was  followed  by  a  "Selectus 
Novus  Missarum",  in  two  volumes  (1857-61). 

Grove,  Diet,  of  Music  and  Musicians,  new  ed.,  Ill  (London, 
1907):  Kirchenmusik  Jahrbuch  (Ratisbon,  1894);  Weinmann, 
Karl  Proske  (Ratisbon,  1906) ;   private  correspondence. 

W.  H.  Gbattan-Flood. 

Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  Tiro. — The  first  sure  date 
in  the  life  of  Prosper  is  that  of  his  letter  to  St.  Augus- 
tine written  under  the  following  circumstances.  In 
428  or  429  a  certain  Hilary  wrote  to  St.  Augustine  in 
reference  to  difficulties  raised  against  his  doctrine  in 
Marseilles  and  the  neighbourhood.  Hilary  distrusted 
his  own  ability  to  give  St.  Augustine  a  proper  grasp 
of  the  situation,  so  he  prevailed  with  a  friend  whom 
he  described  as  a  man  distinguished  turn  moribus,  turn 
eloquio  et  slvdio  (for  morals,  eloquence  and  zeal)  to 
write  also.  This  friend  was  Prosper  who,  though  he 
had  never  met  St.  Augustine,  had  corresponded  with 
him.  The  two  letters  were  despatched  at  the  same 
time,  and  may  be  said  to  have  opened  the  semi- 
Pelagian  controversy.  St.  Augustine  rephed  to  the 
appeal  made  to  him  with  the  two  treatises,  "De  Prse- 
destinatione "  and  "De  Dono  Perseverantise. "  It 
was  about  this  time  that  Prosper  wrote  what  was 
really  a  short  treatise  on  grace  and  free  will,  under  the 
form  of  a  letter  to  a  certain  Rufinus,  and  his  great 
dogmatic  poem  of  over  a  thousand  hexameter  lines, 
"De  Ingratis",  on  the  semi-Pelagians,  who  were 
enemies  of  grace  and  are  represented  as  reviving  the 
errors  of  Pelagianism.  Two  epigrams  of  twelve  and 
fourteen  lines  respectively  against  an  "obtrectator" 
of  St.  Augustine  seem  also  to  have  been  composed  in 
the  lifetime  of  the  saint.  Three  opuscules  belong  to 
the  time  immediately  after  the  death  of  St.  Augustine 
(430):  (1)  "Responsiones  ad  capitula  Gallorum". 
These  capitula  were  a  series  of  fifteen  propositions 
attributed  to  St.  Augustine  by  his  opponents,  e.  g. 
"the  Saviour  was  not  crucified  for  the  whole  world." 
To  each  Prosper  appended  a  brief  responsio,  and  con- 
cluded the  treatise  with  fifteen  corresponding  sew- 
tentioe,  setting  forth  what  he  held  to  be  the  true  doc- 
trine. (2)  "Ad  capitula  objectionum  Vincentianarum 
responsiones".  The  Vincentian  objections  were  like 
the  "capitula  Gallorum",  but  more  violent,  and  they 
attacked  Prosper  as  well  as  St.  Augustine.  Prosper 
rephed  to  them  one  by  one.  The  Vincent  who  drew 
them  up  was  probably  Vincent  of  Lerins  (Barden- 
hewer,  Hauok,  Valentin),  but  some  writers  have  con- 
tested this  point.  (3)  "Pro  Augustino  responsiones 
ad  excerpta  Genuensium".  This  is  an  explanation  of 
certain  passages  in  St.  Augustine's  treatises,  "De 
prsedest"  and  "De  dono  persev.",  which  presented 
difficulties  to  some  priests  at  Genoa  who  asked 
Prosper  for  an  explanation  of  them.  These  three 
opuscula  are  placed  by  Bardenhewer  after  Prosper's 
visit  to  Rome. 

In  431  Prosper  and  a  friend  went  to  Rome  to  invoke 
the  aid  of  St.  Celestine.  The  pope  responded  with  the 
Letter,  "Apostohci  Verba",  addressed  to  the  bishops 
of  Gaul,  in  which  he  blamed  their  remissness  with  re- 
gard to  the  enemies  of  grace,  and  eulogized  St.  Augus- 
tine. On  returning  to  Gaul,  Prosper  again  took  up 
the  controversy  in  his   "De  Gratia   Dei  et   libero 


arbitrio;  liber  contra  collatorem".  The  "Collator" 
was  Cassian  who  in  his  "Conferences"  had  put  for- 
ward semi-Pelagian  doctrine.  The  date  of  this,  the 
most  important  of  Prosper's  prose  writings,  can  be 
fixed  at  about  433,  for  the  author  speaks  of  twenty 
years  and  more  having  elapsed  since  the  beginning  of 
the  Pelagian  heresy,  viz.,  according  to  his  "Chron- 
icle", A.  D.  413.  An  ironical  epitaph  on  the  Nestorian 
and  Pelagian  heresies  was  probably  composed  shortly 
after  the  Council  of  Ephesus.  The  "Expositio 
psalmonum"  is  substantially  an  abridgment  of  the 
"Enarrationes"  of  St.  Augustine.  It  probably  com- 
prised the  whole  psalter,  but  as  it  has  come  down  to  us 
it  only  comments  on  the  last  fifty.  The  "Sententiae 
ex  Augustine  delibatae"  are  a  collection  of  sayings 
extracted  from  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine.  In 
framing  them  Prosper  as  a  rule  dealt  rather  freely 
with  the  text  of  St.  Augustine,  chiefly  in  the  interests 
of  rhythmic  prose.  Canons  9,  14,  15,  16,  18  of  the 
second  Council  of  Orange  were  taken  from  sentences 
22,  222,  226,  160,  297.  The  epigrams  are  a  number 
of  the  sentences  turned  into  verse.  Both  these  works 
must  have  been  composed  about  the  time  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon,  and  probably,  therefore,  in  Rome, 
whither  Prosper  was  summoned  about  a.  d.  440  by 
Leo  the  Great.  According  to  Gennadius  (De  vir.  ill., 
84),  he  was  said  to  have  drawn  up  the  letters  written 
by  this  pope  against  Eutyches. 

The  "Chronicle"  of  Prosper,  from  the  creation  to 
A.  D.  378,  was  an  abridgment  of  St.  Jerome's,  with, 
however,  some  additional  matter,  e.  g.  the  consuls 
for  each  year  from  the  date  of  the  Passion.  There 
seem  to  have  been  three  editions:  the  first  continued 
up  to  433,  the  second  to  445,  the  third  to  455.  This 
chronicle  is  sometimes  called  the  "Consular  Chron- 
icle ",  to  distinguish  it  from  another  ascribed  to  Prosper 
where  the  years  are  reckoned  according  to  the  regnal 
years  of  the  emperors  and  which  is  accordingly  called 
the  "Imperial  Chronicle".  This  is  certainly  not  the 
work  of  Prosper.  It  was  compiled  by  a  man  whose  sym- 
pathies were  not  with  St.  Augustine,  and  who  was  for- 
merly supposed  to  be  Tiro  Prosper  and  not  Prosper 
of  Aquitaine,  but  this  theory  has  broken  down,  for 
Prosper  of  Aquitaine  in  some  MSS.  of  the  "Consular 
Chronicle"  is  called  Tiro  Prosper.  With  regard  to  the 
writings  of  Prosper  not  yet  mentioned,  Valentin  pro- 
nounces the  poem  "De  providentia"  to  be  genuine; 
the  "Confessio  S.  Prosperi",  and  "De  vocatione 
gentium"  to  be  probably  genuine;  the  "Epistola  ad 
Demetriadem",  the  "Praeteritorum  sedis  Apostolicae 
auctoritates  de  Gratia  Dei,  etc."  appended  to  the 
Epistle  of  St.  Celestine,  and  the  "Poema  mariti  ad 
conjugem"  to  be  very  likely  genuine.  The  "De  vita 
contemplativa"  and  "De  promissionibus  etc."  are 
not  by  Prosper,  according  to  Valentin  and  Hauck. 
Hauck  agrees  with  Valentin  with  regard  to  the 
"Poema  mariti "  and  the  "Confessio  ",  but  pronounces 
against  the  "De  vocatione",  the  "De  providentia", 
and  on  the  other  doubtful  works  expresses  no  view. 

The  story  that  Prosper  was  Bishop  of  Reggio  in 
Italy  was  exploded  by  Sirmondi  and  others  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  For  the  origin  of  this  legend 
see  Dom  Morin  in  "R^vue  bfin^dictine",  XII,  241 
sqq.  Prosper  was  neither  bishop  nor  priest.  The 
question  whether  he  mitigated  the  severity  of  St. 
Augustine's  doctrine  has  been  much  debated.  The 
difference  of  opinion  probably  arises  more  from  differ- 
ent views  regarding  St.  Augustine's  doctrine  than 
from  different  interpretations  oi.  Prosper's.  The  gen- 
eral trend  of  opinion  among  Catholic  writers  seems  to 
be  in  favour  of  the  affirmative  view,  e.  g.  Kraus, 
Funk,  Bardenhewer,  Valentin,  and  others. 

Valentin,  Saint  Prosper  d' Aquitaine  (Toulouse,  1900);  Bar- 
DENHEWEH,  Pairologie.  The  best  edition  of  Prosper  is  the  one 
published  by  the  Benedictines  Le  Bkun  and  Manqeant  (Paris, 
1711). _  Many  of  the  more  important  works  are  included  in  the 
Benedictine  edition  of  St.  Augustine.  The  De  ingratis  and  some 
other  treatises  are  contained  in  Hubteh,  SS.  Pair,  opusc.    Momm- 


PROTASIUS 


488 


PROTECTORATE 


SEN  published  a  critical  edition  of  the  Chronicle  in  Mon.  Germ. 
Hist.,  IX  (Berlin,  1892).  Prosper  was  a  favourite  at  Port-Royal. 
Sacy  published  a  ver.^e  translation  of  the  De  ingratis  in  1646, 
a  prose  translation  in  165U.  Another  prose  translation  was  pub- 
lished b>-  Lequeux  in  1761,  who  also  translated  some  of  the  other 
works.     Valentin,  S.  Prosper  d' Aguitaine  (Toulouse,  19(H)). 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 

Protasius,  Saint.     See  Geevasius  and  Prota- 

sius,  Saints. 

Protectorate  of  Missions,  the  right  of  protection 
exercised  by  a  Chrislian  power  in  an  infidel  country 
with  regard  to  the  persons  and  establishments  of  the 
missionaries.  The  term  does  not  apply  to  all  protec- 
tion of  missions,  but  only  to  that  permanently  exer- 
cised in  virtue  of  an  acquired  right,  usually  established 
by  a  treaty  or  convention  (either  explicit  or  tacit), 
voluntarily  consented  to  or  accepted  after  more  or  less 
compulsion  by  the  infidel  power.  The  object  of  the 
protectorate  may  be  more  or  less  extensive,  according 
as  it  embraces  only  the  missionaries  who  are  subjects 
of  the  protecting  power,  or  applies  to  the  missionaries 
of  all  nations  or  c^'en  to  their  neophytes,  the  native 
Christians.  To  comprehend  fully  the  nature  of  the 
protectorate  of  missions,  as  it  has  been  in  times  past 
and  as  it  is  to-day,  it  will  be  necessary  to  study  sep- 
arately the  Protectorate  of  the  Levant  and  that  of  the 
Far  East. 

Protectorate  of  the  Levant. — This  comprises 
the  missions  of  the  countries  under  Turkish  rule, 
especially  Constantinople,  the  Archipelago,  Syria, 
Palestine,  Egypt,  Barbary,  etc.  It  is  French  in  origin, 
and  was,  until  near  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
the  almost  exclusive  privilege  of  France.  It  was  in- 
augurated in  the  Holy  Land  by  Charlemagne,  who 
secured  from  the  celebrated  CaUph  Haroun  al-Raschid 
a  sort  of  share  in  his  sovereignty  over  the  Holy  Places 
of  Jerusalem.  Charlemagne  and  his  succeesors  made 
use  of  this  concession  to  make  pious  and  charitable 
foundations  in  the  Holy  City,  to  protect  the  Christian 
inhabitants  and  pilgrims,  and  to  insure  the  perpetuity 
of  Christian  worship.  The  destruction  of  the  Arabian 
Empire  by  the  Turks  put  an  end  to  this  first  pro- 
tectorate, but  the  persecutions  to  which  the  new 
Mussulman  masters  of  Jerusalem  subjected  pious 
visitors  and  the  clergy  in  charge  of  tne  Holy  Sepulchre 
brought  about  the  Crusades,  as  a  result  of  which 
Palestine  was  conquered  from  the  infidels  and  became 
a  French  kingdom.  The  Christian  rule  was  later  re- 
placed by  that  of  Islam,  but  during  the  three  centuries 
of  Crusades,  which  had  been  undertaken  and  sup- 
ported mainly  by  France,  the  Christians  of  the  East 
had  grown  accustomed  to  look  to  that  country  for 
assistance  in  oppression,  and  the  oppressors  had 
learned  to  esteem  and  fear  the  valour  of  its  warriors. 
In  these  facts  we  find  the  germ  of  the  modern  Pro- 
tectorate of  the  Levant. 

The  Capitulations. — The  protectorate  began  to 
assume  a  contractual  form  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
in  the  treaties  concluded  between  the  kings  of  France 
and  the  sultans  of  Constantinople,  which  are  histori- 
cally known  as  Capitulations.  At  first  this  name  des- 
ignated the  commercial  agreement  conceded  by  the 
Porte  to  Latin  merchants  (first  to  the  Italians),  and 
arose  from  the  fact  that  the  articles  of  these  agree- 
ments were  called  Capitoli  in  the  Italian  redaction: 
the  term  has  not,  therefore,  the  same  meaning  as  in 
military  parlance.  Francis  I  was  the  first  king  of 
France  who  sought  an  alliance  with  Turkey.  To 
this  he  was  urged,  not  by  the  spirit  of  the  Crusaders, 
but  entirely  by  the  desire  to  break  in  Europe  the 
dominating  power  of  the  House  of  Austria.  By  com- 
pelling Austria  to  spend  its  forces  in  defence  against 
the  Turks  in  the  East,  he  hoped  to  weaken  it  and  ren- 
der it  unable  to  increase  or  even  to  maintain  its  power 
in  the  A\'est.  His  successors  down  to  Louis  XV  fol- 
lowed the  same  policy,  which,  whatever  criticism  it 
merits,  was  as  a  matter  of  fact  favourable  to  Chris- 


tianity in  the  Levant.  The  French  kings  sought, 
by  their  zeal  in  defending  Christian  interests  at  the 
Porte,  to  extenuate  their  alliance  with  infidels,  which 
was  a  source  of  scandal  even  in  France.  As  early  as 
1528,  Francis  I  had  appealed  to  Solyman  II  to  restore 
to  the  Christians  of  Jerusalem  a  church  which  the 
Turks  had  converted  into  a  mosque.  The  sultan 
refused  on  the  plea  that  nis  religion  would  not  permit 
alteration  of  the  purpose  of  a  mosque,  but  he  prom- 
ised to  maintain  the  Christians  in  possession  of  all  the 
other  places  occupied  by  them  and  to  defend  them 
against  all  oppression.  However,  religion  was  not 
the  object  of  a  formal  convention  between  France  and 
Turkey  prior  to  1604,  when  Henry  IV  secured  from 
Ahmed  I  the  insertion,  in  the  capitulations  of  20  May, 
of  two  clauses  relative  to  the  protection  of  pilgrims  and 
of  the  rehgious  in  charge  of  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  The  following  are  the  clauses,  which 
form  a,rticles  IV  and  V  of  the  treaty:  "IV.  We  also 
desire  and  command  that  the  subjects  of  the  said 
Emperor  of  France,  and  those  of  the  princes  who  are 
his  friends  and  allies,  may  be  free  to  visit  the  Holy 
Places  of  Jerusalem,  and  no  one  shall  attempt  to  pre- 
vent them  nor  do  them  injury";  "V.  Moreover,  for 
the  honour  and  friendship  of  this  Emperor,  we  desire 
that  the  religious  living  in  Jerusalem  and  serving  the 
church  of  Comane  [the  Resurrection]  may  dwell  there, 
come  and  go  without  let  or  hindrance,  and  be  well 
received,  protected,  assisted,  and  helped  in  consider- 
ation of  the  above." 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  same  advantages  are  stip- 
ulated for  the  French  and  for  the  friends  and  aUies  of 
France,  but  for  the  latter  in  consideration  of,  and  at 
the  recommendation  of,  France.  The  fortunate  result 
of  this  friendship  was  the  development  of  the  missions, 
which  began  to  flourish  through  the  assistance  of 
Henry  IV  and  Louis  XIII  and  through  the  zeal  of  the 
French  missionaries.  Before  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  religious  of  various  orders  (Capuchin, 
Carmelite,  Dominican,  Franciscan,  and  Jesuit)  were 
established,  as  chaplains  of  the  French  ambassadors 
and  consuls,  in  the  chief  cities  of  the  Levant  (Con- 
stantinople, Alexandria,  Smyrna,  Aleppo,  Damascus, 
etc.),  Lebanon,  and  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 
Here  they  assembled  the  Catholics  to  instruct  and 
confirm  them  in  the  Faith,  opened  schools  to  which 
flocked  the  children  of  all  rites,  relieved  the  spiritual 
and  corporal  miseries  of  the  Christians  languishing  in 
the  frightful  Turkish  prisons,  and  nursed  the  pest- 
stricken,  which  last  office  frequently  made  them  mar- 
tyrs of  charity.  During  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  the 
missionaries  multiplied  and  extended  the  fleld  of  their 
activities.  This  monarch  gave  them  at  once  a  ma- 
terial and  a  moral  support,  which  the  prestige  of  his 
victories  and  conquests  rendered  irresistible  at  the 
Porte.  Thanks  to  him,  the  often  precarious  tolerance, 
on  which  the  existence  of  the  missions  had  previously 
depended,  was  officially  recognized  in  1673,  when  on  5 
June,  Mohammed  IV  not  only  confirmed  the  earher 
capitulations  guaranteeing  the  safety  of  pilgrims  and 
the  religious  guardians  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  but 
signed  four  new  articles,  all  beneficial  to  the  mission- 
aries. The  first  decrees  in  a  general  manner  "that  all 
bishops  or  other  religious  of  the  Latin  sect  who  are 
subjects  of  France,  whatever  their  condition,  shall  be 
throughout  our  empire  as  they  have  been  hitherto, 
and  [may]  there  perform  their  functions,  and  no  one 
shall  trouble  or  hinder  them";  the  others  secure  the 
tranquil  possession  of  their  churches,  explicitly  to  the 
Jesuits  and  Capuchins,  and  in  general  "to  the  French 
at  Smyrna,  Said,  Alexandria,  and  in  all  other  ports  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire". 

The  reign  of  Louis  XIV  marked  the  apogee  of  the 
French  Protectorate  in  the  East,  for  not  only  the  Latin 
missionaries  of  all  nationalities,  but  also  the  heads 
of  all  Catholic  communities,  regardless  of  rite  or  na- 
tionality, appealed  to  the    Grand  Roi,  and,  at  the 


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489 


PROTECTORATE 


recommendation  of  his  ambassadors  and  consuls  to 
the  Porte  and  the  pashas,  obtained  justice  and  protec- 
tion from  their  enemies.  Though  the  missionaries 
were  sometimes  on  such  amicable  terms  with  the  non- 
Catholic  clergy  that  the  latter  authorized  them  to 
preach  in  their  churches,  they  usually  experienced  a 
lively  hostility  from  that  quarter.  On  several  occa- 
sions the  Greek  and  Armenian  schismatical  patri- 
archs, displeased  at  seeing  a  great  portion  of  their 
flocks  abandon  them  for  the  Roman  priests,  on  various 
pretexts  persuaded  the  Turkish  Government  to  forbid 
all  propagandism  by  the  latter.  The  representatives 
of  Louis  XIV  successfully  opposed  this  ill-will.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV  the  preponderance 
of  French  influence  with  the  Porte  was  also  manifested  in 
the  authority  granted  the  Franciscans,  who  were  pro t6- 
g&  of  France,  to  repair  the  dome  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre : 
this  meant  the  recognition  of  their  right  of  proprietor- 
ship in  the  Holy  Sepulchre  as  superior  to  the  claims  of 
the  Greeks  and  the  Armenians.  In  1723  the  schismat- 
ical patriarchs  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the  Sultan 
a  "command"  forbidding  his  Christian  subjects  to 
embrace  the  Roman  religion,  and  the  Latin  religious 
to  hold  any  communication  with  the  Greeks,  Arme- 
nians, and  Syrians,  on  the  pretext  of  instructing  them. 
For  a  long  time  French  diplomacy  sought  in  vain  to 
have  this  disastrous  measure  revoked.  At  last,  as  a 
reward  for  the  ser\-ices  rendered  to  Turkey  during  its 
wars  with  Russia  and  Austria  (1736-9),  the  French 
succeeded  in  1740  in  securing  the  renewal  of  the  capitu- 
lations, with  additions  which  explicitly  confirmed  the 
right  of  the  French  Protectorate,  and  at  least  implic- 
itly guaranteed  the  liberty  of  the  Catholic  apostolate. 
By  the  eighty-seventh  of  the  articles  signed,  28  May, 
1740,  Sultan  Mahmud  declares:  "...  The  bishops 
and  religious  subject  to  the  Emperor  of  France  living 
in  my  empire  shall  be  protected  while  they  confine 
themselves  to  the  exercise  of  their  office,  and  no  one 
may  prevent  them  from  practising  their  rite  according 
to  their  custom  in  the  churches  in  their  possession,  as 
well  as  in  the  other  places  they  inhabit ;  and,  when  our 
tributary  subjects  and  the  French  hold  intercourse  for 
purposes  of  selling,  buying,  and  other  business,  no  one 
may  molest  them  for  this  sake  in  violation  of  the  sa- 
cred laws."  In  subsequent  treaties  between  France 
and  Turkey  the  capitulations  are  not  repeated  verba- 
tim, but  they  are  recalled  and  confirmed  (e.  g.  in  1802 
and  1838) .  The  various  regimes  which  succeeded  the 
monarchy  of  St.  Louis  and  of  Louis  XIV  all  maintained 
in  law,  and  in  fact,  the  ancient  privilege  of  France  in 
the  protection  of  the  missionaries  and  Christian  com- 
munities of  the  Orient.  The  expedition  in  1860  sent 
by  Napoleon  III  to  put  a  stop  to  the  massacre  of  the 
Maronites  was  in  harmony  with  the  ancient  role  of 
France,  and  would  have  been  more  so  if  its  work  of 
justice  had  been  more  complete.  The  decline  in  re- 
cent years  of  the  French  Protectorate  in  the  Levant 
will  be  treated  below. 

Protectorate  op  the  Far  East. — Portuguese  Pat- 
ronage.— In  the  Far  East — this  refers  especially  to 
China — there  was  not,  prior  to  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, any  protectorate  properly  so  called  or  based  on  a 
treaty.  What  is  sometimes  called  the  "Portuguese 
Protectorate  of  Missions"  was  only  the  "Portuguese 
Patronage"  (Padroado).  This  was  the  privilege, 
granted  by  the  popes  to  the  Crown  of  Portugal,  of 
designating  candidates  for  the  sees  and  ecclesiastical 
benefices  in  the  vast  domains  acquired  through  the  ex- 
peditions of  its  navigators  and  captains  in  Africa  and 
the  East  Indies.  This  concession,  which  brought  to  the 
King  of  Portugal  a  certain  portion  of  the  ecclesiastical 
revenues  of  his  kingdom,  carried  the  condition  that  he 
should  send  good  missionaries  to  his  new  subjects,  and 
that  he  should  provide  with  a  fitting  endowment  such 
dioceses,parishes,and  reUgious  establishments  as  should 
be  established  in  his  acquired  territories.  At  first  Por- 
tugal's zeal  and  generosity  for  the  spread  of  Christian- 


ity corresponded  to  the  liberality  of  the  sovereign  pon- 
tiffs manifested  in  the  grant  of  the  •padroado;  but  in 
the  course  of  time  this  patronage  became  the  source  of 
most  unpleasant  annoyances  to  the  Holy  See  and  one 
of  the  chief  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  the  missions. 
The  main  cause  of  this  regrettable  change  was  the 
failure  of  Portugal  to  observe  the  conditions  agreed 
upon  at  the  time  of  the  bestowal  of  the  privilege :  an- 
other reason  was  the  disagreement  between  Portugal 
and  the  Holy  See  with  regard  to  the  extent  of  the 
patronage,  for,  while  Rome  maintained  that  it  had 
never  granted  the  privilege  except  for  really  conquered 
countries,  Lisbon  claimed  the  right  for  all  the  coun- 
tries designated  by  the  famous  demarcation  of  Alex- 
ander VI  as  future  possessions  of  Portugal.  In  virtue  of 
this  interpretation  the  Portuguese  Government  vio- 
lently contested  the  papal  right  to  appoint,  without 
its  consent,  missionary  bishops  or  vicars  Apostolic  in 
countries  which  were  never  subject  to  its  dominion, 
such  as  the  greater  part  of  India,  Tong-king,  Cochin- 
China,  Siam,  and  especially  China.  In  the  vast  Chi- 
nese empire,  where  Portugal  had  never  possessed  more 
than  Macao,  the  popes  consented  to  end  the  strife  by  a 
sort  of  compromise.  Besides  the  See  of  Macao  they 
created  in  the  two  chief  cities,  Peking  and  Nanking, 
bishoprics  in  the  appointment  of  the  King  of  Portugal, 
to  which  were  assigned  five  of  the  Chinese  provinces; 
the  other  provinces  were  left  to  the  vicars  Apostolic 
named  personally  by  the  pope.  This  system  lasted 
from  1696  to  1856,  when  Pius  IX  suppressed  the  titles 
of  the  sees  of  Peking  and  Nanking;  thenceforth  all  the 
Christian  settlements  of  China  were  administered 
only  by  vicars  Apostolic. 

Passing  over  the  quarrels  regarding  the  ■padroado,  we 
must  confess  that  the  missions  of  the  East  owe  much 
to  the  munificence  of  the  kings  of  Portugal,  although 
these  were  never  accepted  bj-  the  infidel  sovereigns  as 
the  official  protectors  of  the  missionaries,  much  less  of 
the  native  Christians.  Portugal  strove  to  play  this 
honourable  role  in  China,  especially  by  dispatching 
formal  embassies  to  Peking  during  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, for,  besides  their  ostensible  instructions,  the  am- 
bassadors received  orders  to  intervene  as  much  as  possi- 
ble in  behalf  of  the  missionaries  and  native  Christians, 
who  were  then  being  cruelly  persecuted  in  the  prov- 
inces. The  first  of  these  embassies  (1727)  almost  had 
a  disastrous  ending,  when  the  Portuguese  envoy,  Dom 
Metello  de  Souza,  petitioned  the  Emperor  Yung-ching 
to  recognize  the  liberty  of  Christian  preaching ;  the  sec- 
ond (1753)  avoided  a  similar  danger  by  maintaining 
silence  on  this  critical  point.  It  is  only  just  to  add  that 
these  embassies,  having  flattered  Chinese  vanity,  pro- 
cured for  the  mission  a  measure  of  respite  from,  or 
moderation  of,  the  persecution.  Later,  by  expelling 
the  Jesuits  and  other  religious  societies  which  had 
established  for  it  such  successful  missions,  Portugal 
excluded  itself  from  subsequently  occupying  any  posi- 
tion in  a  sphere  in  which  it  had  earlier  been  foremost, 
and  by  its  own  act  destroyed  the  basis  of  its  patronage 
and  its  protectorate,  such  as  it  was. 

French  Protectorate  in  Ch  ma. — The  protectorate  still 
exercised  by  France  over  the  missions  in  the  Chinese 
Empire  dates,  as  far  as  a  regular  convention  is  con- 
cerned, only  from  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, but  the  way  was  prepared  by  the  protection 
which  French  statesmen  had  accorded  the  mission- 
aries for  almost  two  centuries.  The  zeal  and  liberality 
of  Louis  XIV  permitted  the  foundation  of  the  great 
French  Jesuit  mission,  which  in  less  than  fifteen  years 
(1687-1701 )  more  than  doubled  the  number  of  apos- 
tolic workers  in  China,  and  which  never  ceased  to  pro- 
duce most  capable  workers.  The  first  official  relations 
were  formed  between  France  and  China  when  the  mis- 
sionaries brought  thither  by  the  "Amphitrite",  the 
first  French  vessel  seen  in  Chinese  waters  (1699),  pre- 
sented gifts  from  Louis  XIV  to  Emperor  K'ang-hi. 
The  two  monarchs  shared  the  expense  of  erecting  the 


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490 


PROTECTORATE 


first  French  church  at  Peking:  the  emperor  donated 
the  ground,  within  the  hmits  of  the  imperial  city,  and 
the  building  materials,  while  the  French  king  supplied 
the  money  to  pay  for  the  labour,  the  decoration,  and 
the  magnificent  liturgical  ornaments.  Several  other 
churches  erected  in  the  provinces  through  the  munifi- 
cence of  Louis  XIV  increased  the  prestige  of  France 
throughout  the  empire.  Under  Louis  XV  the  mission 
in  China,  like  many  other  things,  was  somewhat  over- 
looked, but  the  government  did  not  wholly  neglect  it. 
It  found  a  zealous  protector  in  Louis  XVI's  minister, 
Bertin,  but  it  felt  keenly  the  suppression  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus  and  the  French  Revolution  with  all  its 
consequences,  which  dried  up  the  source  of  the  apos- 
tolate  in  Europe.  It  was  a  handful  of  French  mission- 
aries (Lazarists  or  members  of  the  Society  of  Foreign 
Missions),  assisted  by  sonje  Chinese  priests,  who  pre- 
served the  Faith  throughout  the  persecutions  of  the 
early  nineteenth  century,  during  which  several  of 
them  were  martyred. 

Treaties  of  T'un-isin. — When  the  English,  after  the 
so-called  Opium  War,  imposed  on  China  the  Treaty 
of  Nanking  (1842),  they  did  not  at  first  ask  for  re- 
ligious liberty,  but  the  murder  of  the  Lazarist  John 
Gabriel  Perboyre  (11  Sept.,  1840)  becoming  known, 
they  added  an  article  stipulating  that  thenceforth  a 
missionary  taken  in  the  interior  of  the  country 
should  not  be  tried  by  the  Chinese  authorities,  but 
should  be  delivered  to  the  nearest  consul  of  his  coun- 
try. On  24  Oct.,  1844,  Theodose  de  Lagren^,  French 
ambassador,  secured  further  concessions  which  in- 
augurated a  new  era.  The  treaty  properly  so-called, 
which  was  signed  on  that  date  at  Wampoa  (near 
Canton),  speaks  only  of  Uberty  for  the  French  to 
settle  in  certain  territory  in  the  open  ports,  but,  at  the 
request  of  the  ambassador,  an  imperial  edict  was  sent 
to  the  mandarins  and  at  least  partially  promulgated, 
which  praised  the  Christian  religion  and  removed  the 
prohibition  for  Chinese  to  practise  it.  However,  the 
murder  of  the  missionary  Chapdeleine  (1856)  and 
other  facts  showed  the  insufficiency  of  the  guarantees 
accorded  to  Europeans;  to  obtain  others,  England  and 
France  had  recourse  to  arms.  The  war  (1858-60), 
which  showed  China  its  weakness,  was  ended  by  the 
treaties  of  T'ien-tsin  (24-25  Oct.,  1860).  They  con- 
tained an  article  which  stipulated  freedom  for  the 
missionaries  to  preach  and  for  the  Chinese  to  embrace 
Christianity.  This  article  was  included  in  the  treaties 
which  other  powers  a  little  later  concluded  with  China. 
To  the  treaty  with  France  was  also  added  a  supple- 
mentary article,  which  reads  as  follows:  "An  imperial 
edict  conformable  to  the  imperial  edict  of  20  Feb., 
1846  [that  secured  by  M.  de  Lagren^],  will  inform  the 

Eeople  of  the  whole  empire  that  soldiers  and  civilians 
e  permitted  to  propagate  and  practise  the  religion 
of  the  Lord  of  Heaven  [Catholic],  to  assemble  for 
explanation  of  doctrine,  to  build  churches  wherein 
to  celebrate  their  ceremonies.  Those  [the  man- 
darins] who  henceforth  make  searches  or  arbitrary 
arrests  must  be  punished.  Furthermore,  the  temples 
of  the  Lord  of  Heaven,  together  with  the  schools, 
cemeteries,  lands,  buildings  etc.,  which  were  con- 
fiscated formerly  when  the  followers  of  the  religion  of 
the  Lord  of  Heaven  were  persecuted,  shall  be  either 
restored  or  compensated  for.  Restoration  is  to  be 
made  to  the  French  ambassador  residing  at  Peking, 
who  will  transfer  the  property  to  the  Christians  of  the 
localities  concerned.  In  all  the  provinces  also  the 
missionaries  shall  be  permitted  to  rent  or  purchase 
lands  and  erect  buildings  at  will".  The  general  and 
exclusive  right  of  protection  granted  to  the  French 
over  all  the  Catholic  missions  in  China  could  not  be 
more  explicitly  recognized  than  it  was  by  this  agree- 
ment, which  made  the  French  ambassador  the  indis- 
pensable intermediary  in  the  matter  of  all  restitutions. 
And  the  representatives  of  France  never  ceased  to 
make  full  use  of  this  right  in  favour  of  the  missionaries. 


whom  from  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  a 
revival  of  Apostolic  zeal  drew  from  all  countries  to 
China.  From  them  the  passports  necessary  to  pene- 
trate into  the  interior  of  the  country  were  regularly 
sought,  and  to  them  were  addressed  complaints  and 
claims,  which  it  was  their  duty  to  lay  before  the 
Chinese  Government.  The  French  ministers  also 
secured,  not  without  difficulty,  the  necessary  additions 
to  the  Treaty  of  T  'ien-tsin — such,  for  instance,  as  the 
Berthemy  Convention  (1865)  with  the  Gerard  addi- 
tion (1895),  regulating  the  important  question  of  the 
purchase  of  lands  and  buildings  in  the  interior. 

Rivals  of  the  French  Protectorate.  — The  foregoing 
historical  sketch  shows  that  the  ancient  French  right 
of  protection  over  the  missions,  in  both  Turkey  and 
China,  was  established  as  much  by  constant  exercise 
and  by  services  rendered  as  by  treaties.  Further- 
more, it  was  based  on  the  fundamental  right  of  the 
Church,  derived  from  God  Himself,  to  preach  the 
Gospel  everywhere  and  to  receive  from  Christian 
powers  the  assistance  necessary  to  enable  her  to  per- 
form her  task  untrammelled.  The  desire  to  further 
the  Church's  mission,  which  always  guided  the  French 
monarchs  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  does  not  influ- 
ence the  present  government.  The  latter  endeavours, 
however,  to  preserve  the  prerogative  of  its  predeces- 
sors, and  continues  to  lend  protection,  though  much 
diminished,  to  the  Catholic  missionary  undertakings — 
even  to  those  directed  by  religious  who  are  proscribed 
in  France  (e.  g.  it  subsidizes  the  Jesuit  schools  in 
Syria).  The  advantages  of  the  protectorate  are  too 
obvious  even  to  the  least  clerical  of  the  ministers  for 
them  not  to  attempt  to  retain  them,  whatever  the 
resulting  contradictions  in  their  policy.  It  is  very 
evident  that  France  owes  to  this  protectorate  through- 
out the  Levant  and  in  the  Far  East  a  prestige  and  a 
moral  influence  which  no  commerce  or  conquest  could 
ever  have  given  her.  Thanks  to  the  protectorate,  the 
treasures  of  respect,  gratitude,  and  affection  won  by 
the  Catholic  missionaries  have  to  a  certain  extent 
become  the  property  of  France;  and,  if  the  French 
entertained  doubts  as  to  the  utility  of  this  time- 
honoured  privilege  (a  few  anti-clericals  attempt  to 
obscure  the  evidence  on  this  point),  the  efforts  of 
rival  nations  to  secure  a  share  of  it  would  prove 
enlightening.  These  efforts  have  been  frequent,  es- 
pecially since  1870,  and  have  been  to  a  large  extent 
successful. 

As  early  as  1875,  at  the  time  of  the  negoti- 
ations between  France  and  Egypt  with  regard  to  ju- 
diciary reform,  the  German  Government  declared 
"that  it  recognized  no  exclusive  right  of  protection 
of  any  power  in  behalf  of  Catholic  establishments  in 
the  East,  and  that  it  reserved  its  rights  with  regard  to 
German  subjects  belonging  to  any  of  these  establish- 
ments." In  Germany  and  Italy  a  paragraph  of 
article  sixty-two  of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  which  had 
been  signed  by  all  the  European  powers  in  1878,  was 
used  as  a  weapon  against  the  exclusive  protectorate  of 
France:  "Ecclesiastics,  pilgrims,  and  monks  of  all 
nationalities  travelling  in  Turkey  in  Europe  or  Turkey 
in  Asia  shall  enjoy  the  same  rights,  advantages,  and 
privileges.  The  official  right  of  protection  of  the 
diplomatic  and  consular  agents  of  the  Powers  in  Tur- 
key is  recognized,  with  regard  both  to  the  above-men- 
tioned persons  and  to  their  religious,  charitable,  and 
other  establishments  in  the  Holy  Places  and  elsewhere." 
The  passage  immediately  following  this  paragraph  in 
the  article  was  overlooked:  "The  acquired  rights  of 
France  are  explicitly  reserved,  and  there  shall  be  no 
interference  with  the  statu  quo  in  the  Holy  Places." 
Thus  the  protection  guaranteed  to  all  ecclesiastics, 
etc.,  no  matter  what  their  nationality  or  religion,  as 
well  as  the  generally  recognized  right  of  all  the  powers 
to  watch  over  this  protection,  should  be  understood 
with  the  reservation  of  the  "acquired  rights"  of 
France  i.  e.  of  its  ancient  protectorate  in  behalf  of 


PROTECTORATK 


491 


PEOTECTORATE 


Catholics.     This  protectorate  is,  therefore,  really  con- 
firmed by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin. 

But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  influence  of  Russia, 
which  has  assumed  the  protectorate  of  Christians  of 
the  Greek  Rite,  has  already  greatly  affected  the  stand- 
ing which  the  ancient  French  Protectorate  had  assured 
to  CathoUcs  in  Palestine  and  especially  in  Jerusalem. 
Moreover,  Emperor  William  II  of  Germany  has  in- 
stalled Protestantism  with  a  magnificent  church  be- 
side the  Holy  Sepulchre  (1898).  As  a  sort  of  com- 
pensation he  has  indeed  ceded  to  German  Catholics 
the  site  of  the  Dormition  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  which 
he  obtained  from  the  sultan;  here  a  church  and  a 
monastery  have  been  erected  and,  together  with  the 
other  German  establishments,  have  been  placed  under 
the  protection  of  the  German  Empire,  without  the 
slightest  deference  to  the  ancient  prerogative  of 
France.  A  similar  situation  prevails  in  China.  First, 
in  1888,  Germany  obtained  from  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment that  German  passports  should  insure  the  same 
advantages  to  the  missionaries  as  those  secured  at 
the  French  legation.  At  the  same  time  the  German 
Catholic  missionaries  of  Shan-tung,  who  had  much 
to  endure  from  the  infidels,  were  on  several  occasions 
offered  the  powerful  protection  of  the  German  Empire. 
Mgr  Anzer,  the  vicar  Apostolic,  decided  to  accept  it, 
after  having,  as  he  declares,  several  times  sought  un- 
successfully the  aid  of  the  French  minister.  In  1896 
the  German  ambassador  at  Peking  received  from 
Berlin  the  command  not  only  to  support  energetically 
the  claims  of  the  Catholic  missionaries,  but  even  to 
declare  that  the  German  Empire  would  pledge  itself 
to  defend  against  all  unjust  oppression  the  persons  and 
property  of  the  mission  of  Shan-tung,  together  with 
freedom  of  preaching,  in  the  same  measure  in  which 
such  had  been  formerly  guaranteed  by  the  French 
Protectorate.  The  murder  of  two  of  the  Shan-tung 
missionaries  in  Nov.,  1897,  afforded  the  occasion  for 
a  more  solemn  affirmation  of  the  new  protectorate, 
while  it  furnished  a  long-sought  pretext  for  the  occu- 
pation of  Kiao-chow. 

Austria  had  a  better  foundation  for  claiming  a  share 
in  the  Catholic  protectorate,  as,  in  various  treaties 
concluded  with  the  Porte  (1699,  1718,  and  1739),  it 
had  secured  a  right  of  protection  over  "the  rehgious" 
in  the  Turkish  Empire  and  even  at  Jerusalem.  What- 
ever the  meaning  of  this  concession  (apparently  it  did 
not  include  liberty  of  worship),  it  was  never  confirmed 
by  usage,  except  in  the  countries  bordering  on  Austria 
(notably  Albania  and  Macedonia).  In  1848  the 
Austrian  Protectorate  was  extended  to  the  mission 
of  the  Sudan  and  Nigritia,  which  was  in  the  care  of 
Austrian  priests;  apparently  for  this  reason,  when  the 
Coptic  Catholic  hierarchy  was  restored  in  Egypt  by 
Leo  XIII  (1895),  the  new  patriarch  and  his  suffragans 
placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Austria. 

Italy  also  has  been  very  active  in  seeking  to  acquire 
a  protectorate  of  missions,  by  patronizing  societies 
for  the  assistance  of  the  missionaries  and  by  legislative 
measures  intended  to  prove  its  benevolence  to  the 
Italian  missionaries  and  persuade  them  to  accept  its 
protection.  It  even  attempted  by  attractive  prom- 
ises to  win  over  the  Propaganda,  but  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation discouraged  it  by  a  circular  addressed  to 
the  Italian  missionaries  of  the  Levant  and  the  Far 
East  on  22  May,  1888.  This  not  only  forbade  the 
missionaries  to  adopt  towards  official  representatives 
of  Italy  any  attitude  which  might  be  interpreted  as 
favouring  the  Piedmontese  usurpations  in  Italy,  but 
once  more  affirmed  the  privilege  of  France  in  the  most 
formal  manner:  "They  [the  missionaries]  know  that 
the  Protectorate  of  the  French  Nation  in  the  countries 
of  the  East  has  been  established  for  centuries  and 
sanctioned  even  by  treaties  between  the  empires. 
Therefore,  there  must  be  absolutely  no.  innovation  in 
this  matter;  this  protectorate,  wherever  it  is  in  force, 
is  to  be  religiously  preserved,  and  the  missionaries 


are  warned  that,  if  they  have  need  of  any  help,  they 
are  to  have  recourse  to  the  consuls  and  other  minis- 
ters of  France." 

The  Photbotorate  and  the  Holt  See. — The  in- 
stance just  mentioned  was  not  the  only  occasion  on 
which  the  Holy  See  undertook  the  defence  of  the 
French  Protectorate.  Whenever  missionaries  sought 
protection  other  than  that  of  France,  French  diplo- 
macy complained  to  Rome,  and  the  Propaganda  was 
always  careful  to  reprimand  the  missionaries  and  to 
remind  them  that  it  appertained  to  France  alone 
to  protect  them  against  infidel  powers.  Two  such  in- 
stances, relating  to  the  years  1744  and  1844  and 
selected  from  many  others,  are  cited  by  the  author  of 
the  study  of  the  French  Protectorate  in  the  "Civilt^ 
Cattolica"  (5  November,  1904).  To  these  may  be 
added  Leo  XIH's  confirmation  of  the  Decree  of  1888 
in  his  reply  to  Cardinal  Langfeicux,  Archbishop  of 
Reims,  dated  1  August,  1898:  "France  has  a  special 
mission  in  the  East  confided  to  her  by  Providence — a 
noble  mission  consecrated  not  alone  by  ancient  usage, 
but  also  by  international  treaties,  as  has  been  recog- 
nized recently  by  Our  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda 
in  its  deliberation  of  22  May,  1888.  The  Holy  See 
does  not  wish  to  interfere  with  the  glorious  patrimony 
which  France  has  received  from  its  ancestors,  and 
which  beyond  a  doubt  it  means  to  deserve  by  always 
showing  itself  equal  to  its  task."  This  attitude  of 
the  Holy  See  is  the  best  defence  of  the  French  Pro- 
tectorate, and  is  in  fact  its  only  defence  against  the 
manoeuvres  of  its  rivals  as  regards  missions  not  under 
the  direction  of  French  subjects.  The  latter  would 
have  difficulty  in  resisting  the  pressing  invitations 
extended  to  them  from  other  quarters,  if  the  Holy 
See  left  them  free  to  accept.  Rome  gives  still  another 
proof  of  respect  for  the  acquired  rights  of  France  by 
refusing,  as  it  has  hitherto  done,  to  accredit  permanent 
legates  or  ministers  to  Constantinople  and  Peking. 
For  a  time  the  idea,  supported  by  the  official  agents  of 
the  Turkish  and  Chinese  governments,  attracted 
Leo  XIII,  but  he  dismissed  it  at  the  instance  of  French 
diplomats,  who  represented  to  him  that  the  object 
was  less  to  establish  amicable  relations  between  the 
Holy  See  and  Turkey  or  China  than  to  evade  the 
tutelage  of  the  lay  protectorate.  Pius  X  has  done 
nothing  to  alter  the  protectorate,  although  some  ac- 
tion in  this  direction  would  perhaps  have  been  but  a 
just  reprisal  for  the  disloyal  separation. 

Some  Objections. — The  protectorate  of  missions 
is,  however,  open  to  some  criticism  both  in  theory 
and  in  practice.  This  article  will  not  deal  with  at- 
tacks based  solely  on  hatred  of  religion;  the  following 
are  the  most  plausible  objections  which  have  influ- 
enced even  friends  of  the  apostolate  to  the  extent  of 
making  them  sometimes  doubtful  of  the  usefulness  of 
the  institution,  even  for  the  missions.  The  protecto- 
rate, it  is  said,  is  unwilhngly  tolerated  by  the  author- 
ities of  infidel  countries;  it  embitters  the  antipathy 
and  hatred  excited  by  the  Christians  in  those  coun- 
tries, and  causes  the  missionaries,  who  rely  on  its  sup- 
port, to  be  insufficiently  mindful  of  the  sensibilities  of 
the  natives  and  on  their  guard  against  excessive  zeal. 
The  modicum  of  truth  contained  in  these  objections 
shows  that  the  exercise  of  the  protectorate  requires 
great  wisdom  and  discretion.  Naturally,  the  infidel 
powers  chafe  somewhat  under  it  as  a  yoke  and  an  un- 
comfortable and  even  humiliating  servitude,  but,  so 
long  as  they  do  not  assure  to  the  missionaries  and  their 
works  the  security  and  guarantees  of  justice  which 
are  found  in  Christian  countries  (and  experience  has 
shown  how  little  this  is  the  case  in  Turkey  and  China), 
the  protectorate  remains  the  best  means  of  providing 
them.  But,  to  obviate  as  much  as  possible  the  odium 
attached  to  the  meddling  of  one  foreign  power  in  the 
affairs  of  another,  this  intervention  is  reduced  to  what  is 
absolutely  necessary.  The  solution  of  the  delicate  prob- 
lem lies  in  the  cordial  union  and  prudent  collaboration 


PROTECTORIES 


492 


PROTECTORIES 


of  the  agents  of  the  protectorate  and  the  heads  of  the 
mission,  and  these  things  it  is  not  impossible  to  reahze 
in  practice.  When  it  is  learned  that  the  superior  of 
the  mission  of  south-east  Chi-h  during  the  difficult 
period  from  1862  to  1884  had  recourse  to  the  French 
legation  only  three  times  and  arranged  all  other  diffi- 
culties directly  with  the  local  Chinese  authorities  (Em. 
Becker,  "Le  R.  P.  Joseph  Gonnet",  Ho-kien-fou, 
1907,  p.  275),  it  will  be  understood  that  the  French 
Protectorate  is  not  necessarily  a  heavy  burden,  either 
for  those  who  exercise  it  or  for  those  bound  by  it. 
The  abuses  which  may  arise  are  due  to  the  men,  not 
t.o  the  system;  for,  after  all,  the  missionaries,  though 
not  faultless,  are  most  anxious  that  it  should  not  be 
abused.  Perhaps  the  abuse  most  to  be  feared  is  that 
the  protectors  should  seek  payment  for  their  services 
by  trammelling  the  spiritual  direction  of  the  mission 
or  by  demanding  political  ser\'ices  in  exchange:  a 
complete  history  of  the  protectorate  would  show,  we 
believe,  such  abuses  and  others  to  be  insignificant 
when  compared  with  the  benefits  conferred  by  this 
institution  on  religion  and  civilization. 

Concerning  the  Levant. — CHABRlfeRE,  Negociations  de  la 
France  dans  le  Levant  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1848);  Schopopf,  Les  ri- 
formes  et  la  protection  des  chret.  en  Turquie  1673— 1904,  Firmans, 
berats,  ,  .  .  traites  (Paris,  1904) ;  P^LISSI^  DTJ  Ratjsas,  Le  regime 
des  capitulations  dans  I'empire  ottoman  (Paris,  1902—5),  I,  190— 
202;  II,  80-176;  Ret,  De  la  protection  diplomatique  et  consulaire 
dans  les  echelles  du  Levant  et  de  Barbaric  (Paris,  1899);  de 
S.^int-Priest,  Memoires  sur  Vambassade  de  France  en  Turquie 
.  .  s^iiiis  du  texte  des  traductions  originates  des  capitulations  et  des 
traites  conclus  avec  la  Sublime  Porte  (Paris,  1877) ;  Charmes,  Poli- 
tique exterieure  et  coloniale  (Paris,  1885),  303-84,  387-428;  Le 
regime  des  capitulations  par  un  ancien  diplomate  (Paris,  1898); 
BuRNlCHON,  Les  capitulations  et  les  congregations  religieuses  en 
Orient  in  Etudes,  LX  (1893),  55;  Pr^lot,  Le  protectorat  de  la 
France  sur  les  Chretiens  d'Orient  in  Etudes,  LXXVII  (1898),  433, 
651;  LXXVIII,  38,  172;  Rabbath,  Documents  ined.  pour  servir  A 
Vhist.  du  Chri^lianisme  en  Orient,  XVI— XIX  siecle  (Paris,  1907— 
10);  Carayon,  Relations  ined.  des  missions  de  la  C.  de  J.  d  Con- 
stantinople et  dans  le  Levant  au  X  VII"  sikcle  (Paris,  1864) ;  Lettres 
idifiantes  et  curieuses. 

Concerning  the  Far  East. — Cordibr,  Hist,  des  relations  de 
la  Chine  avec  les  puissances  occidentales  (Paris,  1901-2) ;  Cou- 
VREUR,  Choix  de  documents,  lettres  officielles,  proclamations,  ^dits 
.  .  .  Texte  chinois  avec  traduction  en  franQais  et  en  In/in  (Ho- 
kien-fu,  1894) ;  Wieger,  Rudiments  de  parler  et  de  style  chinois,  XI, 
Textes  historiques  (Ho-kien-fu,  1905),  2070-38  ;  CrtooRDAN, 
Les  missions  cathol.  en  Chine  et  le  protectorat  de  la  France  in  Revue 
des  deux  mondes,  LXXVIII  (15  December,  1886),  765-98; 
Fauvel,  Les  Allemands  en  Chine  in  Le  Correspondant,  CXCI 
(1898),  538-58,  758-74;  Launat  in  Piolet,  Les  missions  cathol.. 
Ill,  270-75;  de  Lanessan,  Les  missions  et  leur  protectorat  (Paris, 
1907),  written  against  the  protectorate  and  very  unfriendly 
towards  the  missionaries. 

For  the  Portuguese  Patronage.  —  Jordao,  Bullarium 
patronatus  Portugallite  regum  in  ecclesiis  Africce,  Asice  atque 
Oceanice  (Lisbon,  1868) ;  de  Bussierre,  Hist,  du  schisme  portu- 
gais  dans  les  Indes  (Paris,  1854). 

Joseph  Bruckeb. 

Protectories,  institutions  for  the  shelter  and 
training  of  the  young,  designed  to  afford  neglected  or 
abandoned  children  shelter,  food,  raiment,  and  the 
rudiments  of  an  education  in  religion,  morals,  science, 
and  manual  training  or  industrial  pursuits.  In- 
stitutions of  this  character  are  to  be  found  in  most  of 
the  dioceses  of  the  United  States.  They  are  usually 
open  to  the  reception  of  juvenile  dehnquents,  who, 
under  the  better  ideas  now  obtaining  in  criminal  pro- 
cedure, are  committed  by  the  courts,  especially  by 
Juvenile  Courts  (q.  v.),  to  educational  rather  than  to 
penal  institutions.  Ran  Michfle,  the  first  protectory 
for  youth,  was  founded  at  Rome  in  1704  by  Clement 
XL  When  John  Howard,  the  English  prison  re- 
former (1726-90),  visited  the  institution,  he  read 
above  the  entrance  this  inscription:  "Clement  XI, 
Supreme  Pontiff,  for  the  reformation  and  education 
of  criminal  youths,  to  the  end  that  those  who  when 
idle  had  been  injurious  to  the  State,  might,  when 
better  instructed  and  trained,  become  useful  to  it. 
In  the  Year  of  Grace  1704 ;  of  the  Pontiff,  the  fourth  " 
On  a  marble  slab  inserted  in  one  of  the  interior  walls 
he  read  further:  "It  is  of  little  use  to  restrain  crimi- 
nals by  punishment,  unless  you  reform  them  by 
education  "     This  has  become  the  key-note  of  modern 


penology.  The  inmates  worked  together  by  day 
in  a  large  hall  where  was  hung  up  in  large  letters, 
visible  to  all,  the  word  silcntium,  indicating  that  the 
work  must  go  on  in  silence.  At  night  they  slept  in 
separate  cells.  This  system  of  associated  or  congre- 
gate labour  in  silence  by  day  and  cellular  separation 
at  night,  for  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Auburn 
System,  so  much  excellence  has  been  claimed  in  Amer- 
ican penology,  was  thus  inaugurated  at  Rome  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  more  than  a 
hundred  years  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  method 
into  use  here.  The  same  wise  pontiff  estabhshed  in 
connexion  with  this  foundation  of  San  Michele  a 
special  court  for  the  trial  of  offenders  under  twenty 
years  of  age,  a  plan  that  has  re-appeared  in  the  last 
decade  in  the  Juvenile  Courts  established  in  America 
for  the  trial  of  delinquents  under  seventeen  years  of 
age. 

Secular  protectories  or  reform  schools,  now  termed 
"training  schools",  were  instituted  in  America  during 
the  initial  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  On  1 
Jan.,  1825,  the  House  of  Refuge  was  opened  with 
appropriate  exercises  on  what  is  now  Madison  Square, 
New  York  City.  Nine  children,  just  gathered  from 
the  streets,  were  present  and  formed  the  nucleus  of 
the  new  establishment  that  has  since  grown  to  vast 
proportions  in  its  present  location  on  Randall's 
Island.  Boston  followed  with  a  similar  institution 
in  1826;  Philadelphia  in  1828;  and  in  1855  a  girls' 
reformatory  was  founded  at  Lancaster  in  Massa- 
chusetts on  the  family  or  cottage  plan,  dividing  the 
institution  into  three  separate  houses  of  thirty  girls 
each,  with  their  three  matrons,  all  under  the  general 
supervision  of  a  superintendent.  In  1904,  according 
to  the  U.  S.  Census  Reports,  there  were  thirty-nine 
states  and  territories  with  institutions  for  juvenile 
delinquents,  and  these  had  ninety-three  institutions, 
exclusively  for  such  children,  reporting  a  population, 
between  seven  and  twenty-one  years  of  age,  of  23,034 
as  against  14,846  population  in  such  institutions  on 
1  June,  1890.  It  is  stated  that  these  figures  do  not 
include  children  placed  in  these  institutions  by  parents 
or  guardians  without  the  sanction  or  order  of  a 
magistrate  or  other  lawful  committing  authority. 
Nor  do  these  figures  include  persons  under  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  committed  to  institutions  that  are 
not  exclusively  for  juveniles,  as,  for  instance,  jails  and 
workhouses.  Inquiry  at  the  Census  Office  in  Wash- 
ington shows  there  were  one  hundred  and  three  insti- 
tutions for  juvenile  delinquents  (1910);  eighty-seven 
of  these  institutions  reported  22,096  inmates  on  1 
January,  1910. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  institutions  are 
public.  But  the  report  of  the  Census  entitled 
"Prisoners  and  Juvenile  Delinquents  in  Institutions: 
1904"  observes  that  in  several  states  the  reformation 
and  correction  of  delinquents  are  entrusted  in  whole 
or  in  part  to  private  or  religious  agencies,  and  dis- 
tinguishes as  the  most  notable  among  these  the 
Cathohc  Protectory  at  Westchester,  New  York,  the 
largest  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  country,  which 
in  1904  contained  2566  delinquents  and  dependents. 
The  actual  number  present  in  this  institution  on 
31  December,  1909,  was  2320,  of  whom  540  were 
girls  accommodated  in  a  department  and  buildings 
separate  from  the  boys  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters 
of  Charity.  The  boys  are  in  charge  of  the  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools,  of  the  Institute  founded  by 
St.  John  Baptiste  de  la  Salle  (q.  v.).  Another  large 
protectory  is  St.  Mary's  Industrial  School  for  Boys 
in  charge  of  the  Xaverian  Brothers  at  Baltimore, 
Md.  It  had  a  juvenile  population  of  748  on  1  Decem- 
ber, 1909.  Since  1866,  St.  Mary's  has  cared  for 
7593  boys.  Similar  institutions  are:  in  the  United 
States,  at  Chicago,  Illinois;  Arlington,  New  Jersey 
(Diocese  of  Newark);  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania; 
and  Utica,   New  York   (Diocese  of  Syracuse).     In 


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Canada,  4  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Montreal.  In  Eng- 
land: for  boys,  at  Walthamstow,  Essex;  Earn  worth, 
Lancashire;  Birkdale,  Lancashire;  and  Market 
Weighton,  Yorkshire:  for  girls,  at  Bristol,  Glouces- 
tershire; and  Liverpool,  Lancashire.  In  Scotland, 
at  Parkhead,  Glasgow.  In  Ireland:  for  boj's,  at 
Glencree,  Co.  Wicklow,  and  Philipstown,  King's 
Co.;  for  girls,  at  Drumcondra,  Co.  Dublin. 

Most  of  the  juvenile  delinquents  sent  to  institu- 
tions in  the  United  States  arc  committed  either 
during  minority  or  for  an  indeterminate  period. 
Statistics  show  that  female  delinquents  are  com- 
mitted during  minority  more  frequently  than  the 
males.  On  the  other  hand,  commitment  for  an  in- 
determinate period  was  more  frequently  imposed 
upon  males  than  females.  Most  of  these  delinquents 
are  hterate.  During  1904,  of  the  male  delinquents, 
84-7  per  cent  could  both  read  and  write;  the  per 
cent  of  hterate  females  was  as  high  as  89-4.  The 
length  of  stay  in  the  institution  is  as  a  general  rule 
not  long.  Under  the  system  of  parole  and  probation, 
the  actual  restraint  is  much  shortened.  The  average 
duration  of  residence  of  1508  boys  discharged  from 
the  New  York  Catholic  Protectory  had  been  fifteen 
and  two-thirds  months;  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
girls,  thirtj'-two  and  one-half  months.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  Protectory  claim  that  the  girls'  depart- 
ment cannot  be  considered  a  reformatory  or  even  a 
home  for  delinquent  children,  and  express  their 
satisfaction  with  the  recent  amendment  of  the  law 
in  New  York  to  prohibit  the  conviction  of  children 
under  sixteen  years  of  age  of  crime  as  such,  restrict- 
ing the  complaint  to  deUnquency. 

At  St-Yon,  in  France,  in  the  first  quarter  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  St.  John  Baptiste  de  la  Salle 
undertook  the  training  and  correction  of  wayward 
youth.  The  methods  which  are  now  employed  at 
the  New  York  Catholic  Protectory,  which  is  under 
the  care  of  the  order  established  by  him,  may  well 
be  taken  as  indicative  of  the  general  plan  of  pro- 
tectories or  the  ideals  which  they  seek  to  attain. 
The  Protectory  aims  to  form  the  youth  committed 
to  its  care  by  vigilance,  good  example,  and  instruc- 
tion: vigilance,  to  remove  from  the  children  the  many 
occasions  of  offending;  example,  that  the  teachers  be 
exemplars  of  the  virtues  they  inculcate,  for  example 
is  much  better  than  precept;  instruction,  that  they 
may  become  intelligent  scholars,  not  only  in  the 
secular  sciences  but  in  religion,  which  is  the  warmth 
that  gives  life  and  light  to  all  other  learning,  without 
which  there  is  danger  that  knowledge  may  but 
minister  to  evil.  Many  of  the  boys  received  have 
been  truant  players  with  a  strong  disinclination  to 
study.  To  overcome  this  and  to  train  and  de- 
velop the  receptive  faculties  in  the  usual  school 
studies  entails  much  labour  upon  the  Brothers. 
Moreover,  it  is  felt  that  for  these  children  especially 
vocational  studies  should  not  be  postponed  until 
mature  years,  but  should  be  commenced  early,  so  aa 
to  accustom  the  boy  to  what  may  afterwards  prove 
to  be  the  means  of  earning  his  own  livelihood  when  he 
shall  have  left  the  Protectory.  Accordingly,  the  ef- 
fective faculties  are  instructed  in  different  industries, 
in  printing  in  all  its  branches,  photography,  tailoring, 
shoemaking,  laundry  work,  industrial  and  ornamental 
drawing,  sign-painting,  painting,  wheel-wrighting, 
blacksmithing,  plumbing,  carpentry,  bricklaying, 
etone-work,  baking  in  its  different  branches,  and  in 
practical  knowledge  of  boilers,  engines,  dynamos,  and 
electric  wiring. 

At  the  Lincoln  Agricultural  School,  a  subsidiary 
institution,  the  boys,  moreover,  receive  a  training  in 
dairy-farming  and  other  agriculture.  It  is  felt  that 
if  these  children  should  not  acquire  a  taste  for  the 
farm  and  for  husbandry,  but  should  return  later  to 
the  city,  they  will  have  passed  the  trying  period  of 
their  lives  under  conditions  that  will  help  them  to  be 


good  men  and  assist  them  in  health  and  in  many  other 
ways  in  after-hfe.  While  the  productivity  of  these 
protectories  is  sometimes  considerable,  this  is  not  the 
aim,  but  simply  incidental  to  their  primary  object, 
which  is  the  development  of  an  industrious  boy  of 
good  character  for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of 
the  country.  Protectories  are  always  desirous  of 
allowing  their  inmates  to  go  out  into  the  world,  if 
they  are  prepared  for  it.  They  are  impressed  with 
the  truth  in  the  statement  of  Archbishop  Hughes  in  his 
letter  of  19  June,  1863,  to  Dr.  Ives :  "  Let  the  children 
be  in  their  house  of  protection  just  as  short  as  possible. 
Their  lot  is,  and  is  to  be,  in  one  sense,  a  sufficiently 
hard  one  under  any  circumstances,  but  the  sooner 
they  know  what  it  is  to  be  the  better  they  will  be 
prepared  for  encountering  its  trials  and  difficul- 
ties" These  protectories  have  established  working 
boys'  homes,  like  St.  Philip's  of  New  York  City,  St. 
James'  of  Baltimore,  the  Working  Boys'  Home  of 
Chicago,  and  other  places,  where  the  children  may  be 
safely  housed  and  fed,  taught  manners,  trained  in 
the  amenities  of  life,  and  somewhat  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  money  and  economic  conditions  before  they 
become  incorporated  in  the  great  mass  of  citizenship. 

U.  S.  ^Census:  Prisoners  and  Juvenile  Delinquents  in  Institu- 
tions: 1904  (Washington,  1907) ;  Proceedings  of  the  National 
Conference  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  held  at  Richmond, 
Va.,  1908  (New  York,  1909);  Proceedings  of  the  First  National 
Conference  of  Catholic  Charities,  held  at  the  Catholic  University 
of  America,  1910  (Washington,  1911);  F.  H.  Wines,  Punishment 
and  Reformation  (New  York,  1895) ;  The  Life  and  Works  of  the 
Venerable  J.  B.  de  la  Salle  (New  York  and  Montreal,  1878); 
E.  C.  Wines,  The  State  of  Prisons  and  of  Child-Saving  Institu- 
tions in  the  Civilized  World  (Cambridge,  1880) ;  Annual  Reports 
of  the  New  York  Catholic  Protectory  and  others  in  U.  S. 

William  H.  DeLact. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America. — The  history  of  this  religious 
organization  divides  itself  naturally  into  two  por- 
tions: the  period  of  its  dependence  upon  the  Church 
of  England  and  that  of  its  separate  existence  with  a' 
hierarchy  of  its  own. 

The  Church  of  England  was  planted  permanently 
in  Virginia  in  1607,  at  the  foundation  of  the  James- 
town Colony.  There  had  been  sporadic  attempts 
before  this  date — in  1585  and  1587,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  Walter  Raleigh  in  the  Carolinas,  and  in 
1607,  under  the  auspices  of  Chief  Justice  Popham  and 
Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  in  Maine.  The  attempt  to 
found  colonies  had  failed,  and  with  it,  of  course,  the 
attempt  to  plant  the  English  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tions. During  the  colonial  period  the  Church  of 
England  achieved  a  quasi-establishment  in  Mary- 
land and  Virginia,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the  other 
colonies,  with  the  exception  of  New  England,  where 
for  many  years  the  few  Episcopalians  were  bitterly 
persecuted  and  at  best  barely  tolerated.  In  the 
Southern  states,  notably  in  Virginia  and  Maryland, 
in  the  latter  of  which  the  Church  of  England  had  dis- 
possessed the  Catholics  not  only  of  their  political 
power,  but  even  of  religious  liberty,  the  Church  of 
England,  although  well  provided  for  from  a  worldly 
point  of  view,  was  by  no  means  in  a  strong  state, 
either  spiritually  or  intellectually.  The  appoint- 
ment to  parishes  was  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of 
vestries  who  refused  to  induct  ministers  and  so  give 
them  a  title  to  the  emoluments  of  their  office,  but 
preferred  to  pay  chaplains  whom  they  could  dismiss 
at  their  pleasure.  This  naturally  resulted  in  filling 
the  ranks  of  the  ministry  with  very  unworthy  candi- 
dates, and  reduced  the  clergy  to  a  position  of  con- 
tempt in  the  eyes  of  the  laity. 

As  there  were  no  bishops  in  America,  the  churches 
in  the  colonies  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Bishop  of  London,  who  governed  them  by  means  of 
commissaries;  but,  although  among  the  commissaries 
were  men  of  such  eminence  as  Dr.  Bray,  in  Mary- 
land, and  Dr.  Blair,  the  founder  of  William  and 
Mary  College  in  Virginia,  the  lay  power  was  so  strong 


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494 


PROTESTANT 


and  the  class  of  men  willing  to  undertake  the  work  of 
the  ministry  so  inferior  that  very  little  could  be  done. 
Even  the  efforts  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  proved  of  very  little  effect  in  the  South, 
though  in  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  New 
Jersey  it  bore  much  better  fruit.  But,  while  the 
Anglican  Church  was  sunk  in  spiritual  and  intellec- 
tual lethargy  in  the  South,  and  while  it  had  a  rather 
attenuated  existence  in  the  Middle  states,  an  event 
occurred  in  New  England  in  1722  which  was  of  the 
greatest  promise  for  the  future  of  Anglicanism,  and 
which  shook  Congregationalism  in  New  England 
to  its  very  foundations.  Timothy  Cutler,  the  rector 
of  Yale  College,  with  six  other  Congregational  minis- 
ters, all  men  of  learning  and  piety,  announced  to  their 
brethren  in  the  Congregational  ministry  of  Connecti- 
cut that  they  could  no  longer  remain  out  of  visible 
communion  with  an  Episcopal  Church:  that  some 
of  them  doubted  of  the  validity,  while  others  were 
persuaded  of  the  invalidity,  of  Presbyterian  ordina- 
tions. Three  of  them  were  subsequently  persuaded 
to  remain  in  the  Congregational  ministry,  the  rest 
becoming  Episcopalians,  and  three  of  them,  Messrs. 
Cutler,  Johnson,  and  Brown,  were  ordained  to  the 
ministry  of  the  Anglican  Church. 

During  the  period  of  the  Revolution  the  Church  of 
England  in  America  suffered  greatly  in  the  estimation 
of  Americans  by  its  strong  attachment  to  the  cause 
of  the  British  Crown.  But  there  were  not  wanting 
both  clergymen  and  laymen  most  eminent  in 
their  loyalty  to  the  cause  of  the  colonies  and  in  the 
patriotic  sacrifices  which  they  made  to  the  cause  of 
independence.  Among  the  clergy  two  such  men  were 
Mr.  White,  an  assistant  of  Christ  Church,  Phila- 
delphia, and  Mr.  Provost,  assistant  of  Trinity  Church, 
New  York.  The  rectors  of  these  churches  being 
Tories,  these  gentlemen  subsequently  succeeded  them 
in  the  pastorate  of  their  respective  parishes.  At  the 
close  of  the  war.  Episcopalians,  as  they  were  already 
commonly  called,  realized  that,  if  they  were  to  play 
any  part  in  the  national  life,  their  church  must  have 
a  national  organization.  The  greatest  obstacle  to 
this  organization  was  the  obtaining  of  bishops  to 
carry  on  a  national  hierarchy.  In  Connecticut, 
where  those  who  had  gone  into  the  Episcopal  Church 
had  not  only  read  themselves  into  a  belief  in  the 
necessity  of  Episcopacy,  but  had  also  adopted  many 
other  tenets  of  the  Caroline  divines,  a  bishop  was  con- 
sidered of  absolute  necessity,  and,  accordingly, 
the  clergy  of  that  state  elected  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Seabury  and  requested  him  to  go  abroad  and  ob- 
tain the  episcopal  character. 

It  was  found  impossible  to  obtain  the  episcopate 
in  England,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  bishops  there 
could  not  by  law  consecrate  any  man  who  would 
not  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and,  although  dur- 
ing the  War  of  the  Revolution,  Seabury  had  been 
widely  known  for  his  Tory  sympathies,  it  would  have 
been  impossible  for  him  to  return  to  America  if  he 
had  received  consecration  as  a  British  subject. 
Upon  the  refusal  of  the  English  bishops  to  confer 
the  episcopate,  he  proceeded  to  Scotland,  where,  after 
prolonged  negotiations,  the  Nonjuring  bishops  con- 
sented to  confer  the  episcopal  character  upon  him. 
These  bishops  were  the  remnant  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  which  the  Stuarts  had  so  ardently  desired 
to  set  up  in  Srotland,  and  which  had  lost  the  pro- 
tection of  the  State,  together  with  all  its  endowments, 
by  its  fideUty  to  James  II.  Their  religious  prin- 
ciples were  looked  upon  by  Scotch  Presbyterians  as 
scarcely  less  obnoxious  than  those  of  Roman  Catholics 
and  politically  they  were  considered  quite  as  danger- 
ous. They  were  indeed  exceedingly  High  Church- 
men, and  had  made  such  alterations  in  the  liturgy 
as  brought  their  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  very 
near  to  that  of  the  Catholic  Church.  They  had  even 
been  known  to  use  chrism  in  confirmation,  and  they 


were  strong  believers  in  the  sacerdotal  character 
of  the  Christian  ministry  and  in  the  necessity  of 
Apostolic  succession  and  episcopal  ordination.  Dr. 
Seabury  was  consecrated  by  them  in  1784,  and, 
being  of  very  similar  theological  opinions  himself, 
he  signed  a  concordat  immediately  after  his  con- 
secration, whereby  he  agreed  to  do  his  utmost  to 
introduce  the  hturgical  and  doctrinal  peculiarities 
of  the  Nonjurors  into  Connecticut.  Upon  his  return 
to  his  own  state  he  proceeded  to  organize  and  govern 
his  diocese  very  much  as  a  Catholic  bishop  would  do; 
he  excluded  the  laity  from  all  deliberations  and  ec- 
clesiastical councils  and,  as  much  as  he  could,  from 
all  control  of  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

But  if  sacerdotalism  was  triumphant  in  Connecti- 
cut, a,  very  different  view  was  taken  in  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia.  Dr.  White,  now  rector 
of  Christ  Church,  and  a  doctor  of  divinity,  believed 
that  if  the  Episcopal  Church  was  ever  to  live  and 
grow  in  America  it  must  assent  to,  and  adopt  as  far 
as  possible  the  principle  of  representative  govern- 
ment. He  would  have  been  willing  to  go  on  without 
the  episcopate  until  such  time  as  it  could  have  been 
obtained  from  England,  and  in  the  meantime  to 
ordain  candidates  to  the  ministry  by  means  of  Pres- 
byterian ordination,  with  the  proviso,  however,  that 
upon  the  obtaining  of  a  bishop  these  gentlemen  were 
to  be  conditionally  re-ordained.  This  last  sugges- 
tion, however,  found  little  favour  among  Episcopa- 
lians, and  at  last,  after  considerable  difficulty,  an  act 
was  passed  in  Parliament  whereby  the  English  bish- 
ops were  empowered  to  confer  the  episcopate  upon 
men  who  were  not  subject  to  the  British  Crown. 
Accordingly,  Dr.  White,  being  elected  Bishop  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  Dr.  Provost,  Bishop  of  New  York, 
proceeded  to  England  and  received  consecration  at 
the  hands  of  the  then  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
Dr.  Moore,  on  Septuagesima  Sunday,  1787;  but  upon 
their  return  to  America,  although  there  were  now 
three  bishops  in  the  United  States,  there  were  so 
many  differences  between  the  Connecticut  church- 
men and  those  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  states, 
especially  with  regard  to  the  presence  of  laymen  in 
ecclesiastical  councils,  that  it  was  not  until  1789  that 
a  union  was  effected.  Even  after  that  date,  when 
Dr.  Madison  was  elected  by  Virginia  to  be  its 
bishop,  he  proceeded  to  England  for  his  consecration 
because  Bishop  Provost,  of  New  York,  refused  to  act 
in  conjunction  with  the  Bishop  of  Connecticut. 
The  union,  however,  was  finally  cemented  in  1792, 
when  Dr.  Claggert  being  elected  Bishop  of  Mary- 
land, and  there  being  three  bishops  in  the  country 
of  the  Anglican  line  exclusive  of  Dr.  Seabury,  the 
Bishop  of  New  York  withdrew  his  objections  as  far 
as  to  allow  Dr.  Seabury  to  make  a  fourth.  If  Dr. 
Seabury  had  not  been  invited  to  take  part  in  the  con- 
secration of  Dr.  Claggert,  a  schism  between  Con- 
necticut and  the  rest  of  the  country  would  have  been 
the  immediate  result. 

Almost  from  the  very  beginning  of  its  independent 
life  the  tendencies  which  have  shown  themselves  in 
the  three  parties  in  the  Episcopal  Church  of  the 
present  day  were  not  only  evident,  but  were  even  em- 
bodied in  the  members  of  the  Episcopate.  Bishop 
Provost,  of  New  York,  represented  the  rationalistic 
temper  of  the  eighteenth  century,  which  has  eventu- 
ated in  what  is  called  the  Broad  Church  Party.  Bishop 
White  represented  the  Evangelical  Party,  with  its 
belief  in  the  desirability  rather  than  the  necessity 
of  Apostolic  succession  and  its  desire  to  fraternize 
as  nearly  as  possible  with  the  other  progeny  of  the 
Reformation.  Bishop  Seabury,  on  the  other  hand, 
represented  the  traditional  High  Church  position, 
intellectual  rather  than  emotional,  and  laying  more 
stress  upon  the  outward  ecclesiastical  organization 
of  the  Church  than  upon  emotional  religion.  This 
school  has  played  a  very  important  part  in  the  his- 


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495 


PROTESTANTISM 


tory  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States;  and,  while  it  was  undoubtedly  influenced 
to  a  large  extent  by  the  Oxford  Movement,  it  was 
existent  and  energetic  long  before  1833.  Indeed, 
in  the  twenties  Bishop  Hobart  was  already  present- 
ing that  type  of  evangelical  piety,  united  with  high 
sacramental  ideas,  which  has  been  the  principal 
characteristic  of  the  party  ever  since.  The  Oxford 
Movement,  however,  was  not  without  its  influence, 
and  as  early  as  1843  the  disputes  between  the  ex- 
treme High  Churchmen  and  the  rest  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  had  reached  a  condition  of  such  acerbity 
that  when  the  Rev.  Arthur  Cary,  in  his  examination 
for  orders,  avowed  the  principles  of  "Tract  90",  and 
in  spite  of  that  fact  was  not  refused  ordination,  the 
controversy  broke  out  into  an  open  war.  The  Bishop 
of  Philadelphia,  Dr.  Onderdonk,  was  suspended  from 
his  office  on  a  charge  of  drunkenness,  the  real  reason 
being  his  sympathy  with  High  Churchmen;  and  his 
dispossession  was  so  unjust  that  it  was  declared  by 
the  famous  legal  authority,  Horace  Binney,  to  be 
absolutely  illegal.  He  was  not,  however,  restored 
to  the  exercise  of  his  functions  for  more  than  ten 
years.  His  brother  bishop  of  New  York  fared  even 
worse.  Charges  of  immorality  were  preferred  against 
him,  and  he  was  suspended  from  his  office  for  the  rest 
of  his  life,  despite  the  fact  that  the  vast  majority 
of  his  fellow-citizens,  whether  they  belonged  to  his 
communion  or  not,  firmly  believed  in  his  innocence. 
An  attempt,  however,  to  suspend  a  third  bishop  of 
High  Church  views,  the  father  of  the  late  Monsignor 
Doane,  failed  after  he  had  been  presented  four  times. 
Bishop  Doane;  not  only  by  his  unrivalled  diplomatic 
skill,  but  by  the  goodness  and  probity  of  his  life, 
made  an  ecclesiastical  trial  impossible. 

In  1852  the  Bishop  of  North  Carolina,  Dr.  Ives,  re- 
signed his  position  in  the  Episcopal  Church  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  Apostolic  See,  and  he  was  followed  into 
the  Catholic  Church  by  a  considerable  number,  both 
of  clergymen  and  laymen.  His  secession  drew  out 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  all  those  of  distinctly  Roman 
sympathies,  but  the  High  Church  Party  hved  on, 
growing,  and  in  some  degree  prospering,  in  spite  of 
hostile  legislation,  while  in  course  of  time  a  pro- 
Roman  party  sprang  up  again.  Since  the  passing 
of  the  open-pulpit  canon  in  the  General  Convention 
of  1907,  some  twenty  clergymen  and  a  large  number 
of  the  laity  have  submitted  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  extreme  Evangelical  Party, 
disturbed  by  the  growth  of  ritualism,  and  unable  to 
drive  out  High  Churchmen  in  any  large  numbers, 
themselves  seceded  from  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  1873,  and  formed  what  is  known  as  the 
Reformed  Episcopal  Church.  Unlike  many  of  the 
Protestant  bodies,  the  Episcopal  Church  was  not 
permanently  disrupted  by  the  Civil  War,  for  with  the 
collapse  of  the  Confederacy  the  separate  organiza- 
tion of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  Con- 
federate States  ceased.  The  Broad  Church  party, 
however,  have  remained  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  and  of  late  years  have  seriously  affected 
its  attitude  towards  such  subjects  as  higher  criticism 
and  the  necessity  of  episcopal  ordination.  The 
most  outspoken  advocates  of  this  school,  who  in 
their  conclusions  differed  little  or  not  at  all  from  the 
extreme  modernists,  have  not  been  able  seriously  to 
alter  the  teaching  of  the  Episcopal  Church  upon  such 
fundamental  truths  as  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation; 
and  in  a  few  cases  the  High  Church  Party  and  the 
Evangelical,  by  combining,  have  been  strong  enough 
to  exclude  them  from  the  Episcopal  Church.  The 
party,  however,  is  gaining  strength;  its  clergymen 
are  men  of  intellect  and  vigour,  and  the  laity  who 
support  the  party  are  in  the  main  people  of  large 
means.  To  it  the  future  of  Anglicanism  belongs 
more  than  to  any  other  school  of  thought  within  the 
Anghcan  body. 


The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America  possesses  a  hierarchy  of  5413  clergy, 
438  candidates  for  orders,  and  946,252  communicants. 
These  communicants  should  be  multiplied  at  least 
three  times  in  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  adherents 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  It  possesses 
nine  colleges  and  universities  and  fifteen  theological 
seminaries. 

Tiffany,  Hist,  of  the  Prot.  E-pisc.  Church  in  the  U.  S.  of  Amer- 
ica in  Atnerican  Church  History  Series,  VII  (New  York,  1907); 
McCoNNELL,  Hist,  of  the  Am,  Ep,  Church  from  the  Planting  of 
the  Colonies  to  the  End  of  the  Civil  War  (New  York,  1890) ;  White, 
Memoirs  of  the  Prot,  Ep.  Church  in  the  U.  S,  (New  York,  1880) ; 
Coleman.  The  Church  in  America  (New  York,  1895). 

SiGouRNET  W.  Fat. 

Protestantism. — The  subject  will  be  treated 
under  the  following  heads,  viz.:  I.  Origin  of  the 
Name.  II.  Characteristic  Protestant  Principles. 
III.  Discussion  of  the  Three  Fundamental  Prin- 
ciples of  Protestantism:  A.  The  Supremacy  of  the 
Bible;  B.  Justification  by  Faith  Alone;  C.  The 
Universal  Priesthood  of  Believers.  IV.  Private  Judg- 
ment in  Practice.  V.  "Justification  by  Faith 
Alone''  in  Practice.  VI.  Advent  of  a  New  Order: 
Caesaropapism.  VII.  Rapidity  of  Protestant  Prog- 
ress Explained.  VIII.  Present-day  Protestantism. 
IX.  Popular  Protestantism.  X.  Protestantism  and 
Progress:  A.  Prejudices;  B.  Progress  in  Church  and 
Churches;  C.  Progress  in  Civil  Society;  D.  Prog- 
ress in  Religious  Toleration;  E.  The  Test  of  Vitality. 
XL  Conclusion. 

I.  Origin  of  the  Name. — The  Diet  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  assembled  at  Speyer  in  April,  1529, 
resolved  that,  according  to  a  decree  promulgated  at 
the  Diet  of  Worms  (1524),  communities  in  which  the 
new  religion  was  so  far  established  that  it  could  not 
without  great  trouble  be  altered  should  be  free  to 
maintain  it,  but  until  the  meeting  of  the  council 
they  should  introduce  no  further  iimovations  in  re- 
ligion, and  should  not  forbid  the  Mass,  or  hinder 
Catholics  from  assisting  thereat.  Against  this 
decree,  and  especially  against  the  last  article,  the 
adherents  of  the  new  Evangel,  the  Elector  Frederick 
of  Saxony,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  the  Margrave 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  the  Dukes  of  Luneburg, 
the  Prince  of  Anhalt,  together  with  the  deputies  of 
fourteen  of  the  free  and  imperial  cities,  entered  a 
solemn  protest  as  unjust  and  impious.  The  meaning 
of  the  protest  was  that  the  dissentients  did  not  in- 
tend to  tolerate  Catholicism  within  their  borders. 
On  that  account  they  were  called  Protestants.  In 
course  of  time  the  original  coimotation  of  "no  tolera- 
tion for  Catholics"  was  lost  sight  of,  and  the  term 
is  now  applied  to,  and  accepted  by,  members  of 
those  Western  Churches  and  sects  which,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  were  set  up  by  the  Reformers  in 
direct  opposition  to  the  Catholic  Church.  The  same 
man  may  call  himself  Protestant  or  Reformed:  the 
term  Protestant  lays  more  stress  on  antagonism  to 
Rome;  the  term  Reformed  emphasizes  adherence 
to  any  of  the  Reformers.  Where  religious  indifference 
is  prevalent,  many  will  say  they  are  Protestants, 
merely  to  signify  that  they  are  not  Catholics.  In 
some  such  vague,  negative  sense,  the  word  stands  in 
the  new  formula  of  the  Declaration  of  Faith  to  be 
made  by  the  King  of  England  at  his  coronation; 
viz.:  "I  declare  that  I  am  a  faithful  Protestant". 
During  the  debates  in  Parliament  it  was  observed 
that  the  proposed  formula  effectively  debarred 
Catholics  from  the  throne,  whilst  it  committed  the 
king  to  no  particular  creed,  as  no  man  knows  what 
the  creed  of  a  faithful  Protestant  is  or  should  be. 

II.  Characteristic  Protestant  Principles. — 
However  vague  and  indefinite  the  creed  of  individual 
Protestants  may  be,  it  always  rests  on  a  few  standard 
rules,  or  principles,  bearing  on  the  sources  of  faith, 
the  means  of  justification,  and  the  constitution  of 
the  Church.     An  acknowledged  Protestant  authority, 


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496 


PROTESTANTISM 


Philip  Schaff  (in  "The  New  Schaff-Herzog  Ency- 
clopedia of  ReHgious  Knowledge",  s.  V.  Reformation), 
sums  up  the  principles  of  Protestantism  in  the  fol- 
lowing words:  "The  Protestant  goes  directly  to  the 
Word  of  God  for  instruction,  and  to  the  throne  of 
grace  in  his  devotions;  whilst  the  pious  Roman  Catho- 
lic consults  the  teaching  of  his  church,  and  prefers  to 
offer  his  prayers  through  the  medium  of  the  Mrgin 
Mary  and  the  saints. 

"From  this  general  principle  of  Evangelical  free- 
dom, and  direct  individual  relationship  of  the  be- 
liever to  Christ,  proceed  the  three  fundamental 
doctrines  of  Protestantism — the  absolute  supremacy 
of  (1)  the  Word,  and  of  (2)  the  grace  of  Christ,  and 
(3)  the  general  priesthood  of  belie\'ers.  ...  (1)  The 
[first]  objective  [or  formal]  principle  proclaims  the 
canonical  Scriptures,  especially  the  New  Testament, 
to  be  the  only  infallible  source  and  rule  of  faith  and 
practice,  and  asserts  the  right  of  private  interpreta- 
tion of  the  same,  in  distinction  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  view,  which  declares  the  Bible  and  tradi- 
tion to  be  co-ordinate  sources  and  rule  of  faith,  and 
makes  tradition,  especially  the  decrees  of  popes  and 
councils,  the  only  legitimate  and  infallible  interpreter 
of  the  Bible.  In  its  extreme  form  Chillingworth  ex- 
pressed this  principle  of  the  Reformation  in  the 
well-known  formula,  'The  Bible,  the  whole  Bible, 
and  nothing  but  the  Bible,  is  the  religion  of  Prot- 
estants.' Protestantism,  however,  by  no  means 
despises  or  rejects  church  authority  as  such,  but  only 
subordinates  it  to,  and  measures  its  value  by,  the 
Bible,  and  believes  in  a  progressive  interpretation  of 
the  Bible  through  the  expanding  and  deepening  con- 
sciousness of  Christendom.  Hence,  besides  having 
its  own  symbols  or  standards  of  public  doctrine,  it 
retained  all  the  articles  of  the  ancient  creeds  and 
a  large  amount  of  disciplinary  and  ritual  tradition, 
and  rejected  only  those  doctrines  and  ceremonies  for 
which  no  clear  warrant  was  found  in  the  Bible  and 
which  seemed  to  contradict  its  letter  or  spirit.  The 
Calvinistio  branches  of  Protestantism  went  farther 
in  their  antagonism  to  the  received  traditions  than  the 
Lutheran  and  the  Anglican;  but  all  united  in  re- 
jecting the  authority  of  the  pope  []VIelanchthon  for 
a  while  was  willing  to  concede  this,  but  only  jure 
humano,  or  a  limited  disciplinary  superintendency  of 
the  Church],  the  meritoriousness  of  good  works, 
indulgences,  the  worship  of  the  Virgin,  saints,  and 
relics,  the  sacraments  (other  than  baptism  and  the 
Eucharist),  the  dogma  of  transubstantiation  and  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  mass,  purgatory,  and  prayers  for  the 
dead,  auricular  confession,  celibacy  of  the  clergy, 
the  monastic  system,  and  the  use  of  the  Latin  tongue 
in  public  worship,  for  which  the  vernacular  languages 
were  substituted.  (2)  The  subjective  principle  of 
the  Reformation  is  justification  by  faith  alone,  or, 
rather,  by  free  grace  through  faith  operative  in  good 
works.  It  has  reference  to  the  personal  appropria- 
tion of  the  Christian  salvation,  and  aims  to  give  all 
glory  to  Christ,  by  declaring  that  the  sinner  is  justi- 
fied before  God  (i.  e.  is  acquitted  of  guilt,  and  declared 
righteous)  solely  on  the  ground  of  the  all-sufficient 
merits  of  Christ  as  apprehended  by  a  living  faith,  in 
opposition  to  the  theory — then  prevalent,  and  sulj- 
stantially  sanctioned  by  the  Council  of  Trent — 
which  makes  faith  and  good  works  co-ordinate 
sources  of  justification,  laying  the  chief  stress  upon 
works.  Protestantism  does  not  depreciate  good 
works;  but  it  denies  their  value  as  sources  or  condi- 
tions of  justification,  and  insists  on  them  as  the  neces- 
sary fruits  of  faith,  and  evidence  of  justification. 
(3)  The  universal  priesthood  of  believers  implies 
the  right  and  duty  of  the  Christian  laity  not  only  to 
read  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular,  but  also  to  take  part 
in  the  government  and  all  the  public  afTairs  of  the 
Church.  It  is  opposed  to  the  hierarchical  system, 
which  puts  the  essence  and  authority  of  the  (jhurch 


in  an  exclusive  priesthood,  and  makes  ordained 
priests  the  necessary  mediators  between  God  and  the 
people"  See  also  Schaff,  "The  Principle  of  Prot- 
estantism,  German  and  English"    (1845). 

III.  Discussion  of  the  Thkeb  Fundamental 
Principles  of  Protestantism. —  A.  The  Suprem- 
acy of  the  Bible  as  source  of  faith  is  unhis- 
torical,  illogical,  fatal  to  the  virtue  of  faith,  and 
destructive  of  unity.  It  is  unhistorical.  No 
one  denies  the  fact  that  Christ  and  the  Apostles 
founded  the  Church  by  preaching  and  exacting  faith 
in  their  doctrines.  No  book  told  as  yet  of  the 
Divinity  of  Christ,  the  redeeming  value  of  His  Pas- 
sion, or  of  His  coming  to  judge  the  world;  these  and 
all  similar  revelations  had  to  be  believed  on  the  word 
of  the  Apostles,  who  were,  as  their  powers  showed, 
messengers  from  God.  And  those  who  received  their 
word  did  so  solely  on  authority.  As  immediate, 
implicit  submission  of  the  mind  was  in  the  lifetime 
of  the  Apostles  the  only  necessary  token  of  faith, 
there  was  no  room  whatever  for  what  is  now  called 
private  judgment.  This  is  quite  clear  from  the  words 
of  Scripture:  "Therefore,  we  also  give  thanks  to  God 
without  ceasing:  because,  that  when  you  had  re- 
ceived of  us  the  word  of  the  hearing  of  God,  you  re- 
ceived it  not  as  the  word  of  men,  but  (as  it  is  indeed) 
the  word  of  God"  (I  Thess.,  ii,  13).  The  word  of 
hearing  is  received  through  a  human  teacher,  and  is 
believed  on  the  authority  of  God,  who  is  its  first 
author  (cf.  Rom.,  x,  17).  But,  if  in  the  time  of  the 
Apostles,  faith  consisted  in  submitting  to  authorized 
teaching,  it  does  so  now;  for  the  essence  of  things 
never  changes  and  the  foundation  of  the  Church  and 
of  our  salvation  is  immovable.  Again,  it  is  illogical 
to  base  faith  upon  the  private  interpretation  of  a 
book.  For  faith  consists  in  submitting;  private 
interpretation  consists  in  judging.  In  faith  by  hear- 
ing the  last  word  rests  with  the  teacher;  in  private 
judgment  it  rests  with  the  reader,  who  submits  the 
dead  text  of  Scripture  to  a  kind  of  post-mortem  ex- 
amination and  delivers  a  verdict  without  appeal: 
he  believes  in  himself  rather  than  in  any  higher  au- 
thority. 

But  such  trust  in  one's  own  light  is  not  faith .  Private 
judgment  is  fatal  to  the  theological  virtue  of  faith. 
John  Henry  Newman  says  "  I  think  I  may  assume  that 
this  virtue,  which  was  exercised  by  the  first  Chris- 
tians, is  not  known  at  all  amongst  Protestants  now; 
or  at  least  if  there  are  instances  of  it,  it  is  exercised 
toward  those,  I  mean  their  teachers  and  divines,  who 
expressly  disclaim  that  they  are  objects  of  it,  and 
exhort  their  people  to  judge  for  themselves"  ("Dis- 
courses to  Mixed  Congregations",  Faith  and  Private 
Judgment) .  And  in  proof  he  advances  the  instability 
of  Protestant  so-called  faith:  "They  are  as  children 
tossed  to  and  fro  and  carried  along  by  every  gale 
of  doctrine.  If  they  had  faith  they  would  not  change. 
They  look  upon  the  simple  faith  of  Catholics  as  if 
unworthy  the  dignity  of  human  nature,  as  slavish 
and  foolish" 

Yet  upon  that  simple,  unquestioning  faith  the 
Church  was  built  up  and  is  held  together  to  this  day. 
Where  absolute  reliance  on  God's  word,  proclaimed  by 
his  accredited  ambassadors,  is  wanting,  i.  e.  where 
there  is  not  the  virtue  of  faith,  there  can  be  no  unity 
of  Church.  It  stands  to  reason,  and  Protestant  his- 
tory confirms  it.  The  "unhappy  divisions",  not 
only  between  sect  and  sect  but  within  the  same  sect, 
have  become  a  byword.  They  are  due  to  the  pride 
of  private  intellect,  and  they  can  only  be  healed  by 
humble  submission  to  a  Divine  authority. 

B.  Juslificnlion  by  Faith  Alone. — Sec  article 
Justification. 

C.  The  Universal  Priesthood  of  Believers  is  a  fond 
fancy  which  goes  well  with  the  other  fundamental 
tenets  of  Protestantism.  For,  if  every  man  is  his  own 
supreme  teacher  and  is  able  to  justify  himself  by  an 


PROTESTANTISM 


497 


PROTESTANTISM 


easy  act  of  faith,  there  is  no  further  need  of  ordained 
teachers  and  ministers  of  sacrifice  and  sacraments. 
The  sacraments  themselves,  in  fact,  become  super- 
fluous. The  abolition  of  priests,  sacrifices,  and 
sacraments  is  the  logical  consequence  of  false  prem- 
ises, i.  e.  the  right  of  private  judgment  and  justifica- 
tion by  faith  alone;  it  is,  therefore,  as  illusory  as 
these.  It  is  moreover  contrary  to  Scripture,  to  tradi- 
tion, to  reason.  The  Protestant  position  is  that  the 
clergy  had  originally  been  representatives  of  the 
people,  deriving  all  their  power  from  them,  and  only 
doing,  for  the  sake  of  order  and  convenience,  what 
laymen  might  do  also.  But  Scripture  speaks  of 
bishops,  priests,  deacons  as  invested  with  spiritual 
powers  not  possessed  by  the  community  at  large, 
and  transmitted  by  an  external  sign,  the  imposition 
of  hands,  thus  creating  a  separate  order,  a  hierarchy. 
(See  Hierarchy;  Priesthood.)  Scripture  shows  the 
Church  starting  with  an  ordained  priesthood  as  its 
central  element.  History  likewise  shows  this  priest- 
hood living  on  in  unbroken  succession  to  the  present 
day  in  East  and  ^^'est,  even  in  Churches  separated 
from  Rome.  And  reason  requires  such  an  institu- 
tion; a  society  confessedly  established  to  continue 
the  saving  work  of  Christ  must  possess  and  perpetuate 
His  saving  power;  it  must  have  a  teaching  and  minis- 
tering order  commissioned  by  Christ,  as  Christ  was 
commissioned  by  God:  "As  the  Father  hath  sent 
me,  I  also  send  you"  (John,  xx,  21).  Sects  which 
are  at  best  shadows  of  Churches  wax  and  wane  with 
the  priestly  powers  they  subconsciously  or  instinc- 
tively attribute  to  their  pastors,  elders,  ministers, 
preachers,  and  other  leaders. 

IV.  Private  Judgment  in  Practice. — At  first 
sight  it  seems  that  private  judgment  as  a  rule  of 
faith  would  at  once  dissolve  all  creeds  and  confes- 
sions into  individual  opinions,  thus  making  impossible 
any  church  life  based  upon  a  common  faith.  For 
guot  capita  tot  seresMs;  no  two  men  think  exactly  alike 
on  any  subject.  Yet  we  are  faced  by  the  fact  that 
Protestant  churches  have  lived  through  several  cen- 
turies and  have  moulded  the  character  not  only  of 
individuals  but  of  whole  nations;  that  millions  of 
souls  have  found  and  are  finding  in  them  the  spiritual 
food  which  satisfies  their  spiritual  cravings;  that 
their  missionary  and  charitable  activity  is  covering 
wide  fields  at  home  and  abroad.  The  apparent 
incongruity  does  not  exist  in  reality,  for  private 
judgment  is  never  and  nowhere  allowed  full  play  in 
the  framing  of  religions.  The  open  Bible  and  the 
open  mind  on  its  interpretation  are  rather  a  lure  to 
entice  the  masses,  by  flattering  their  pride  and  de- 
ceiving their  ignorance,  than  a  workable  principle 
of  faith. 

The  first  limitation  imposed  on  the  application  of 
private  judgment  is  the  incapacity  of  most  men  to 
judge  for  themselves  on  matters  above  their  physical 
needs.  How  many  Christians  are  made  by  the  tons 
of  Testaments  distributed  by  missionaries  to  the 
heathen?  What  religion  could  even  a  well-schooled 
man  extract  from  the  Bible  if  he  had  nought  but  his 
brain  and  his  book  to  guide  him?  The  second  limita- 
tion arises  from  environment  and  prejudices.  The 
assumed  right  of  private  judgment  is  not  exercised 
until  the  mind  is  already  stocked  with  ideas  and  no- 
tions supplied  by  family  and  community,  foremost 
among  these  being  the  current  conceptions  of  religious 
dogmas  and  duties.  People  are  said  to  be  Catholics, 
Protestants,  Mahommedans,  Pagans  "by  birth", 
because  the  environment  in  which  they  are  born  in- 
variably endows  them  with  the  local  religion  long 
before  they  are  able  to  judge  and  choose  for  them- 
selves. And  the  firm  hold  which  this  initial  training 
gets  on  the  mind  is  well  illustrated  by  the  fewness 
of  changes  in  later  life.  Conversions  from  one  belief 
to  another  are  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence. 
The  number  of  converts  in  any  denomination  com- 
XII.— 32 


pared  to  the  number  of  stauncher  adherents  is  a 
negligible  quantity.  Even  where  private  judgment 
has  led  to  the  conviction  that  some  other  form  of 
religion  is  preferable  to  the  one  professed,  conversion 
is  not  always  achieved.  The  convert,  beside  and 
beyond  his  knowledge,  must  have  sufficient  strength 
of  will  to  break  with  old  associations,  old  friendships, 
old  habits,  and  to  face  the  uncertainties  of  life  in  new 
surroundings.  His  sense  of  duty,  in  many  cases, 
must  be  of  heroical  temper. 

A  third  linutation  put  on  the  exercise  of  private 
judgment  is  the  authority  of  Church  and  State. 
The  Reformers  took  full  advantage  of  their  emanci- 
pation from  papal  authority,  but  they  showed  no 
inclination  to  allow  their  followers  the  same  freedom. 
Luther,  Zwingli,  Calvin,  and  Knox  were  as  intolerant 
of  private  judgment  when  it  went  against  their  own 
conceits  as  any  pope  in  Rome  was  ever  intolerant 
of  heresy.  Confessions  of  faith,  symbols,  and  cate- 
chism were  set  up  everywhere,  and  were  invariably 
backed  by  the  secular  power.  In  fact,  the  secular 
power  in  the  several  parts  of  Germany,  England, 
Scotland,  and  elsewhere  has  had  more  to  do  with  the 
moulding  of  religious  denominations  than  private 
judgment  and  justification  by  faith  alone.  Rulers 
were  guided  by  political  and  material  considerations 
in  their  adherence  to  particular  forms  of  faith,  and 
they  usurped  the  right  of  imposing  their  own  choice 
on  their  subjects,  regardless  of  private  opinions: 
cujus  regio  hujus  religio. 

The  above  considerations  show  that  the  first  Prot- 
estant principle,  free  judgment,  never  influenced 
the  Protestant  masses  at  large.  Its  influence  is 
limited  to  a  few  leaders  of  the  movement,  to  the  men 
who  by  dint  of  strong  character  were  capable  of 
creating  separate  sects.  They  indeed  spurned  the 
authority  of  the  Old  Church,  but  soon  transferred  it 
to  their  own  persons  and  institutions,  if  not  to  secular 
princes.  How  mercilessly  the  new  authority  was 
exercised  is  matter  of  history.  Moreover,  in  the 
course  of  time,  private  judgment  has  ripened  into 
unbridled  freethought,  Rationalism,  Modernism, 
now  rampant  in  most  universities,  cultured  society, 
and  the  Press.  Planted  by  Luther  and  other  re- 
formers the  seed  took  no  root,  or  soon  withered,  among 
the  half-educated  masses  who  still  clung  to  authority 
or  were  coerced  by  the  secular  arm;  but  it  flourished 
and  produced  its  full  fruit  chiefly  in  the  schools  and 
among  the  ranks  of  society  which  draw  their  intellec- 
tual life  from  that  source.  The  modern  Press  is  at 
infinite  pains  to  spread  free  judgment  and  its  latest 
results  to  the  reading  public. 

It  should  be  remarked  that  the  first  Protestants, 
without  exception,  pretended  to  be  the  true  Church 
founded  by  Christ,  and  all  retained  the  Apostles' 
Creed  with  the  article  "I  believe  in  the  CathoHc 
Church"  The  fact  of  their  Catholic  origin  and  sur- 
roundings accounts  both  for  their  good  intention  and 
for  the  confessions  of  faith  to  which  they  bound  them- 
selves. Yet  such  confessions;  if  there  be  any  truth 
in  the  assertion  that  private  judgment  and  the  open 
Bible  are  the  only  sources  of  Protestant  faith,  are 
directly  antagonistic  to  the  Protestant  spirit.  This  is 
recognized,  among  others,  by  J.  H.  Blunt,  who  writes: 
"The  mere  existence  of  such  confessions  of  faith  as 
binding  on  all  or  any  of  the  members  of  the  Chris- 
tian community  is  inconsistent  with  the  great  prin- 
ciples on  which  the  Protestant  bodies  justified  then- 
separation  from  the  Church,  the  right  of  private 
judgment.  Has  not  any  member  as  just  a  right  to 
criticise  and  to  reject  them  as  his  forefathers  had  a 
right  to  reject  the  Catholic  creeds  or  the  canons  of 
general  councils?  They  appear  to  violate  another 
prominent  doctrine  of  the  Reformers,  the  sufficiency 
of  Holy  Scripture  to  salvation.  If  the  Bible  alone 
is  enough,  what  need  is  there  for  adding  articles? 
If  it  is  rejoined  that  they  are  not  additions  to,  but 


PROTESTANTISM 


498 


PROTESTANTISM 


merely  explanations  of,  the  Word  of  God,  the  further 
question  arises,  amid  the  many  explanations,  more 
or  less  at  variance  with  each  other  given  by  the  dif- 
ferent sects  of  Protestantism,  who  is  to  decide  which 
is  the  true  one  ?  Their  professed  object  being  to 
secure  uniformity,  the  experience  of  three  hundred 
years  has  proved  to  us  what  may  not  have  been  fore- 
seen by  their  originators,  that  they  have  had  a  dia- 
metrically opposite  result,  and  have  been  productive 
not  of  union  but  of  variance"  (Diet,  of  Sects,  Here- 
sies, etc.",  London,  1886,  s.  v.  Protestant  Confes- 
sions of  Faith). 

By  pinning  private  judgment  to  the  Bible  the  Re- 
formers started  a  book  religion,  i.  e.  a  religion  of 
which,  theoretically,  the  law  of  faith  and  conduct  is 
contained  in  a  written  document  without  method, 
without  authority,  without  an  authorized  inter- 
preter. The  collection  of  books  called  "the  Bible" 
is  not  a  methodical  code  of  faith  and  morals;  if  it  be 
separated  from  the  stream  of  tradition  which  asserts 
its  Divine  inspiration,  it  has  no  special  authority, 
and,  in  the  hands  of  private  interpreters,  its  meaning 
is  easily  twisted  to  suit  every  private  mind.  Our 
modern  laws,  elaborated  by  modem  minds  for  modern 
requirements,  are  daily  obscured  and  diverted  from 
their  object  by  interested  pleaders:  judges  are  an 
absolute  necessity  for  their  right  interpretation  and 
application,  and  unless  we  say  that  religion  is  but  a 
personal  concern,  that  coherent  religious  bodies  or 
churches  are  superfluous,  we  must  admit  that  judges 
of  faith  and  morals  are  as  necessary  to  them  as 
judges  of  civil  law  are  to  States.  And  that  is  another 
reason  why  private  judgment,  though  upheld  in  theory, 
has  not  been  carried  out  in  practice.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  all  Protestant  denominations  are  under  con- 
stituted authorities,  be  they  called  priest  or  presby- 
ters, elders  or  ministers,  pastors  or  presidents.  Not- 
withstanding the  contradiction  between  the  freedom 
they  proclaim  and  the  obedience  they  exact,  their 
rule  has  often  been  tyrannical  to  a  degree,  especially 
in  Calvinistic  communities.  Thus  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  there  was  no  more  priest- 
ridden  country  in  the  world  than  Presbyterian  Scot- 
land. A  book-religion  has,  moreover,  another  draw- 
back. Its  devotees  can  draw  devotion  from  it  only 
as  fetish  worshippers  draw  it  from  their  idol,  viz. 
by  firmly  believing  in  its  hidden  spirit.  Remove 
belief  in  Divine  inspiration  from  the  sacred  books, 
and  what  remains  may  be  regarded  as  simply  a 
human  document  of  religious  illusion  or  even  of 
fraud.  Now,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  private  judg- 
ment has  partly  succeeded  in  taking  the  spirit  out 
of  the  Bible,  leaving  little  else  than  the  letter,  for 
critics,  high  and  low,  to  discuss  without  any  spiritual 
advantage. 

V.  "Justification  by  Faith  Alone"  in  Prac- 
tice.— This  principle  bears  upon  conduct,  unlike 
free  judgment,  which  bears  on  faith.  It  is  not  sub- 
ject to  the  same  limitations,  for  its  practical  applica- 
tion requires  less  mental  capacity;  its  working  can- 
not be  tested  by  anyone;  it  is  strictly  personal  and 
internal,  thus  escaping  such  violent  conflicts  with 
community  or  state  as  would  lead  to  repression.  On 
the  other  hand,  as  it  evades  coercion,  lends  itself  to 
practical  application  at  every  step  in  man's  hfe,  and 
favours  man's  inclination  to  evil  by  rendering  a  so- 
called  "conversion"  ludicrously  easy,  its  baneful 
influence  on  morals  is  manifest.  Add  to  justification 
by  faith  alone  the  doctrines  of  predestination  to 
heaven  or  hell  regardless  of  man's  actions,  and  the 
slavery  of  the  human  will,  and  it  seems  inconceivable 
that  any  good  action  at  all  could  result  from  such  be- 
liefs. As  a  matter  of  history,  public  morality  did  at 
once  deteriorate  to  an  appalling  degree  wherever 
Protestantism  was  introduced.  Not  to  mention  the 
robberies  of  Church  goods,  brutal  treatment  meted 
out  to  the  clergy,  secular  and  regular,  who  remained 


faithful,  and  the  horrors  of  so  many  wars  of  religion, 
we  have  Luther's  own  testimony  as  to  the  evil  re- 
sults of  his  teaching  (see  Janssen,  "History  of  the 
German  People",  Eng.  tr.,  vol.  V,  London  and  St. 
Louis,  1908,  274r-83,  where  each  quotation  is  docu- 
mented by  a  reference  to  Luther's  works  as  published 
by  de  Wette). 

VI.  Advent  op  a  New  Order:  CjEsaropapism. — 
A  similar  picture  of  religious  and  moral  degradation 
may  easily  be  drawn  from  contemporary  Protestant 
writers  for  all  countries  after  the  first  introduction 
of  Protestantism.  It  could  not  be  otherwise.  The 
immense  fermentation  caused  by  the  introduction  of 
subversive  principles  into  the  life  of  a  people  nat- 
urally brings  to  the  surface  and  shows  in  its  utmost 
ugliness  all  that  is  brutal  in  human  nature.  But  only 
for  a  time.  The  ferment  exhausts  itself,  the  fer- 
mentation subsides,  and  order  reappears,  possibly 
under  new  forms.  The  new  form  of  social  and  re- 
ligious order,  which  is  the  residue  of  the  great  Protes- 
tant upheaval  in  Europe,  is  territorial  or  State  Re- 
ligion— an  order  based  on  the  religious  supremacy  of 
the  temporal  ruler,  in  contradistinction  to  the  old 
order  in  which  the  temporal  ruler  took  an  oath  of 
obedience  to  the  Church.  For  the  right  understand- 
ing of  Protestantism  it  is  necessary  to  describe  the 
genesis  of  this  far-reaching  change. 

Luther's  first  reformatory  attempts  were  radically 
democratic.  He  sought  to  benefit  the  people  at  large 
by  curtailing  the  powers  of  both  Church  and  State. 
The  German  princes,  to  him,  were  "usually  the  big- 
gest fools  or  the  worst  scoundrels  on  earth"  In 
1523  he  wrote:  "The  people  will  not,  caimot,  shall 
not  endure  your  tyranny  and  oppression  any  longer. 
The  world  is  not  now  what  it  was  formerly,  when  you 
could  chase  and  drive  the  people  like  game"  This 
manifesto,  addressed  to  the  poorer  masses,  was  taken 
up  by  Franz  von  Sickingen,  a  Knight  of  the  Empire, 
who  entered  the  field  in  execution  of  its  threats.  His 
object  was  two-fold :  to  strengthen  the  political  power 
of  the  knights — the  inferior  nobility — against  the 
princes,  and  to  open  the  road  to  the  new  Gospel  by 
overthrowing  the  bishops.  His  enterprise  had,  how- 
ever, the  opposite  result.  The  knights  were  beaten; 
they  lost  what  influence  they  had  possessed,  and  the 
princes  were  proportionately  strengthened.  The 
rising  of  the  peasants  likewise  turned  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  princes :  the  fearful  slaughter  of  Franken- 
hausen  (1525)  left  the  princes  without  an  enemy  and 
the  new  Gospel  without  its  natural  defenders.  The 
victorious  princes  used  their  augmented  power  en- 
tirely for  their  own  advantage,  in  opposition  to  the 
authority  of  the  emperor  and  the  freedom  of  the  na- 
tion ;  the  new  Gospel  was  also  to  be  made  subservient 
to  this  end,  and  this  by  the  help  of  Luther  himself. 

After  the  failure  of  the  revolution,  Luther  and  Me- 
lanchthon  began  to  proclaim  the  doctrine  of  the 
rulers'  unlimited  power  over  their  subjects.  Their 
dissolving  principles  had,  within  less  than  ten  years, 
destroyed  the  existing  order,  but  were  unable  to 
knit  together  its  debris  into  a  new  system.  So  the 
secular  powers  were  called  on  for  help;  the  Church 
was  placed  at  the  service  of  the  State,  its  authority, 
its  wealth,  its  institutions  all  passed  into  the  hands  of 
kings,  princes,  and  town  magistrates.  The  one  dis- 
carded Pope  of  Rome  was  replaced  by  scores  of  popes 
at  home.  These,  "to  strengthen  themselves  by  al- 
liances for  the  promulgation  of  the  Gospel",  banded 
together  within  the  limits  of  the  German  Empire  and 
made  common  cause  against  the  emperor.  From 
this  time  forward  the  progress  of  Protestantism  is  on 
political  rather  than  on  religious  lines;  the  people  are 
not  clamouring  for  innovations,  but  the  rulers  find 
their  advantage  in  being  supreme  bishops,  and  by 
force,  or  cunning,  or  both  impose  the  yoke  of  the  new 
Gospel  on  their  subjects.  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway, 
England,   and  all  the  small  principalities  and  im- 


PROTESTANTISM 


499 


PROTESTANTISM 


perial  towns  in  Germany  are  examples  in  point. 
The  supreme  heads  and  governors  were  well  aware 
that  the  principles  which  had  brought  down  the 
authority  ot  Rome  would  equally  bring  down  their 
own;  hence  the  penal  laws  everywhere  enacted  against 
dissenters  from  the  state  religion  decreed  by  the 
temporal  ruler.  England,  under  Henry  VIII,  Eliza- 
beth, and  the  Puritans  elaborated  the  most  ferocious 
of  all  penal  codes  against  Catholics  and  others  un- 
willing to  conform  to  the  establislied  religion. 

To  sum  up:  the  much-vaunted  Protestant  prin- 
ciples only  wrought  disaster  and  confusion  where  they 
were  allowed  free  play;  order  was  only  restored  by 
reverting  to  something  like  the  old  system:  symbols 
of  faith  imposed  by  an  outside  authority  and  en- 
forced by  the  secular  arm.  No  bond  of  union  exists 
between  the  many  national  Churches,  except  their 
common  hatred  for  "Rome",  which  is  the  birth- 
mark of  all,  and  the  trade-mark  of  many,  even  unto 
our  day. 

VII.  Rapidity  of  Protestant  Progress  Ex- 
plained.— Before  we  pass  on  to  the  study  of  con- 
temporary Protestantism,  we  will  answer  a  question 
and  solve  a  difficulty.  How  is  the  rapid  spread  of 
Protestantism  accounted  for?  Is  it  not  a  proof  that 
God  was  on  the  side  of  the  Reformers,  inspiring, 
fostering,  and  crowning  their  endeavours?  Surely, 
as  we  consider  the  growth  of  early  Christianity  and 
its  rapid  conquest  of  the  Roman  Empire,  as  proofs  of 
its  Divine  origin,  so  we  should  draw  the  same  con- 
clusion in  favour  of  Protestantism  from  its  rapid 
spread  in  Germany  and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe. 
In  fact  the  Reformation  spread  much  faster  than  the 
Apostolic  Church.  Allien  the  last  of  the  Apostles 
died,  no  kingdoms,  no  vast  tracts  of  lands,  were  en- 
tirely Christian;  Christianity  was  still  hiding  in  the 
catacombs  and  in  out-of-the-way  suburbs  of  heathen 
towns.  Whereas,  in  a  period  of  similar  duration, 
say  seventy  years.  Protestantism  had  taken  hold  of 
the  better  part  of  Germany,  Scandinavia,  Switzer- 
land, England,  and  Scotland.  A  moment's  consid- 
eration supphes  the  solution  of  this  difficulty.  Suc- 
cess is  not  invariably  due  to  intrinsic  goodness,  nor  is 
failure  a  certain  proof  of  intrinsic  badness.  Both 
largely  depend  on  circumstances:  on  the  means  em- 
ployed, the  obstacles  in  the  way,  the  receptivity  of 
the  public.  The  success  of  Protestantism,  therefore, 
must  itself  be  tested  before  it  can  be  used  as  a  test 
of  intrinsic  goodness. 

The  reformatory  movement  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury found  the  ground  well  prepared  for  its  reception. 
The  cry  for  a  thorough  reformation  of  the  Church 
in  head  and  members  had  been  ringing  through 
Europe  for  a  full  century;  it  was  justified  by  the 
worldly  lives  of  many  of  the  clergy,  high  and  low,  by 
abuses  in  church  administration,  by  money  ex- 
tortions, by  the  neglect  of  religious  duties  reaching 
far  and  wide  through  the  body  of  the  faithful.  Had 
Protestantism  offered  a  reform  in  the  sense  of  amend- 
ment, probably  all  the  corrupt  elements  in  the  Church 
would  have  turned  against  it,  as  Jews  and  pagans 
turned  against  Christ  and  the  Apostles.  But  what 
the  Reformers  aimed  at  was,  at  least  in  the  first 
instance,  the  radical  overthrow  of  the  existing  Church, 
and  this  overthrow  was  effected  by  pandering  to  all 
the  worst  instincts  of  man.  A  bait  was  tendered  to 
the  seven-headed  concupiscence  which  dwells  in 
every  human  heart;  pride,  covetousness,  lust,  anger, 
gluttony,  envy,  sloth,  and  all  their  offspring  were 
covered  and  healed  by  easy  trust  in  God.  No  good 
works  were  required:  the  immense  fortune  of  the 
Church  was  the  prize  of  apostasy:  political  and  re- 
ligous  independence  allured  the  kings  and  princes: 
the  abolition  of  tithes,  confession,  fasting,  and  other 
irksome  obligations  attracted  the  masses.  Many 
persons  were  deceived  into  the  new  religion  by  out- 
ward appearances  of  Catholicism  which  the  innova- 


tors carefully  maintained,  e.  g.  in  England  and  the 
Scandinavian  kingdoms.  Evidently  we  need  not 
look  for  Divine  intervention  to  account  for  the  rapid 
spread  of  Protestantism.  It  would  be  more  plausible 
to  see  the  finger  of  God  in  the  stopping  of  its  progress. 

VIII.  Present-day  Protestantism. — Theology. — 
After  nearly  four  centuries  of  existence.  Protestantism 
in  Europe  is  still  the  religion  of  millions, -but  it  is  no 
more  the  original  Protestantism.  It  has  been,  and 
is,  in  a  perpetual  flux:  the  principle  of  untrammelled 
free  judgment,  or,  as  it  is  now  called.  Subjectivism, 
has  been  swaying  its  adherents  to  and  fro  from  or- 
thodoxy to  Pietism,  from  Rationalism  to  Indifferent- 
ism.  The  movement  has  been  most  pronounced  in 
intellectual  centres,  in  universities  and  among  theo- 
logians generally,  yet  it  has  spread  down  to  the 
lowest  classes.  The  modern  Ritschl-Hamack  school, 
also  called  Modernism,  has  disciples  everywhere  and 
not  only  among  Protestants.  For  an  accurate  and  ex- 
haustive survey  of  its  main  lines  of  thought  we  re- 
fer the  reader  to  the  Encyclical  "Pascendi  Dominici 
Gregis"  (8  Sept.,  1907),  the  professed  aim  of  which 
is  to  defend  the  Catholic  Church  against  Protestant 
infiltrations.  In  one  point,  indeed,  the  Modernist 
condemned  by  Pius  X  differs  from  his  intellectual 
brothers:  he  remains,  and  wishes  to  remain,  inside 
the  Catholic  Church,  in  order  to  leaven  it  with  his 
ideas;  the  other  stands  frankly  outside,  an  enemy  or 
a  supercilious  student  of  religious  evolution.  It 
should  also  be  noted  that  not  every  item  of  the 
Modernist  programme  need  be  traced  to  the  Protes- 
tant Reformation;  for  the  modem  spirit  is  the  dis- 
tilled residue  of  many  philosophies  and  many  re- 
ligions :  the  point  is  that  Protestantism  proclaims 
itself  its  standard-bearer,  and  claims  credit  for  its 
achievements. 

Moreover,  Modernistic  views  in  philosophy,  the- 
ology, history,  criticism,  apologetics,  church  re- 
form etc.,  are  advocated  in  nine-tenths  of  the  Prot- 
estant theological  literature  in  Germany,  France, 
and  America,  England  only  slightly  lagging  behind. 
Now,  Modernism  is  at  the  antipodes  of  sixteenth- 
century  Protestantism.  To  use  Ritschl's  terminol- 
ogy, it  gives  new  "values"  to  the  old  beliefs.  Scrip- 
ture is  still  spoken  of  as  inspired,  but  its  inspiration 
is  only  the  impassioned  expression  of  human  religious 
experiences;  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God,  but  His  Son- 
ship  is  like  that  of  any  other  good  man;  the  very 
ideas  of  God,  religion.  Church,  sacraments,  have  lost 
their  old  values:  they  stand  for  nothing  real  outside 
the  subject  in  whose  religious  life  they  form  a  kind  of 
fool's  paradise.  The  fundamental  fact  of  Christ's 
Resurrection  is  an  historical  fact  no  longer;  it  is  but 
another  freak  of  the  believing  mind.  Harnack  puts 
the  essence  of  Christianity,  that  is  the  whole  teach- 
ing of  Christ,  into  the  Fatherhood  of  God  and  the 
Brotherhood  of  man :  Christ  Himself  is  no  part  of  the 
Gospel!  Such  was  not  the  teaching  of  the  Reformers. 
Present-day  Protestantism,  therefore,  may  be  com- 
pared with  Gnosticism,  Manichseism,  the  Renaissance, 
eighteenth-century  Philosophism,  in  so  far  as  these 
were  virulent  attacks  on  Christianity,  aiming  at 
nothing  less  than  its  destruction.  It  has  achieved 
important  victories  in  a  kind  of  civil  war  between 
orthodoxy  and  unbelief  within  the  Protestant  pale; 
it  is  no  mean  enemy  at  the  gate  of  the  Catholic 
Church. 

IX.  Popular  Protestantism. — In  Germany,  es- 
pecially in  the  greater  towns.  Protestantism,  as  a 
positive  guide  in  faith  and  morals,  is  rapidly  dying 
out.  It  has  lost  all  hold  of  the  working  classes. 
Its  ministers,  when  not  themselves  infidels,  fold  their 
hands  in  helpless  despair.  The  old  faith  is  but  little 
preached  and  with  little  profit.  The  ministerial 
energies  are  turned  towards  works  of  charity,  foreign 
missions,  polemics  against  Catholics.  Among  the 
English-speaking  nations  things  seem  just  a  little 


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500 


PROTESTANTISM 


better.  Here  the  grip  of  Protestantism  on  the 
masses  was  much  tighter  than  in  Germany,  the 
Wesleyan  revival  and  the  High  Chm'ch  party  among 
Anghcans  did  much  to  keep  some  faith  aUve,  and 
the  deleterious  teaching  of  English  Deists  and  Ra- 
tionalists did  not  penetrate  into  the  heart  of  the  peo- 
ple. Presbyterianism  in  Scotland  and  elsewhere  has 
also  shown  more  vitality  than  less  well-organized 
sects.  "England",  says  J.  R.  Green,  "became  the 
people  of  a  book,  and  that  book  was  the  Bible.  It 
was  as  yet  the  one  English  book  which  was  familiar 
to  every  Englishman;  it  was  read  in  the  churches  and 
read  at  home,  and  everywhere  its  words,  as  they  fell 
on  ears  which  custom  had  not  deadened,  kindled  a 
startling  enthusiasm.  ...  So  far  as  the  nation  at  large 
was  concerned,  no  history,  no  romance,  hardly  any 
poetry,  save  the  little-known  verse  of  Chaucer,  existed 
in  the  English  tongue  when  the  Bible  was  ordered  to 
be  set  up  in  churches.  The  power  of  the  book 

over  the  mass  of  Englishmen  showed  itself  in  a  thou- 
sand superficial  ways,  and  in  none  more  conspicuously 
than  in  the  influence  exerted  on  ordinary  speech.  .  .  . 
But  far  greater  than  its  effect  on  literature  or  social 
phrase  was  the  effect  of  the  Bible  on  the  character 
of  the  people  at  large  .  .  .  (Hist,  of  the  English  People, 
chap,  viii,  §  1). 

X.  Protestantism  and  Progress. — A.  Preju- 
dices.— The  human  mind  is  so  constituted  that  it 
colours  with  its  own  previous  conceptions  any  new 
notion  that  presents  itself  for  acceptance.  Though 
truth  be  objective  and  of  its  nature  one  and  unchange- 
able, personal  conditions  are  largely  relative,  de- 
pendent on  preconceptions,  and  changeable.  The 
arguments,  for  example,  which  three  hundred  years  ago 
convinced  our  fathers  of  the  existence  of  witches  and 
sent  millions  of  them  to  the  torture  and  the  stake,  make 
no  impression  on  our  more  enlightened  minds.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  whole  theological  contro- 
versy of  the  sixteenth  century.  To  the  modem  man 
it  is  a  dark  body,  of  whose  existence  he  is  aware, 
but  whose  contact  he  avoids.  With  the  controver- 
sies have  gone  the  coarse,  unscrupulous  methods  of 
attack.  The  adversaries  are  now  facing  each  other 
like  parliamentarians  of  opposite  parties,  with  a  com- 
mon desire  of  polite  fairness,  no  longer  like  armed 
troopers  only  intent  on  killing,  by  fair  means  or 
foul.  Exceptions  there  are  still,  but  only  at  low 
depths  in  the  literary  strata.  Whence  this  change 
of  behaviour,  notwithstanding  the  identity  of  posi- 
tions? Because  we  are  more  reasonable,  more  civil- 
ized; because  we  have  evolved  from  medieval  darkness 
to  modern  comparative  light.  And  whence  this 
progress?  Here  Protestantism  puts  in  its  claim, 
that,  by  freeing  the  mind  from  Roman  thraldom,  it 
opened  the  way  for  religious  and  political  liberty; 
for  untrammelled  evolution  on  the  basis  of  self- 
reliance;  for  a  higher  standard  of  morality;  for  the 
advancement  of  science — in  short  for  every  good  thing 
that  has  come  into  the  world  since  the  Reformation. 
With  the  majority  of  non-Catholics,  this  notion  has 
hardened  into  a  prejudice  which  no  reasoning  can 
break  up:  the  following  discussion,  therefore,  shall 
not  be  a  battle  royal  for  final  victory,  but  rather  a 
peaceful  re\'iew  of  facts  and  principles. 

B.  Progress  in  Church  and  Churches. — The  Catholic 
Church  of  the  twentieth  century  is  vastly  in  advance 
of  that  of  the  sixteenth.  She  has  made  up  her  loss 
in  political  power  and  worldly  wealth  by  increased 
spiritual  influences  and  efficiency;  her  adherents  are 
more  widespread,  more  numerous,  more  fervent  than 
at  any  time  in  her  history,  and  they  are  bound  to  the 
central  Government  at  Rome  by  a  more  filial  affection 
and  a  clearer  sense  of  duty.  Religious  education  is 
abundantly  provided  for  clergy  and  laity;  religious 
practice,  morality,  and  works  of  charity  are  flourish- 
ing; the  Catholic  mission-field  is  world-wide  and  rich 
in  harvest.     The  hierarchy  was  never  so  united,  never 


so  devoted  to  the  pope.  The  Roman  unity  is  success- 
fully resisting  the  inroads  of  sects,  of  philosophies, 
of  politics.  Can  our  separated  brethren  tell  a  similar 
tale  of  their  many  Churches,  even  in  lands  where  they 
are  ruled  and  backed  by  the  secular  power?  We  do 
not  rejoice  at  their  disintegration,  at  their  falling 
into  religious  indifference,  or  returning  into  political 
parties.  No,  for  any  shred  of  Christianity  is  better 
than  blank  worldliness.  But  we  do  draw  this  con- 
clusion: that  after  four  centuries  the  Catholic  prin- 
ciple of  authority  is  still  working  out  the  salvation  of 
the  Church,  whereas  among  Protestants  the  principle 
of  Subjectivism  is  destroying  what  remains  of  their 
former  faith  and  driving  multitudes  into  religious 
indifference  and  estrangement  from  the  supernatural. 

C.  Progress  in  Civil  Society. — The  political  and 
social  organization  of  Europe  has  undergone  greater 
changes  than  the  Churches.  Royal  prerogatives, 
like  that  exercised,  for  instance,  by  the  Tudor  dynasty 
in  England,  are  gone  for  ever.  "The  prerogative 
was  absolute,  both  in  theory  and  in  practice.  Govern- 
ment was  identified  with  the  will  of  the  sovereign,  his 
word  was  law  for  the  conscience  as  well  as  the  con- 
duct of  his  subjects"  (Brewer,  "Letters  and  Papers, 
Foreign  and  Domestic  etc.",  II,  pt.  I,  1,  p.  ccxxiv). 
Nowhere  now  is  persecution  for  conscience'  sake 
inscribed  on  the  national  statute-books,  or  left  to  the 
caprice  of  the  rulers.  Where  still  carried  on  it  is 
the  work  of  anti-religious  passion  temporarily  in 
power,  rather  than  the  expression  of  the  national 
will;  at  any  rate  it  has  lost  much  of  its  former  bar- 
barity. Education  is  placed  within  reach  of  the 
poorest  and  lowest.  The  punishment  of  crime  is  no 
longer  an  occasion  for  the  spectacular  display  of 
human  cruelty  to  human  beings.  Poverty  is  largely 
prevented  and  largely  relieved.  Wars  diminish  in 
number  and  are  waged  with  humanity ;  atrocities  like 
those  of  the  Thirty  Years  War  in  Germany,  the 
Huguenot  wars  in  France,  the  Spanish  wars  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  Cromwell's  invasion  of  Ireland,  are 
gone  beyond  the  possibility  of  return.  The  witch- 
finder,  the  witchburner,  the  inquisitor,  the  disbanded 
mercenary  soldier  have  ceased  to  plague  the  people. 
Science  has  been  able  to  check  the  outbursts  of  pesti- 
lence, cholera,  smallpox,  and  other  epidemics;  human 
life  has  been  lengthened  and  its  amenities  increased 
a  hundredfold.  Steam  and  electricity  in  the  service 
of  industry,  trade,  and  international  communication, 
are  even  now  drawing  humanity  together  into  one 
vast  family,  with  many  common  interests  and  a 
tendency  to  uniform  civilization.  From  the  sixteenth 
to  the  twentieth  century  there  has  indeed  been  prog- 
ress. Who  have  been  its  chief  promoters?  Catho- 
lics, or  Protestants,  or  neither? 

The  civil  wars  and  revolutions  of  the  seventeenth 
century  which  put  an  end  to  the  royal  prerogatives  in 
England,  and  set  up  a  real  government  of  the  people 
by  the  people,  were  religious  throughout  and  Prot- 
estant to  the  core.  "Liberty  of  conscience"  was  the 
cry  of  the  Puritans,  which,  however,  meant  liberty  for 
themselves  against  established  Episcopacy.  Tyran- 
nical abuse  of  their  victory  in  oppressing  the  Episco- 
palians brought  about  their  downfall,  and  they  in 
turn  were  the  victims  of  intolerance.  James  II, 
himself  a  Catholic,  was  the  first  to  strive  by  all  the 
means  at  his  command,  to  secure  for  his  subjects  of 
all  the  denominations  "liberty  of  conscience  for  all 
future  time"  (Declaration  of  Indulgence,  1688). 
His  premature  Liberalism  was  acquiesced  in  by  many 
of  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the  Established  Church, 
which  alone  had  nothing  to  gain  by  it,  but  excited  the 
most  violent  opposition  among  the  Protestant  Non- 
conformists who,  with  the  exception  of  the  Quakers, 
preferred  a  continuance  of  bondage  to  emancipation 
if  shared  with  the  hated  and  dreaded  "Papists". 
So  strong  was  this  feeling  that  it  overcame  all  those 
principles  of  patriotism  and  respect  for  the  law  of 


PROTESTANTISM 


501 


PROTESTANTISM 


which  the  English  people  are  wont  to  boast,  leading 
them  to  welcome  a  foreign  usurper  and  foreign 
troops  for  no  other  reason  than  to  obtain  their  assist- 
ance against  their  Catholic  fellow-subjects,  in  part 
to  do  precisely  what  the  latter  were  falsely  accused  of 
doing  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 

The  Stuart  dynasty  lost  the  throne,  and  their  suc- 
cessors were  reduced  to  mere  figure-heads.  Political 
freedom  had  been  achieved,  but  the  times  were  not 
yet  ripe  for  the  wider  freedom  of  conscience.  The 
penal  laws  against  Catholics  and  Dissenters  were 
aggravated  instead  of  abolished.  That  the  French 
Revolution  of  1789  was  largely  influenced  by  the  Eng- 
lish events  of  the  preceding  century  is  beyond  doubt; 
it  is,  however,  equally  certain  that  its  moving  spirit 
was  not  English  Puritanism,  for  the  men  who  set 
up  a  declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man  against  the 
Rights  of  God,  and  who  enthroned  the  Goddess  of 
Reason  in  the  Cathedral  Church  of  Paris,  di-ew  their 
ideals  from  Pagan  Rome  rather  than  from  Protestant 
England. 

D.  Progress  in  Religioiis  Toleration. — As  regards 
Protestant  influence  on  the  general  progress  of  civili- 
zation since  the  origin  of  Protestantism  we  must 
mark  off  at  least  two  periods:  the  first  from  the  be- 
ginning in  1517  to  the  end  of  the  Thirty  Years  War 
(1648),  the  second  from  1648  to  the  present  day; 
the  period  of  youthful  expansion,  and  the  period  of 
maturity  and  decay.  But  before  apportioning  its 
influence  on  civilization  the  previous  questions 
should  be  examined:  in  how  far  does  Christianity 
contribute  to  the  amelioration  of  man — intellectual, 
moral,  material — in  this  world:  for  its  salutary  ef- 
fects on  man's  soul  after  death  cannot  be  tested,  and 
consequently  cannot  be  used  as  arguments  in  a  purely 
scientific  disquisition.  There  were  highly-civilized 
nations  in  antiquity,  Assyria,  Egypt,  Greece,  Rome: 
and  there  are  now  China  and  Japan,  whose  culture 
owes  nothing  to  Christianity.  When  Christ  came  to 
enlighten  the  world,  the  light  of  Roman  and  Greek 
culture  was  shining  its  brightest,  and  for  at  least 
three  centuries  longer  the  new  religion  added  nothing 
to  its  lustre.  The  spirit  of  Christian  charity,  how- 
ever, gradually  leavened  the  heathen  mass,  softening 
the  hearts  of  rulers  and  improving  the  condition  of 
the  ruled,  especially  of  the  poor,  the  slave,  the 
prisoner.  The  close  union  of  Church  and  State, 
begun  with  Constantine  and  continued  under  his 
successors,  the  Roman  emperors  of  East  and  West, 
led  to  much  good,  but  probably  to  more  evil.  The 
lay  episcopacy  which  the  princes  assumed  well- 
nigh  reduced  the  medieval  Church  to  a  state  of  abject 
vassalage,  the  secular  clergy  to  ignorance  and 
worldliness,  the  peasant  to  bondage  and  often  to 
misery. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  monasteries  the  Church  of 
the  Middle  Ages  would  not  have  saved,  as  it  did,  the 
remnant  of  Roman  and  Greek  culture  which  so  power- 
fully helped  to  civilize  Western  Europe  after  the  bar- 
barian invasions.  Dotted  all  over  the  West,  the 
monks  formed  model  societies,  well-organized,  justly 
ruled,  and  prospering  by  the  work  of  their  hands, 
true  ideals  of  a  superior  civilization.  It  was  still 
the  ancient  Roman  civilization,  permeated  with 
Christianity,  but  shackled  by  the  jarring  interests  of 
Church  and  State.  Was  Christian  Europe,  from  a 
worldly  point  of  view,  better  off  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century  than  pagan  Europe  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourth?  For  the  beginning  of  our 
distinctly  modem  progress  we  must  go  back  to  the 
Renaissance,  the  Humanistic  or  classical,  i.  e.  pagan 
revival,  following  upon  the  conquest  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turks  (1453);  upon  the  discovery  of  the  new 
Indian  trade  route  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
by  the  Portuguese;  upon  the  discovery  of  America 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  upon  the  development  of  all 
European  interests,  fostered  or  initiated  at  the  end 


of  the  fifteenth  century,  just  before  the  birth  of  Protes- 
tantism. The  opening  of  the  New  World  was  for 
Europe  a  new  creation.  Minds  expanded  with  the 
vast  spaces  submitted  to  them  for  investigation; 
the  study  of  astronomy,  at  first  in  the  service  of 
navigation,  soon  reaped  its  own  reward  by  discov- 
eries in  its  proper  domain,  the  starry  heavens;  de- 
scriptive geography,  botany,  anthropology,  and 
kindred  sciences  demanded  study  of  those  who 
would  reap  a  share  in  the  great  harvest  East  and  West. 
The  new  impulse  and  new  direction  given  to  com- 
merce changed  the  political  aspect  of  old  Europe. 
Men  and  nations  were  brought  into  that  close  con- 
tact of  common  interests,  which  is  the  root  of  all 
civilization;  wealth  and  the  printing-press  supplied 
the  means  for  satisfying  the  awakened  craving  for 
art,  science,  literature,  and  more  refined  living. 
Amid  this  outburst  of  new  life  Protestantism  appears 
on  the  scene,  itself  a  child  of  the  times.  Did  it  help 
or  hinder  the  forward  movement? 

The  youth  of  Protestantism  was,  naturally  enough, 
a  period  of  turmoil,  of  disturbing  confusion  in  all  the 
spheres  of  life.  No  one  nowadays  can  read  without 
a  sense  of  shame  and  sadness  the  history  of  those 
years  of  religious  and  political  strife;  of  religion 
everywhere  made  the  handmaid  of  politics;  of  wanton 
destruction  of  churches  and  shrines  and  treasures 
of  sacred  art;  of  wars  between  citizens  of  the  same 
land,  conducted  with  incredible  ferocity;  of  terri- 
tories laid  waste,  towns  pillaged  and  levelled  to  the 
ground,  poor  people  sent  adrift  to  die  of  starvation 
in  their  barren  fields;  of  commercial  prosperity  cut 
down  at  a  stroke;  of  seats  of  learning  reduced  to 
ranting  and  loose  living;  of  charity  banished  from 
social  intercourse  to  give  place  to  slander  and  abuse, 
of  coarseness  in  speech  and  manners,  of  barbarous 
cruelty  on  the  part  of  princes,  nobles,  and  judges 
in  their  dealings  with  the  "subject"  and  the  prisoner, 
in  short  of  the  almost  sudden  drop  of  whole  countries 
into  worse  than  primitive  savagery.  "Greed,  rob- 
bery, oppression,  rebellion,  repression,  wars,  devasta- 
tion, degradation"  would  be  a  fitting  inscription  on 
the  tombstone  of  early  Protestantism. 

But  violenta  nan  duranl.  Protestantism  has  now 
grown  into  a  sedate  something,  difficult  to  define. 
In  some  form  or  other  it  is  the  official  religion  in  many 
lands  of  Teutonic  race,  it  also  counts  among  its  ad- 
herents an  enormous  number  of  independent  re- 
ligious bodies.  These  Protestant  Teutons  and  semi- 
Teutons  claim  to  be  leaders  in  modern  civilization: 
to  possess  "the  greatest  wealth,  the  best  education, 
the  purest  morals;  in  every  respect  they  feel  them- 
selves superior  to  the  Latin  races  who  still  profess 
the  Catholic  religion,  and  they  ascribe  their  superior- 
ity to  their  Protestantism. 

Man  knows  himself  but  imperfectly:  the  exact 
state  of  his  health,  the  truth  of  his  knowledge,  the 
real  motives  of  his  actions,  are  all  veiled  in  semi- 
obscurity;  of  his  neighbour  he  knows  even  less  than 
of  himself,  and  his  generalizations  of  national  charac- 
ter, t3T3ified  by  nicknames,  are  worthless  caricatures. 
Antipathies  rooted  in  ancient  quarrels — political  or 
religious — enter  largely  into  the  judgments  on  na- 
tions and  Churches.  Opprobrious,  and  so  far  as 
sense  goes,  obsolete  epithets  applied  in  the  heat  and 
passion  of  battle  still  cling  to  the  ancient  foe  and  create 
prejudice  against  him.  Conceptions  formed  three 
hundred  years  ago  amid  a  state  of  things  which  has 
long  ceased  to  be,  still  survive  and  distort  our  judg- 
ments. How  slowly  the  terms  Protestant,  Papist, 
Romanist,  Nonconformist,  and  others  are  losing  their 
old  unsavoury  connotation.  Again:  Is  there  any  of 
the  greater  nations  that  is  purely  Protestant?  The 
richest  provinces  of  the  German  Empire  are  Catholic, 
and  contain  fully  one-third  of  its  entire  population. 
In  the  United  States  of  America,  according  to  the 
latest  census.  Catholics  form  the  majority  of  the 


PROTESTANTISM 


502 


PROTESTANTISM 


church-going  population  in  many  of  the  largest  cities : 
San  Francisco  (81-1  per  cent);  New  Orleans  (79-7  per 
cent) ;  New  York  (76-9  per  cent) ;  St.  Louis  (69  per 
cent) ;  Boston  (68-7  per  cent) ;  Chicago  (68-2  per  cent) ; 
Philadelphia  (51-8  per  cent). 

Great  Britain  and  its  colonies  have  a  Catholic 
population  of  over  twelve  millions.  Holland  and 
Switzerland  have  powerful  Catholic  provinces  and 
cantons;  only  the  small  Scandinavian  kingdoms  have 
succeeded  in  keeping  down  the  old  religion.  A  further 
question  suggests  itself:  granting  that  some  states  are 
more  prosperous  than  others,  is  their  greater  pros- 
perity due  to  the  particular  form  of  Christianity 
they  profess?  The  idea  is  absurd.  For  all  Chris- 
tian denominations  have  the  same  moral  code — the 
Decalogue — and  believe  in  the  same  rewards  for  the 
good  and  punishments  for  the  wicked.  We  hear  it 
asserted  that  Protestantism  produces  self-reliance, 
whereas  Catholicism  extinguishes  it.  Against  this 
may  be  set  the  statement  that  Catholicism  produces 
disciplined  order — an  equally  good  commercial  asset. 
The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  self-reliance  is  best 
fostered  by  free  political  institutions  and  a  decen- 
tralized government.  These  existed  in  England  be- 
fore the  Reformation  and  have  survived  it;  they  like- 
wise existed  in  Germany,  but  were  crushed  out  by 
Protestant  Caesaropapism,  never  to  revive  with  their 
primitive  vigour.  Medieval  Italy,  the  Italy  of  the 
Renaissance,  enjoyed  free  municipal  government  in 
its  many  towns  and  principalities:  though  the  coun- 
try was  Catholic,  it  brought  forth  a  crop  of  undis- 
ciplined self-reliant  men,  great  in  many  walks  of  life, 
good  and  evil.  And  looking  at  history,  we  see  Catho- 
lic France  and  Spain  attaining  the  zenith  of  their 
national  grandeur,  whilst  Germany  was  undermining 
and  disintegrating  that  Holy  Roman  Empire  vested 
in  the  German  nation — an  empire  which  was  its 
glory,  its  strength,  the  source  and  mainstay  of  its 
culture  and  prosperity. 

England's  grandeur  during  the  same  epoch  is  due 
to  the  same  cause  as  that  of  Spain:  the  impulse 
given  to  all  national  forces  by  the  discovery  of  the 
New  World.  Both  Spain  and  England  began  by 
securing  religious  unity.  In  Spain  the  Inquisition 
at  a  small  cost  of  human  life  preserved  the  old  faith; 
in  England  the  infinitely  more  cruel  penal  laws 
stamped  out  all  opposition  to  the  innovations  im- 
ported from  Germany.  Germany  itself  did  not 
recover  the  prominent  position  it  held  in  Europe 
under  the  Emperor  Charles  V  until  the  constitution 
of  the  new  empire  during  the  Franco-German  War 
(1871).  Since  then  its  advance  in  every  direction, 
except  that  of  religion,  has  been  such  as  seriously  to 
threaten  the  commercial  and  maritime  supremacy  of 
England.  The  truth  of  the  whole  matter  is  this: 
religious  toleration  has  been  placed  on  the  statute 
books  of  modem  nations;  the  civil  power  has  severed 
itself  from  the  ecclesiastical;  the  governing  classes 
have  grown  alarmingly  indifferent  to  things  spiritual; 
the  educated  classes  are  largely  Rationalistic;  the 
working  classes  are  widely  infected  with  anti-re- 
ligious socialism;  a  prolific  press  daily  and  period- 
ically preaches  the  gospel  of  Naturalism  overtly  or 
covertly  to  countless  eager  readers;  in  many  lands 
Christian  teaching  is  banished  from  the  public  schools ; 
and  revealed  religion  is  fast  losing  that  power  of 
fashioning  politics,  culture,  home  life,  and  personal 
character  which  it  used  to  exercise  for  the  benefit 
of  Christian  states.  Amid  this  almost  general  flight 
from  God  to  the  creature,  Catholicism  alone  makes  a 
stand:  its  teaching  is  intact,  its  discipline  stronger 
than  ever,  its  confidence  in  final  victory  is  unshaken. 
E.  The  Test  of  Vitality. — A  better  standard  for 
comparison  than  the  glamour  of  worldly  progress, 
at  best  an  accidental  result  of  a  religious  system, 
is  the  power  of  self-preservation  and  propagation, 
i.  e.  vital  energy.     What  are  the  facts?     "The  anti- 


Protestant  movement  in  the  Roman  Church"  says  a 
Protestant  writer,  "which  is  generally  called  the 
Counter-Reformation,  is  really  at  least  as  remarkable 
as  the  Reformation  itself.  Probably  it  would  be  no 
exaggeration  to  call  it  the  most  remarkable  single 
episode  that  has  ever  occurred  in  the  history  of  the 
Christian  Church.  Its  immediate  success  was 
greater  than  that  of  the  Protestant  movement,  and 
its  permanent  results  are  fully  as  large  at  the  present 
day.  It  called  forth  a  burst  of  missionary  enthu- 
siasm such  as  has  not  been  seen  since  the  first  day  of 
Pentecost.  So  far  as  organization  is  concerned,  there 
can  be  no  question  that  the  mantle  of  the  men  who 
made  the  Roman  Empire  has  fallen  upon  the  Roman 
Church;  and  it  has  never  given  more  striking  proof 
of  its  vitality  and  power  than  it  did  at  this  time,  im- 
mediately after  a  large  portion  of  Europe  had  been 
torn  from  its  grasp.  Printing-presses  poured  forth 
literature  not  only  to  meet  the  controversial  needs  of 
the  moment  but  also  admirable  editions  of  the  early 
Fathers  to  whom  the  Reformed  Churches  appealed — 
sometimes  with  more  confidence  than  knowledge. 
Armies  of  devoted  missionaries  were  scientifically 
marshalled.  Regions  of  Europe  which  had  seemed 
to  be  lost  for  ever  [for  example,  the  southern  portion 
of  Germany  and  parts  of  Austria-Hungary]  were  re- 
covered to  the  Papacy,  and  the  claims  of  the  Vicar 
of  Christ  were  carried  far  and  wide  through  countries 
where  they  had  never  been  heard  before"  (R.  H. 
Maiden,  classical  lecturer,  Selwyn  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  "Foreign  Missions",  London,  1910, 
119-20). 

Dr.  G.  Wameck,  a  protagonist  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance  in  Germany,  thus  describes  the  result  of  the 
Kulturkampf:  "The  Kulturkampf  [i.  e.  struggle  for 
superiority  of  Protestantism  against  Catholicism  in 
Prussia],  which  was  inspired  by  political,  national, 
and  liberal-religious  motives,  ended  with  a  complete 
victory  for  Rome.  When  it  began,  a  few  men,  who 
knew  Rome  and  the  weapons  used  against  her,  fore- 
told with  certainty  that  a  contest  with  Romanism 
on  such  lines  would  of  necessity  end  in  defeat  for  the 
State  and  in  an  increase  of  power  for  Romanism,  .  .  . 
The  enemy  whom  we  met  in  battle  has  brilliantly 
conquered  us,  though  we  had  all  the  arms  civil  power 
can  supply.  True,  the  victory  is  partly  owing  to  the 
ability  of  the  leaders  of  the  Centre  party,  but  it  is 
truer  still  that  the  weapons  used  on  our  side  were 
blunted  tools,  unfit  for  doing  serious  harm.  The 
Roman  Church  is  indeed,  like  the  State,  a  political 
power,  worldly  to  the  core,  but  after  all  she  is  a  Church, 
and  therefore  disposes  of  religious  powers  which  she 
invariably  brings  into  action  when  contending  with 
civil  powers  for  supremacy.  The  State  has  no 
equivalent  power  to  oppose.  You  cannot  hit  a  spirit, 
not  even  the  Roman  spirit  ."  (Der  evangelische 
Bund  und  seine  Gegner",  13-14).  The  anti-re- 
ligious Government  of  France  is  actually  renewing  the 
Kulturkampf;  but  no  more  than  its  German  models 
does  it  succeed  in  "hitting  the  Roman  spirit".  En- 
dowments, churches,  schools,  convents  have  been  con- 
fiscated, yet  the  spirit  lives. 

The  other  mark  of  Catholic  vitality — the  power 
of  propagation — is  evident  in  missionary  work. 
Long  before  the  'birth  of  Protestantism,  Catholic 
missionaries  had  converted  Europe  and  carried  the 
Faith  as  far  as  China.  After  the  Reformation  they 
reconquered  for  the  Church  the  Rhinelands,  Bavaria, 
Austria,  part  of  Hungary,  and  Poland ;  they  estab- 
lished flourishing  Christian  communities  all  over 
North  and  South  America  and  in  the  Portuguese  colo- 
nies, wherever,  in  short,  Catholic  powers  allowed  them 
free  play.  For  nearly  three  hundred  years  Protes- 
tants were  too  intent  on  self-preservation  to  think  of 
foreign  missionary  work.  At  the  present  day,  how- 
ever, they  develop  great  activity  in  all  heathen  coun- 
tries, and  not  without  a  fair  success.     Maiden,  in  the 


PROTHONOTARY 


503 


PROTOPOPE 


work  quoted  above,  compares  Catholic  with  Prot- 
estant methods  and  results:  although  his  sympathy 
is  naturally  with  his  own,  his  approbation  is  all  for 
the  other  side. 

XI.  Conclusion. — Catholicism  numbers  some  270 
millions  of  adherents,  all  professing  the  same  Faith, 
using  the  same  sacraments,  living  under  the  same 
discipline;  Protestantism  claims  roundly  100  mil- 
lions of  Christians,  products  of  the  Gospel  and  the 
fancies  of  a  hundred  reformers,  people  constantly 
bewailing  their  "unhappy  divisions"  and  vainly  cry- 
ing for  a  union  which  is  only  possible  under  that  very 
central  authority,  protestation  against  which  is  their 
only  common  denominator. 

For  controversial  matter  &ee  any  Catholic  or  Protestant  text- 
books. The  Catholic  standard  workia  Bellarmine,  Disputationes 
de  Controversiis  Christianw  jidei  etc.  (4  vols.,  Rome,  18.32-8); 
on  the  Protestant  side:  Gerhard,  Loci  Theoloiiici,  etc.  (9  vols., 
Berlin,  1863-75).  For  the  historical,  political,  and  social  his- 
tory of  Protestantism  the  best  work.s  are:  Dollingeb,  Die 
Reformation  (3  vols..  Ratisbon,  1843-51);  The  Church  and  the 
Churches,  tr,  MacCabb  (1S62) ;  Janssen,  Hist,  of  the  German 
People  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  tr.  Christie  (London, 
1896-1910);  Pastor,  Hisl.  of  the  Popes  from  the  close  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  tr.  Antrobus  (London,  1891-1910);  Balmes, 
Protestantism  and  Catholicity  in  their  effects  on  the  civilization  of 
Europe,  tr.  Hanford  and  Kershaw  (1849) ;  Baudrillart, 
The  Catholic  Church,  the  Renaissance  and  Protestantism,  tr. 
GiBBS  (London.  1908),  these  are  illuminating  lectures  given  at 
the  Institut  Catholique  of  Paris  by  its  rector.  On  the  Protestant 
side  may  be  recommended  the  voluminous  writings  of  Creighton 
and  Gardiner,  both  fair-minded. 

J.    WiLHBLM. 

Prothonotary  Apostolic,  member  of  the  highest 
college  of  prelates  in  the  Roman  Curia,  and  also  of  the 
honorary  prelates  on  whom  the  pope  has  conferred 
this  title  and  its  special  privileges.  In  later  antiquity 
there  were  in  Rome  seven  regional  notaries,  who,  on 
the  further  development  of  the  papal  administration 
and  the  accompanying  increase  of  the  notaries,  re- 
mained the  supreme  palace  notaries  of  the  papal  chan- 
cery {notarii  apostolici  or  protonotarii) .  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  prothonotaries  were  very  high  papal  officials, 
and  were  often  raised  directly  from  this  office  to  the 
cardinalate.  Sixtus  V  (1585-90)  increased  their  num- 
ber to  twelve.  Their  importance  gradually  dimin- 
ished, and  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution  the 
office  had  almost  entirely  disappeared.  On  8  Febru- 
ary, 1838,  Gregory  XVI  re-established  the  college  of 
real  prothonotaries  with  seven  members  called 
"protonotarii  de  numero  participantium",  because 
they  shared  in  the  revenues. 

Since  the  sixteenth  century  the  popes  had  also  ap- 
pointed honorary  prothonotaries,  who  enjoyed  the 
same  privileges  as  the  seven  real  members  of  the 
college;  and  titular  prothonotaries,  who  held  a  corre- 
sponding position  in  the  administration  of  the  episcopal 
ordinariate  or  in  the  collegiate  chapter.  By  the  Motu 
Proprio  "Inter  multiplices"  of  21  February,  1905, 
Pius  X  exactly  defined  the  position  of  the  prothono- 
taries. These  are  divided  into  four  classes:  (1)  the 
"Protonotarii  apostolioi  de  numero  participantium" 
(members  of  the  college  of  prelates),  who  exercise  their 
office  in  connexion  with  the  acts  of  consistories  and 
canonizations,  have  a  representative  in  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Propaganda,  and,  according  to  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  Curia  by  the  Constitution  "Sapienti 
consilio"  of  29  June,  1908,  sign  the  papal  Bulls  instead 
of  the  earlier  abbreviators  (q.  v.).  They  enjoy  the 
use  of  pontificals  and  numerous  privileges,  and  may 
also,  after  examining  the  candidates,  name  annually 
a  fixed  number  of  doctors  of  theology  and  of  canon 
law;  (2)  the  "Protonotarii  apostolici  supranumerarii", 
a  dignity  to  which  only  the  canons  of  the  three  Roman 
patriarchal  churches  (the  Lateran,  St.  Peter's,  and  St. 
Mary  Major),  and  of  cathedral  chapters  outside  of 
Rome  to  which  the  privilege  has  been  granted,  can  be 
raised;  (3)  the  "Protonotarii  apostolici  ad  instar  [sc. 
participantium] ",  who  are  appointed  by  the  pope  and 
have  the  same  external  insignia  as  the  real  prothono- 
taries; (4)  the  "Protonotarii  titulares  seu  honorarii", 


who  are  found  outside  of  Rome,  and  who  may  receive 
this  dignity  from  the  nuncios  or  as  a  special  privilege. 
The  privileges,  dress,  and  insignia  of  the  members  of 
these  four  classes  are  exactly  defined  by  the  above- 
mentioned  Motu  Proprio. 
See  the  bibliography  of  Prelate. 

J.    P.    KiBSCH. 

Protocanonical  Books.  See  Canon  of  the  Holt 
Scriptures. 

Protocol,  the  formula  used  at  the  beginning  of 
public  acts  drawn  up  by  notaries,  e.  g.,  mention  of  the 
reign,  time,  place,  etc.  (Justinian,  "Novels",  43); 
also,  the  compact  register  in  which  notaries  register 
the  acts  drawn  up  by  them,  in  order  of  date;  finally, 
the  first  draft  of  these  acts  (called  minutes,  because 
they  are  written  in  small  characters),  which  remain 
in  care  of  the  notary,  and  from  which  a  copy  or  tran- 
script (said  to  be  engrossed,  because  written  in  larger 
characters)  is  made,  and  sent  to  the  interested  parties. 
In  tribunals  where  the  registrars  have  retained  the 
name  notary,  the  protocol  is  the  register  in  which 
records  of  the  proceedings  are  preserved  and  the  office 
in  which  the  originals  of  these  documents  are  kept 
(cf.  Regulation  of  the  Rota,  4  August,  1910,  art.  2). 
Public  acts,  official  records,  ought  to  be  either  the 
originals  (engrossed)  or  authentic  copies,  i.  e.,  certified 
to  be  faithful  copies  of  the  original  preserved  in  the 
protocol,  the  notary  who  transcribes  the  document 
witnessing  on  the  copy  itself  that  it  is  exact;  this  is 
what  is  known  as  fides  instrumentorum,  or  trust- 
worthiness of  the  documents. 

Du  Cange,  Glossarium,  s.  v.  Protocollum;  the  canonical  writers 
on  the  title  De  fide  instrumentorum.,  II,  tit.  xxii. 

A.  Boudinhon. 

Protoevangelium  of  St.  James.  See  Apocry- 
pha, sub-title  III. 

Protomartyr.    See  Stephen,  Saint. 

Protopope,  a  priest  of  higher  rank  in  the  Orthodox 
and  Byzantine  Uniat  Churches,  corresponding  in  gen- 
eral to  the  Western  archpriest  or  dean.  The  rights 
and  duties  of  these  dignitaries  have  varied  to  some  ex- 
tent at  different  times  and  in  different  local  Churches. 

Roughly  the  titles  archpriest  [ipxiirpea^iTepoi),  pro- 
iopriesi  {TrpiaToiepeis^  irpoiToivpetT^iTcpos)  ^  protopope  {Tpw- 
TOTTdTras)  may  be  taken  as  meaning  the  same  thing, 
though  they  have  occasionally  been  distinguished.  The 
general  idea  is  that  the  archpriest  has  the  highest  rank 
in  his  order;  he  comes  immediately  after  the  bishop. 
In  the  fifth  century  he  appears  as  head  of  the  college 
of  priests,  as  the  bishop's  delegate  for  certain  duties  of 
visitation  and  judgment,  as  his  representative  in  case 
of  absence  or  death  {sede  vacante).  So  Liberatus: 
"Breviarium",  XIV  (P.  L.,  LXVIII,  1016).  He 
therefore  combined  the  offices  of  our  modern  dean  of 
the  chapter,  vicar-general,  and  vicar  capitular.  The 
title  recurs  constantly  in  the  early  Middle  Ages  (Bing- 
ham, op.  cit.,  I,  292  sqq.).  At  Constantinople  there 
was  an  elaborately  organized  court  of  ecclesiastical 
persons  around  the  patriarch,  whose  various  places  in 
choir  when  the  patriarch  celebrated  are  given  in  the 
Euchologion  together  with  a  statement  of  their  duties. 
Among  these  the  protopope  had  the  first  place  on  the 
left.  "The  protopope  stands  above  the  left  choir 
when  the  pontiff  celebrates,  he  gives  to  him  [the  pon- 
tiff] Holy  Communion  and  in  the  same  way  the  pontiff 
to  the  protopope;  and  he  has  all  first  places  [to.  irpuTeTa 
TrdpTa]  in  the  church"  (Goar,  225).  Under  him  is  the 
"second  one"  (6  Sevrepeioiv),  who  takes  his  place  in  his 
absence  (ibid.).  So  also  Leo  Allatius's  list,  where  it  is 
said  further  that:  "he  holds  the  place  [KpaTuv  rbirov,  as 
deputy]  of  the  pontiff"  (ibid.,  229).  He  is  promoted 
by  presentation  to  the  patriarch,  who  lays  his  hand  on 
him  with  prayer,  and  the  clergy  cry  "S|ios"  three 
times  (the  rite  from  AUatius  is  given  by  Goar,  238). 
Goar  notes  that  the  protopope,  at  least  to  some  ex- 


PROTOTYPE 


504 


PROUT 


tent,  succeeded  to  the  place  of  the  chorepiscopus.  He 
could  ordain  lectors;  at  concelebrations  where  no 
bishop  is  present  he  presided  and  said  the  Ekphoneseis. 
In  the  bishop's  absence  he  took  his  place  as  president, 
and  had  jurisdiction  over  his  fellow-clergy.  George 
Kodinos  (fourteenth  century)  says  of  the  protopope: 
"he  is  first  in  the  tribunal  [toO  ^iJ/xotos,  in  authority] 
holding  the  second  place  after  the  pontiff"  (De  Offi- 
ciis,  I,  quoted  by  Goar,  237). 

Distinct  from  the  official  of  the  patriarchal  court, 
though  bearing  the  same  title,  were  the  protopopes  in 
the  country  parishes.  They  correspond  to  our  rural 
deaixS,  having  delegate  episcopal  jursidiction  for  minor 
cases,  from  which  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  bishop. 
So  Theodore  Balsamon  (twelfth  century):  "It  is  for- 
bidden by  the  canons  that  there  should  be  bishops  in 
small  towns  and  vOlages  and  because  of  this  they  or- 
dain for  these,  priests  who  are  protopopes  and  chore- 
piscopi"  (Syntagma,  III,  142).  There  are  oases  in 
which  a  protopope  in  a  remote  place  has  episcopal 
jurisdiction,  but  not  orders,  like  some  vicars  Apos- 
tolic, or  the  archpriests  in  England  from  1599  to  1621. 
In  such  cases  they  are  distinguished  from  archpriests 
and  have  such  officials  under  them  (so  the  introduc- 
tion to  Nicholas  Bulgaris's  "Sacred  Catechism", 
Venice,  1681). 

In  modern  times  the  Orthodox  (and  Uniat)  title  of 
protopope  often  means  hardly  more  than  a  compli- 
mentary title  conveying  a  certain  rank  and  precedence 
with  sometimes  a  few  unimportant  rights.  Often  in  a 
church  that  has  several  priests  (as  we  should  say  a 
rector  and  curates)  the  first  (rector)  is  called  proto- 
pope. In  Russia,  Bulgaria,  Rumania,  and  Austria 
the  protopopes  have  authority  over  a  district  contain- 
ing several  parishes.  They  have  to  visit  these  occa- 
sionally and  represent  for  the  clergy  the  court  of  first 
instance.  In  Orthodox  Hungary  and  Transylvania 
there  are  protopresbyterates  (eparchies),  in  which  the 
protopope  is  elected  by  clergy  and  people  and  rules 
under  the  bishop.  In  these  cases  he  may  be  compared 
to  our  rural  deans.  Such  an  office  is  the  highest  to 
which  a  married  Orthodox  priest  may  aspire,  since 
bishops  are  always  monks.  In  Russia  the  pro- 
topope (protoierei)  sometimes  wears  the  Byzantine 
mitre  and  epigonalion,  but  not  the  omophorion  or 
sakkos. 

Goar,  Euchologion  (Venice,  1730) ;  Bingham,  Origines  sive 
antiquUates  ecct^.^ia^HccE  (London,  1723);  Milasch,  Das  Kirchen- 
recht  der  morgenl&ndischen  Kirche  (2nd  ed.,  Mostar,  1905) ;  Knie, 
Die  russisch-schismatische  Kirche  (Graz,  1894). 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Prototype.     See  Hermeneutics. 

Protus  and  Hyacinth,  Saints,  martyrs  during 
the  persecution  of  Valerian  {\  57-9).  The  day  of  their 
annual  commemoration  is  mentioned  in  the  "  Depositio 
Martyrum"  in  the  chronographia  for  354  (Ruinart, 
"Acta  martyrum",  ed.  Ratisbon,  632)  under  11 
September.  The  chronographia  also  mentions  their 
graves,  in  the  Cctmeterium  of  Basilla  on  the  Via 
Salaria,  later  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Hermes.  The 
Itineraries  and  other  early  authorities  likewise  give 
this  place  of  burial  (De  Rossi,  "Roma  sotterranea", 
I,  176-7) .  In  1845  Father  Marchi  discovered  the  still 
undisturbed  grave  of  St.  Hyacinth  in  a  cr}T)t  of  the 
above-mentioned  catacomb.  It  was  a  small  square 
niche  in  which  lay  the  ashes  and  pieces  of  burned  bone 
wrapped  in  the  remains  of  costly  stuffs  (Marchi, 
"  Monument!  primitivi:  I,  Architettura  della  Roma 
sotterranea  cristina",  Rome,  1844,  238  sqq.,  264  sqq.). 
Evidently  the  saint  had  been  burnt;  most  probably 
both  martyrs  had  suffered  death  by  fire.  The  niche 
was  closed  by  a  marble  slab  similar  to  that  used  to 
f'lose  a  lociihis,  and  bearing  the  original  inscription 
that  confirmed  the  date  in  the  old  Martyrology; 

D    P    III    IDUS    SEPTEBR 

YACINTHUS 

MARTYR 


(Buried  on  11  September  Hyacinthus  Martyr).  In 
the  same  chamber  were  found  fragments  of  an  archi- 
trave belonging  to  some  later  decoration,  with  the 
words : 

..     SEPULCRUM  PROTI  M(artyris)     .. 

(Grave  of  the  Mart}T  Protus).  Thus  both  martyrs 
were  buried  in  the  same  crypt.  Pope  Damasus  wrote 
an  epitaph  in  honour  of  the  two  martyrs,  part  of  which 
still  exists  (Ihm,  "Damasi  epigrammata",  52,  49). 
In  the  epitaph  Damasus  calls  Protus  and  Hyacinth 
brothers.  When  Leo  IV  (847-55)  translated  the  bones 
of  a  large  number  of  Roman  martyrs  to  the  churches 
of  Rome,  the  relics  of  these  two  saints  were  to  be 
translated  also;  but,  probably  on  account  of  the 
devastation  of  the  burial  chamber,  only  the  grave  of 
St.  Protus  was  found.  His  bones  were  transferred  to 
San  Salvatore  on  the  Palatine.  The  remains  of  St. 
Hyacinth  were  placed  (1849)  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Propaganda.  Later  the  tombs  of  the  two  saints  and 
a  stairway  built  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  were 
discovered  and  restored. 

Allard,  Rome  souterraine  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1877),  529  sqq.; 
Marucchi,  Les  catacombes  romaines  (2nd  ed..  Rome,  1903),  480 
sqq.;  Nuovo  Bull,  di  arch,  crist.  (1895),  11  sqq.;  (1898),  77  sqq.; 
Bibliotheca  hagiographica  latina,  II,  1015;  DxJFOURCQ,  Les  Gesta 
martyrum  romains>  I,  222  sq. 

J.    P.   KiRSCH. 

Prout,  Father,  the  name  by  which  the  Rev. 
Francis  Sylvester  Mahony  (O'Mahony),  author  of 
"The  Bells  of  Shandon",  is  generally  known,  b.  at 
Cork,  31  Dec,  1S04;  d.  in  Paris,  18  May,  1866.  Edu- 
cated at  Clongowes  Wood  College,  Ireland,  and  St- 
Acheul,  France 
(181.5-21),  he  en- 
tered the  Jesuit 
novitiate  in  Paris 
in  1S21,  and  in 
1823  was  sent  to 
Rome  for  his 
course  in  philos- 
ophy. In  1825 
he  returned  to 
Clongowes  as  dis- 
ciplinarian and 
after  a  brief  stay 
there,  going  sub- 
sequently to  Frei- 
burg and  Flor- 
ence, he  left  the 
Society  of  Jesus 
and  entered  the 
Irish  College  at 
Rome  as  a  stu- 
dent for  the  priest- 
hood.   He  did  not 


Father  Prout  (Francis  Mahony) 


complete  his  course  there,  but  in  1832  was  ordained  at 
Lucca — a  step  against  which  practically  all  his  religious 
superiors  had  advised  him.  He  returned  to  his  native 
diocese  and  for  a  time  served  there  as  priest,  being 
conspicuous  for  his  heroism  and  devotion  as  chaplain 
to  the  Cork  Cholera  Hospital  during  the  terrible  epi- 
demic that  visited  the  city  at  that  time.  Developing 
some  differences  with  his  superiors,  he  went  to  London 
in  1834,  and  almost  immediately  commenced  his  liter- 
ary career,  joining  "Eraser's  Magazine",  then  under 
the  editorship  of  his  fellow-townsman,  Maginn.  For 
three  years  he  wrote  in  "Eraser's"  (1834-7),  then  in 
"Bentley's  Magazine",  edited  by  Charles  Dickens, 
and  in  1846  was  sent  by  Dickens  to  Rome  as  corre- 
spondent for  the  "Daily  News".  For  twelve  years  he 
filled  that  post,  then  went  to  Paris  (1858)  as  corre- 
spondent of  the  "Globe"  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  fife 
there.  After  his  death  his  remains  were  brought  to 
Cork  and,  after  a  public  funeral,  were  interred  in  the 
family  vault  in  Shandon  churchyard.  Although  for 
thirty  years  Mahony  did  not  exercise  his  priestly 


PROVANCHER 


505 


PROVERBS 


duties,  he  never  wavered  in  his  deep  loyalty  to  the 
Church,  recited  his  Office  daily,  and  received  the  last 
sacraments  at  the  hands  of  his  old  friend,  Abb6 
Rogerson,  who  has  left  abundant  testimony  of  his 
excellent  dispositions.  Popularly  best  known  as  the 
author  of  the  famous  lyric,  "The  Bells  of  Shandon", 
Mahony's  title  to  literary  fame  rests  more  securely 
upon  the  collection  of  writings  known  as  the  "Rel- 
iques  of  Father  Prout"  Dowered  with  a  retentive 
memory,  irrepressible  humour,  large  powers  of  ex- 
pression, and  a  strongly  satiric  turn  of  mind,  an  om- 
nivorous reader,  well  trained  in  the  Latin  classics, 
thoroughly  at  home  in  the  French  and  Italian  lan- 
guages, and  a  ready  writer  of  rhythmic  verse  in  English, 
Latin,  and  French,  he  produced  in  such  articles  as 
"An Apology  for  Lent",  "Literature  and  the  Jesuits", 
and  "The  Rogueries  of  Tom  Moore",  an  extraordi- 
nary mixture  of  erudition,  fancy,  and  wit,  such  as  is 
practically  without  precise  parallel  in  contemporary 
literature.  The  best  of  his  work  appeared  in  "Fraser's 
Magazine"  during  the  first  three  years  of  his  literary 
life.  He  translated  largely  from  Horace  and  the 
poets  of  France  and  Italy,  including  a  complete  and 
free  metrical  rendering  of  Cresset's  famous  mock- 
heroic  poem  "Vert- Vert"  and  Jerome  Vida's  "Silk- 
worm" But  his  newspaper  correspondence  from 
Rome  and  Paris  is  notable  chiefly  for  the  vigour  of  his 
criticisms  upon  men  and  measures,  expressed,  as  these 
were,  in  most  caustic  language.  Seven  years  before 
his  death  he  edited  the  first  authorized  collection  of 
the  "Reliques",  and  in  1860  wrote  the  inaugural  ode 
for  the  "Cornhill  Magazine",  then  starting  under 
Thackeray's  editorsliip.  No  complete  biography  of 
"Father  Prout"  has  yet  been  written  and  but  frag- 
mentary materials  are  now  available. 

O'Neill,  Journal  of  the  Jvernian  Society  (Cork,  Oct.-Dec, 
1910);  The  Clongownian  (Dublin,  1904);  Lee  in  Did.^'iVai.Bioff., 
s.  V.  Mahony,  FrnncU  Sylvester;  Jerrold,  Final  Reliques  of  Father 
Frout  (London,  1876);  Sheehan,  Beatley  Ballads  (London,  1869), 

Thomas  F.  Woodlock. 

Provancher,  LiioN  Abel,  naturalist,  b.  10  March, 
1820,  in  the  parish  of  B6cancourt,  Nicolet  county, 
Province  of  Quebec;  d.  at  Cap  Rouge,  P.  Q.,  23  March, 
1892.  He  studied  at  the  College  and  Seminary  of 
Nicolet,  was  ordained  12  Sept.,  1844,  and  for  the  next 
twenty-five  years  laboured  zealously  and  fearlessly.  He 
organized  two  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  one  of  which 
he  conducted  in  person.  In  186.5  he  established  in  his 
parish  at  Portneuf  a  confraternity  of  the  Third  Order 
of  St.  Francis,  probably  the  first  of  its  kind  in  Canada. 
From  childhood  he  had  a  special  love  for  the  study 
of  nature  and  all  the  time  he  could  spare  from  his 
pastoral  duties  was  devoted  to  the  study  and  de- 
scription of  the  fauna  and  flora  of  Canada;  his 
extensive  pioneer  work  in  this  domain  won  for  him 
the  appellation  of  the  "Father  of  Natural  History  in 
Canada"  In  1868  he  founded  the  "NaturaUste 
Canadien",  a  monthly  publication  which  he  edited 
for  twenty  years,  and  from  1869  until  his  death  he 
was  engaged  almost  exclusively  in  scientific  work. 
Among  his  chief  writings  are:  "Trait6  616mentaire  de 
Botanique"  (Quebec,  1858);  "Flore  du  Canada" 
(2  vols.,  Quebec,  1862);  "Le  Verger  Canadien" 
(Quebec,  1862);  "Le  Verger,  le  Potager  et  le  Par- 
terre" (Quebec,  1874);  "Faune  entomologique  du 
Canada"  (3  vols.,  1877-90);  "De  Quebec  k  Jeru- 
salem" (1884);  "Une  Excursion  aux  Climats  tro- 
picaux"  (1890);  "Les  Mollusques  de  la  Province  de 
Qu6beo"- 

Laflamme,  Proceedings  and  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Canada  for  1892,  Presidential  Address  (Ottawa,  1893):  Httard, 
U Ahhe  Provancherin  Le  NaturaUste  Canadien,  XXI-XXVI,  XXX 
(Chicoutimi,  1894-9;   Quebec,  190.3). 

Edward  C.  Phillips. 

Provencher,  Joseph  Norbert.  See  Canada, 
Catholicity  in;  St.  Boniface,  Diocese  of. 


Proverbs,  Book  of,  one  of  the  Sapiential  writings 
of  the  Old  Testament  placed  in  the  Hebrew  Bible 
among  the  Hagiographa,  and  found  in  the  Vulgate 
after  the  books  of  Psalms  and  Job. 

I.  Names  and  General  OB,rECT. — In  the  Masso- 
retic  Text,  the  Book  of  Proverbs  has  for  its  natural 
heading  the  words  "^iblff  "bzy^,  MishU  Shelomoh 
(Proverbs  of  Solomon),  wherewith  this  sacred  writing 
begins  (cf.  x).  In  the  Talmud  and  in  later  Jewish 
works  the  Book  of  Proverbs  is  oftentimes  designated 
by  the  single  word  MishU,  and  this  abridged  title 
is  expressly  mentioned  in  the  superscription  "Liber 
Proverbiorum,  quem  Hebrtei  Misle  appellant", 
found  in  the  official  edition  of  the  Vulgate.  In  the 
Septuagint  MSS.,  the  two  Hebrew  titles  are  ren- 
dered by  Tapoi/xiat  Xo(a)\ofiuvTo$  and  Trapoi/xlatj  re- 
spectively. From  these  Greek  titles  again  are  imme- 
diately derived  the  Latin  renderings,  "Parabolas 
Salomonis",  "Parabolae",  a  trace  of  which  appears 
in  the  Tridentine  "  Decretum  de  Canon.  Script.", 
wherein  the  Book  of  Proverbs  is  simply  called  "Para- 
bolse".  The  ordinary  title  "Proverbia  Salomonis" 
was  apparently  taken  from  the  Old  Latin  Version 
into  the  Vulgate,  whence  comes  directly  the  usual 
English  title  of  "Proverbs".  In  the  Church's  liturgy, 
the  Book  of  Proverbs  is,  like  the  other  Sapiential 
writings,  designated  by  the  common  term  "  Wisdom  "- 
This  is  consonant  to  the  practice,  common  in  early 
Christian  times,  of  designating  such  books  by  the 
word  "Wisdom"  or  by  some  expression  in  which  this 
word  occurs,  as  " All- virtuous  Wisdom",  etc.  In- 
deed, it  is  probable  that  the  title  ""in,  "Wisdom", 
was  common  in  Jewish  circles  at  the  beginning  of 
Christianity,  and  that  it  passed  from  them  to  the 
early  Fathers  of  the  Church  (cf.  Eusebius,  "Hist. 
Eocl.",  IV,  xxu,  xxvi).  Of  the  various  names  given 
to  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  that  of  Wisdom  best  sets 
forth  the  ethical  object  of  this  inspired  writing.  How- 
ever disconnected  the  pithy  sayings  or  vivid  descrip- 
tions which  make  up  the  book  may  appear,  they, 
each  and  all,  are  bound  by  one  and  the  same  moral 
purpose:  they  aim  at  inculcating  wisdom  as  under- 
stood by  the  Hebrews  of  old,  that  is  perfection  of 
knowledge  showing  itself  in  action,  whether  in  the 
case  of  king  or  peasant,  statesman  or  artisan,  phil- 
osopher or  unlearned.  Differently  from  the  term 
"Wisdom",  the  title  MishU  (St.  Jerome,  Masloth) 
has  a  distinct  reference  to  the  symbolic  character 
and  poetical  form  of  the  sayings  which  are  gathered 
together  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  In  general,  the 
Hebrew  word  Mashal  (oonstr.  plur.  MishU)  denotes 
a  representative  saying,  that  is,  a  statement  which, 
however  deduced  from  a  single  instance,  is  capable  of 
application  to  other  instances  of  a  similar  kind. 
Taken  in  this  sense,  it  corresponds  pretty  well  to 
the  words  proverb,  parable,  maxim  etc.,  in  our 
Western  literatures.  But  besides,  it  has  the  mean- 
ing of  sentences  constructed  in  parallelism;  and  in 
point  of  fact,  the  contents  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs 
exhibit,  from  beginning  to  end,  this  leading  feature  of 
Hebrew  poetry.  Hence,  it  appears  that,  as  prefixed 
to  this  inspired  writing,  the  word  MishU  describes 
the  general  character  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs  as  a 
manual  of  practical  rules  which  are  set  forth  in  a 
poetical  form. 

II.  Divisions  and  Contents. — As  it  stands  at  the 
present  day,  the  Book  of  Proverbs  begins  with  the 
general  title,  "MIshle  Shelomoh,  the  son  of  David, 
king  of  Israel",  which  is  immediately  followed  by  a 
prologue  (i,  2-6) ,  stating  the  aim  and  importance  of  the 
entire  work:  the  whole  collection  aims  at  imparting 
wisdom  and  at  enabling  men  to  understand  all  kinds 
of  Mashals.  The  first  part  of  the  book  (i,  7-ix), 
itself  a  hortatory  introduction  to  the  collection  of 
proverbs  which  follows,  is  a  commendation  of  wisdom. 
After  a  deeply  religious  epigraph  (i,  7),  the  writer, 
speaking  like  a  father,  gives  a  series  of  exhortations 


PROVERBS 


506 


PROVERBS 


and  warnings  to  an  imagined  pupil  or  disciple.  He 
warns  him  against  evil  company  (i,  8-19);  describes 
to  him  the  advantages  attending  the  pursuit  of  wis- 
dom, and  the  evils  to  be  avoided  by  such  course  (ii) ; 
exhorts  him  to  obedience,  to  trust  in  God,  to  the  pay- 
ment of  legal  offerings,  to  patience  under  the  Divine 
chastisements,  and  sets  forth  the  priceless  value  of 
wisdom  (iii,  1-26).  After  some  miscellaneous  pre- 
cepts (iii,  27-35),  he  renews  his  pressing  exhortation 
to  wisdom  and  virtue  (iv),  and  gives  several  warnings 
against  unchaste  women  (v;  vi,  20-35;  vii),  after  the 
first  of  which  are  inserted  warnings  against  surety- 
ship, indolence,  falsehood,  and  various  vices  (vi, 
1-19).  At  several  points  (i,  20-33;  viii;  ix)  Wisdom 
herself  is  introduced  ;is  speaking  and  as  displaying 
her  charms,  origin,  and  power  to  men.  The  style  of 
this  first  part  is  flowing,  and  the  thoughts  therein 
expressed  are  generally  developed  in  the  form  of 
connected  discourses.  The  second  part  of  the  book 
(x-xxii,  16)  has  for  its  distinct  heading:  "Mishle 
Shelomoh",  and  is  made  up  of  disconnected  sayings 
in  couplet  form,  arranged  in  no  particular  order,  so 
that  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  summary  of  them. 
In  many  instances  a  saying  is  repeated  within  this 
large  collection,  usually  in  identical  terms,  at  times 
with  some  slight  changes  of  expression.  Appended 
to  this  second  part  of  the  book  are  two  minor  col- 
lections (xxii,  17-xxiv,  22;  xxiv,  23-34),  chiefly  made 
up  of  aphoristic  quatrains.  The  opening  verses 
(xxii,  17-21)  of  the  first  appendix  request  attention 
to  the  "words  of  the  wise"  which  follow  (xxii,  22- 
xxiv,  22),  and  which,  in  a  consecutive  form  recalling 
that  of  the  first  part  of  the  book,  set  forth  warnings 
against  various  excesses.  The  second  appendix 
has  for  its  title:  "These  also  are  words  of  the  wise", 
and  the  few  proverbs  it  contains  conclude  with  two 
verses  (33,  34),  apparently  taken  over  from  vi,  10,  11. 
The  third  part  of  the  book  (xxv-xxix)  bears  the  in- 
scription: "These  are  also  Mishle  Shelomoh,  which 
the  men  of  Ezechias,  king  of  Juda,  copied  out." 
By  their  miscellaneous  character,  their  couplet  form, 
etc.,  the  proverbs  of  this  third  part  resemble  those  of 
x-xxii,  16.  Like  them  also,  they  are  followed  by  two 
minor  collections  (xxx  and  xxxi,  1-9),  each  supplied 
with  its  respective  title.  The  first  of  these  minor 
collections  has  for  its  heading:  "^^'ords  of  Agur,  the 
son  of  Takeh",  and  its  principal  contents  are  Agur's 
meditation  on  the  Divine  transcendence  (xxx,  2-9), 
and  groups  of  numerical  proverbs.  The  second  minor 
collection  is  inscribed:  "The  Words  of  Lamuel,  a 
king:  the  oracle  which  his  mother  taught  him." 
In  it  the  queen-mother  warns  her  son  against  sen- 
suality, drunkenness,  and  injustice.  Nothing  is 
known  of  Agur  and  Lamuel;  their  names  are  possibly 
symbolical.  The  book  concludes  with  an  alphabetical 
poem  descriptive  of  the  virtuous  woman  (xxxi,  10-39). 
III.  Hebrew  Text  and  Ancient  Versions. — A 
close  study  of  the  present  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Book 
of  Proverbs  proves  that  the  primitive  wording  of  the 
pithy  sayings  which  make  up  this  manual  of  Hebrew 
wisdom  has  experienced  numerous  alterations  in  the 
course  of  its  transmission.  Some  of  these  imperfec- 
tions have,  with  some  probability,  been  assigned  to 
the  period  during  which  the  maxims  of  the  "wise 
men"  were  preserved  orally.  Most  of  them  belong 
undoubtedly  to  the  time  after  these  sententious  or 
enigmatic  sa}angs  had  been  written  down.  The 
Book  of  Proverbs  was  numbered  among  the  "Hagio- 
grapha"  (writings  held  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  as 
less  sacred  and  authoritative  than  either  the  "Law" 
or  the  "Prophets"),  and,  in  consequence,  copyists 
felt  naturally  less  bound  to  transcribe  its  text  with 
scrupulous  accuracy.  Again,  the  copyists  of  Proverbs 
knew,  or  at  least  thought  they  knew,  by  memory  the 
exact  words  of  the  pithy  sayings  they  had  to  write 
out;  hence  arose  involuntary  changes  which,  once 
introduced,  were  perpetuated  or  even  added  to  by 


subsequent  transcribers.  Finally,  the  obscure  or 
enigmatic  character  of  a  certain  number  of  maxims 
led  to  the  deliberate  insertion  of  glosses  in  the  text, 
so  that  primitive  distichs  now  wrongly  appear  in  the 
form  of  tristichs,  etc.  (cf.  Knabenbauer,  "Comm.  in 
Proverbia",  Paris,  1910).  Of  the  ancient  versions 
of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  the  Septuagint  is  the  most 
valuable.  It  probably  dates  from  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  B.  c,  and  exhibits  very  important 
differences  from  the  Massoretic  Text  in  point  of 
omissions,  transpositions,  and  additions.  The  trans- 
lator was  a  Jew  conversant  indeed  with  the  Greek 
language,  but  had  at  times  to  use  paraphrases 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  rendering  Hebrew  pithy 
sayings  into  intelligible  Greek.  After  full  allowance 
has  been  made  for  the  translator's  freedom  in  render- 
ing, and  for  the  alterations  introduced  into  the  primi- 
tive wording  of  this  version  by  later  transcribers  and 
revisers,  two  things  remain  quite  certain:  first,  the 
Septuagint  may  occasionally  be  utilized  for  the 
discovery  and  the  emendation  of  inaccurate  readings 
in  our  present  Hebrew  Text;  and  next,  the  most 
important  variations  which  this  Greek  Version  pre- 
sents, especially  in  the  line  of  additions  and  trans- 
positions, point  to  the  fact  that  the  translator  ren- 
dered a  Hebrew  original  which  differed  considerably 
from  the  one  embodied  in  the  Massoretic  Bibles.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  Sahidic  Version  of  Proverbs 
was  made  from  the  Septuagint,  before  the  latter  had 
been  subjected  to  recensions,  and  hence  this  Coptic 
Version  is  useful  for  the  control  of  the  Greek  Text. 
The  present  Peshito,  or  Syriac  Version,  of  the  Book 
of  Proverbs  was  probably  based  on  the  Hebrew  Text, 
with  which  it  generally  agrees  with  regard  to  material 
and  arrangement.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  most 
likely  made  with  respect  to  the  Septuagint,  the  pecu- 
liar readings  of  which  it  repeatedly  adopts.  The  Latin 
Version  of  Proverbs,  which  is  embodied  in  the  Vul- 
gate, goes  back  to  St.  Jerome,  and  for  the  most  part 
closely  agrees  with  the  Massoretic  Text.  It  is  prob- 
able that  many  of  its  present  deviations  from  the 
Hebrew  in  conformity  with  the  Septuagint  should 
be  referred  to  later  copyists  anxious  to  complete  St. 
Jerome's  work  by  means  of  the  "Vetus  Itala",  which 
had  been  closely  made  from  the  Greek. 

IV.  Authorship  and  Date. — The  vexed  questions 
anent  the  authorship  and  date  of  the  collections  which 
make  up  the  Book  of  Proverbs  go  back  only  to  the 
sixteenth  century  of  our  era,  when  the  Hebrew  Text 
began  to  be  studied  more  closely  than  previously. 
They  were  not  even  suspected  by  the  early  Fathers 
who,  following  implicitly  the  inscriptions  in  i,  1;  x,l; 
xxiv,  1  (which  bear  direct  witness  to  the  Solomonic 
authorship  of  large  collections  of  proverbs),  and 
being  misled  by  the  Greek  rendering  of  the  titles  in 
xxx,  1 ;  xxxi,  1  (which  does  away  altogether  with  the 
references  to  Agur  and  Lamuel  as  authors  distinct 
from  Solomon),  regarded  King  Solomon  as  the  author 
of  the  whole  Book  of  Proverbs.  Nor  were  they  real 
questions  for  the  subsequent  writers  of  the  West, 
although  these  medieval  authors  had  in  the  Vulgate  a 
more  faithful  rendering  of  xxx,  1 ;  xxxi,  1,  which  might 
have  led  them  to  reject  the  Solomonic  origin  of  the 
sections  ascribed  to  Agur  and  Lamuel  respectively, 
for  in  their  eyes  the  words  Agur  and  Lamuel  were 
but  symbolical  names  of  Solomon.  At  the  present 
day,  most  Catholic  scholars  feel  free  to  treat  as  non- 
Solomonic  not  only  the  short  sections  which  are 
ascribed  in  the  Hebrew  Text  to  Agur  and  Lamuel, 
but  also  the  minor  collections  which  their  titles 
attribute  to  "the  wise"  (xxii,  16-xxiv,  22;  xxiv,  23- 
34),  and  the  alphabetical  poem  concerning  the  vir- 
tuous woman  which  is  appended  to  the  whole  book. 
With  regard  to  the  other  parts  of  the  work  (i-ix; 
x-xxii,  16;  xxv-xxix).  Catholic  writers  are  wellnigh 
unanimous  in  ascribing  them  to  Solomon.  Bearing 
distinctly  in  mind  the  statement  in  III  (A.  V.  I.) 


PROVIDENCE 


507 


PROVIDENCE 


Kings,  iv,  29-32,  that,  in  his  great  wisdom,  Solomon 
"spolce  3000  Mashals",  they  have  no  difficulty  in 
admitting  that  this  monarch  may  be  the  author  of 
the  much  smaller  number  of  proverbs  included  in 
the  three  collections  in  question.  Guided  by  ancient 
Jewish  and  Christian  tradition  they  feel  constrained 
to  abide  by  the  explicit  titles  to  the  same  collections, 
all  the  more  so  because  the  titles  in  the  Book  of 
Proverbs  are  manifestly  discriminating  with  regard 
to  authorship,  and  because  the  title,  '"These  also  are 
Mishle  Shdomoh,  which  the  men  of  Ezechias,  King 
of  Juda,  copied  out"  (xxv,  1),  in  particular,  bears 
the  impress  of  definiteness  and  accuracy.  Lastly, 
looking  into  the  contents  of  these  three  large  collec- 
tions, they  do  not  think  that  anything  found  therein 
with  respect  to  style,  ideas,  historic  background  etc. 
should  compel  anyone  to  give  up  the  traditional 
authorship,  at  whatever  time — either  under  Eze- 
chias, or  as  late  as  Esdras — all  the  collections  em- 
bodied in  the  Book  of  Proverbs  reached  their 
present  form  and  arrangement.  A  very  different 
view  concerning  the  authorship  and  date  of  the  col- 
lections ascribed  to  Solomon  by  their  titles  is  gaining 
favour  among  non-Catholic  scholars.  It  treats  the 
headings  of  these  collections  as  no  more  reliable  than 
the  titles  of  the  Psalms.  It  maintains  that  none  of 
the  collections  comes  from  Solomon's  own  hand  and 
that  the  general  tenor  of  their  contents  bespeaks  a  late 
post-exilic  date.  The  following  are  the  principal  argu- 
ments usually  set  forth  in  favour  of  this  opinion.  In 
these  collections  there  is  no  challenge  of  idolatry, 
such  as  would  naturally  be  expected  if  they  were 
pre-exilic,  and  monogamy  is  everywhere  presupposed. 
It  is  very  remarkable,  too,  that  throughout  no  men- 
tion is  made  of  Israel  or  of  any  institution  peculiar 
to  Israel.  Again,  the  subject  of  those  collections  is 
not  the  nation,  which  apparently  no  longer  enjoys 
its  independence,  but  the  individual,  to  whom  wisdom 
appeals  in  a  merely  ethical,  and  hence  very  late, 
manner.  The  personification  of  wisdom,  in  particular 
(chap,  viii),  is  either  the  direct  result  of  the  influence 
of  Greek  upon  Jewish  thought,  or,  if  independent  of 
Greek  philosophy,  the  product  of  late  Jewish  meta- 
physics. Finally,  the  close  spiritual  and  intellectual 
relation  of  Proverbs  to  Ecclesiasticus  shows  that, 
however  great  and  numerous  are  the  differences  in 
detail  between  them,  the  two  works  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated by  an  interval  of  several  centuries.  Despite 
the  confidence  with  which  some  modern  scholars  urge 
these  arguments  against  the  traditional  authorship 
of  i-ix;  x-xxii,  16;  xxv-xxix,  a  close  exi^mination 
of  their  value  leaves  one  unconvinced  of  their  proving 
force. 

V.  Canonicity. — The  Book  of  Proverbs  is  justly 
numbered  among  the  protocanonical  writings  of  the 
Old  Testament.  In  the  first  century  of  our  era  its 
canonical  authority  was  certainly  acknowledged  in 
Jewish  and  Christian  circles,  for  the  Sacred  Writers 
of  the  New  Testament  make  a  frequent  use  of  its 
contents,  quoting  them  at  times  explicitly  as  Holy 
Writ  (cf.  Rom.,  xii,  19,  20;  Heb.,  xii,  5,  6;  James, 
iv,  5,  6,  etc.).  It  is  true  that  certain  doubts  as  to  the 
inspiration  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  which  had  been 
entertained  by  ancient  rabbis  who  belonged  to  the 
School  of  Shammai,  reappeared  in  the  Jewish  assembly 
at  Jamnia  (about  A.  d.  100) ;  but  these  were  only  theo- 
retical difficulties  which  could  not  induce  the  Jewish 
leaders  of  the  time  to  count  this  book  out  of  the 
Canon,  and  which  in  fact  were  there  and  then  set  at 
rest  for  ever.  The  subsequent  assaults  of  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia  (d.  429),  of  Spinoza  (d.  1677),  and  of 
Le  Clerc  (d.  1736)  against  the  inspiration  of  that 
sacred  book  left  likewise  its  canonical  authority  un- 
shaken. 

For  Introductions  to  the  Old  Testament  see  Introduction. 
Recent  commentaries — Catholic:  Rohlinq  (Mainz,  1879); 
LesStre  (Paris,  1879);  Fillion  (Paris,  1892);  VioouROUX 
(Paris,     1903);      Knabenbauer    (Paris,     1910).      Protestant: 


ZocKLEH  (tr.  New  York,  1870);  Delitzsch  (tr.  Edinburgh, 
1874);  NOWACK  (Leipzig,  1883) ;  Wildebobr  (Freiburg,  1897); 
Frankenderg  (Gottingen,  1898) ;  Strack  (Nordlingen,  1899) ; 
Toy  (New  York,  1899).  General  worlcs:  Meignan,  Salomon, 
son  rhffne,  ses  Scrits  (Paris,  1890) ;  Cheyne,  Job  and  Solomon 
(New  York,  1899) ;  Kent,  The  Wise  Men  of  Ancient  Israel  (New 
York,  1899) ;  Davison,  The  Wisdom  Literature  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment  (London,  1900).  FRANCIS  E.   GiGOT. 

Providence,  Congregations  of. — I.  Daughters 
OF  Providence,  founded  at  Paris,  by  Madame 
Polaillon  (Marie  de  Lumague),  a  devout  widow.  In 
1643  Madame  Polaillon,  having  obtained  letters 
patent  from  Louis  XIII,  opened  a  home  to  provide 
protection  and  instruction  for  young  girls,  whom 
beauty,  poverty,  or  parental  neglect  exposed  to  the 
loss  of  Faith  and  other  spiritual  perils,  placing  it 
under  the  protection  of  Providence,  with  the  name 
Seminary  of  Providence.  Among  the  many  who 
sought  admission  were  some  capable  of  instructing 
the  rest,  and  of  these,  seven,  who  gave  evidence  of  a 
religious  vocation,  were  selected  to  form  a  religious 
community  under  rules  drawn  up  for  their  use  by 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  at  the  direction  of  Francois  de 
Gondy,  Archbishop  of  Paris  (1647).  New  letters 
patent  were  granted  by  Louis  XIV,  whose  mother, 
Anne  of  Austria,  gave  the  institute  its  first  fixed  abode, 
the  Hospital  de  la  Sant6  in  Faubourg  Saint-Marcel 
(1651),  previously  a  home  for  convalescents  from  the 
Hotel-Dieu,  a  grant  confirmed  by  royal  letters  in  1667, 
bestowing  on  the  religious  all  the  privileges,  rights, 
and  exemptions  accorded  to  hospitals  of  royal  founda- 
tion. The  Archbishop  of  Paris  established  other 
houses  in  various  parts  of  the  city,  and  foundations 
were  made  first  at  Metz  and  Sedan,  where  special 
attention  was  devoted  to  Jewish  converts  and  the 
reclamation  of  heretics.  After  two  years  of  probation 
candidates  were  admitted  to  the  simple  vows  of  chas- 
tity, obedience,  the  service  of  others,  and  perpetual 
stability.  The  superior,  elected  every  three  years,  and 
the  ecclesiastical  superior,  appointed  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  were  assisted  in  the  temporal  admin- 
istration of  the  community  by  two  pious  matrons, 
chosen  from  among  the  principal  benefactresses.  In 
1681  some  members  of  the  congregation  joined  the 
Sisters  of  Charitable  Instruction  of  the  Child  Jesus  of 
Saint-Maur,  established  by  Nicolas  Barr6  in  1678, 
thenceforth  known  as  the  Ladies  of  Saint-Maur  and 
of  Providence;  the  remaining  members  became  canon- 
esses  of  the  Congregation  of  Our  Lady,  founded  by  St. 
Peter  Fourier.  The  foregoing  congregation  became  a 
model  for  others  established  to  carry  on  a  similar 
work  in  various  dioceses  of  France,  whose  activities, 
however,  came  eventually  to  embrace  the  administra^ 
tion  of  elementary  schools  for  girls,  orphanages,  and 
asylums  for  the  blind  and  deaf  mutes,  and  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  hospitals  and  their  own  homes.  In  1903 
the  number  of  Sisters  of  Providence  in  France  ex- 
ceeded 10,000.  From  the  original  seminary  of 
Providence  also  came  the  religious  who  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  Congregation  of  Christian  Union  sub- 
sequently established  by  M.  le  Vachet,  a  priest  whose 
counsels  had  encouraged  Madame  Polaillon. 

H^LYOT,  Diet,  des  ordres  relig.  (Paris,  1859) ;  Heimbucher, 
Orden  u.  Kongregationen  (Paderborn,  1908) ;  Faideau,  Vie  de 
Madame  Lumague  (Paris,  1659) ;  R&glements  de  la  maison  et  hos- 
pital des  filles  de  la  Providence  de  Dieu  (Paris,  1657). 

Florence  Rudgb  McGahan. 

II.  Sisters  of  Providence  (St.  Mary-of-the- 
Woods). — Among  the  teaching  religious  orders  that 
originated  in  France  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution  was 
the  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  Providence  of  Ruill6- 
sur-Loir,  founded  in  1806  by  M.  Jacques-Frangois 
Dujari^,  Cure  of  Ruill6  (Sarthe).  The  society  had  a 
struggling  existence  for  several  years,  but  was  finally 
established  with  the  collaboration  of  Jos(5phine  Zo6 
du  Roscoat,  the  first  superior  general.  Mother  du 
Roseoat  was  of  an  ancient  noble  Breton  family  and 
was  renowned  for  her  piety,  charity,  and  zeal.    Many 


PROVIDENCE 


508 


PROVIDENCE 


followed  her  to  Ruille  and  the  community  prospered. 
Though  the  sisters  de\oted  themselves  to  various 
works  of  mercy  and  charity,  the  instruction  of  youth 
was  their  primary  object.  They  soon  had  schools 
not  only  throughout  the  diocese,  but  in  distant  coun- 
tries also.  In  1839  Rt.  Rev.  Simon-Gabriel  Brut^, 
first  Bishop  of  Vincennes,  commissioned  his  vicar- 
general,  Mgr  de  la  Hailandrere,  to  return  to  his  native 
country  to  procure  priests  and  religious  teachers  for 
his  immense  diocese.  Scarcely  had  he  arrived  in 
France  when  the  death  of  Bishop  Brut6  was  an- 
nounced, followed  by  the  appointment  of  Mgr  de  la 
Hailandiere  as  his  successor.  The  newly-consecrated 
bishop  obtained  from  Mother  Mary  a  colony  of  reli- 
gious for  Indiana.  Six  sisters,  under  the  leadership  of 
Mother  Theodore  Guerin,  a  woman  of  exceptional 
qualifications  and  high  spiritual  attaiimients,  reached 
their  home  in  the  New  World,  22  Oct.,  1840.  Instead 
of  being  cstabfished  in  the  episcopal  cit}',  as  they  had 
been  led  to  expect,  they  were  taken  to  a  densely 
wooded  country,  where  only  the  foundation  of  a 
building  tor  them  was  completed;  and  they  were 
obliged  to  find  shelter  in  a  neighbouring  farmhouse, 
one  room  and  a  corn  loft  being  at  their  disposal.  After 
a  few  weeks  the  community  obtained  sole  possession 
of  this  house,  which  then  became  the  mother-house, 
called  St.  Mary-of-the-Woods.  In  the  summer  of 
1841  the  new  building  being  completed,  a  board- 
ing school  was  opened  with  seven  pupils.  In  1841 
another  member  from  the  French  mother-house  ar- 
rived at  St.  Mary's,  Irma  Le  Fer  de  la  Motte,  Sister 
St.  Francis  Xa\ier,  who  became  mistress  of  novices. 

The  foundress  showed  her  foresight  and  capacity 
for  organization  and  administration,  in  an  educational 
plan  providing  for  the  advanced  studies  and  culture 
of  the  time.  As  early  as  1846,  a  charter  was  granted 
by  the  State  empowering  the  institution  to  confer 
academic  honours  and  collegiate  degrees.  While  the 
new  foundation  prospered,  many  sufi'erings  and  hard- 
ships were  endured,  arising  from  the  rigours  of  the 
climate,  poverty,  isolation,  a  foreign  language, 
troublesome  subjects,  and  the  like.  The  keenest 
trial  of  all  was  misunderstanding  with  the  bishop. 
It  lasted  seven  years.  At  the  Seventh  Council  of  Balti- 
more, the  bishop  placed  his  difficulties  before  the 
assembly  and  offered  his  resignation,  at  the  same  time 
strongly  denouncing  the  Sisters  of  Providence.  In 
1847,  just  as  he  had  informed  Mother  Theodore  that 
he  deposed  her  from  her  office  as  superior-general  (in 
which  she  had,  with  his  consent,  been  confirmed  for 
life),  released  her  from  her  vows,  and  dismissed  her 
from  her  congregation,  the  Papal  Brief  appointing 
Bishop  Bazin  to  the  See  of  Vincennes  was  received 
from  Rome.  The  death  of  Mother  Theodore  occurred 
14  May,  1856,  and  so  eminent  was  her  holiness  that 
preliminaries  have  been  undertaken  for  introducing 
the  cause  of  her  beatification  at  Rome. 

The  sisters  take  simple  vows.  The  postulantship, 
two  months,  is  folIo\ved  by  a  novitiate  of  two  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  vows  are  taken  for  three  years, 
renewed  then  for  five  years,  if  the  subject  is  satisfac- 
tory and  desires  to  persevere.  A  year  of  second  novi- 
tiate precedes  the  final  and  perpetual  vows.  This 
year,  during  which  the  nuns  devote  themselves  en- 
tirely to  the  spiritual  life,  is  passed  at  the  mother- 
house.  A  course  of  normal  training  is  carried  on  in 
connexion  with  the  novitiate  properly  so  called,  and 
summer  sessions  are  held  during  the  vacation  for  all 
teachers  who  return  to  the  mother-house  for  the 
annual  retreat.  The  administrative  faculty  is  an  elec- 
tive body  comprising  a  superior-general  and  three 
assistants,  a  secretary,  procuratrix,  treasurer,  and  a 
general  chapt(>r.  The  rules  and  constitutions  received 
final  approval  from  the  Holy  See  in  1887.  Among 
prominent  members  of  the  order  were:  Sister  St. 
Francis  Xavier  (Irma  Le  Fer  de  la  Motte),  b.  at  St. 
Servan,  Brittany,  16  April,  1818;   d.  at  St.  Mary-of- 


the-Woods,  30  January,  1856,  whose  life  has  been 
pubhshed  under  the  title  "An  Apostolic  Woman", 
and  Sister  M.  Joseph  (Ehdre  le  Fer  de  la  Motte),  b. 
at  St.  Servan,  16  February,  1825;  d.  at  St.  Mary-of- 
the- Woods,  12  December,  1881,  a  sketch  of  whose  life 
has  been  published  in  French.  The  sisters  conduct 
parochial  schools  and  academies  in  the  Archdioceses 
of  Baltimore,  Boston,  and  Chicago;  in  the  Dioceses  of 
Indianapolis,  Ft.  Wayne,  Peoria,  and  Grand  Rapids; 
orphanages  at  Vincennes  and  Terre  Haute;  an  in- 
dustrial school  at  Indianapolis;  a  college  four  miles 
west  of  Terre  Haute.  Statistics  for  1910  are:  937 
sisters;  68  parochial  schools;  15  academies;  2  orphan 
asylums;   1  industrial  school;  20,000  children. 

Sister  Mary  Thegdosia. 

III.  Sisters  of  Providence  of  Charity. — The  Sis- 
ters of  Providence,  known  also  as  Sisters  of  Charity, 
werefoundedin  Montreal,  Canada,  25  March,  1843,  un- 
der the  Rule  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  by  Rt.  Rev.  Ignace 
Bourget.  In  December,  1861,  a  branch  of  the  order, 
with  intention  to  form  a  mother-house,  was  established 
at  Kingston,  Ontario,  under  the  protection  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Edward  J.  Horan,  then  bishop  of  that  diocese. 
From  this  establishment  four  sisters  were  sent  in 
November,  1873,  to  open  a  mission  in  Holyoke,  Massa- 
chusetts. In  1892  this  branch  of  the  order,  with 
permission  of  the  Holy  See,  became  a  diocesan  es- 
tablishment, with  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  D.  Beaven, 
Bishop  of  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  as  ecclesiastical 
superior.  There  are  no  lay  sisters  in  the  order,  and 
the  members  are  devoted  exclusively  to  the  works 
of  charity.  Since  they  became  diocesan  their  mem- 
bership approximates  three  hundred,  and  the  in- 
stitutes of  charity  entrusted  to  their  management 
have  been  multiplied.  In  the  present  year  (1908) 
they  have  in  charge  four  diocesan  hospitals  and  one 
sanatorium,  with  an  annual  total  of  about  five  thou- 
sand patients  treated  therein.  Connected  with  these 
hospitals  is  a  training  school  for  pupil  nurses,  and  the 
sisters  also  receive  a  professional  training  and  per- 
sonally care  for  and  supervise  the  treatment  of  their 
patients.  They  have  two  orphan  asylums,  caring  for 
about  three  hundred  children;  an  infant  asylum  of 
modern  construction  capable  of  sheltering  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  little  ones,  ranging  from  infancy  to  six 
years.  Their  duties  also  extend  to  the  aged  of  both 
sexes.  They  care  for  one  hundred  and  forty  aged 
and  infirm  women,  and  for  eighty  aged  men,  in  three 
separate  homes  of  recent  construction.  They  have 
two  homes  tor  working  girls,  and  the  provisions  of 
their  rule  permit  them  to  undertake  any  work  of 
charity  which  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  may  see  fit 
to  place  in  their  keeping.  (See  Charity,  Sisters  of. 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  Proviileuce.) 

Sister  Mary  of  Providence. 

IV.  Sisters  of  Providence  of  Saint  Anne, 
founded  at  Turin  in  1834  by  the  Marchesa  Julia  Falletti 
de  Barolo  for  the  care  of  children  and  the  sick.  The 
order  was  approved  by  the  Holy  See  8  March,  1848. 
Its  mother-house  is  at  Florence,  and  there  are  daugh- 
ter institutions  at  Bagnoria,  Castelfidardo,  and  Assisi, 
where  the  sisters  conduct  the  industrial  school  of 
San  Francesco,  founded  in  1902.  In  Rome  their  two 
infant  asylums  of  St.  Anne  (Via  dei  Gracchi)  and  the 
Sacred  Heart  (Via  Conde)  harbour  three  hundred 
children.  At  Secunderabad  in  the  Diocese  of  Hyder- 
abad, India,  they  have  a  convent  where  they  educate 
European  and  Eurasian  girls,  and  they  also  conduct 
a  school  at  Kazipet  in  the  same  diocese.  In  Italian 
Eritrea  they  have  a  home  for  children  redeemed  from 
slavery. 

Heimbuchee,  Orden  u.  Kongregationen,  III  (Paderborn,  1908), 
387. 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

V.  Sisters  of  Providence  of  the  Institute  of 
Charity,  an  offshoot  from  the  Sisters  of  Providence, 


PROVIDENCE 


509 


PROVIDENCE 


founded  by  Jean-Martin  Moye  in  France  in  1762  for 
teaching  poor  girls  and  tending  the  sick.  Their  pres- 
ent existence,  constitution,  and  religious  character  are 
due  to  Antonio  Rosmini,  of  whose  institute  they  really 
form  a  part.  In  1831,  at  the  request  of  Abb6  Lowen- 
bruck,  the  French  sisters  received  into  their  house  at 
Portieux  four  pious  but  uneducated  young  women 
from  the  Val  d'  Ossola  and  neighbouring  Swiss  valleys. 
This  priest,  one  of  the  moving  spirits  in  the  Institute 
of  Charity  then  beginning  at  Domodossola,  wished 
these  young  women  to  receive  a  religious  training  at 
Portieux  and  then  to  found  a  house  in  Italy.  They 
returned  in  1S32  and  joined  a  community  already  or- 
ganized at  Locarno  in  Ticino,  and  designed  to  be  a 
novitiate  as  well  as  a  school  for  the  jjoor.  He  provided 
no  funds,  however,  and  though  they  opened  a  school, 
being  but  slenderly  educated  they  could  get  no  sala- 
ries as  recognized  teachers.  This  bad  management  in- 
duced Rosmini  to  intervene.  He  reformed  their  rule 
to  suit  it  to  its  new  conditions,  and  thencef orwar(  1  had 
to  assume  entire  responsibility  for  them.  Thus  they 
were  from  the  first  a  distinct  body,  the  "  Rosminiane", 
as  the  Italians  call  them.  A  house  for  novices  and 
school  for  the  education  of  teaching  sisters  was  formed 
at  Domodossola  in  a  former  Ursuline  convent.  The 
Holy  See  in  its  solemn  approval  of  the  Institute  of 
Charity  in  1839  gave  an  indirect  recognition  of  the 
sisters  also,  as  adopted  children  of  the  institute.  From 
that  time  they  have  steadily  increased.  The  order  is 
mainly  contemplative;  but,  when  necessary,  they  un- 
dertake any  charitable  work  suitable  to  women,  es- 
pecially the  teaching  of  girls  and  young  children,  visit- 
ing the  sick,  and  instructing  in  Christian  doctrine. 
The  central  houses  have  smaller  establishments  ema- 
nating from  and  depending  upon  them.  For  each  of 
these  groups  there  is  one  superioress,  elected  by  the 
professed  sisters  for  three  years,  and  eligible  for  three 
years  more.  Aided  by  assistants,  she  appoints  a  pro- 
curatrix  over  each  lesser  establishment  and  assigns  the 
grades  and  most  of  the  offices.  All  the  sisters  return  to 
their  central  house  every  summer  for  a  retreat  and  to 
hold  a  chapter  for  the  election  of  officers.  The  noviti- 
ate lasts  three  years;  the  usual  three  vows  are  then 
taken,  at  first  for  three  years,  then  either  renewed  or 
made  perpetual.  In  each  diocese  the  bishop  is  protector. 
There  are  houses  in  Italy,  England,  and  Wales.  In 
Italy  there  were  in  1908  about  600  sisters  and  60  nov- 
ices. They  have  64  establishments,  most  of  which  are 
elementary  schools  for  children  and  girls;  there  are 
also  several  boarding-schools  for  girls,  a  few  orphan- 
ages, and  a  home  for  poor  old  men.  They  are  scattered 
in  nine  dioceses,  some  in  Piedmont,  others  in  Lom- 
bardy .  The  principal  houses  are  those  of  Borgomanero, 
the  central  house  for  Italy,  Domodossola,  Intra,  and 
Biella.  The  English  branch  began  in  1843  on  the  initi- 
ative of  Lady  Mary  Arundel,  who  had  taken  a  house 
at  Loughborough  in  order  to  aid  the  Fathers  of  the  In- 
stitute in  that  mission.  Into  this  house,  fitted  as  a 
convent,  she  received  two  Italian  sisters,  the  first  nuns 
to  wear  a  religious  habit  in  the  English  Midlands  since 
the  Reformation.  A  year  later  they  opened  a  girls' 
and  infants'  school,  which  was  the  first  day-school  for 
the  poor  taught  by  nuns  in  England.  The  first  Eng- 
lish superioress  was  Mary  Agnes  Amherst,  niece  of  the 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury.  Under  her  rule  the  present 
central  house  was  built  at  Loughborough.  A  board- 
ing-school and  middle  and  elementary  schools  are  con- 
ducted by  the  nuns.  There  are  six  other  establish- 
ments. At  St.  Etheldreda's  in  London  and  at  Whit- 
wick,  Rugby,  and  Bexhill  they  have  girls'  and  infants' 
schools,  at  Cardiff,  two  houses,  one  for  visiting  the 
sick  and  aiding  the  poor,  and  the  other  a  secondary 
school  and  pupil-teachers'  centre.  Whitwiok  and  St. 
David's,  Cardiff,  are  the  only  places  in  which  their 
work  is  not  auxihary  to  that  of  the  Fathers  of  the  In- 
stitute.   (See  RosMiNiANS.) 

William  Henry  Pollard. 


Providence,  Diocese  of  (Providentiensis),  is 
co-extensive  with  the  State  of  Rhode  Island.  When 
erected  (17  Feb.,  1872)  it  included  also  that  portion 
of  south-eastern  Massachusetts  which  has  since  14 
March,  1904,  been  set  off  as  the  Diocese  of  Fall  River 
(q.  v.).  It  thus  embraces  an  entire  state,  the  majority 
of  whose  population  is  Roman  Catholic  (State  Cen- 
sus, 1905).  The  city  of  Providence  was  the  residence 
of  the  Bishop  of  Hartford  from  the  estabhshment  of 
that  see  in  1844  (see  Hartford,  Diocese  of).  In 
1847  a  Brief  authorizing  this  transfer  of  residence  was 
obtained  from  the  Propaganda. 

The  first  appearance  of  Roman  Catholic  worship 
in  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island  was  in  the  latter  part 
of  1780,  when  the  French  army  under  Rochambeau 
encamped  at  Newport  and  Providence.  It  is  known 
that  there  were  several  chaplains  with  the  army  who 
often  said  Mass  publicly.  Shortly  afterwards  (Feb., 
1783)  the  colonial  legislature  repealed  the  act  dis- 
franchising Roman  Catholics.  The  Negro  uprising  in 
Guadeloupe,  which  followed  the  French  Revtjlution, 
drove  several  Catholic  families  (French)  to  Newport 
and  Bristol.  In  Newport  also  about  1808  there  died 
one  Joseph  Wiseman,  Vice-Consul  to  His  Catholic 
Majesty  of  Spain.  The  building  of  Fort  Adams  at 
Newport  and  the  beginnings  of  the  cotton-mill  in- 
dustry in  Pawtucket  brought  in  some  Catholics  to 
these  parts  in  the  twenties.  The  first  priest  assigned 
to  Rhode  Island  was  the  Rev.  Robert  Woodley  in 
1828.  The  first  land  owned  in  the  state  for  church 
purposes  was  purchased  in  Newport  in  1828.  During 
the  thirties  the  growth  was  gradual  and  fluctuating. 
It  was  only  in  November,  1837,  that  Mass  was  said 
for  the  first  time  in  Providence  in  a  Catholic  church 
built  for  that  purpose.  In  1842  another  parish  was 
erected  in  Providence,  but  when  Bishop  Tyler  (see 
Hartford)  died  in  June,  1849,  there  were  but  six 
small  parishes  in  the  state.  The  famine  in  Ireland 
(1848)  brought  thousands  to  these  parts  who  found 
work  in  the  factories,  foundries,  machine  shops,  and 
jewelry  shops  then  beginning  to  flourish  in  Rhode 
Island.  During  the  fifties  most  of  the  still  large  and 
important  Enghsh-speaking  parishes  were  established; 
several  costly  churches  were  attempted;  an  orphan 
asylum  was  founded ;  and  a  few  very  primitive  schools 
were  begun.  The  Knownothing  Movement  in  March, 
1855,  disturbed  Catholics  because  of  threats  against 
the  convent.  In  the  sixties  the  growth  was  appre- 
ciable but  not  extraordinary,  and  most  of  the  congre- 
gations were  in  debt  with  very  little  to  show  for  it — 
an  evidence  of  their  extreme  poverty.  When  Bishop 
McFarland  left  Providence  in  1872  to  fix  his  residence 
at  Hartford,  he  left  behind  him  a  poor  cathedral  and 
episcopal  residence  and  a  debt  of  $16,000 — so  unable 
or  so  indifferent  was  his  flock  to  second  his  admirable 
zeal  and  devotion. 

Thomas  Francis  Hendricken,  the  first  Bishop  of 
Providence,  was  born  in  Kilkenny  5  May,  1827.  He 
made  his  preliminary  studies  at  St.  Kieran's  College, 
Kilkenny,  which  he  attended  in  1844.  He  took  up 
the  study  of  theology  at  Maynooth  in  1847  and  was 
ordained  by  Bishop  O'Reilly  of  Hartford  at  All 
Hallows  College  in  1851.  After  a  short  period  as 
assistant  and  pastor  of  a  small  parish  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Waterbury,  Conn.,  where  he  proved  to  be 
a,  successful  church  builder.  He  transformed  the 
parish  and  seemed  to  be  equal  to  any  financial  bur- 
den. Perhaps  because  of  this  remarkable  talent  he 
recommended  himself  to  Bishop  McFarland  as  the 
man  best  fitted  for  the  heavy  labours  that  then 
awaited  the  first  Bishop  of  Providence.  He  was  con- 
secrated bishop  in  the  cathedral  at  Providence  on 
April  28,  1872,  by  Archbishop  McCloskey  of  New 
York,  the  metropolitan  of  the  province.  He  set  to 
work  at  once  to  build  an  episcopal  residence  and  a 
suitable  cathedral.  He  had  no  sooner  begun  than  the 
panic  set  in.    Nothing  daunted,  and  in  spite  of  failing 


PROVIDENCE 


510 


PROVIDENCE 


health,  he  began  a  tour  of  his  diocese  to  collect,  and 
succeeded  in  raising  some  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
dollars  in  a  few  years,  so  that  when  he  died  (May, 
1886)  the  new  cathedral  was  almost  completed  without 
any  debt  encumbering  it.  It  was  during  his  epis- 
copate that  the  French  Canadian  Catholics  began  to 
come  to  the  diocese  in  considerable  numbers,  first  to 
Woonsooket  and  then  to  the  various  mill  towns  along 
the  little  streams  of  the  Blackstone  and  the  Paw- 
tuxet,  and  above  all  to  Fall  River.  The  bishop,  en- 
grossed with  other  things,  did  not  realize  apparently 
the  magnitude  of  the  problem,  and  his  attempts  to 
deal  with  it  were  not  infrequently  a  cause  of  anxiety 
and  pain  to  himself  and  others. 

Rt.  Rev.  Matthew  Harkins  succeeded  Bishop  Hen- 
drioken  after  an  interval  of  eleven  months.  Born  in 
Boston  17  Nov.,  1845,  educated  at  the  Boston  Latin 
School,  Holy  Cross  College,  and  Douai  College  in 
France,  he  made  his  theological  studies  at  Saint 
Sulpice  (Paris),  where  he  was  ordained  in  1869.  The 
Vatican  Council  took  place  while  he  was  continuing 
his  studies  in  Rome.  Made  pastor  of  Arlington  in 
1876,  he  was  transferred  to  St.  James'  parish,  Boston, 
in  1884,  in  succession  to  Bishop  Healy  of  Portland 
and  Archbishop  "Williams  of  Boston,  its  former  pas- 
tors. On  the  14  April,  1887,  Bishop  Harkins  was 
consecrated  in  the  new  (uncompleted)  Cathedral  of 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  in  Providence  which  had  first 
been  opened  a  year  before  for  the  obsequies  of  his 
predecessor.  A  man  of  wide  reading,  acute  mind,  and 
judicial  temperament,  a  lover  of  order  and  method, 
he  has  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  organizing  his 
diocese.  He  has  particularly  made  his  own  the  dio- 
cesan charities.  The  orphan  asylum  begun  in  1851, 
transferred  in  1862,  had  always  obtained  a  precarious 
income  from  fairs  and  donations,  and  for  these  he 
substituted  parochial  assessments.  Through  the  gen- 
erosity of  Joseph  Banigan  the  Home  for  the  Aged  in 
Pawtucket  was  built  in  1881.  Mr.  Banigan  also 
built  the  large  St.  Maria  Working  Girls'  Home  in 
Providence  in  1894  at  a  cost  of  $80,000,  and  either 
gave  in  his  lifetime  or  left  by  will  (1897)  sums  of 
$25,000  or  more  to  nearly  every  diocesan  charity. 
St.  Joseph's  Hospital  was  begun  in  1891  and  the  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  Infant  Asylum  in  the  following  year; 
the  Working  Boys'  Home  began  in  1897,  the  House 
of  the  Good  Shepherd  in  1904,  Nazareth  Home  (a 
day-nursery,  that  also  supplies  nurses  in  the  homes  of 
the  poor)  in  1906.  In  Woonsocket  and  Newport  and 
other  parts  of  the  diocese  similar  charitable  institu- 
tions have  been  erected  at  the  suggestion  and  advice 
of  Bishop  Harkins.  Almost  twenty  parishes  out  of  a 
total  of  seventy-nine  are  exclusively  French  Cana- 
dian, while  there  are  a  few  small  parishes  of  mixed 
French  and  English-speaking  Catholics.  In  the  last 
fifteen  years  (1911)  the  Italians  have  come  to  Provi- 
dence and  the  vicinity  in  large  numbers,  so  that  now 
there  are  perhaps  between  thirty  and  forty  thousand 
of  them  in  the  diocese.  Two  churches  for  the  Italians 
were  dedicated  in  Providence  in  1910  and  other 
smaller  parishes  proviile  for  their  needs  in  the  out- 
lying districts.  'The  four  colonies  of  Poles  have  four 
Polish  parishes,  while  the  Portuguese  have  one  in 
Providence.  One  Syrian  parish  in  Central  Falls 
ministers  to  some  of  the  Orientals  in  these  parts. 

Parochial  schools  are  established  in  the  greater  num- 
ber of  the  English-speaking  parishes  of  the  cities. 
Thus  out  of  seventeen  English-speaking  parishes 
in  Providence,  nine  have  large  and  well-equipped 
schools;  of  the  four  in  Pawtucket,  three  have  schools; 
the  three  parishes  in  Newport  have  schools.  The 
others  are  either  very  small  or  heavily  in  debt  or 
unable  to  procure  suitable  teachers.  Among  the 
French  Canadians,  with  whom  the  church  school  is 
a  patriotic  as  well  as  a  religious  institution,  it  is 
rare  to  find  a  parish  without  its  school.  Religious 
women  are  usually  the  teachers  (in  ten  schools,  the 


Sisters  of  Mercy);  in  only  three  are  there  Brothers 
for  the  larger  boys.  La  Salle  Academy,  a  diocesan 
High  School  of  which  the  bishop  is  president,  obtained 
a  university  charter  from  the  state  (1910).  The 
teachers  are  diocesan  priests  (for  the  classics)  and 
Christian  Brothers.  It  is  conveniently  situated  in 
Providence.  One  day  high  school  (St.  Francis 
Xavier's  Academy)  and  two  boarding  schools  (Bay- 
view,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  and  Elmhurst,  Religious  of 
the  Sacred  Heart)  provide  similar  training  for  the 
girls.  In  aU  there  are  some  eighteen  thousand  chil- 
dren receiving  Catholic  training  in  the  diocese. 

A  diocesan  weekly  paper,  the  "Providence  Visitor", 
sanctioned  by  the  bishop  and  edited  by  diocesan 
priests,  has  a  considerable  influence  among  the  Cath- 
olics of  the  state.  The  Catholic  Club  for  men,  es- 
tablished in  1909,  has  its  own  home  in  Proviilence  and 
a  large  and  influential  membership.  The  Catholic 
Woman's  Club,  established  in  1901,  has  a  member- 
ship of  four  hundred  and  is  noted  for  considerable 
literary  and  social  activity.  Although  in  a  numerical 
majority,  Catholics  do  not  exert  any  perceptible  in- 
fluence on  public  hfe.  They  receive  their  share  of 
elective  offices,  the  last  two  governors,  the  one  a 
democrat,  the  other  a  republican,  being  Catholics. 
Frequently  the  mayors  and  other  city  officials  are 
Catholics.  There  has,  however,  never  been  a  Catholic 
judge  of  a  superior  court. 

The  clergy  until  recently  was  nearly  exclusively 
diocesan.  From  1878  to  1899  the  Jesuits  had  St. 
Joseph's  parish  in  Providence,  but  left  there,  as  there 
was  no  prospect  of  opening  a  college.  Now  various 
small  communities  of  men  have  parishes  in  outlying 
districts,  Westerly  (1905,  Marist  Fathers),  Ports- 
mouth (1907,  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost), 
Natick  (1899,  Sacred  Heart  Fathers);  in  1910  the 
Dominicans  began  a  new  parish  between  Pawtucket 
and  Providence.  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
diocese,  approximately  from  250,000  to  275,000,  live 
for  the  most  part  in  the  densely  inhabited  Providence 
County,  only  eighteen  parishes,  and  several  of  them 
very  small,  existing  in  the  four  other  counties  of  the 
state,  while  there  are  sixty-one  in  Providence  county. 

History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  New  England:  Diocese  of 
Providence,  I;  Chancery  Records, 

Austin  Dowling. 

Providence,  Divine  (Lat.,  Providenlia;  Greek, 
Trpii-oio). — Providence  in  general,  or  foresight,  is 
a  function  of  the  virtue  of  prudence,  and  may  be 
defined  as  the  practical  reason,  adapting  means  to  an 
end.  As  applied  to  God,  Providence  is  God  Himself 
considered  in  that  act  by  which  in  His  wisdom  He 
so  orders  all  events  within  the  universe  that  the  end 
for  which  it  was  created  may  be  realized.  That  end 
is  that  all  creatures  should  manifest  the  glory  of 
God,  and  in  particular  that  man  should  glorify  Him, 
recognizing  in  nature  the  work  of  His  hand,  serving 
Him  in  obedience  and  love,  and  thereby  attaining 
to  the  full  development  of  his  nature  and  to  eternal 
happiness  in  God.  The  universe  is  a  system  of 
real  beings  created  by  God  and  directed  by  Him  to 
this  supreme  end,  the  concurrence  of  God  being  neces- 
sary for  all  natural  operations,  whether  of  things 
animate  or  inanimate,  and  still  more  so  for  operations 
of  the  supernatural  order.  God  preserves  the  uni- 
verse in  being;  He  acts  in  and  with  every  creature 
in  each  and  all  its  activities.  In  spite  of  sin,  which 
is  due  to  the  wilful  perversion  of  human  liberty, 
acting  with  the  concurrence,  but  contrary  to  the 
purpose  and  intention  of  God  and  in  spite  of  evil 
which  is  the  consequence  of  sin.  He  directs  all,  even 
evil  and  sin  itself,  to  the  final  end  for  which  the  uni- 
verse was  created.  All  these  operations  on  God's 
part,  with  the  exception  of  creation,  are  attributed 
in  Catholic  theology  to  Divine  Providence. 

The  Testimony  of  Universal.  Belief. — For  all  re- 
ligions, whether  Christian  or  pagan,  belief  in  Provi- 


PROVIDENCE 


511 


PROVIDENCE 


dence,  understood  in  the  wider  sense  of  a  superhuman 
being  who  governs  the  universe  and  directs  the 
course  of  human  affairs  with  definite  purpose  and 
beneficent  design,  has  always  been  a  very  real  and 
practical  belief.  Prayer,  divination,  blessing  and 
curse,  oracle  and  sacred  rite,  all  testify  to  a  belief 
in  some  over-ruling  power,  divine  or  quasi-divine  in 
character;  and  such  phenomena  are  found  in  every 
race  and  tribe,  however  uncivilized  or  degraded.  We 
find  it,  for  instance,  not  only  amongst  the  savages  of 
to-day,  but  also  among  the  early  Greeks,  who, 
though  they  do  not  appear  to  have  clearly  distin- 
guished between  Providence  and  Fate,  and  though 
their  gods  were  little  more  than  glorified  human 
beings,  subject  to  human  frailty  and  marred  by 
human  passion,  they  none  the  less  watched  over  the 
home  and  the  family,  took  sides  in  human  warfare, 
and  were  the  protectors  and  avengers  of  mankind. 
The  intimate  connexion  of  the  gods  with  human  af- 
fairs was  even  more  marked  in  the  religion  of  the 
early  Romans,  who  had  a  special  god  to  look  after 
each  detail  of  their  daily  life,  their  labours  in  the 
field,  and  the  business  of  the  state.  The  ancient 
religions  of  the  East  present  the  same  characteristics. 
Auramazda,  the  supreme  god  of  the  Persians  during 
the  period  of  the  great  kings,  is  the  ruler  of  the  world, 
the  maker  of  kings  and  nations,  who  punishes  the 
wicked  and  hearkens  to  the  prayers  of  the  good 
(see  cuneiform  inscriptions  translated  by  Casartelli 
in  the  "Hist,  of  Relig.",  II,  13  sq.).  A  similar  no- 
tion prevailed  in  Egypt.  All  things  are  in  God's 
gift.  He  loves  the  obedient  and  humbles  the  proud, 
rewards  the  good  and  smites  the  wicked  (Renouf, 
100  sq.).  Osiris,  the  king  of  the  gods,  judges  the  world 
according  to  his  will,  and  to  all  nations,  past,  present, 
and  future,  gives  his  commands  (op.  cit.,  218  sq.). 
Amon  Ra-is,  the  lord  of  the  thrones  of  the  earth,  the 
end  of  all  existence,  the  support  of  all  things,  just  of 
heart  when  one  cries  to  him,  deliverer  of  the  poor 
and  oppressed  (op.  cit.,  225  sq.).  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  records  are  no  less  clear.  Marduk,  the 
lord  of  the  universe,  shows  mercy  to  all,  implants 
fear  in  their  hearts,  and  controls  their  lives;  while 
Shamash  directs  the  law  of  nature,  and  is  the  supreme 
god  of  heaven  and  earth  (Jastrow,  296,  300,  301). 
The  books  of  the  Avesta,  though  they  depict  a  dualis- 
tic  system,  represent  the  good  god,  Mazdah  Ahura, 
with  his  court,  as  helping  those  who  worship  him 
against  the  principle  of  evil  (Hist,  of  Relig.,  II,  14). 
In  the  dualism  of  the  Gnostic  theories,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  world  is  shut  off  from  the  supreme  god, 
Bythos,  who  has  nothing  directly  to  do  with  human 
affairs  before  or  after  the  incarnation.  This  idea 
of  a  remote  and  transcendent  deity  was  probably  de- 
rived from  Greek  philosophy.  Socrates  certainly 
admitted  Providence,  and  believed  in  inspiration  and 
divination;  but  for  Aristotle  the  doctrine  of  Provi- 
dence was  mere  opinion.  It  is  true  that  the  world 
was  for  him  the  instrument  and  expression  of  the 
Divine  thought,  but  God  Himself  lived  a  life  wholly 
apart.  The  Epicureans  explicitly  denied  Providence, 
on  the  ground  that  if  God  cares  for  men  He  can  be 
neither  happy  nor  good.  Everything  is  due,  they 
said,  to  chance  or  free  will.  On  both  these  points 
they  were  opposed  by  the  Stoics,  who  insisted  that 
God  must  love  men,  otherwise  the  very  notion  of 
God  would  be  destroyed  (Plutarch,  "De  comm. 
notit.",  32;  "De  stoic,  rep.",  38).  They  also  at- 
tempted to  prove  the  action  or  existence  of  Provi- 
dence from  the  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  in  nature, 
in  which  evil  is  merely  an  accident,  a  detail,  or  a 
punishment.  On  the  other  hand,  the  notions  of 
god,  nature,  force,  and  fate  were  not  clearly  dis- 
tinguished by  the  Stoics,  who  regarded  them  as 
practically  the  same  thing.  While  even  Cicero,  who 
works  out  the  argument  from  adaptation  at  con- 
siderable length  in  his   "De  natura  deorum",  ends 


unsatisfactorily  with  the  statement,  "Magna  Dii 
curant,  parva  negligunt",  as  his  ultimate  solution 
of  the  problem  of  evil  (n.  51-66). 

Caird,  The  Evolution  of  Theology  in  Greek  Philosophers 
(Glasgow,  1904) ;  CAaARTELLl,  Leaves  from  My  Eastern  Garden; 
Cicero,  De  natura  deorum;  Fox,  Religion  and  Morality  (New 
York,  1899) ;  Jastrow,  The  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
(Boston,  1898) ;  Hist,  of  Religions  (London,  1910) :  Louis, 
Doctrines  Religieuses  des  Philosophes  Grecs  (Paris,  1909) ;  ed. 
MuLLER,  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  IV,  XXIII,  XXXI,  The  Zend- 
Avesta,  tr.  Darmestbter  and  Mills  (London,  1880-7) ;  Murray, 
Hellenistic  Philosophy  in  Hibbert  Journal  (Oct.,  1910);  Piat, 
Socrate  (Paris,  1909) ;  Plutarch,  De  communibus  notitiis; 
Idem,  De  stoicorum  repugnantiis;  Le  Page  Renouf,  Lectures 
on  the  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion,  as  illustrated  by  the  Re- 
ligions of  Ancient  Egypt  (London,  1880) ;  Sayce,  The  Religion 
of  Ancient  Egypt  and  Babylonia  (Edinburgh,  1902) ;  Tolman, 
Ancient  Persian  Lexicon  and  Texts  (New  York,  1908) ;  Zeller, 
Stoics,  Epicureans,  and  Sceptics  (London,  1880). 

The  Testimony  of  Scripture. — Though  the  term 
Providence  is  applied  to  God  only  three  times  in 
Scripture  (Eccl.,  v,  5;  Wis.,  xiv,  3;  Judith,  ix,  5), 
and  once  to  Wisdom  (Wis.,  vi,  17),  the  general  doc- 
trine of  Providence  is  consistently  taught  throughout 
both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  God  not  only 
implants  in  the  nature  of  things  the  potentiality  of 
future  development  (Gen.,  i,  7,  12,  22,  28;  viii,  17; 
ix,  1,  7;  xii,  2;  xv,  5),  but  in  this  development,  as 
in  all  the  operations  of  nature,  He  co-operates;  so 
that  in  Scriptural  language  what  nature  does  God 
is  said  to  do  (Gen.,  ii,  5,  cf.  9;  vii,  4,  cf.  10;  vii,  19- 
22,  cf.  23;  viii,  1,  2,  cf.  5  sq.).  Seed  time  and  har- 
vest, cold  and  heat,  summer  and  winter,  the  clouds 
and  the  rain,  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  life  itself  alike 
are  His  gift  (Gen.,  ii,  7;  viii,  2;  Ps.  cxlvi,  8,  -9; 
xxviii;  ciii;  cxlviii;  Job,  xxxviii,  37;  Joel,  ii,  21  sq.; 
Ecclus.,  xi,  14).  So  too  with  man.  Man  tills  the 
ground  (Gen.,  iii,  17  sq.;  iv,  12;  ix,  20),  but  human 
labours  without  Divine  assistance  are  of  no  avail 
(Ps.  cxxvi,  1;  lix,  13;  Prov.,  xxi,  31).  Even  for  an 
act  of  sin.  Divine  concurrence  is  necessary.  Hence 
in  Scripture  the  expressions  "God  hardened  Pharao's 
heart"  (Ex.,  vii,  3;  ix,  12;  x,  1,  20,  27;  xi,  10;  xiv, 
8),  "Pharao's  heart  was  hardened"  (Ex.,  vii,  13; 
viii,  19,  32;  ix,  7,  35),  "Pharao  hardened  his  heart" 
(vui,  15)  and  "Pharao  did  not  set  his  heart  to  do  it" 
(vii,  23),  or  "hearkened  not"  (vii,  4;  viii,  19),  or 
"increased  his  sin"  (ix,  34),  are  practically  synony- 
mous. God  is  the  sole  ruler  of  the  world  (Job, 
xxxiv,  13).  His  will  governs  all  things  (Ps.  cxlviii, 
8;  Job,  ix,  7;  Is.,  xl,  22-6;  xliv,  24-8;  Ecclus., 
xvi,  18-27;  Esther,  xiii,  9).  He  loves  all  men  (Wis., 
xi,  25,  27),  desires  the  salvation  of  all  (Is.,  xiv,  22; 
Wis.,  xii,  16),  and  His  providence  extends  to  all 
nations  (Deut.,  ii,  19;  Wis.,  vi,  8;  Is.,  Ixvi,  18). 
He  desires  not  the  death  of  a  sinner,  but  rather  that 
he  should  repent  (Ezech.,  xviii,  20-32;  xxxiii,  11; 
Wis.,  xi,  24);  for  He  is  above  all  things  a  merciful 
God  and  a  God  of  much  compassion  (Ex.,  xxxiv,  6; 
Num.,  xiv,  18;  Deut.,  v,  10;  Ps.  xxxii,  5;  cii,  8-17; 
cxliv,  9;  Ecclus.,  ii,  23).  Yet  He  is  a  just  God,  as 
well  as  a  Saviour  (Is.,  xiv,  21).  Hence  both  good  and 
evil  proceed  from  Him  (Lam.,  iii,  38;  Amos,  iii,  6; 
Is.,  xiv,  7;  Eccl.,  vii,  15;  Ecclus.,  xi,  14),  good  as  a 
bounteous  gift  freely  bestowed  (Ps.  cxliv,  16;  Eccl., 
V,  18;  I  Par.,  xxix,  12-4),  evil  as  the  consequence 
of  sin  (Lam.,  iii,  39;  Joel  ii,  20;  Amos,  iii,  10,  11; 
Is.,  V,  4,  5).  For  God  rewards  men  according  to  their 
works  (Lam.,  iii,  64;  Job,  xxxiv,  10-7;  Ps.  xvii,  27; 
Ecclus.,  xvi,  12,  13;  xi,  28;  I  Kings,  xxvi,  23),  their 
thoughts,  and  their  devices  (Jer.,  xvii,  10;  xxxii,  19; 
Ps.  vii,  10).  From  His  anger  there  is  no  escape 
(Job,  ix,  13;  Ps.  xxxii,  16,  17;  Wis.,  xvi,  13-8);  and 
none  can  prevail  against  Him  (Ecclus.,  xviii,l;  Wis., 
xi,  22-3;  Prov.,  xxi,  30;  Ps.  ii,  1-4;  xxxii,  10; 
Judith,  xvi,  16,  17).  If  the  wicked  are  spared  for  a 
time  (Jer.,  xii,  1;  Job,  xxi,  7-15;  Ps.  Ixxii,  12-3; 
Eccl.,  viii,  12),  they  will  ultimately  receive  their 
deserts  if  they  do  not  repent  (Jer.,  xii,  13-7;  Job, 
xxi,  17,  18;    xxvii,  13-23);    while  the  good,  though 


PROVIDENCE 


512 


PROVIDENCE 


they  may  suffer  for  a  time,  are  comforted  by  God 
(Ps.  xc,  15;  Is.,  li,  12),  who  will  build  them  up,  and 
will  not  cease  to  do  them  good  (Jer.,  xxxi,  28  sq.; 
xxxii,  41).  For  in  spite  of  the  wicked,  God's  counsels 
are  never  changed  or  thwarted  (Is.,  xiv,  24-7;  xliii, 
13;  xlvi,  10;  Ps.  xxxii,  11;  cxlviii,  6).  Evil  He  con- 
verts into  good  (Gen.,  1,  20;  cf.  Ps.  xc,  10);  and 
suffering  He  uses  as  an  instrument  whereby  to  train 
men  up  as  a  father  traineth  up  his  children  (Deut., 
viii,  1-6;  Ps.  Ixv,  10-2;  Wis.,  xii,  1,  2);  so  that  in 
very  truth  the  world  fighteth  for  the  just  (Wis.,  xvi, 
17). 

The  teaching  of  the  Old  Testament  on  Providence 
is  assumed  by  Our  Lord,  who  draws  therefrom  prac- 
tical lessons  both  in  regard  to  confidence  in  God 
(Matt.,  vi,  2.5-33;  vii,  7-11;  x,  28-31;  Mark,  xi,22-4; 
Luke,  xi,  9-13;  .John,  xvi,  2(),  27)  and  in  regard  to 
the  forgiveness  of  our  enemies  (Matt.,  v,  39-45; 
Luke,  vi,  27-38);  while  in  St.  Paul  it  becomes  the 
basis  of  a  definite  and  systematic  theology.  To  the 
Athenians  in  the  Areopagus  Paul  declares  (1)  that 
God  made  the  universe  and  is  its  supreme  Lord 
(Acts,  xvii,  24);  (2)  that  He  sustains  the  universe  in 
its  existence,  giving  life  and  breath  to  all  things 
(verse  25),  and  hence,  as  the  source  whence  they  all 
proceed,  must  Himself  lack  nothing  nor  stand  in  need 
of  any  human  service;  (3)  that  He  has  directed  the 
growth  of  nations  and  their  distribution  (verse  26), 
and  (4)  this  to  the  end  that  they  should  seek  Him 
(verse  27)  in  Whom  we  live  and  move  and  have  our 
being,  and  whose  offspring  we  are  (verse  28).  Being 
therefore  the  offspring  of  God,  it  is  absurd  for  us  to 
liken  Him  to  things. inanimate  (verse  29),  and  though 
God  has  borne  with  this  ignorance  on  man's  part  for 
a  time,  now  He  demands  penance  (verse  30),  and, 
having  sent  Christ,  Whose  authority  is  guaranteed  by 
His  Resurrection,  has  appointed  a  day  when  the 
world  shall  be  judged  by  Him  in  justice  (verse  31). 
In  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  the  supernatural  charac- 
ter of  Divine  Providence  is  further  evolved,  and  the 
doctrine  of  Providence  becomes  identical  with  that 
of  grace.  Nature  manifests  so  clearly  the  power  and 
the  divinity  of  God  that  failure  to  recognize  it  is 
inexcusable  (Rom.,  i,  20-2).  Hence  God  in  His 
anger  (verse  18)  gives  man  over  to  the  desires  of  his 
heart  (verse  24),  to  a  reprobate  sense  (verse  28). 
Some  day  He  will  vindicate  Himself  (ii,  2-5),  ren- 
dering to  every  man  according  to  his  works  (ii,  6-8; 
cf.  II  Cor.,  V,  10;  Gal.,  vi,  R),  his  knowledge  (Rom., 
ii,  9  sq.),  and  his  secret  thoughts  (ii,  16);  but  for  the 
present  He  forbears  (iii,  26;  cf.  ix,  22;  II  Peter,  ii, 
9)  and  is  ready  to  justify  all  men  freely  through  the 
redemption  of  Jesus  Christ  (Rom.,  iii,  22,  24,  25); 
for  all  men  stand  in  need  of  God's  help  (iii,  23). 
Christians,  moreover,  having  already  received  the 
grace  of  redemption  (v,  1),  should  glory  in  tribulation, 
knowing  that  it  is  but  a  trial  which  strengtheneth 
patience  and  hope  (v,  3,  4).  For  the  graces  that  are 
to  come  are  far  greater  than  those  already  received 
(v,  10  sq.)  and  far  more  abundant  than  the  con- 
sequences of  sin  (v,  17).  Life  everlasting  is  promised 
to  us  (v,  21);  but  unaided  we  can  do  nothing  to  gain 
it  (vii,  18-24).  It  is  the  grace  of  Christ  that  delivers 
us  (vii,  25)  and  makes  us  co-heirs  with  Him  (viii,  17). 
Yet  we  must  also  suffer  with  Him  (verse  17)  and  be 
patient  (verse  25),  knowing  that  all  things  work  to- 
gether for  good  to  them  that  love  God;  for  God  in 
His  Providence  has  regarded  us  with  love  from  all 
eternity,  has  predestined  us  to  be  made  conformable 
to  the  image  of  His  Son,  that  He  might  be  the  first- 
born of  many  brethren,  has  called  us  (II  Thes.,  ii,  13), 
has  justified  us  (Rom.,  v,  1;  I  Cor.,  vi  11),  and  even 
now  has  begun  to  accomplish  within  us  the  work 
of  glorification  (Rom.,  viii,  29,  30;  cf.  Eph.,  i,  3  sq., 
II  Cor.,  iii,  18;  II  Thes.,  ii,  13).  This,  the  beneficent 
purpose  of  an  all-seeing  Providence,  is  wholly  gratui- 
tous, entirely  unmerited   (Rom.,  iii,  24;    ix,   11-2). 


It  extends  to  all  men  (Rom.,  ii,  10;  I  Tim.,  ii,  4), 
even  to  the  reprobate  Jews  (Rom.,  xi,  26  sq.);  and 
by  it  all  God's  dealings  with  man  are  regulated 
(Eph.,  i,   11). 

The  Testimony  of_  the  Fathers  is,  it  need  hardly  be 
said,  perfectly  unanimous  from  the  very  outset.  Even 
those  Fathers — and  they  are  not  many — who  do  not 
treat  expressly  of  the  subject  use  the  doctrine  of 
Providence  as  the  basis  of  their  teaching,  both  dog- 
matic and  practical  (e.  g.  Clement,  "I  Epis.  ad  Cor.", 
xix  sq.,  xxvii,  xxviii  in  "P.  G.",  I,  247-54,  267-70)! 
God  governs  the  whole  universe  [Aristides,  "Apol  " 
I,  XV  in  "Texts  and  Studies"  (1891),  35,  50;  "Anon! 
epis.  ad  Diog.",  vii  in  "P.  G.",  II,  1175  sq.;  Origen, 
"Contra  Celsum",  IV,  n.  75  in  "P.  G.",  XI,  1146;  St. 
Cyprian,  "Lib.  de  idol,  van.",  viii,  ix  in  "P.  L.",  IV, 
596-7;  St.  John  Chrysostom,  "Ad  eos  qui  scandalizati' 
sunt",  V  in  "P.  G.",  LII,  487;  St.  Augu,stine,  "De 
gen.  ad  lit.",  V,  xxi,  n.  42  in  "P.  L.",  XXXIV,  335-8; 
St.  Gregory  the  Great,  "Lib.  moral.",  XXXII,  n.  7  in 
"P.  L.",  LXXVI,  637  sq.;  XVI,  xii  in  "P.  L.",  Ixxv, 
1126].  It  extends  to  every  individual,  adapting  itself  to 
the  needs  of  each  (St.  John  Chrysostom,  "Horn,  xxviii  in 
Matt.",  n.  3  in  "P.  G.",  LVII,  354),  and  embraces 
even  what  we  think  is  due  to  our  own  initiative  (Horn, 
xxi,  n.  3  in  "P.  G.",  298).  All  things  are  created  and 
governed  with  a  view  to  man,  to  the  development  of 
his  life  and  his  intelligence,  and  to  the  satisfaction  of 
his  needs  (Aristides,  "Apol.",  i,  v,  vi,  xv,  xvi;  Origen, 
"Contra  Celsum",  IV,  Ixxiv,  Ixxviii  in  "P.  G.",  XI, 
1143-51;  Lactantius,  "Deira  Dei",xiii,  xv  in  "P.  L.", 
VII,  115  sq.;  St.  John  Chrysostom,  "Horn,  xiii  in 
Matt.",  n.  5  in  "P.  G.",  LVII,  216,  217;  "Ad  eos  qui 
scand.",  vii,  viii  in  "P.  G.",  LII,  491-8;  "Ad  Stagir.", 

I,  iv  in  "P.  G.",  XLVII,  432-4;  St.  Augustine,  "De 
div.  quJEst.",  XXX,  xxxi  in  "P.  L.",  XL,  19,  20).  The 
chief  proof  of  this  doctrine  is  derived  from  the  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  an  end,  which,  since  it  takes  place  in 
the  universe  comprising  a  vast  multitude  of  relatively 
independent  individuals  differing  in  nature,  function, 
and  end,  implies  the  continuous  control  and  unifying 
governance  of  a  single  supreme  Being  (Minucius  Felix, 
"Octavius",  xvii  in  Halm,  "Corp.  Scrip.  Eccl.  Lat.", 

II,  21,  22;  TertuUian,  "Adv.  Marcion.",  II,  iii,  iv  in 
"P.  L.",  II,  313-5-  Origen,  "Contra  Celsum",  IV, 
Ixxiv  sq.  in  "P.  G.  ,  XI,  1143  sq.;  Lactantius,  "De 
ira  Dei",  x-xv  in  "P.  L.",  VII,  100  sq.;  St.  John 
Chrysostom,  "Horn,  ad  Pop.  Ant.",  ix,  3,  4  in  "P.  G.", 
XLIX,  106-9;  "Ad  eos.  qui  scand.",  v,  vii,  viii  in 
"P.  G.",  LII,  488-98;  "In  Ps.",  v,  n.  9  in  "P.  G.", 
LV,  54^6;  "Ad  Demetrium",  ii,  5  in  "P.  G.",  XLVII, 
418,  419;  "Ad  Stagir.",  passim  in  "P.  G.",  XLVII, 
423  sq.;  St.  Augustine,  "De  gen.  ad  ht.",  V,  xx-xxiii 
in  "P.  L.",  XXXIV,  335  sq.;  "In  Ps.",  cxlviii,  n.  9- 
15  in  "P.  L.",  XXXVII,  1942-7;  Theodoret,  "De 
prov.  orat.",  i-v  in  "P.  G.",  LXXXIII,  555  sq.;  St. 
John  Damascene,  "De  fid.  orth.",  i,  3  in  "P.  G.", 
XCIV,  795  sq.).  Again,  from  the  fact  that  God  has 
created  the  universe,  it  shows  that  He  must  also  gov- 
ern it;  for  just  as  the  contrivances  of  man  demand 
attention  and  guidance,  so  God,  as  a  good  workman, 
must  care  for  His  work  (St.  Ambrose,  "De  Offic. 
minist.",  XIII  in  "P.  L.",  XVI,  41;  St.  Augustine, 
"InPs.",  cxlv,  n.  12, 13  in  "P.  L.",  XXXVII,  1892-3; 
Theodoret,  "De  prov.  orat.'', i,iiin"P.G.",  LXXXIII, 
564,  581-4;  Salvianus,  "De  gub.  Dei",  I,  viii-xii  in 
"P.  L.",  LIII,  40  sq.;  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  "Lib. 
moral.",  xxiv,  n.  46  in  "P.  L.",  LXXVI,  314).  In 
addition  to  this,  TertuUian  ("De  testim.  animae''  in 
"P.  L.",  I,  681  sq.)  and  St.  Cyprian  (loc.  cit.)  appeal 
to  the  testimony  of  the  human  soul  as  expressed  in 
sayings  common  to  all  mankind  (cf.  Salvianus,  loc. 
cit.);  while  Lactantius  ("De  ira  Dei",  viii,  xii,  xvi  in 
"P.  L.",  VII,  97,  114,  115,  126)  uses  a  distinctly  prag- 
matic argument  based  on  the  utter  ruin  that  would 
result  to  society,  were  the  Providence  of  God  generally 
denied. 


PROVIDENCE 


513 


PROVIDENCE 


The  question  of  Providence  in  the  Fathers  is  almost 
invariably  connected  with  the  problem  of  evil.  How 
can  evil  and  suffering  be  compatible  with  the  benefi- 
cent providence  of  an  all-powerful  God?  And  why 
especially  should  the  just  be  allowed  to  suffer  while  the 
wicked  are  apparently  prosperous  and  happy?  Pa- 
tristic solutions  to  these  problems  may  bo  summed  up 
under  the  following  heads:  (1)  Sin  is  not  ordained  by 
the  will  of  God,  though  it  happens  with  His  permis- 
sion. It  can  be  ascribed  to  Providence  only  as  a 
secondary  result  (Origen,  "Contra  Celsum",  IV,  Ixviii 
in  "P.  G.",  XI,  1516-7;  St.  John  Damascene,  "De 
fid.  orth.",  ii,  21  in  "  P.  G.",  XCIV,  95  sq.).  (2)  Sin  is 
due  to  the  abuse  of  free  will;  an  abuse  which  was  cer- 
tainly foreseen  by  God,  but  could  have  been  prevented 
only  by  depriving  man  of  his  most  noble  attribute 
(Tertullian,  "Adv.  Marcion.",  II,  v-vii  in  "P.  L.",  II, 
317-20;  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  "In  Julian.",  IX, 
xiii,  10,  11,  18  in  "P.  G.",  LXXIV,  120-1,  127-32; 
Theodoret,  "De  prov.  orat.",  IX,  vi  in  "P.  G.", 
LXXXIII,  662).  Moreover,  (.3)  in  this  world  man  has 
to  learn  by  experience  and  contrast,  and  to  develop  by 
the  overcoming  of  obstacles  (Lactantius,  "  De  ira  Dei ", 
xiii,  XV  in  "P.  L.",  VII,  115-24;  St.  Augustine,  "De 
ordine",  I,  vii,  n.  IS  in  "P.  L.",  XXXII,  986).  (4) 
One  reason  therefore  why  God  permits  sin  is  that  man 
may  arrive  at  once  at  a  consciousness  of  righteousness 
and  of  his  own  inability  to  attain  it,  and  so  may  put 
his  trust  in  God  (Anon.  epis.  ad  Diog.,  vii-ix  in  "P. 
G.",  II,  1175  sq.;  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  "Lib. 
moral.".  Ill,  Ivii  in  "P.  L.",  LXXV,  627).  (5)  For  sin 
itself  God  is  not  responsible,  but  only  for  the  evils  that 
result  as  a  punishment  of  sin  (Tertullian,  "Adv. 
Marc",  II,  xiv,  xv  in  "P.  L.",  II,  327  sq.),  evils  which 
happen  without  God's  will  but  are  not  contrary  to  it 
(St.  Gregory  the  Great,  op.  cit.,  VI,  xxxii  in  "P.  L.", 
LXXVII,  746,  747).  (6)  Had  there  been  no  sin,  phys- 
ical evil  would  have  been  inconsistent  with  the  Divine 
goodness  (St.  Augustine,  "De  div.  quaest.",  Ixxxii  in 
"P.  L.",  LX,  98,  99);  nor  would  God  permit  evil  at  all, 
unless  He  could  draw  good  out  of  evil  (St.  Augustine, 
"Enchir.",  xi  in  "P.  L.",  LX,  236;  "Serm.",  ccxiv,  3 
in  "P.  L.",  XXXVIII,  1067;  St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
op.  cit.,  VI,  xxxii,  XVIII,  xlvi  in  "P.  L.",  LXXV,  747; 
LXXVI,  61-2).  (7)  All  physical  evil,  therefore,  is  the 
consequence  of  sin,  the  inevitable  result  of  the  Fall 
(St.  John  Chrysostom,  "Ad  Stagir.",  I,  ii  in  "P.  G.", 
LXVII,  428,  429;  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  op.  cit., 
yill,  h,  lii  in  "P.  L.",  LXXV,  833,  834),  and  regarded 
in  this  light  is  seen  to  be  at  once  a  medicine  (St.  Augus- 
tine, "De  div.  qua;st.",  Ixxxii  in  "P.  L.",  XL,  98,  99; 
"Serm.",  xvii,  4,  5  in  "P.  L.",  XXXVIII,  126-8),  a 
discipline  ("Serm.",  xv,  4-9  in  "P.  L.",  XXXVIII, 
118-21;  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  op.  cit.,  V,  xxxv;  VII, 
xxix;  XIV,  xl  in  "P.  L.",  LXXV,  698,  818,  1060),  and 
an  occasion  of  charity  (St.  Gregory  the  Great,  VII, 
xxix).  Evil  and  suffering  thus  tend  to  the  increase  of 
merit  (XIV,  xxxvi,  xxxvii  in  "P.  L.",  1058,  1059),  and 
in  this  way  the  function  of  justice  becomes  an  agency 
for  goodness  (Tertullian,  c.  "Adv.Marc.",II,xi,xiiiin 
"P.  L.",  324  sq.).  (8)  Evil,  therefore,  ministers  to 
God's  design  (St.  Gregory  the  Great,  op.  cit.,  VI,  xxxii 
in  "P.  L.",  LXXV,  747;  Theodoret,  "De prov. orat.", 
v-viii  in  "P.  L.",  LXXXIII,  652  sq.).  Hence,  if  the 
universe  be  considered  as  a  whole  it  will  be  found  that 
that  which  for  the  individual  is  evil  will  in  the  end 
turn  out  to  be  consistent  with  Divine  goodness,  in 
conformity  with  justice  and  right  order  (Origen, 
"Contra  Celsum",  IV,  xcix  in  "P.  G.",  XI,  1177-80; 
St.  Augustine,  "De  ordine",  I,  i-v,  9;  II,  iv  in  "P. 
L.",  XXXII,  977-87,  990,  999-1002).  (9)  It  is  the 
end  that  proves  happiness  (Lactantius,  "De  ira  Dei", 
XX  in  "P.  L.",  VII,  137  sq.;  St.  Ambrose,  "De  ofRc. 
minist.",  XVI,  cf.  XII,  XV  in  "P.  L.",  XVI,  44r-6,  38 
sq.;  St.  John  Chrysostom,  "Hom.  xiii  in  Matt.",  n.  5 
in  "P.  G.",  LXVII,  216,  217;  St.  Augustine,  "In  Ps.", 
xci,  n.  8  in  "P.  L.",  XXXIII,  1176;  Theodoret,  "De 
XII.— 33 


prov.  orat.",  ix  in  "P.  G.",  LXXXIII,  727  sq.).  In 
the  Last  Judgment  the  problem  of  evil  will  be  solved, 
but  till  then  the  workings  of  Providence  will  remain 
more  or  less  a  mystery  (St.  Augustine,  "De  div. 
quasst.",  Ixxxii  in  "P.  L.",  XL,  98,  99;  St.  John  Chrys- 
ostom, "Ad  eos  qui  scand.",  VIII,  IX  in  "P.  G.", 
LII,  494,  495).  In  regard  to  poverty  and  suffering, 
however,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  in  depriving  ug 
of  earthly  goods,  God  is  but  recalling  what  is  His  own 
(St.  Gregory  the  Great,  op.  cit.,  II,  xxxi  in  "P.  L.", 
LXXVII,  571);  and  secondly  that,  as  Salvianus  tells 
us  ("De  gub.  Dei",  I,  i,  2  in  "P.  L.",  LIII,  29  sq.), 
nothing  is  so  light  that  it  does  not  appear  heavy  to 
him  who  bears  it  unwillingly,  and  nothing  so  heavy 
that  it  does  not  appear  light  to  him  who  bears  it  with 
goodwill. 

The  Testimony  of  the  Councils. — From  the  creeds  we 
learn  that  God  the  Father  is  the  omnipotent  creator  of 
heaven  and  earth;  that  God  the  Son  descended  from 
heaven,  became  man,  suffered  and  died  for  our  salva- 
tion, and  is  to  be  the  judge  of  the  living  and  the  dead; 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  inspired  the  Prophets  and  the 
Apostles,  and  dwells  in  the  saints — all  of  which  implies 
Providence,  natural  and  supernatural.  The  Profession 
of  Faith  prescribed  for  the  Waldenses  in  1208  declares 
God  to  be  the  governor  and  disposer  of  all  things  cor- 
poreal and  spiritual  (Denzinger,  10th  ed.,  1908,  n. 
421).  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  can.  vi,  A.  d. 
816)  defines  that  evil  is  in  the  power  of  man,  and  that 
evil  deeds  are  not  to  be  attributed  to  God  in  the  same 
sense  as  good  deeds,  but  permissive  only,  so  that  the 
vocation  of  Paul  is  God's  work  in  a  much  truer  sense 
than  the  treachery  of  Judas.  The  Council  of  the  Vati- 
can sums  up  past  doctrine  in  the  statement  that  God 
in  His  Providence  protects  and  governs  all  things 
(Sess.  Ill,  c.  I,  d.  1784). 

Philosophical  Developments. — The  basis  of  all  fur- 
ther philosophical  speculations  among  Scholastics  in 
regard  to  the  precise  nature  of  Providence,  its  relation 
to  other  Divine  attributes,  and  of  creation,  was  laid  by 
Boethius  in  the  "De  consol.  phil."  (IV,  vi  sq.  in  "P. 
L.",  LXIII,  813  sq.).  Providence  is  the  Divine  Intelli- 
gence itself  as  it  exists  in  the  supreme  principle  of  all 
things  and  disposes  all  things;  or,  again,  it  is  the  evolu- 
tion of  things  temporal  as  conceived  and  brought  to 
unity  in  the  Divine  Intelligence,  which,  as  St.  Thomas 
says  (Summa  I,  G.  xxii,  a.  1),  is  the  cause  of  all  things. 
Providence,  therefore,  pertains  primarily  to  the  Intel- 
ligence of  God,  though  it  implies  also  will  (I,  Q.  xxii, 
a.  1,  ad  3  um),  and  hence  is  defined  by  St.  John 
Damascene  as  "the  will  of  God  by  which  all  things  are 
ruled  according  to  right  reason"  ("De  fid.  orth.",  i,  3 
in  "P.  G.",  XCIV,  963,  964).  The  term  "Provi- 
dence", however,  must  not  be  taken  too  literally.  It 
is  not  merely  sight,  or  fore-sight.  It  involves  more 
than  mere  vision  or  knowledge,  for  it  implies  the  active 
disposition  and  arrangement  of  things  with  a  view  to  a 
definite  end;  but  it  does  not  involve  Accession.  God 
beholds  all  things  together  in  one  comprehensive  act 
(I,  Q.  xxii,  a.  3,  ad  3  um),  and  by  the  same  act  pro- 
duces, conserves,  and  concurs  in  all  things  (I,  Q.  civ, 
a.  1,  ad  4  um).  Providence  as  expressed  in  the  created 
order  of  things  is  by  Boethius  called  Fate  (loc.  cit.); 
but  St.  Thomas  naturally  objects  to  the  use  of  this 
term  (I,  Q.  cxvi,  a.  1).  Strictly  only  those  things 
which  are  ordained  by  God  to  the  production  of  cer- 
tain determinate  effects  are  subject  to  necessity  or 
Fate  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a.  4;  Q.  cii,  a.  3;  Q.  cxvi,  a.  1,  2,  4). 
This  excludes  chance,  which  is  a  relative  term  and  im- 
plies merely  that  some  things  happen  irrespective  of, 
or  even  contrary  to,  the  natural  purpose  and  tendency 
of  some  particular  agent,  natural  or  free  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a. 
2;  Q.  cvi,  a.  7;  Q.  cxvi,  a.  1);  not  that  things  happen 
irrespective  of  the  supreme  and  universal  cause  of  all 
things.  But  it  does  not  exclude  free  will.  Some  causes 
are  not  determined  ad  unum,  but  are  free  to  choose 
between  the  effects  which  they  are  capable  of  produc- 


PROVINCE 


514 


PROVINCIAL 


ing  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a. 2,  ad  4  um;  cf.  Boethius,  op.  cit.,  V,  ii, 
in  "P.  L.",  LXIII,  835).  Thus  things  happen  contin- 
gently as  well  as  of  necessity  (I,  il-  xxii,  a.  4),  for  God 
has  given  to  different  things  different  ways  of  acting, 
and  His  coneurrenoe  is  given  accordingly  (I,  Q.  xxii, 
a.  4).  Yet  all  things,  whether  due  to  necessary  causes 
or  to  the  free  choice  of  man,  are  foreseen  by  God  and 
preordained  in  accordance  with  His  all-embracing 
purpose.  Hence  Providence  is  at  once  universal,  im- 
mediate, efficacious,  and  without  violence:  universal, 
because  all  things  are  subject  to  it  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a.  2;  ciii, 
a.  5);  immediate,  in  that  though  God  acts  through 
secondary  causes,  yet  all  alike  postulate  Divine  con- 
currence and  receive  their  powers  of  operation  from 
Him  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a.  3;  Q.  ciii,  a.  6);  efficacious,  in  that 
all  things  minister  to  God's  final  purpose,  a  purpose 
which  cannot  be  frustrated  (Contra  Gent.,  Ill,  xciv); 
without  violence  (suavis),  because  it  violates  no  natu- 
ral law,  but  rather  effects  its  purpose  through  these 
laws  (I,  Q.  ciii,  a.  8). 

The  functions  of  Providence  are  threefold.  As  phys- 
ical, it  conserves  what  is  and  concurs  with  what  acts 
or  becomes ;  as  moral,  it  bestows  upon  man  the  natu- 
ral law,  a  conscience,  sanctions — physical,  moral,  and 
social — answers  human  prayers,  and  in  general  gov- 
erns both  the  nation  and  the  individual.  That  God 
should  answer  prayer  must  not  be  understood  as  a 
violation  of  the  order  of  natural  Providence,  but  rather 
as  the  carrying  of  Providence  into  effect,  "because  this 
very  arrangement  that  such  a  concession  be  made  to 
such  a  petitioner,  falls  under  the  order  of  Divine 
Providence.  Therefore  to  say  that  we  should  not  pray 
to  gain  anything  of  God,  because  the  order  of  His 
Providence  is  unchangeable,  is  like  saying  that  we 
should  not  walk  to  get  to  a  place,  or  eat  to  support 
life"  (Contra  Gent.,  Ill,  xcv).  The  Providence 
whereby  we  are  enabled  to  overcome  sin  and  to  merit 
eternal  life — supernatural  Providence — pertains  to 
another  order,  and  for  a  discussion  of  it  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Gr.4.ce;  Predestination. 

St.  Thomas'  treatment  of  the  problem  of  evil  in  rela- 
tion to  Providence  is  based  upon  the  consideration  of 
the  universe  as  a  whole.  God  wills  that  His  nature 
should  be  manifested  in  the  highest  possible  way,  and 
hence  has  created  things  like  to  Himself  not  only  in 
that  they  are  good  in  se,  but  also  in  that  they  are  the 
cause  of  good  in  others  (I,  Q.  ciii,  a.  4,  6).  In  other 
words  He  has  created  a  universe,  not  a  number  of 
isolated  beings.  Whence  it  follows,  according  to  St. 
Thomas,  that  natural  operations  tend  to  what  is  better 
for  the  whole,  but  not  necessarily  what  is  better  for 
each  part  except  in  relation  to  the  whole  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a. 
2,  ad  2  um;  Q.  Iviii,  a.  2,  ad  3  um;  Contra  Gent. ,  III, 
xciv).  Sin  and  suffering  are  evils  because  they  are 
contrary  to  the  good  of  the  individual  and  to  God's 
original  purpose  in  regard  to  the  individual,  but  they 
are  not  contrary  to  the  good  of  the  universe,  and  this 
good  will  ultimately  be  realized  by  the  omnipotent 
Providence  of  God. 

Butler,  Analogy  of  Religion,  ed.  Gladstone  (Oxford,  1896); 
Bruce,  The  Mnral  Order  of  the  World  (London,  1899) ;  Idem, 
The  Proiudi'ulvU  Ordir^  of  the  World  (London,  1897) ;  Lacordaire, 
De  VEri'uomir  'le  la  Reparation  in  (Euvres,  IV  (Paris,  1857); 
Maccosh.  The  Method  of  Divine  Government  OidinhuTgh,  1850); 
Vacant,  Diet.  Apol.  de  la  Foi  Cath.  (Paris  and  Lyons,  1889) ,  a.  v. 

Leslie  J.  Walker. 

Province,  Ecclesiastical,  the  name  given  to  an 
ecclesiastical  administrative  district  under  the  juris- 
diction of  an  archbishop  (q.  v.).  Ecclesiastical 
provinces  first  assumed  a  fixed  form  in  the  Eastern 
Roman  Empire.  The  more  important  centres  (e.  g. 
Antioch  for  Syria,  Ephesus  for  the  Province  of  Asia, 
Alexandria  for  Egypt,  Rome  for  Italy),  whence  Chris- 
tian missionaries  issued  to  preach  the  Gospel,  were 
regarded  as  the  mother-churches  of  the  newly- 
founded  Christian  communities.  From  the  second  half 
of  the  second  century  the  bishops  of  the  territories 


within  the  same  natural  geographical  boundaries  were 
accustomed  to  assemble  on  important  occasions  for 
common  counsel  in  synods.  From  the  end  of  that 
century  the  summons  to  attend  these  increasingly 
important  synods  was  usually  issued  by  the  bishop 
of  the  capital  of  the  state  province  (eparchy),  who  also 
presided  over  the  assembly,  especially  in  the  East. 
Important  communications  were  also  forwarded  to  the 
bishop  of  the  provincial  capital  to  be  brought  to  the 
notice  of  the  other  bishops.  Thus  in  the  East  during 
the  third  century  the  bishop  of  the  provincial  metrop- 
olis came  gradually  to  occupy  a  certain  superior 
position,  and  received  the  name  of  metropolitan.  At 
the  Council  of  Nicaea  (325)  this  position  of  the  metro- 
politan was  taken  for  granted,  and  was  made  the 
basis  for  conceding  to  him  definite  rights  over  the 
other  bishops  and  dioceses  of  the  state  province.  In 
Eastern  canon  law  since  the  fourth  century  (cf.  also 
the  Synod  of  Antioch  of  341,  can.  ix),  it  was  a  principle 
that  every  civil  province  was  likewise  a  church  prov- 
ince under  the  supreme  direction  of  the  metropolitan, 
i.  e.  of  the  bishop  of  the  provincial  capital.  This 
division  into  ecclesiastical  provinces  did  not  develop 
so  early  in  the  Western  Empire.  In  North  Africa  the 
first  metropolitan  appears  during  the  fourth  century, 
the  Bishop  of  Carthage  being  recognized  as  primate 
of  the  dioceses  of  Northern  Africa;  metropolitans  of 
the  separate  provinces  gradually  appear,  although  the 
boundaries  of  these  provinces  did  not  coincide  with 
the  divisions  of  the  empire.  A  similar  development 
was  witnessed  in  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Italy.  The  migra- 
tion of  the  nations,  however,  prevented  an  equally 
stable  formation  of  ecclesiastical  provinces  in  the 
Christian  West  as  in  the  East.  It  was  only  after  the 
fifth  century  that  such  gradually  developed  mostly  in 
accordance  with  the  ancient  divisions  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  In  Italy  alone,  on  account  of  the  central 
ecclesiastical  position  of  Rome,  this  development  was 
slower.  However,  at  the  end  of  antiquity  the  exis- 
tence of  church  provinces  as  the  basis  of  ecclesiastical 
administration  was  fairly  universal  in  the  West.  In 
the  Carlovingian  period  they  were  reorganized,  and 
have  retained  their  place  till  the  present  day.  The 
delimitation  of  church  provinces  is  since  the  Middle 
Ages  a  right  reserved  to  the  pope.  There  have  al- 
ways been,  and  are  to-day,  individual  dioceses  which  do 
not  belong  to  any  province,  but  are  directly  subject 
to  the  Holy  See.  For  the  present  boundaries  of 
ecclesiastical  provinces  see  articles  on  the  various 
countries.     (See  Metropolitan.) 

Hatch,  Growth  of  Church  Institutions  (London,  1887);  Du- 
chesne, Origines  du  cutte  Chretien  (4th  ed.,  Paris,  1909,  1  sqq.); 
LtiBECK,  Reichseinteilung  u.  kirchl.  Hierarchic  des  Ostens  bis  turn 
Ausgange  des  4-  Jahrh.  in  Kirchengesch.  Studien,  V  (Miinster, 
1901) :  Sieke,  Die  Entwickelung  des  Metropolitanwesens  im  Frank- 
enreich  bis  auf  Bonifaz  (Marburg,  1899);  Werminhoff,  Gesch.  d. 
Kirchenverfassung  Deutschlands  im  Mittelalier,  I  (Hanover,  1905); 
Phillips,  Kirchenrecht,  II  (Ratisbon,  1846). 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Provincial,  an  officer  acting  under  the  superior 
general  of  a  religious  order,  and  exercising  a  general 
supervision  over  all  the  local  superiors  in  a  division 
of  the  order  called  a  province.  The  division  is  to 
a  certain  extent  geographical,  and  may  consist  of 
one  or  more  countries,  or  of  a  part  of  a  country  only; 
however,  one  or  more  houses  of  one  province  may  be 
situated  within  the  territory  of  another,  and  the 
jurisdiction  over  the  religious  is  personal  rather  than 
territorial.  The  old  orders  had  no  provincial  supe- 
riors; even  when  the  monasteries  were  united  to 
form  congregations,  the  arch-abbot  of  each  congrega- 
tion was  in  the  position  of  a  superior  general  whose 
powers  were  hmited  to  particular  cases,  almost  like 
the  powers  of  an  archbishop  over  the  dioceses  of  his 
suffragans.  Provincials  are  found  in  the  congrega- 
tions of  comparatively  recent  formation,  which  be- 
gan with  the  mendicant  orders.  The  Holy  See  hesi- 
tated for  a  long  time  before  allowing  the  division  of 


PROVINCIAL 


615 


PROVINCIAL 


congregations  with  simple  vows,  especially  congrega- 
tions of  women,  into  different  provinces  as  a  regular 
institution,  and  some  congregations  have  no  such 
division. 

The  provincial  is  ordinarily  appointed  by  the 
provincial  chapter,  subject  to  confirmation  by  the 
general  chapter:  in  the  Society  of  JesuSj  he  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  general.  The  "  Regulations  {Normae) 
of  18  June,  1901,  vest  the  appointment  of  the  provincial 
in  the  general  council.  The  provincial  is  never 
elected  for  life,  but  ordinarily  for  three  or  six  years. 
In  religious  orders  he  is  a  regular  prelate,  and  has  the 
rank  of  ordinary  with  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction. 
He  appoints  the  regular  confessors,  calls  together  the 
provincial  chapter,  presides  over  its  deliberations,  and 
takes  care  that  the  orders  of  the  general  chapter 
and  the  superior  general  are  properly  carried  out. 
He  is  an  ex  officio  member  of  the  general  chapter. 
His  principal  duty  is  to  make  regular  visitations  of 
the  houses  in  his  province  in  the  name  of  the  general 
and  to  report  to  the  latter  on  all  the  religious  and  the 
property  of  the  order;  his  authority  over  the  various 
houses  and  local  superiors  differs  in  different  orders. 
He  has  in  many  cases  the  right  of  appointment  to 
the  less  important  offices.  At  the  end  of  his  term 
of  office,  the  provincial  is  bound,  according  to  the 
Constitution  "Nuper"  of  Innocent  XII  (23  Dec, 
1697),  to  prove  that  he  has  complied  with  all  the 
precepts  of  that  decree  concerning  masses;  if  he  fails 
to  do  so,  he  loses  his  right  to  be  elected  and  to  vote 
in  the  general  chapter.  In  accordance  with  the 
privilege  granted  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  the  pro- 
vincial of  a  religious  order  is  authorized  to  approve 
of  oratories  set  apart  for  the  celebration  of  Mass  in 
the  convents  of  his  order;  these  oratories  may  re- 
ceive the  blessing  usually  given  to  public  oratories, 
and  may  not  be  permanently  diverted  from  their 
sacred  uses  except  for  good  reason  and  with  the 
approval  of  the  provincial.  In  congregations  with 
simple  vows  and  not  exempt,  the  provincial  has  no 
power  of  jurisdiction.  According  to  the  "Regula- 
tions" of  1901,  his  duty  is  also  to  supervise  the 
financial  administration  of  the  provincial  procurator 
and  the  local  superiors. 

A.  Veemeeesch. 

Provincial  Council,  a  deliberative  assembly  of 
the  bishops  of  an  ecclesiastical  province,  summoned 
and  presided  over  by  the  metropolitan,  to  discuss 
ecclesiastical  affairs  and  enact  disciplinary  regulations 
for  the  province.  The  good  government  of  a  society 
as  vast  as  the  Church  required  grouping  of  those  dio- 
ceses whose  similar  interests  would  gain  by  common 
treatment.  This  led  to  the  organization  of  ecclesi- 
astical provinces  and  so  of  provincial  councils.  As 
long  as  administrative  centralization  in  the  great  sees 
was  imperfect,  and  while  the  general  canon  law  was 
being  slowly  evolved,  this  provincial  grouping  was 
very  important.  The  Councils  of  Nicsea  (325,  can.  v), 
Antioch  (341,  can.  xx),  and  others  ordered  the  bishops 
of  each  province  to  meet  twice  a  year;  however,  even 
in  the  East,  the  law  was  not  long  observed;  the  Coun- 
cils "in  TruUo"  (692,  can.  viii)  and  Nicaea  (787,  can. 
vi)  prescribe,  but  with  little  success,  only  one  meeting 
each  year.  In  the  West,  except  in  Africa,  and  in  a 
certain  sense  also  at  Rome,  provincial  councils  were 
neither  frequent  nor  regular;  most  of  those  that  were 
held,  and  which  have  left  us  precious  documents, 
were  episcopal  assemblies  of  several  provinces  or 
regions.  In  spite  of  the  frequent  renewal  of  the  anciei* 
legislation  provincial  councils  did  not  become  a  regu- 
lar institution.  The  great  Lateran  Council  (1215) 
also  ordered  an  annual  provincial  council,  but  it  was 
not  long  obeyed.  The  Councils  of  Basle  (1433)  and 
Trent  also  tried  to  revive  the  provincial  councils,  and 
ordered  them  to  be  held  at  least  every  three  years 
(sess.  XXIV,  c.  ii),  laying  down  for  them  a  certain 


programme.  As  a  result  there  was,  towards  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  in  Catholic  countries,  a  remark- 
able series  of  provincial  councils,  notably  those  of 
Milan,  under  St.  Charles  Borromeo;  but  the  move- 
ment soon  waned.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  there  was  a  fresh  series  of  provincial 
councils  in  almost  all  Catholic  countries,  but  they  were 
never  assembled  with  the  punctuality  prescribed  by 
the  law.  Leo  XIII  authorized  Latin  America  to  hold 
them  every  twelve  years  (1897;  cf.  "Cone,  plen.", 
1899,  n.  283).  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that 
modern  facilities  of  communication,  and  still  more  the 
custom  of  unconventional  episcopal  reunions  or  con- 
ferences, have  compensated  for  the  rarity  of  provincial 
councils  to  a  large  extent. 

(1)  The  metropolitan  has  the  right  and  the  duty  of 
convoking  the  council;  the  Council  of  Trent  (cit.  c.  ii) 
ordered  it  to  be  convoked,  first  in  the  year  following 
its  own  close,  and  then  every  third  year  at  least;  if 
the  metropolitan  is  prevented  or  the  see  is  vacant,  the 
senior  sufifragan  acts.  The  time  appointed  is  after 
the  octave  of  Easter,  "or  at  another  more  opportune 
time,  according  to  the  usage  of  the  province  -  It  is 
not  necessary  to  hold  the  council  in  the  metropolitan 
city;  any  town  in  the  province  may  be  selected.  The 
penalty  of  suspension  with  which  the  Councils  of  the 
Lateran  (c.  xxv,  "De  accusat.")  and  Trent  threatened 
negligent  metropolitans  has  certainly  fallen  into 
desuetude. 

(2)  All  those  who,  "by  right  or  by  custom",  have 
the  right  to  assist  at  the  council  are  to  be  convoked. 
These  are,  first,  the  suffragan  bishops;  exempt 
bishops,  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  must 
choose,  once  for  all,  the  metropolitan  whose  council 
they  will  attend,  without  prejudice  to  their  exemp- 
tions and  privileges.  Secondly,  those  who  exercise 
an  external  jurisdiction:  prelates  nullius,  vicara 
capitular  or  administrators  Apostolic  of  vacant  sees, 
and  vicars  Apostofic  if  any.  These  have  the  right  to 
take  part  in  the  deliberations.  The  council  may  allow 
this  also  to  titular  bishops,  and  the  representatives  of 
bishops  prevented  from  attending.  The  other  persons 
convoked,  with  a  right  only  to  take  part  in  consulta- 
tions, are  non-exempt  abbots,  deputies  of  cathedral 
or  even  collegiate  chapters,  superiors  of  religious  insti- 
tutes, deputies  of  the  universities  and  rectors  of  sem- 
inaries, and  lastly  the  consultors,  theologians,  and 
canonists.  The  persons  called  to  the  council  are 
strictly  obliged  to  attend,  unless  legitimately  pre- 
vented, in  which  case  they  must  excuse  themselves 
under  penalty  of  censure.  Formerly,  negligent  bish- 
ops were  deprived  of  communion  with  their  colleagues 
(cf.  can.  x,  xiii,  xiv,  Dist.  xviii);  but  this  penalty  is 
obsolete.  It  is  not  permissible  to  leave  the  council 
before  its  close  without  a  just  and  approved  reason. 

(3)  The  ceremonies  of  the  provincial  council  are 
regulated  by  the  Pontifical  (3rd  part,  "Ordo  ad 
synodum"),  and  the  Ceremonial  of  the  Bishops  (lib. 
I,  c.  xxxi);  they  include  in  particular  the  profession 
of  faith.  The  work  of  the  council  is  prepared  in  special 
commissions  or  congregations;  the  decrees  are  enacted 
in  private  or  public  sessions,  and  are  decided  by  a 
majority  of  the  members  having  a  deliberative  vote. 
The  metropolitan  presides,  directs  the  discussions, 
proposes  the  subjects,  but  he  has  not  a  preponderating 
voice  and  the  bishops  can  take  up  whatever  matters 
or  proposals  they  judge  fitting.  The  adjournment  or 
close,  generally  at  a  solemn  public  session,  is  an- 
nounced by  the  metropolitan  with  the  consent  of  the 
bishops. 

(4)  The  provincial  council  is  not  competent  to  deal 
directly  with  matters  of  faith,  by  defining  or  condemn- 
ing; yet  it  may  treat  of  such  from  a  disciplinary 
point  of  view:  promoting  religious  teaching,  pointing 
out  the  errors  of  the  day,  defending  the  truth.  Its 
proper  sphere  is  ecclesiastical  discipline;  to  correct 
abuses,  to  watch  over  the  observance  of  laws,  espe- 


PROVISION 


516 


PROVISOES 


cially  the  reform  laws  of  the  Council  of  Trent;  to  pro- 
mote the  Christian  life  of  the  clergy  and  people,  to 
settle  disputes,  to  decide  minor  differences  between 
bishops,  to  adopt  measures  and  make  suitable  regula- 
tions for  all  these  objects.  The  decrees  of  the  pro- 
vincial councils  are  binding  on  the  whole  province; 
each  bishop,  however,  may  prudently  grant  dispensa- 
tions in  his  own  diocese,  as  he  is  the  legislator;  but 
he  may  not  abrogate  the  decrees  of  the  Council.  If 
the  Council  deems  any  derogation  from  the  common 
law  useful,  it  ought  to  send  a  postulatum  to  the  pope. 

(5)  Within  the  limits  indicated  above,  a  provincial 
council  is  a  legislative  body  whose  acts  do  not  require 
papal  confirmation  for  their  validity.  It  is  customary 
indeed  to  ask  for  the  pontifical  approbation;  but  the 
latter  is  generally  given  in  common  form  only,  so  that 
the  decrees  continue  to  be  provincial  decrees,  and  can 
be  abrogated  by  a  later  council;  if,  however,  the  ap- 
proval is  given  in  specific  form,  as  the  Council  of 
Mount  Lebanon  was  approved  by  Benedict  XIV,  the 
decrees  acquire  a  supplementary  authority  and  may 
not  be  modified  without  the  papal  consent.  In  any 
case,  the  decrees  of  every  provincial  council  must  be 
revised;  Sixtus  V  (1587)  so  ordered,  and  the  revision 
was  entrusted  to  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 
Council;  but  in  virtue  of  the  Constitution  "Sapienti" 
of  Pius  X  (29  June,  1908)  the  duty  now  devolves  on 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Consistory. 

The  monographs  of  Fessler,  Ueber  d.  Promnzialkomilien  und 
DiOzesansynoden  (Innsbruck,  1849) ;  Bouix,  Du  concile  provincial 
(Paris,  1850) ;  Benedict  XIV,  De  synodo.  The  ancient  provincial 
councils  have  been  reproduced  in  the  great  collections,  those  from 
the  Council  of  Trent  up  to  1870  are  contained  in  the  Collectio 
Lacensis  (7  vols.,  Freiburg,  1870 — );  Taunton,  Tke  Law  of  the 
Church  (London,  1906),  531-4. 

A.    BOUDINHON. 

Provision,  Canonical,  a  term  signifying  regular 
induction  into  a  benefice,  comprising  three  distinct 
acts — the  designation  of  the  person,  canonical  insti- 
tution, and  installation.  In  various  ways  a  person 
may  be  designated  to  fill  a  vacant  benefice:  by  elec- 
tion, postulation,  presentation,  or  recommendation,^ 
resignation  made  in  one's  favour,  or  approved  ex- 
change. In  all  cases  confirmation  by  the  proper 
ecclesiastical  superior  of  the  selection  made  is  required, 
while  letters  of  appointment,  as  a  rule,  must  be  pre- 
sented. Reception  of  administration  by  a  chapter 
without  such  letters  brings  excommunication  reserved 
to  the  pope,  together  with  privation  of  the  fruits  of 
the  benefice;  and  the  nominee  loses  ipso  facto  all  right 
to  the  prelacy.  Ordinarily  greater  benefices  are  con- 
ferred by  the  pope;  minor  benefices  by  the  bishop, 
who  as  a  rule  has  the  power  of  appointing  to  all  bene- 
fices in  his  diocese.  The  pope,  however,  owing  to  the 
fullness  of  his  jurisdiction,  may  appoint  to  any  bene- 
fice whatsoever.  These  extraordinary  provisions 
became  common  in  the  eleventh  and  subsequent  cen- 
turies, and  met  at  times  with  stern  opposition.  In 
1351  an  English  statute  (Statute  of  Provisors)  was 
enacted,  designed  to  prevent  the  pope  from  exercising 
this  prerogative.  Similar  enactments  were  made  in 
1390  and  in  later  years.  At  present  only  in  certain 
defined  circumstances  does  the  Supreme  Pontiff  make 
use  of  this  right.  The  bishop's  power  is  further 
restricted  at  times  to  confirming  an  election  or  postu- 
lation; or  to  approving  candidates  presented  by  one 
who  enjoys  the  right  of  presentation  by  privilege, 
custom,  or  prescription. 

Canonical  institution  or  collation  is  the  concession 
of  a  vacant  benefice  by  one  who  has  the  authority. 
If  made  by  the  sole  right  of  the  prelate,  it  is  free;  if 
made  by  legal  necessity,  for  example,  after  due  pres- 
entation or  election,  or  at  the  command  of  a  superior, 
it  is  styled  necessary.  An  ecclesiastical  benefice  cannot 
be  lawfully  obtained  without  canonical  institution. 

Installation,  called  corporal  or  real  institution,  is 
the  induction  into  the  actual  possession  of  a  benefice. 
In  the  case  of  a  bishop  it  is  known  as  enthronization 


or  enthronement.  Corporal  institution,  according  to 
common  law,  belongs  to  the  archdeacon;  by  custom 
to  the  bishop  or  his  vicar-general.  It  may  take  place 
by  proxy:  the  rite  observed  depends  much  on  custom. 
To  installation  belong  the  profession  of  faith  and  oath, 
when  prescribed.  (See  Benefice;  Institution,  Ca- 
nonical; Installation.) 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Provisors,  Statute  op. — The  English  statute 
usually  so  designated  is  the  25th  of  Edward  III,  St.  4 
(1350-1),  otherwise  termed  "The  Statute  of  Provisors 
of  Benefices",  or  anciently  "Statutu  de  p'visoribs" 
or  "Lestatut  de  rev&cons  &  pvis". 

This  was  among  the  statutes  incidental  to  the  "long 
and  angry  controversy"  [to  quote  Dr.  Lingard,  "The 
History  of  England"  (London,  1883),  III,  349]  be- 
tween the  English  kings  and  the  Court  of  Rome  con- 
cerning filling  of  ecclesiastical  benefices  by  means  of 
papal  provisions  "by  which  the  Pope,  suspending  for 
the  time  the  right  of  the  patron,  nominated  of  his  own 
authority,  to  the  vacant  benefice"  (op.  cit.,  II,  416), 
the  papal  nominee  being  called  a  provisor. 

The  resulting  possession  by  Italians  of  church  liv- 
ings in  England  provoked  at  one  period  during  the 
thirteenth  century  acts  of  lawless  violence  (ibid.). 
Pope  Gregory  IX  (1227-41)  pronounced  against  the 
propriety  of  such  provisions  as  interfered  with  the 
rights  of  lay  patrons  (ibid.,  417).  And  Pope  Innocent 
IV  expressed,  in  1253,  general  disapprobation  of  these 
nominations  (ibid.,  419). 

From  the  recitals  of  "The  Statute  of  Provisors"  it 
appears  that  the  bestowal  by  the  pope  of  English 
benefices  and  ecclesiastical  possessions  "as  if  he  had 
been  patron  or  avowee  .  .  as  he  was  not  of  right 
by  the  law  of  England",  and  his  "accroching  to  him 
the  seignories"  was  complained  of  as  not  only  an 
illegal  injury  to  the  property  rights  of  particular 
patrons,  but  also  as  injurious  spiritually  and  eco- 
nomically to  the  community  in  general.  The  holy 
church  of  England,  "seinte  eglise  d' Engleterre" ,  was 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  sovereigns  and  the 
nobles  to  inform  them  and  the  people  of  the  law  of  God 
and  also  to  make  hospitalities,  alms,  and  other  works 
of  charity  in  the  places  where  churches  were  founded, 
and  possessions  assigned  for  such  purposes  to  prelates, 
religious,  and  other  people  of  holy  church;  and  these 
purposes  were  said  to  be  defeated  by  this  granting  of 
benefices  to  aliens  who  did  not,  and  to  cardinals  who 
might  not,  live  in  England  "and  to  others  as  well 
aliens  as  denizens'".  Certain  of  the  economic  evils 
had  been  dealt  with  by  a  Statute  of  Edward  I  (35 
Edward  I,  St.  1,  c.  1,  1306-07),  forbidding  alien 
priors  or  governors  of  a  religious  house  to  impose 
charges  or  burdens  on  their  houses  and  forbidding 
abbots,  priors  or  other  religious  to  send  out  of  the 
kingdom  any  tax  imposed  on  them.  But  the  "Statute 
of  Provisors"  recites  that  the  evils  complained  of  in. 
the  petition  leading  to  this  Statute  ot  Edward  I  still 
continue,  and  "that  our  holy  father,  the  Pope" 
(Notre  seinte  piere  le  Pape) ,  still  reserves  to  his  colla- 
tion benefices  in  England,  giving  them  to  aliens  and 
denizens  and  taking  first  fruits  and  other  profits,  the 
purchasers  of  benefices  taking  out  of  the  kingdom  a 
great  part  of  its  treasure.  The  Statute,  therefore, 
enacts  that  elections  of  bishops  shall  be  free,  that 
owners  of  advowsons  shall  have  free  collation  and 
presentment,  and  that  attempted  reservation,  colla- 
tion, or  provision  by  the  Court  of  Rome  shall  cause  the 
flght  of  collation  to  revert  to  the  king. 

Later  Statutes  are  27  Edward  III,  St.  1,  c.  1;  38 
Edward  III,  St.  2;  3  Richard  II;  7  Richard  II,  c.  XII j 
12  Richard  II,  c.  XV;  13  Richard  II,  St.  2;  16  Richard 
II,  c.  5,  and  finally  in  the  parliament  of  1400-1,  the 
Statute  2  Henry  IV,  c.  3,  c.  4. 

Concerning  adverse  legislation  of  the  Council  of 
Trent  respecting  provisions,  see  Benefice. 


PROVOST 


517 


PRUDENTIUS 


The  Statutes  0/ the  Realm  (18101,  I,  150,  316,  323,  329,  386;  II. 
13,  14,  32,  60,  VO,  84,  121;  The  Statutes  at  Large  (Cambridge, 
1762),  ed.  Pickering,  I,  326;  Pulton,  A  Collection  of  Statutes, 
now  in  use  (London,  1670);  Lingabd,  op.  cit.,  II,  416-419;  III, 
253-265,  343-349. 

Charles  W.  Sloanb. 

Provost  (Lat.,  prcepositus;  Ft.,  -privdl;  Ger.,  Probst). 
Anciently  (St.  Jerome,  "Ep.",  II,  xiv:  Ad  Rusticum 
monaeh.)  every  chapter  (q.  v.)  had  an  archpriest  and 
an  archdeacon.  The  former  officiated  in  the  absence  of 
the  bishop  and  had  general  supervision  of  the  choir, 
while  the  latter  was  the  head  of  the  chapter  and  ad- 
ministered its  temporal  affairs.  Later  the  archpriest 
was  called  decanus  (dean)  and  the  archdeacon  prceposi- 
tus (provost).  At  present  the  chief  dignity  of  a  chapter 
is  usually  styled  dean,  though  in  some  countries,  as  in 
England,  the  term  provost  is  applied  to  him.  The  pro- 
vost, by  whatever  name  he  may  be  known,  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  Holy  See  in  accordance  with  the  fourth 
rule  of  the  Roman  Chancery.  It  is  his  duty  to  see  that 
all  capitular  statutes  are  observed.  To  be  authentic, 
all  acts  of  the  chapter,  in  addition  to  the  seal  of  the 
chapter,  require  his  signature.  Extraordinary  meet- 
ings of  the  chapter  are  convened  by  him,  generally, 
however,  on  written  request  of  a  majority  of  the  chap- 
ter, and  with  the  consent  of  the  bishop.  He  presides 
in  chapter  at  the  election  of  a  vicar  capitular,  who 
within  eight  days  of  the  death  of  the  bishop  is  to  be 
chosen  as  the  administrator  of  the  vacant  see.  He 
conducts  the  ceremonies  at  the  installation  (q.  v.)  of 
canons-elect,  investing  them  with  the  capitular  insig- 
nia, assigning  them  places  in  choir,  etc.  In  choir,  the 
first  place  after  the  bishop  belongs  to  him.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  the  bishop,  or  in  case  the  see  is  vacant,  the 
provost  conducts  episcopal  ceremonial  functions, 
while  he  takes  precedence  of  all,  even  of  the  vicar 
capitular.  He  must  be  present,  however,  personally, 
not  being  allowed  a  substitute.  When  the  bishop  pon- 
tificates, the  provost  is  assistant  priest.  It  is  his  office 
to  administer  ^'iaticum  to  the  bishop,  and  to  conduct 
the  bishop's  obsequies. 

Tattnton.  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1906) ;  Ferraris, 
Bibliotheca  canonica  (Roman  ed..  1888-96),  s.  v. 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Prudence  (Lat.,  prvdentia,  contracted  from  provi- 
dentia,  seeing  ahead),  one  of  the  four  cardinal  virtues. 
Definitions  of  it  are  plentiful  from  Aristotle  down. 
His  "recta  ratio  agibilium"  has  the  merits  of  brevity 
and  inclusiveness.  Father  Rickaby  aptly  renders  it  as 
"right  reason  applied  to  practice".  A  fuller  de- 
scription and  one  more  serviceable  is  this:  an  intel- 
lectual habit  enabling  us  to  see  in  any  given  juncture 
of  human  affairs  what  is  virtuous  and  what  is  not, 
and  how  to  come  at  the  one  and  avoid  the  other. 
It  is  to  be  observed  that  prudence,  whilst  possessing 
in  some  sort  an  empire  over  all  the  moral  virtues,  it- 
self aims  to  perfect  not  the  will  but  the  intellect  in  its 
practical  decisions.  Its  function  is  to  point  out  which 
course  of  action  is  to  be  taken  in  any  round  of  con- 
crete circumstances.  It  indicates  which,  here  and 
now,  is  the  golden  mean  wherein  the  essence  of  all 
virtue  lies.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  directly  willing 
the  good  it  discerns.  That  is  done  by  the  particular 
moral  virtue  within  whose  province  it  falls.  Prudence, 
therefore,  has  a  directive  capacity  with  regard  to  the 
other  virtues.  It  lights  the  way  and  measures  the 
arena  for  their  exercise.  The  insight  it  confers  makes 
one  distinguish  successfully  between  their  mere  sem- 
blance and  their  reality.  It  must  preside  over  the 
eliciting  of  all  acts  proper  to  any  one  of  them  at  least 
if  they  be  taken  in  their  formal  sense.  Thus,  without 
prudence  bravery  becomes  foolhardiness;  mercy  sinks 
into  weakness,  and  temperance  into  fanaticism. 
But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  prudence  is  a  virtue 
adequately  distinct  from  the  others,  and  not  simply  a 
condition  attendant  upon  their  operation.     Its  ofBce 


is  to  determine  for  each  in  practice  those  circumstances 
of  time,  place,  manner,  etc.  which  should  be  observed, 
and  which  the  Scholastics  comprise  under  the  term 
medium  ralionis.  So  it  is  that  whilst  it  qualifies  im- 
mediately the  intellect  and  not  the  will,  it  is  neverthe- 
less rightly  styled  a  moral  virtue. 

This  is  because  the  moral  agent  finds  in  it,  if  not 
the  eliciting,  at  any  rate  the  directive  principle  of 
virtuous  actions.  According  to  St.  Thomas  (II-II, 
Q.  xlvii,  a.  8)  it  is  its  function  to  do  three  things: 
to  take  counsel,  i.  e.  to  cast  about  for  the  means 
suited  in  the  particular  case  under  consideration 
to  reach  the  end  of  any  one  moral  virtue;  to 
judge  soundly  of  the  fitness  of  the  means  suggested; 
and,  finally,  to  command  their  employment.  If  these 
are  to  be  done  well  they  necessarily  exclude  remiss- 
ness and  lack  of  concern;  they  demand  the  use  of 
such  diligence  and  care  that  the  resultant  act 
can  be  described  as  prudent,  in  spite  of  whatever 
speculative  error  may  have  been  at  the  bottom  of 
the  process.  Readiness  in  finding  out  and  ability  in 
adapting  means  to  an  end  does  not  always  imply  pru- 
dence. If  the  end  happens  to  be  a  vicious  one,  a  cer- 
tain adroitness  or  sagacity  may  be  exhibited  in  its 
pursuit.  This,  however,  according  to  St.  Thomas, 
will  only  deserve  to  be  called  false  prudence  and  is 
identical  with  that  referred  to  in  Rom.,  viii,  6,  "the 
wisdom  of  the  flesh  is  death".  Besides  the  prudence 
which  is  the  fruit  of  training  and  experience,  and  is 
developed  into  a  stable  habit  by  repeated  acts,  there 
is  another  sort  termed  ' '  infused  .  This  is  directly  be- 
stowed by  God's  bounty.  It  is  inseparable  from  the 
condition  of  supernatural  charity  and  so  is  to  be 
found  only  in  those  who  are  in  the  state  of  grace. 
Its  scope  of  course  is  to  make  provision  of  what  is 
necessary  for  eternal  salvation.  Although  acquired 
prudence  considered  as  a  principle  of  operation  is 
quite  compatible  with  sin  in  the  agent,  still  it  is  well 
to  note  that  vice  obscures  or  at  times  utterly  be- 
clouds its  judgment.  Thus  it  is  true  that  prudence 
and  the  other  moral  virtues  are  mutually  interde- 
pendent. Imprudence  in  so  far  as  it  implies  a  want  of 
obligatory  prudence  and  not  a  mere  gap  in  practical 
mentality  is  a  sin,  not  however  always  necessarily 
distinct  from  the  special  wicked  indulgence  which  it 
happens  to  accompany.  If  it  proceed  to  the  length  of 
formal  scorn  of  the  Divine  utterances  on  the  point, 
it  will  be  a  mortal  sin. 

Rickaby,  The  Moral  Teaching  of  St.  Thomas  (London,  1896); 
Lehmkuhl,  Theologia  Moralis  (Freiburg,  1887) ;  Rickaby,  Ethics 
and  Natural  Law  (London,  1908);  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Summa 
Theologica  (Turin,  1885). 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Prudentius,  Atjrblitjs  Clemens,  Christian  poet, 
b.  in  the  Tarraconensis,  Northern  Spain,  348;  d. 
probably  in  Spain,  after  405.  He  must  have  been 
born  a  Christian,  for  he  nowhere  speaks  of  his  con- 
version. The  place  of  his  birth  is  uncertain;  it  may 
have  been  Saragossa,  Tarragona,  or  Calahorra.  He 
practised  law  with  some  success,  and  in  later  life  de- 
plored the  zeal  he  had  devoted  to  his  profession.  He 
was  twice  provincial  governor,  perhaps  in  his  native 
country,  before  the  emperor  summoned  him  to  court. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life  Prudentius  renounced  the 
vanities  of  the  world  to  practise  a  rigorous  asceticism, 
fasting  until  evening  (Cath.,  iii,  88)  and  abstaining 
entirely  from  animal  food  (ibid.,  56).  The  Christian 
poems  were  written  during  this  period;  he  later  col- 
lected them  and  wrote  a  preface,  which  he  himself 
dated  405.  A  httle  before  (perhaps  in  403)  he  had  to 
go  to  Rome,  doubtless  to  make  some  appeal  to  the 
emp_eror._  A  number  of  his  poems  (Peristephanon, 
vii,  ix,  xi,  xii,  xiv)  were  written  subsequently  to  this 
journey,  of  which  he  took  advantage  to  visit  the 
sanctuaries  and  tombs  of  the  martyrs.  "Contra 
Symmachum"  must  have  been  written  at  Rome;  the 
second  book  belongs  to  the  period  between  29  March 


PRUDENTIUS 


518 


PRUDENTIUS 


and  December,  403.     All  other  works  antedate  the 
journey  to  Rome. 

Prudentius  wrote  to  glorify  God  and  atone  for  his 
sins.  His  works  fall  into  three  groups:  lyrical, 
didactic,  and  polemical.  The  lyrics  form  two  col- 
lections. In  the  "Cathemerinon"  the  hymns  are  for 
the  sanctification  of  the  hours  of  the  day  or  certain 
important  occasions,  such  as  Christmas,  the  Epiphany, 
obsequies,  etc.  Some  continue  the  Uturgical  tradi- 
tion of  Saint  Ambrose,  and  are  written  in  the  Ambro- 
sian  iambic  dimeter;  others  are  an  attempt  to  enlist 
the  metres  of  Horace  in  the  service  of  Christian  lyrical 
poetry.  Despite  his  negligence  Prudentius  displays 
more  art  than  Ambrose.  Hymn  xii,  on  the  feast  of  the 
Epiphany,  contains  the  two  celebrated  stanzas, 
"Saluete  flores  martyrum",  characterized  by  pro- 
found feeling  united  to  the  purest  art;  hymn  x  on 
burial  is  likewise  very  remarkable.  However,  his 
style  is  generally  diffuse,  and  the  hymns  admitted  to 
the  Roman  Breviary  had  to  be  curtailed.  The 
"Peristephanon"  is  dedicated  to  the  glory  of  the 
martyrs:  Emeterius  and  Chelidonius  of  Calahorra, 
Lawrence  the  Deacon,  Eulalia,  the  eighteen  martyrs 
of  Saragossa,  Vincent,  Fructuosus  with  Augurius  and 
Eulogius,  Quirinus  of  Siscia,  the  martjrrs  of  Calahorra 
put  to  death  on  the  site  of  the  baptistery,  Cassianus 
of  the  Forum  Cornehum,  Romanus,  Hippolytus, 
Peter  and  Paul,  Cyprian,  and  Agnes.  Taken  alto- 
gether, it  is  an  endeavour  to  endow  Christianity  with 
a  Ijrrical  poetry  independent  of  liturgical  uses  and 
traditions.  Unfortunately,  neither  Prudentius's  tal- 
ent nor  current  taste  favoured  such  an  enterprise. 
The  narratives  are  spoiled  with  too  much  rhetoric. 
There  are,  however,  beautiful  passages,  a  kind  of  grave 
power,  and  some  pretty  details,  as  in  the  hymns  on 
St.  Eulalia  (see  v.  206-15)  and  St.  Agnes.  Certain 
others,  such  as  that  on  St.  Hippolytus,  have  an 
archaeological  interest.  The  whole  collection  is  curi- 
ous, but  of  unequal  merit. 

The  two  principal  didactic  poems  are  the  "Apothe- 
osis", on  the  dogma  of  the  Trinity,  and  the  "Ha- 
martigenia",  on  the  origin  of  sin.  One  is  somewhat 
astonished  to  find  Prudentius  attacking  ancient 
heresies,  such  as  those  of  Sabellius  and  Marcian,  and 
having  nothing  to  say  on  Arianism.  It  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  he  closely  follows  and  imitates  TertuUian, 
whose  rugged  genius  resembles  his  own.  These  poems 
are  interesting  examples  of  passionate,  glowing  ab- 
stractions, precise  exposition  being  combined  with 
poetic  fantasy.  Some  brilliant  scenes,  like  the  sacrifice 
of  Julian  (Apoth.,  460),  merit  quotation.  The  com- 
parison of  souls  led  astray  by  sin  with  doves  caught 
in  snares  (Ham.,  779)  has  a  charm  that  recalls  the 
happy  inspiration  of  "Saluete  flores"-  Orthodoxy  is 
his  great  preoccupation  in  these  poems,  and  he  in- 
vokes all  kinds  of  punishments  on  heresy.  Yet  he  is 
not  always  free  from  error,  here  or  elsewhere.  He  be- 
lieves that  only  a  small  number  of  souls  are  lost  (Cath., 
vi,  95).  It  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  meaning  of  his 
metaphors  to  assert  that  he  makes  the  soul  material. 
The  "  Psychomachia "  is  the  model  of  a  style  destined 
to  be  lovingly  cultivated  in  the  Middle  Ages,  i.  e., 
allegorical  poetry,  of  which  before  Prudentius  only  the 
merest  traces  are  found  (in  such  authors  as  Apuleius, 
TertuUian,  and  Claudian).  In  TertulUan's  "De 
Spectaculis",  29,  we  find  its  first  conception;  he  per- 
sonifies the  ^-ices  and  the  virtues  and  shows  them 
contending  for  the  soul.  The  army  of  vices  is  that  of 
idolatry,  the  army  of  the  virtues  that  of  faith.  The 
poem  is,  therefore,  at  once  moral  and  apologetic.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  imagine  anything  more  unfor- 
tunate or  insupportable.  Incidents,  action,  and  char- 
acters of  the  jEneid  are  here  travestied,  and  the  de- 
plorable effect  is  heightened  by  the  Ijorrowing  of 
numerous  hemistichs  divested  of  their  proper  mean- 
ing. The  "  Dittochffion  ",  forty-nine  hexameter  tetra- 
stichs  commenting  on  various  events  of  the  Old  and 


New  Testament,  must  be  included  among  the  didactic 
poems  of  Prudentius.  Doubts  have  been  raised  re- 
garding the  authenticity  of  these  verses  but  with  very 
httle  reason.  Gennadius  (De  viris  illustr.,  xiii)  fur- 
thermore attributes  to  Prudentius,  mistakenly  per- 
haps, a  "Hexaemeron"  of  which  we  know  nothing. 

His  most  personal  work  is  the  invective  against 
Symmachus.  It  shows  how  the  Christians  reconciled 
their  patriotism  with  their  faith.  Prudentius  iden- 
tifies the  Church  with  Rome  and,  in  thus  transforming 
it,  preserves  that  ancient  belief  in  the  eternity  of  the 
city.  He  can  be  impartial  towards  the  pagan  and 
praise  him  for  services  rendered  the  State.  He  is 
proud  of  the  senate,  seeing  its  majority  Christian. 
Christianity  is  come  to  crown  the  Roman  institutions. 
Romans  are  superior  to  the  barbarians,  as  man  is 
superior  to  the  animals.  These  two  books  against 
Symmachus  undertake,  therefore,  to  solve  the  prob- 
lem which  presented  itself  to  the  mind  of  the  still 
hesitant  pagan.  A  genius  more  powerful  than  pliant, 
Prudentius  displays  a  more  versatile  and  richer  talent 
than  that  of  his  pagan  contemporary,  Claudian.  The 
rhetoric  he  disparages,  he  himself  misuses;  he  often 
exaggerates,  but  is  never  commonplace.  The  supe- 
rior of  many  pagan  poets,  among  the  Christian  he  is 
the  greatest  and  the  most  truly  poetic.  His  style  is 
not  bad  considering  the  period  in  which  he  wrote,  and, 
while  there  are  occasional  errors  in  his  prosody  due 
to  the  pronunciation  then  current,  he  shows  himself 
a  careful  versifier  and  has  the  gift  (then  become  rare) 
of  varying  his  metres.  An  edition  of  Prudentius  is  to 
appear  in  the  "Corpus"  of  Vienna,  edited  by  J. 
Bergman.  The  best  manuscript  is  at  Paris,  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Latin  department,  8084;  on 
one  of  its  margins  is  the  half-effaced  name  of  Vettius 
Agorius  Basilius  Mavortius  (consul  in  527),  who  made 
a  recension  of  the  works  of  Horace.  This  manuscript 
is  free  from  the  dogmatic  corrections  which  are  found 
in  others. 

Glover,  Life  and  Letters  in  the  Fourth  Century  (Cambridge, 
1901),  249-77;  Schanz,  Gesch.  der  Torn.  LUteratur,  IV,  I,  211; 
PuECH,  Prudence  (Paris,  1888);  Lease,  A  Syntactic,  Stylistic  and 
Metrical  Study  of  Prudentius  (Baltimore,  1895);  Robert,  Notice 
sur  le  MS.  de  Prudence  B.  N.  lat.  8084  in  Melanges  Graux  (Paris, 
1884),  406;  Bergman,  De  codicum  prudentianorum  generibus  et 
virtute  in  Sitzungsberichte  d,  Wiener  Akademie,  CLVII,  n.  5;  Lock 
in  Diet,  Christ,  Biog.,  s.  v. 

Paul  Lejay. 

Prudentius  (Galindo),  Bishop  of  Troyes,  b. 
in  Spain;  d.  at  Troyes  on  6  April,  861;  celebrated  op- 
ponent of  Hincmar  in  the  controversy  on  predes- 
tination. He  left  Spain  in  his  youth,  probably  on 
account  of  the  Saracen  persecution,  and  came  to  the 
Frankish  Empire  where  he  changed  his  native  name 
Galindo  into  Prudentius.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Palatine  school,  and  became  Bishop  of  Troyes  shortly 
before  847.  In  the  controversy  on  predestination 
between  Gottschalc  of  Orbais,  Archbishop  Hincmar 
of  Reims,  and  Bishop  Pardulus  of  Laon,  he  opposed 
Hincmar  in  an  epistle  addressed  to  him.  In  this 
epistle,  which  was  written  about  849,  he  defends 
against  Hincmar  a  double  predestination,  viz.  one  for 
reward,  the  other  for  punishment,  not,  however, 
for  sin.  He  further  upholds  that  Christ  died  only 
for  those  who  are  actually  saved.  The  same  opinion 
he  defends  in  his  "  De  preedestinatione  contra  Johan- 
nem  Scotum",  which  he  wrote  in  851  at  the  instance 
of  Archbishop  Wenilo  of  Sens  who  had  sent  him  nine- 
teen articles  of  Eriugena's  work  on  predestination  for 
refutation.  Still  it  appears  that  at  the  synod  of 
Quierzy ,  he  subscribed  to  four  articles  of  Hincmar  which 
admit  only  one  predestination,  perhaps  out  of  rever- 
ence for  the  archbishop,  or  out  of  fear  of  King  Charles 
the  Bald.  In  his  " Epistola  tractoria  ad  Wenilonem", 
written  about  856,  he  again  upholds  his  former  opin- 
ion and  makes  his  approval  of  the  ordination  of  the 
new  bishop  jEneas  of  Paris  depend  on  the  latter's 
subscription  to  four  articles  favouring  a  double  pre- 


PRUM 


519 


PRUSSIA 


destination.  Of  great  historical  value  is  his  con- 
tinuation of  the  "Annales  Bertiniani"  from  835-61, 
in  which  he  presents  a  reliable  history  of  that  period 
of  the  Western  Frankish  Empire.  He  is  also  the 
author  of  "Vita  Sanctae  Maurae  Virginis"  (Acta  SS. 
Sept.  VI,  275-8)  and  some  poems.  At  Troyes  his 
feast  is  celebrated  on  6  April  as  that  of  a  saint,  though 
the  BoUandists  do  not  recognize  his  cult  (Acta  SS. 
Apr.  I,  531).  His  works,  with  the  exception  of  his 
poems,  are  printed  in  P.  L.,  CXV,  971-1458; 
his  poems  in  Mon.  Germ.  Poetit  Lat.,  II,  679  sq. 

GiRGENSOHN,  Prudentius  und  die  Bertinianiachen  Anitalene 
(Riga,  1875):  Freystedt,  Ueber  den  Prddestinationsstrcit  in 
Zeitschrift  fur  wissenschaftl.  Theologie  (1893),  315  sq.,  447sq.; 
Breyeh,  Les  vies  de  St,  Prudence  Eveque  de  Troyes,  et  de  St.  Maura, 
vierge  (Troyes,  1725) ;  Middeldorff,  De  Prudentio  et  theologia 
Prudentiana  commentatio  in  Zeitschrift  fUr  histor,  Theol,,  II 
(1832),  127-190. 

Michael  Ott. 

Priim,  a  former  Benedictine  abbey  in  Lorraine,  now 
in  the  Diocese  of  Trier,  founded  by  a  Frankish  widow 
Bertrada,  and  her  son  Charibert,  23  June,  720.  The 
first  head  of  the  abbey  was  Angloardus.  Bertrada's 
grand-daughter  was  Bertha,  wife  of  King  Pepin  (751- 
68),  and  Priim  became  the  favourite  monastery  of 
the  Carlovingians  and  received  large  endowments 
and  privileges.  Pepin  rebuilt  the  monastery  and  be- 
stowed great  estates  upon  it,  13  August,  762.  The 
king  brought  monks  from  Meaux  under  Abbot 
Assuerus  to  the  monastery.  The  church,  dedicated 
to  the  Saviour  (Salvator),  was  not  completed  until  the 
reign  of  Charlemagne,  and  was  consecrated,  26  July, 
799,  by  Pope  Leo  III.  Charlemagne  and  succeeding 
emperors  were  liberal  patrons  of  the  abbey.  Several 
of  the  Carlovingians  entered  the  religious  life  at 
Priim;  among  these  was  Lothair  I,  who  became  a 
monk  in  855.  His  grave  was  rediscovered  in  1860; 
in  1S74  the  Emperor  William  I  erected  a  monument 
over  it.  In  882  and  892  the  monastery  was  plundered 
and  devastated  by  the  Normans,  but  it  soon  recovered. 
The  landed  possessions  were  so  large  that  the  abbey 
developed  into  a  principality. 

At  times  during  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries 
the  monastery  contained  over  three  hundred  monks. 
The  period  of  its  internal  prosperity  extends  to  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  monks  were  energetic  cul- 
tivators of  the  land.  About  836  Abbot  Marquard 
founded  a  new  monastery,  Miinstereifel;  in  1017 
Abbot  Urald  founded  at  Prum  a  collegiate  foundation 
for  twelve  priests;  in  1190  Abbot  Gerhard  founded  a 
house  for  ladies  of  noble  birth  at  Niederpruni.  The 
monastery  cared  for  the  poor  and  sick.  Learning  was 
also  cultivated.  Among  those  who  taught  in  the 
school  of  the  monastery  were  Ado,  later  Archbishop 
of  Vienne  (860-75).  Another  head  of  the  school, 
Wandelbert  (813-70),  was  a  distinguished  poet. 
Abbot  Regino  (893-99)  made  a  name  for  himself 
as  historian  and  codifier  of  canon  law.  Ca3sarius  of 
Heisterbach  is  only  brought  into  the  hst  of  authors  of 
this  monastery  by  being  confounded  with  Abbot 
Cssarius  of  Prum  (1212-16).  In  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries  the  monastery  declined,  partly 
from  the  oppression  of  its  secular  administrators,  but 
more  from  internal  decay.  It  reached  such  a  pass 
that  the  monks  divided  the  revenues  among  them- 
selves and  lived  apart  from  one  another.  Conse- 
quently the  archbishops  of  Trier  sought  to  incorporate 
the  abbey  in  the  archdiocese.  In  1376  Charles  IV 
gave  his  consent  to  this,  as  did  Boniface  IX  in  1379, 
but  the  pope's  consent  was  recalled  in  1398;  Sixtus 
IV  about  1473  also  gave  his  approval  to  the  incorpora- 
tion. But  the  abbots  refused  to  submit  and  even 
in  1511  carried  on  war  against  the  archbishop.  Fi- 
nally, when  the  abbey  was  near  ruin,  Gregory  XIII 
issued  the  decree  of  incorporation  24  Aug.,  1574, 
which  was  carried  into  effect  in  1576  after  the  death  of 
Abbot  Christopher  von  Manderscheid.  After  this  the 
archbishops  of  Trier  were  "perpetual administrators" 


of  the  abbey.  The  abbey  was  now  brought  into 
order  within  and  without,  and  once  more  flourished 
to  such  a  degree  that  the  two  archaeologists  Martene 
and  Durand,  who  visited  the  monastery  in  1718,  state 
in  their  "Voyage  Uttdraire"  that  of  all  the  monas- 
teries in  Germany  Priim  showed  the  best  spirit,  and 
study  was  zealously  pursued.  The  monks  made  ef- 
forts even  in  the  eighteenth  century  to  shake  off  the 
supremacy  of  Trier. 

In  1801  Prum  fell  to  France,  was  secularized,  and 
its  estates  sold.  Napoleon  gave  its  buildings  to  the 
city.  Since  1815  Priim  has  belonged  to  Prussia. 
The  church,  built  in  1721  by  the  Elector  Louis,  is  now 
a  parish  church.  The  monastic  buildings  are  now 
used  for  the  district  court  and  the  high-school.  The 
sandals  of  Christ  are  considered  to  be  the  most  notable 
of  the  many  relics  of  the  church;  they  are  mentioned 
by  Pepin  in  the  deed  of  762.  He  is  said  to  have  re- 
ceived them  from  Rome  as  a  gift  of  Pope  Zaoharias 
or  Pope  Stephen. 

Marx,  Oesch.  des  Erzstifts  Trier,  II  (Trier,  1860),  i,  271-322; 
WiLLBMB,  Priim  u,  seine  Heiligthiinur  (Trier,  1896);  Frenz,  Die 
letze  Chronik  v,  Priim  in  Stud,  u.  Miiteil,  aus  dem  BenediktineT' 
und  Zistercienserorden,  XXVIII  (1907),  609-42. 

Klbmens  Loffler. 
Prusa.     See  Brusa. 

Frusias  ad  Hypium,  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Clau- 
diopolis  in  the  Honoriad.  Memnon,  the  historian,  says 
that  Prusias  I,  King  of  Bithynia  (237-192  b.  c), 
captured  from  the  Heracleans  the  town  of  Kieros, 
united  it  to  his  dominions  and  changed  its  name  to 
Prusias  ("Frag,  histor.  Grace",  coll.  Didot,  frag.  27 
and  47;  fragment  41  treats  of  Kios  or  Guemlek,  also 
called  Prusias,  and  not  of  Kieros,  as  the  copyist  has 
written;  this  has  given  rise  to  numerous  confusions). 
Pliny  (Hist,  nat.,  V,  43)  and  Ptolemy  (V,  i,  13)  merely 
mention  it,  one  below  Mt.  Hypius,  the  other  near  the 
River  Hypius  or  Milan-Sou.  Several  of  its  bishops 
are  known:  George  (not  Hesychius,  as  Le  Quien  says), 
325;  Olympius  in  451;  Dometius  in  681 ;  Theophilus 
in  787;  Constantine  in  869;  Leo  in  879;  St.  Paul, 
martyred  by  the  Iconoclasts  in  the  ninth  century  (Le 
Quien,  "Oriens  christ.",  I,  579).  It  is  not  known 
when  this  see  disappeared,  which  still  existed  in  the 
tenth  century  (Gelzer,  "Ungedruckte  Texte  der 

Notitiae  episcopatuum",  554).  The  ruins  of  Prusias 
are  found  to-day  at  the  little  Mussulman  village  of 
Eski  Bagh  or  rather  Uskub  in  the  caza  of  Duzdjd  and 
the  vilayet  of  Castamouni.  The  region  is  very  rich, 
especially  in  fruit  trees.  Ruins  are  still  seen  of  the 
walls  and  the  Roman  theatre  forty-six  miles  in  cir- 
cumference. 

De  Hell,  Voyage  en  Turquie  et  Perse,  IV,  334-38,  353-73; 
Texier,  AsieAIineure,  85;  Le  Bas,  Voyage  arcMologique ,  1174- 
82;  Perrot,  Expedition  archeologique  de  la  Galatie  et  de  la  Bithynie 
(Paris,  1872),  20-42. 

S.  Vailh^. 

Prussia. — The  Kingdom  of  Prussia  at  the  present 
time  covers  134,616  square  miles  and  includes  about 
64-8  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the  German  Empire. 
It  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  plain  of  northern 
Germany  and  of  the  central  mountain  chain  of  Ger- 
many. With  exception  of  the  small  Hohenzollern 
district,  the  original  domain  of  the  Prussian  royal 
family,  it  does  not  extend  beyond  the  Main.  How- 
ever, in  a  south-westerly  direction  west  of  the  Rhine 
it  includes  a  considerable  portion  of  the  basin  of  the 
Saar  and  of  the  plateau  of  Lorraine.  All  the  large 
German  rivers  flow  through  it,  and  it  contains  the 
greater  part  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  Germany, 
coal,  iron,  salt,  and  potash.  Of  the  area  devoted 
to  agriculture  over  2-5  per  cent  are  used  for  the 
cultivation  of  grain  as  follows:  25-91  per  cent  for 
rye,  15-37  per  cent  oats,  6-86  per  cent  wheat.  In 
1905  the  population  was  37,282,935,  that  is  61-5  per 
cent  of  the  population  of  the  German  Empire.  The 
annual  increase  of  the  population  is  about  1-5  per 


PRUSSIA 


520 


PRUSSIA 


cent,  but  this  results  from  the  decline  of  emigration 
and  the  decrease  of  the  death-rate.  In  1905  about 
11-5  per  cent  were  Slavs,  of  whom  8-887  per  cent 
were  Poles.  In  religion  63-29  per  cent  were  Prot- 
estants, 35-14  per  cent  Catholics,  013  per  cent  Jews. 
In  18U5  34-18  per  cent  of  the  population  was  em- 
ployed in  agriculture,  38-7  per  cent  in  manufactures. 
About  one-half  of  all  the  manufacturing  industries 
are  carried  on  in  the  provinces  of  the  Rhine,  West- 
phalia, and  Silesia.  It  is  only  since  1866  that  Prussia 
has  had  its  present  area,  and  not  until  1871  did  it 
become  the  ruling  state  of  Germany.  Its  present 
area  and  power  are  the  result  of  a  gradual  develop- 
ment extending  over  more  than  seven  centuries. 

I.  The  beginnings  of  the  state  are  connected  with  the 
bloody  struggles  and  with  the  wonderful  cultural 
and  missionary  labours  by  means  of  which  the  terri- 
tories on  the  Baltic  between  the  Elbe  and  Memel 
were  wrested  in  the  twehth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
from  the  Slavs  and  won  for  Germany  and  the  Catholic 
Church.  In  this  era  the  region  on  the  Vistula  and 
the  Pregel  Rivers,  which  originally  was  the  only  part 
of  the  territory  bearing  the  name  of  Prussia,  was  con- 
quered by  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  1230  and  con- 
verted to  Christianity.  In  1309  the  Grand  Master  of 
the  order  transferred  his  residence  to  the  Marien- 
burg,  a  castle  noted  for  its  artistic  importance,  which 
has  been  restored  by  the  Emperor  William  II.  The 
order  and  the  region  ruled  by  the  order  attained 
then-  highest  de\elopment  in  the  years  succeeding 
this,  especially  under  the  government  of  Winrich 
of  Kniprode  (1351-82).  Pomerania,  the  district 
along  the  coast  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Oder,  continued  to  be  ruled  by  its  dynasty  of 
Slavonic  dukes,  nevertheless  it  was  also  under  Ger- 
man influence  and  was  converted  to  Christianity  in 
the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century  by  St.  Otto  of 
Bamberg.  The  inland  territory  between  the  Elbe 
and  Oder,  and  the  region  drained  by  the  Warthe  and 
Netze,  first  called  the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg 
and  the  New  Mark,  were  acquired  from  1134  on- 
wards by  the  Ascanian  line,  which  also  had  posses- 
sions in  Saxony.  Before  long  this  line  also  gained 
the  feudal  suzerainty  over  Pomerania.  In  all  three 
districts  the  Teutonic  Knights,  who  carried  on  wars 
and  colonized  at  the  same  time,  had  the  principal 
share  in  reconstructing  the  political  conditions.  The 
Cistercian  Order  had  also  a  large  part  in  the  peaceful 
development  of  ci\'ilization;  the  order  founded 
flourishing  monasteries  beginning  at  Lehnin,  and 
Chorin  and  extending  as  far  as  Oliva  near  Danzig, 
and  Christianized  the  natives.  In  all  these  terri- 
tories, though,  numerous  German  cities  were  founded 
and  Cierman  peasants  were  settled  on  the  soil. 

After  the  extinction  of  the  Ascanian  line  in  1320 
the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg  became  a  possession 
of  the  Bavarian  House  of  Wittelsbach,  and  in  1373 
of  the  House  of  Luxemburg.  Under  the  new  rulers 
the  government  and  the  country  greatly  declined  and 
the  nobility  ruled  with  an  iron  hand.  In  order  to 
restore  order  the  last  member  of  the  Luxemburg 
line  transferred  Brandenburg,  at  first  temporarily, 
then  on  30  April,  1415.,  as  a  fief  to  Frederick  of 
Hohenzollern.  This  was  the  birthday  of  the  future 
great  state  of  Prussia,  for  Prussia  has  not  become  a 
great  power  from  natural,  geographical,  or  national 
conditions,  but  is  the  product  of  the  work  of  its  kings 
of  the  House  of  Hohenzollern.  Frederick  I  probably 
desired  to  make  Brandenburg  a  great  kingdom  on  the 
laltic  for  himself;  however,  he  limited  himself  to 
orushing  the  power  of  the  nobles  and  then  devoted 
his  attention  again  to  imperial  affairs.  During  the 
next  two  centuries  his  descendants  did  not  do  much 
to  increase  the  power  of  Brandenburg,  and  they  never 
attained  the  power  of  the  last  members  of  the  Ascan- 
ian line.  The  most  important  event  was  the  "Dis- 
positio  Achillea"  of  1473,  by  which  Brandenburg  was 


made  the  chief  possession  of  the  Hohenzollern  family 
and  primogeniture  was  established  as  the  law  of  its 
inheritance. 

Of  the  Hohenzollern  rulers  of  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  only  Frederick  II  (1440-70)  and 
Joachim  I  Nestor  (1499-1535)  were  men  of  any 
prominence.  They  were  more  successful  in  internal 
affairs  than  in  the  endeavour  to  extend  the  size  and 
importance  of  their  realm.  Frederick  II  separated 
the  towns  of  Brandenburg  from  the  Hanseatic  League, 
and  forced  them  to  become  a  part  of  the  territory 
of  Brandenburg.  He  also  brought  the  clergy  under 
the  power  of  the  state  by  aid  of  two  Bulls  of  1447, 
which  he  obtained  from  Pope  Nicholas  V,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  later  State  Church  system  es- 
tablished by  his  family.  His  efforts  to  enlarge  his 
territories  were  checked  by  the  rapid  development 
of  the  power  of  Poland  at  this  time,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  rising  importance  of  Hungary.  The 
result  was  that  all  the  German  possessions  along  the 
coast  of  the  Baltic  were  endangered ;  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  territory  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  com- 
prising the  region  of  the  \'istula,  was  conquered  to- 
gether -with  Danzig  by  the  Poles  after  two  wars:  in 
the  war  of  1410-11  the  Teutonic  Knights  were  de- 
feated by  the  Poles  at  the  battle  of  Tannenberg; 
this  was  followed  by  the  First  Peace  of  Thorn;  after 
the  war  of  1456-66  came  the  Second  Peace  of  Thorn. 
The  Poles  also  took  part  in  the  war  which  Frederick 
II  waged  with  Pomerania  over  the  possession  of 
Stettin.  When  Frederick's  nephew  and  successor 
sought  compensation  for  Stettin  in  Silesia,  he  was  op- 
posed by  Hungary  and  had  to  retire  there  also. 

As  ruler  Joachim  I  was  even  firmer  than  Frederick 
II.  During  his  administration  the  nobility  were 
forced  to  give  up  their  freebooting  expeditions.  Fol- 
lowing this  example  the  ruhng  family  of  Pomerania, 
of  which  the  most  important  member  of  this  era  was 
Bogislaw  X  (reigned  1478-1524),  put  an  end  to  the 
excesses  of  the  Pomeranian  nobility  also.  In  the 
provinces  along  the  Baltic  the  nobihty  had  then  a 
force  of  armed  men  at  their  disposal  probably  equal 
to  similar  forces  of  the  princes.  Thus,  for  example, 
a  family  called  Wedel  had  so  many  branches  that  in 
the  sixteenth  century  it  could  at  one  time  reckon 
on  two  hundred  men  among  its  own  members  capable 
of  bearing  arms.  When  these  rode  out  to  war  with 
their  squires  and  mounted  men  they  formed  a  body  of 
soldiers,  which,  o-wing  to  the  scarcity  of  money,  was 
difficult  for  the  ruling  princes  to  meet.  Both  in 
Brandenburg  and  Pomerania  the  establishment  of 
order  was  followed  by  an  improvement  in  the  laws 
and  the  courts,  and  by  a  reorganization  of  the  ad- 
ministration. This  latter  brought  about  the  gradual 
formation  of  a  class  of  civil  officials,  who  had  in  part 
legal  training,  and  who  were  dependent  not  on  the 
nobility  but  on  the  ruling  princes.  The  beginnings 
were  also  made  of  an  economical  policy.  Joachim  I 
sought  to  turn  to  the  advantage  of  the  HohenzoUerns 
the  fact  that  the  Wettin  line  ruling  in  Saxony,  which 
up  to  that  time  had  been  of  more  importance  than  the 
HohenzoUerns,  had  paralyzed  its  future  development 
in  1485  by  dividing  its  possessions  between  two 
branches  of  the  line.  These  two  dynastic  faraihes, 
Wettin  and  Hohenzollern,  were  active  competitors 
for  the  great  spiritual  principalities  of  the  empire. 
In  1513  Joachim's  brother  Albrecht  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg  and  Bishop  of  Halberstadt, 
and  in  1514  Archbishop  of  Tilainz.  At  the  same  time 
another  member  of  the  Hohenzollern  family,  one  be- 
longing to  the  Franconian  branch  of  the  line,  became 
Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  that  is,  he 
was  the  ruler  of  that  portion  of  Prussia  which  still 
belonged  to  the  order.  In  1525  he  brought  about  the 
secularization  of  the  territory  of  the  order,  and  made 
it  a  permanent  possession  of  his  family;  in  return 
for  this,  however,  he  was  obliged  to  acknowledge  the 


PRUSSIA 


521 


PRUSSIA 


feudal  suzerainty  of  Poland.  Joachim  was  unable 
to  maintain  his  claims  to  the  right  of  succession  on 
the  extinction  of  the  Pomeranian  dukes,  but  had  to 
give  up  the  claim  to  feudal  supremacy  (Treaty  of 
Grimnitz,  1529). 

Of  all  the  ecclesiastical  principalities,  Joachim's 
successors  were  able  to  retain  Magdeburg  alone, 
and  this  only  to  the  end  of  the  century.  In  Prussia 
(1569)  they  obtained  the  right  to  joint  feudal  pos- 
session, and  thus  gained  for  the  main  branch  of  the 
family  a  claim  to  the  Duchy  of  Prussia.  Taken  al- 
together, however,  the  HohenzoUern  power  declined 
very  decidedly.  The  ruling  branch  in  Brandenburg 
was  badly  crippled  by  debts,  and  the  last  member  of 
the  line  ruling  in  Prussia  was  weak-minded.  This 
enabled  the  Estates,  which  had  rapidly  developed  in 
all  German  territories  from  the  second  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  to  obtain  great  influence  over  the 
administration,  both  in  Prussia  and  Brandenburg. 
This  influence  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Estates, 
owing  to  their  possessing  the  right  of  granting  the 
taxes,  were  equivalent  to  a  representative  assembly 
composed  in  part  of  the  landowners,  the  nobility, 
and  the  clergy,  and  in  part  of  the  cities,  who  con- 
trolled considerable  ready  money.  At  first  the 
nobility  was  the  most  powerful  section  of  the  Estates. 
In  order  to  keep  the  nobles  well-disposed  the  ruling 
princes,  both  in  Brandenburg  and  Prussia,  and  also 
in  Pomerania,  transferred  to  them  the  greater  part 
of  the  princely  jurisdiction  and  other  legal  rights 
over  the  peasants,  so  that  the  feudal  lords  were  able 
to  bring  the  peasants  into  complete  economic  de- 
pendence upon  themselves  and  to  make  them  serfs. 
As  a  result  the  influence  of  the  nobility  constantly 
grew.  But  as  the  nobles  were  men  without  breadth  of 
view,  and  in  all  foreign  complications  saw  the  means 
of  reviving  the  power  of  the  princes  and  of  imposing 
taxes,  the  strength  of  the  three  Baltic  duchies  waned 
equally  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
None  of  them  seemed  to  have  any  future. 

II.  At  this  juncture  the  head  of  the  Franconian 
branch  of  the  HohenzoUern  family,  George  Frederick 
of  Ansbach-Bayreuth,  persuaded  the  Brandenburg 
branch  of  the  family  to  enter  upon  a  far-reaching 
policy  of  extension  which,  in  the  end,  resulted  in 
leading  the  dynasty  and  the  state  over  which  it 
reigned  into  an  entirely  new  path.  Influenced  by 
George  Frederick,  John  George  of  Brandenburg 
(1571-98)  strengthened  his  claim  upon  Prussia  by 
marrying  his  daughter  to  the  weak-minded  Duke  of 
Prussia,  and  secured  for  himself  by  another  marriage 
a  new  reversionary  right  to  the  Duchy  of  Cleve- 
Julich,  the  ruling  family  of  which  was  nearing  ex- 
tinction. Up  to  this  time  Prussian  policy  had  been 
entirely  directed  to  gaining  control  in  eastern  Ger- 
many, and  this  marriage  was  the  first  attempt  to 
make  acquisitions  in  western  Germany.  During  the 
reign  of  John  Sigismund  (1608-19)  the  ducal  line  of 
Cleve-Julich  became  extinct  in  1609,  and  in  1618 
that  of  Prussia.  Of  the  possessions  of  Cleve-Jiilich, 
however,  Julich  and  Berg  were  claimed  by  the  Wittels- 
bach  family,  and  Brandenburg  was  only  able  to  ac- 
quire Cleve  and  a  few  adjacent  districts  (1614);  even 
the  hold  on  this  inheritance  was  for  a  long  time  very 
insecure.  On  the  other  hand  Prussia  was  united  with 
Brandenburg  without  any  dispute  arising  because 
Poland  in  the  meantime  had  become  involved  in  war 
with  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  was  obliged  to  act  with 
caution.  At  about  the  same  time  the  ducal  House  of 
Pomerania  was  nearing  extinction,  so  that  all  at  once 
the  state  ruled  by  the  HohenzoUerns  seemed  to  ap- 
proach a  great  extension  of  its  territories. 

In  1613  John  Sigismund  became  a  Calvinist,  a 
faith  at  that  time  which  had  a  great  attraction  for  all 
the  energetic  and  ambitious  among  the  German 
Protestant  princes.  The  ruler  of  Brandenburg  and 
Prussia  became  the  son-in-law  of  the  leader  of  the 


Calvinistic  party,  the  Elector  Palatinate,  and  his 
daughter  married  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden. 
However,  on  account  of  the  great  power  which  the 
Estates  had  acquired  in  his  dominions  John  Sigismund 
was  not  able  to  undertake  a  vigorous  policy.  The 
Estates  were  strongly  opposed  to  his  adoption  of  Cal- 
vinism, and  his  promise  to  leave  the  Lutheran  Con- 
fession undisturbed  hardly  satisfied  them,  nor  were 
they  willing  to  grant  any  money  for  his  external  pol- 
icies. On  account  of  these  financial  difficulties  his 
successor,  George  WiUiam  (1619-40),  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  came  near  losing  the  territories 
just  inherited;  and  he  was  not  able  to  make  good  his 
claims  to  Pomerania  when,  in  1637,  his  right  of  in- 
heritance was  to  be  enforced.  It  became  evident  that 
the  power  of  the  Estates  must  be  crushed  and  the 
people  forced  to  pay  their  taxes  regularly,  before  the 
HohenzoUerns  could  obtain  firm  possession  of  their 
newly  acquired  domain,  establish  their  authority  in 
Pomerania,  and  then  build  up  their  power  in  the  Baltic 
coast  lands  in  the  valleys  of  the  Odor  and  Vistula. 
George  WiUiam's  chief  adviser;  Count  Adam  von 
Schwarzenberg,  recognized  this  and  made  the  attempt 
to  carry  out  this  policy;  from  1637  he  was  engaged  in 
a  severe  struggle  with  Sweden,  to  prevent  the  Swedes 
from  taking  possession  of  Pomerania. 

The  merit  of  finally  carrying  out  this  policy  and  of 
turning  the  small  and  far  from  cultured  state  into  a 
strong  instrument  for  political  and  military  aggression 
belongs  to  the  Great  Elector,  Frederick  William 
(1640-88),  and  to  his  grandson.  King  Frederick  Wil- 
ham  I  (1713-40).  In  1644  the  Great  Elector  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  standing  army  with  the  aid  of  which 
his  successors  raised  Brandenburg-Prussia  to  its  lead- 
ing position;  Frederick  William  I  increased  the  stand- 
ing army  to  83,000  men.  In  order  to  procure  the 
resources  for  maintaining  his  army  the  Great  Elector 
gradually  reorganized  the  country  on  entirely  different 
principles,  and  did  his  utmost  to  further  the  prosperity 
of  his  people  so  as  to  enable  them  to  bear  increased 
taxation.  His  grandson  continued  and  completed  the 
same  policy.  At  this  period  a  like  internal  policy  was 
followed  in  all  the  states  of  the  German  Empire,  in- 
cluding the  larger  ones.  Nowhere,  however,  was  it 
carried  out  in  so  rational  and  systematic  a  manner  as 
in  Brandenburg-Prussia,  and  nowhere  else  were  its 
results  so  permanent.  In  this,  not  in  its  originality, 
consists  the  greatness  of  the  political  achievement  of 
the  HohenzoUerns.  The  Estates  and  their  provincial 
diets  were  not  opposed  and  put  down  on  principle, 
but  they  were  forced  in  Prussia  and  Cleve  to  grant 
what  was  needed  for  the  army;  the  cities  were  then 
subjected  to  a  special  indirect  taxation  (excise  duties), 
and  in  this  way  were  withdrawn  from  the  government 
of  the  Estates.  The  nobility,  now  the  only  members 
of  the  Estates,  were  subjected  to  personal  taxation  by 
reforms  in  the  existing  system  of  direct  taxation,  by 
the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system,  and  especially  by 
the  introduction  into  Prussia  of  the  general  taxation 
of  land.  At  the  same  time  the  control  that  the  Estates 
had  acquired  ^over  the  collection  and  administration 
of  the  taxes  was  abolished,  and  the  assessment  and 
collection  of  the  taxes  was  transferred  to  the  officials 
of  the  Government,  who  had  originally  charge  only  of 
the  administrative  and  commissariat  departments  of 
the  army.  All  these  officials  were  placed  under  a 
central  bureau,  the  general  commissariat,  and  a  more 
rigid  and  regular  state  system  of  state  receipts  and 
expenditures  was  established.  Among  the  changes 
were  the  founding  of  the  exchequer,  the  drawing-up 
of  a  budget,  which  was  prepared  for  the  first  time  in 
1689,  and  the  creation  of  an  audit-office.  Moreover, 
there  was  a  stricter  regulation  of  the  finances  in  every 
part  of  the  Government,  and  an  extension  of  the  su- 
pervision of  every  branch  of  the  administration  by 
the  fiscal  authorities  so  as  to  include  even  the  inde- 
pendent departments  of  the  state,  the  result  being 


PRUSSIA 


522 


PRUSSIA 


that  these  bodies,  especially  the  cities,  were  actually 
ruled  by  these  officials. 

These  reforms  reached  their  culmination  in  the 
founding  of  the  "General  Directory",  at  Berlin,  and 
of  the  Boards  of  War  and  Finance  in  the  provinces 
in  1721.  The  result  was  that  the  entire  official  life  of 
Prussia  became  bureaucratic,  and  financial  considera- 
tions had  the  preponderating  influence  in  the  internal 
administration  of  the  country,  as  is  still  strikingly 
noticeable.  Those  departments  of  national  admin- 
istration that  yielded  Httle  revenue,  or  were  apt  to 
cost  more  than  they  could  be  counted  upon  to  yield, 
were  for  the  present  neglected,  or  in  part  still  left 
under  the  control  of  the  Estates,  in  those  eases  where 
the  Estates  had  acquired  the  supervision  of  them; 
such  were,  above  all,  the  administration  of  law,  eccle- 
siastical affairs,  and  the  schools.  On  the  other  hand 
great  attention  was  given  to  improving  economic  con- 
ditions, and  gradually  all  the  measures  were  used  in 
Prussia  that  the  genius  of  a  Colbert  had  planned  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  to  raise  France  to  the  place 
of  the  first  power  in  the  world.  Accordingly  the  popu- 
lation was  increased  by  encouraging  the  immigration 
of  the  Dutch,  Huguenots,  and  finally  of  the  Protest- 
ants, who  were  driven  out  of  Salzburg.  Much  also 
was  done  to  improve  the  soil  and  the  breeding  of 
cattle.  In  agreement  with  the  prevailing  principles 
of  economics,  i.  e.  as  much  money  as  possible  should 
be  brought  into  the  country,  but  that  its  export 
should  be  prevented,  manufacture  and  commerce 
were  to  be  stimulated  in  every  possible  way.  The 
Great  Elector  even  established  a  navy  and  also 
founded  colonies  on  the  African  Gold  Coast;  in  1717 
Frederick  William  I  sold  the  colonies.  Many  excel- 
lent officials  were  drawn  from  other  countries  to  aid 
in  the  administration.  However,  the  ruhng  prince 
was  the  centre  of  the  Government.  The  result  of  this 
was  that,  as  early  as  the  latter  years  of  the  reign  of 
the  Elector,  the  principal  boards  of  administration 
and  the  ministers  presiding  over  them  sank  more  and 
more  into  mere  tools  for  carrying  out  the  will  of  the 
ruling  prince,  and  decisions  were  made,  not  in  the 
boards,  but  in  the  cabinet  of  the  prince.  This  method 
of  administration  became  completely  systematized  in 
the  reign  of  Frederick  William  I;  consequently  it  is 
customary  to  speak  of  the  cabinet  government  of 
Prussia.  This  form  of  administration  was  maintained 
until  1806. 

The  success  of  the  organizing  energy  of  the  ruling 
princes  was  so  evident  that  even  before  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  Leibniz  said:  "This  country  is 
a  kingdom  in  all  but  name."  The  lacking  name  of 
kingdom  was  given  to  the  country  when  Frederick  I 
(1688-1713),  the  son  of  the  Great  Elector,  crowned 
himself  on  18  January,  1701,  at  Konigsberg,  with  the 
title  "King  in  Prussia",  meaning  of  the  former  duchy. 
As  long  as  the  development  of  the  internal  strength 
of  the  country  was  backward  there  was  little  chance  of 
gaining  any  important  additions  of  territory,  even 
though  the  great  wars  of  the  period  made  such  efforts 
very  tempting.  The  Great  Elector  was  a  man  of  un- 
controlled and  passionate  character,  and  of  much 
military  ambition;  it  was  very  hard  for  him  to  let 
others  reap  where  he  had  sown,  for  he  had  taken  part 
in  nearly  all  the  wars  of  his  era.  Frederick  William  I 
also  was  alive  to  his  country's  glory,  but  was  more 
inclined  to  prepare  for  war  than  to  carry  it  on;  in 
many  respects  his  character  recalls  that  of  the  later 
William  I.  In  this  period  the  chief  object  of  the  for- 
eign policy  of  the  HohenzoUerns  was  to  increase  their 
possessions  along  the  Baltic.  Above  all  they  desired 
to  own  Pomerania,  which  Sweden  retained.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Westphalia  the  Great  Elector  received  only 
Further  Pomerania  (Hinterpommern),  which  was  of 
little  value.  He  gained  nothing  from  the  first  North- 
ern War  (16.55-60)  in  which  he  took  part;  his  victory 
over  the  Swedes  in  the  battle  of  Fehrbellin  (1675) 


proved  fruitless.  His  grandson  finally  acquired  Stettin 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Oder  in  1720,  and  Hither 
Pomerania  (Vorpommern)  did  not  become  a  part  of 
Prussia  until  1815.  The  Great  Elector  was  more  for- 
tunate in  obtaining  the  release  of  the  Duchy  of 
Prussia  from  the  feudal  suzerainty  of  Poland  (1658), 
and  was  also  able  to  increase  its  area  by  the  addition 
of  Ermland.  He  further  desired  to  acquire  Silesia. 
In  these  years  the  chief  battlefield  of  Europe  was  the 
western  part  of  the  Continent.  This  was  unfavour- 
able for  the  schemes  of  the  HohenzoUerns,  for  at  that 
time  they  had  no  definite  policy  of  territorial  exten- 
sion in  western  Europe,  and  consequently  no  interests 
of  any  importance  there. 

In  the  west  the  Great  Elector  limited  himself  to 
securing  the  lasting  possession  of  Cleve  (1667)  and  the 
occupation  of  the  territories  which  France  had  secured 
for  him  in  exchange  for  Pomerania,  nam^ely  Minden, 
Halberstadt,  and  Magdeburg,  which  before  this  had 
been  ecclesiastical  principalities.  These  gave  him 
strategetieally  important  positions  controlKng  points 
of  crossing  the  Elbe  and  theWeser;  but  he  could  not 
obtain  Magdeburg  until  1666,  and  did  not  gain  full 
possession  of  it  until  1680.  During  the  reigns  of  his 
son  and  grandson  some  small  and  unimportant  terri- 
tories to  the  west  of  these  were  obtained.  Taken  alto- 
gether Brandenburg-Prussia  had  by  1740  increased 
in  area  from  9000  square  miles  under  the  first  Hohen- 
zollern  Elector  and  31,600  square  miles  in  the  reign 
of  John  Sigismund  to  about  46,800  square  miles  with 
a  population  of  about  2,250,000.  Up  to  now  the  bulk 
of  the  area  of  the  country  had  lain  towards  the  east, 
but  from  this  period  onward  the  preponderating  part 
of  its  territories  began  to  be  found  in  the  west.  The 
wife  of  the  Great  Elector  belonged  to  the  family  of 
the  Princes  of  Orange,  and  this  led  the  Elector  to 
consider  Holland  in  Ins  foreign  policy;  in  1672  espe- 
cially this  influenced  him  to  take  part  in  the  war 
between  Holland  and  Louis  XIV.  He  also  gave  more 
attention  to  imperial  affairs  than  his  immediate  pred- 
ecessors. In  the  politics  of  the  empire  sometimes  he 
sided  with  the  emperor.  At  times,  however,  he  ad- 
hered to  the  views  held  by  the  German  ruling  princes 
of  that  time  that  there  was  an  inner  Germany  con- 
sisting of  the  various  states  of  the  empire;  and  that 
this  was  the  real  Germany,  the  interests  of  which  did 
not  always  coincide  with  those  of  Austria  or  of  the 
reigiung  emperor.  He  believed  that  the  real  Germany 
must  at  times  maintain  its  interests  against  Austria 
by  the  aid  of  one  of  the  guaranteeing  powers  of  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,  viz.  France  and  Sweden.  The 
only  times  he  paid  no  attention  in  his  policies  to  his 
duty  as  a  prince  of  the  empire  was  at  the  beginning  of 
his  reign  when  influenced  by  religious  prejudices,  and 
towards  its  end  when  disappointed  by  the  Peace  of 
St.-Germain-en-Laye  (1679). 

Another  sign  that  the  Prussian  state  was  becoming 
gradually  involved  in  the  affairs  of  western  Europe 
was  the  fact  that  as  a  second  wife  the  Great  Elector 
married  a  Guelph,  to  which  family  the  wives  both  of 
his  son  and  grandson  belonged.  In  the  second  half  of 
the  seventeenth  century  the  Guelph  fine  founded  the 
Electorate  of  Hanover  in  north-western  Germany,  the 
only  state  in  this  section  of  Germany  that,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  could  in  any  way 
compete  with  Brandenburg-Prussia  for  the  leading 
position.  The  founding  of  the  Academy  of  Berhn  is 
due  to  Sophia  Charlotte,  wife  of  Frederick  I.  The 
same  royal  couple  established  the  University  of  HaUe, 
which  soon  gained  a  European  reputation  on  account 
of  its  professors  Thomasius  and  Christian  Wolff  and 
the  institutions  for  the  poor  founded  by  Professor 
Francke.  The  fine  addition  in  the  royal  castle  at 
Berlin  and  the  splendid  statue  of  the  Great  Elector 
by  Andreas  Schliiter  were  both  works  of  this  reign. 

III.  Frederick  II,  The  Great  (1740-88),  son  of 
Frederick  William  I,  had  probably  more  intellectual 


PRUSSIA 


523 


PRUSSIA 


ability  than  any  other  Hohenzollern  known  to  his- 
tory; he  had  in  him  a  touch  of  genius.  What  checlted 
the  development  and  exercise  of  his  ability  was, 
however,  that  he  seemed  from  his  natural  pre- 
dispositions, and  from  the  way  in  which  in  youth 
he  looked  upon  life,  to  be  born  for  entirely  different 
conditions  than  those  prevailing  in  the  Prussia  of 
that  era.  He  was  more  inclined  to  literature  and 
music  than  to  official  routine  work  and  military  ser- 
vice, and  early  became  a  free-thinker.  He  preferred 
the  literature  of  France  and  despised  that  of  Germany, 
and  was  indifferent  to  Prussia  and  its  people.  When 
a  young  man  these  tastes  led  to  conflicts  with  his 
father,  who  resolved  on  this  account  to  exclude 
Frederick  from  the  succession,  and  imprisoned  him 
for  several  years  in  the  fortress  at  Kustrin.  Freder- 
rick  was  then  married  against  his  will,  by  the  advice 
of  Austria,  to  the  Princess  Elizabeth  of  Brunswick- 
Bevern,  personally  an  excellent  and  good  woman. 
He  finally  learned  self-control  and  applied  himself 
with  gradually  increasing  zeal  and  intensity  to  the 
civil  and  military  affairs  of  the  state,  but  he  did  this 
not  from  a  sense  of  pleasure  in  such  occupations,  but 
from  one  of  discipline  and  necessity.  This  may  be 
the  reason  why  in  his  civil  administration  and  in  the 
aims  of  his  foreign  policy  he  showed  little  originality 
in  comparison  to  his  natural  abilities.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  conduct  of  war  the  king  showed  ex- 
traordinary energy,  great  intellectual  activity,  and 
ceaseless  personal  attention  to  his  task.  In  his 
foreign  policy  Frederick  followed  the  principles  of 
his  predecessors  and  sought  above  all  to  develop 
his  domain  towards  the  east.  The  precarious  posi- 
tion of  Austria  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Maria 
Theresa  was  taken  advantage  of  by  Frederick  to 
begin  a  campaign  in  Silesia  in  Dec,  1740.  As  a 
pretext  for  the  war  he  took  the  treaties  of  succession 
of  his  forefathers  with  the  rulers  of  several  of  the 
smaller  Silesian  duchies,  made  in  1537,  for  the  non- 
fulfilment  of  which  Austria  seemingly  was  alone  to 
blame. 

He  gained  the  battle  of  Mollwitz  10  April,  1741, 
and  on  5  June  formed  an  alliance  with  France,  the 
chief  of  the  other  opponents  of  Maria  Theresa; 
the  intervention  of  England  led  him  to  agree  to  a 
truce  on  9  October,  which  enabled  Austria  to  make 
its  military  force  equal  to  that  of  France.  In  alarm 
Frederick  advanced  into  Moravia,  gained  the  battle 
of  Chotusitz,  17  May,  1742,  and  in  the  Peace  of 
Breslau,  of  1  .June  of  the  same  year,  obtained  from 
Austria  the  whole  of  Silesia,  excepting  the  Count- 
ships  of  Glatz,  Troppau,  and  Teschen.  As  in  the  war 
between  Austria  and  France,  which  still  went  on, 
the  advantage  of  the  former  continually  increased, 
Frederick  once  more  formed  an  alliance  with  Aus- 
tria's opponents  and  began  a  campaign  in  Bohemia 
in  Sept.,  1744,  but  was  obliged  to  withdraw  from  this 
province  in  December.  His  position  in  Silesia  now 
became  precarious,  but  he  extricated  himself  by  the 
victory  at  Hohenfriedberg,  4  June,  1745,  and  then 
defeated  the  enemy,  already  on  the  march  to  Berlin, 
at  Soor  20  Sept.,  at  Katholisoh-Hennersdorf  2.3  Nov., 
and  at  Kesselsdorf  15  Dec.  By  the  Peace  of  Dres- 
den of  25  Dec,  1745,  Frederick  retained  Silesia. 
Maria  Theresa,  however,  was  not  willing  to  give  up 
Silesia  without  further  effort.  Consequently  after 
peace  had  been  made  between  Austria  and  France, 
Kaunitz,  who  was  now  Maria  Theresa's  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  sought  to  form  more  friendly  relations 
with  France  and  to  strengthen  those  already  existing 
with  Russia.  So  httle,  however,  was  attained  in 
France  that  Kaunitz  wished  to  drop  the  negotiations, 
but  Maria  Theresa's  persistence  and  the  measures 
taken  by  Frederick  in  1756  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
aUiance.  Made  uneasy  by  the  weakness  of  France, 
Frederick  did  not  maintain  the  amicable  relations 
that  had  existed  until  then  between  himself  and  that 


power.  When  war  broke  out  between  England  and 
France  over  the  colonies  in  1755-6,  England  ne- 
gotiated with  Russia  for  the  sending  of  auxiliary 
troops.  Frederick  feared  to  permit  such  auxiliaries 
to  march  through  Prussia  and  offered  to  guarantee 
England's  possession  on  the  Continent  himself 
(Convention  of  Westminster,  Jan.,  1756). 

France  and  Austria  now  agreed  to  help  each  other 
in  case  of  attack  by  Frederick  (First  Alliance  of 
Versailles,  1  May,  1756).  Upon  this  Frederick,  led 
perhaps  by  fear  of  attack  by  a  coalition  stronger  than 
himself,  perhaps  also  by  the  hope  of  making  fresh 
gains  by  daring  seizures,  began  a  third  war,  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  with  Austria,  taking  as  a  pretext 
the  advance  of  the  Austrian  troops.  Without  any 
declaration  of  war  he  advanced  into  the  Electorate 
of  Saxony,  which  was  friendly  to  Austria,  and  be- 
sieg(«l  Dresden  9  Sept.,  but  the  Saxon  troops  kept  up 
a  longer  resistance  than  he  had  counted  upon,  so  it 
was  1757  before  he  could  begin  a  campaign  in 
Bohemia.  In  the  meantime  Russia  and  Austria  had 
signed  an  alliance  for  war  against  him  2  Feb.,  1757; 
in  addition  both  the  Empire  and  Sweden  declared 
war  against  him,  and  on  1  May,  1757,  France  and 
Austria  agreed  in  the  Second  Alliance  of  Versailles 
to  adopt  the  offensive  together  against  him.  Fred- 
erick's opponents  could  produce  a  force  of  430,000 
men,  while  he  with  the  aid  of  England  and  Hanover 
(Treaty  of  11  January,  1757)  controlled  about 
210,000  men.  It  was  most  important  for  him  to 
force  the  matter  to  a  conclusion  as  quickly  as  possible, 
before  the  means  of  his  still  poor  country  were  ex- 
hausted. On  6  May  he  won  a  bloody  battle  near 
Prague,  but  on  18  June  he  was  defeated  near  KoUin 
and  suffered  losses  by  the  new  Austrian  commander 
Daun  which  he  could  not  repair.  Frederick  was 
forced  to  return  to  Saxony,  while  the  French  defeated 
the  Hanoverian  army  at  Kastenbeck  on  6  July, 
and  the  Russians  defeated  a  Prussian  army  at  Gross- 
jagerndorf  on  30  Aug.  However,  the  Russians  and 
French  did  not  form  a  junction  with  the  Austrians 
quickly  enough.  When  finally  the  united  French 
and  Imperial  army  advanced,  Frederick  defeated  the 
joint  forces  badly  at  Rossbach  on  5  Nov.,  and  then 
turned  against  Daun,  who  had  entered  Silesia  and  had 
taken  Breslau.  Frederick  defeated  him  at  Leuthen 
on  5  Dec.  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  continued 
to  lead  the  Hanoverian  and  Prussian  forces  that 
fought  against  the  French  and  drove  the  latter  to  the 
Rhine  in  the  battle  of  Crefeld,  23  June,  1758.  The 
progress  of  the  war  in  the  east  did  not  equal  the  great 
expectations  aroused  by  the  success  at  Leuthen.  In 
1758  the  Russians  advanced.  Frederick  maintained 
himself  against  them  at  Zorndorf ,  25  August,  but  the 
battle  was  not  decisive;  from  here  he  hastened  to 
Saxony,  where  the  troops  he  had  left  behind  were 
threatened  by  Daun,  and  he  was  surprised  by  Daun 
at  Hochkirch  on  14  Oct. 

At  the  end  of  1758  the  majority  of  his  officers  were 
dead,  and  he  could  only  fill  the  gaps  among  the 
soldiery  by  the  compulsory  enlistment  of  mercenaries. 
His  treasury  Was  empty,  and  he  struck  debased  coin. 
He  exhausted  the  resources  of  Saxony.  On  the  other 
hand  the  Austrian  army  was  always  ready  for  the 
field,  and  the  Austrian  artillery  was  superior  to  his. 
Accordingly  his  opponents  in  the  campaign  of  1759 
forced  Frederick  to  take  the  defensive.  The  united 
Russians  and  Austrians  decisively  defeated  Fred- 
erick at  Kunersdorf  on  12  August.  The  result  was 
a  series  of  capitulations.  Frederick  lost  Saxony,  the 
greater  part  of  Silesia  was  taken  from  him  in  1760- 
61,  largely  by  Laudon.  What  saved  him,  besides  his 
own  energy,  was  the  gradual  dissolution  of  the  al- 
liances between  his  enemies.  France  began  to  with- 
draw in  the  Third  Alliance  of  Versailles  of  30-31 
December,  1757.  At  first  Russia  and  Austria  drew 
all  the  closer  together  in  the  Treaty  of  St.  Petersburg 


PRUSSIA 


524 


PRUSSIA 


of  1  April,  1760.  The  Russians  plundered  Berlin 
in  Oct.,  1760.  At  this  most  critical  moment  Fred- 
erick maintained  himself  only  by  the  almost  unex- 
pected victory  of  Torgau,  3  Nov.,  1760,  which  en- 
abled him  once  more  to  occupy  a  secure  position  in 
Saxony.  As  early  as  1761  the  Russian  interest  in 
the  war  began  to  decline,  and  when  in  January, 
1762  Peter  III,  an  admirer  of  Frederick,  became  tsar, 
he  took  sides  with  Frederick  (truce  in  March,  peace 
5  May,  alliance  19  June).  It  was  also  an  advantage 
to  Frederick  that  Turkey  began  a  war  against  Austria. 
In  July,  1702,  Peter  III  was  succeeded  by  the  famous 
Catherine  II.  She  wished  to  have  a  European 
peace,  and  continually  urged  Maria  Theresa  to  yield. 
On  the  Rhine  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  continued  to 
keep  the  French  in  check.  As  the  French  were  also 
successful  in  their  war  with  England,  they  withdrew 
from  the  struggle  against  Frederick  by  the  prelimi- 
nary Peace  of  Fontainebleau  (3  Nov.,  1762).  The 
imperial  army  broke  up.  Finally  Austria  also  grew 
weary  of  the  struggle. 

On  1.5  Feb.,  176.3,  the  Peace  of  Hubertusburg  closed 
the  Austro-Prussian  war.  Frederick  retained  Silesia, 
but  made  no  new  acquisitions.  However,  his  per- 
sonal importance  and  the  respect  for  the  military 
prowess  of  Prussia  were  so  greatly  increased  that 
henceforth  Prussia  was  treated  by  the  other  coun- 
tries as  a  great  power.  After  this  Frederick's  ad- 
ministration was  a  peaceful  one.  He  was  able  to 
increase  his  realm  by  taking  part  in  the  First  Parti- 
tion of  Poland  (1772),  whereby  he  gained  Polish 
Prussia  with  the  exception  of  Danzig  and  Thorn.  The 
War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession  (1778-79),  which 
Frederick  declared  against  Austria  to  prevent  Bava- 
ria becoming  part  of  that  monarchy,  caused  but  little 
bloodshed.  In  the  Peace  of  Teschen  Austria  aban- 
doned all  claim  to  the  Bavarian  succession.  In  1781 
Frederick  took  part  in  the  "Naval  Alliance  of  Neutral 
Powers"  This  was  formed  by  Catherine  II,  and 
intended  mainly  to  limit  the  power  of  England  on 
the  Baltic,  but  it  was  of  small  importance.  It  should 
also  be  mentioned  that  in  1744  East  Frisia  became 
a,  part  of  Prussia  by  inheritance. 

The  most  important  measure  of  domestic  policy 
carried  out  by  Frederick  in  the  first  half  of  his  reign 
with  the  help  of  his  minister  Cocceji,  was  the  re- 
organization of  the  department  of  justice,  which  had 
been  ncKlc-cted  during  the  reign  of  his  father.  .Vfter  the 
Seven  ^'ears'  War  his  personal  influence  became  more 
manifest  in  the  other  departments  of  state.  It  must 
be  confessed,  however,  that  at  the  same  time  he 
obstinately  adhered  both  to  the  forms  and  principles 
of  government  that  he  had  inherited.  At  the  most  it 
was  only  in  isolated  eases  that  power  was  exercised 
with  moderation  or  that  the  administration  was  mod- 
ified in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  times,  although 
this  spirit,  animated  by  humanitarian  ideas  and  a 
tolerance  arising  from  indifference,  was  also  alive 
in  him.  He  even  exaggerated  many  of  the  objection- 
able sides  of  the  old  system  of  government.  He 
ruled  the  country  and  especially  the  new  provinces 
as  an  enlightened  despot,  exehisively  from  the  cabinet, 
though  as  a  writer  he  approved  of  Rousseau's  views 
as  set  down  in  the  "Social  Contract"  In  addition 
he  employed  the  higher  officials  as  if  they  were 
subalterns.  The  officials  throughout  the  country 
during  his  reign  developed  more  and  more  of  «  ten- 
dency to  treat  the  people  and  especially  the  middle 
classes  with  bureaucratic  contempt.  Though  proud 
of  their  ^■ietories  in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  the  people 
manifested  no  consciousness  of  their  belonging  to  a 
unified  Prussian  State.  It  is  true  that  in  the  last 
years  of  his  reign  Frederick  regarded  it  as  his  duty 
to  inspire  the  entire  Prussian  people  in  their  economic 
and  social  feelings  with  the  sense  of  their  direct  re- 
lations to  the  Government,  so  that  every  Prussian 
in  all  his  doings  should  have  in  view  not  only  his 


own  personal  advantage  but  also  the  welfare  and 
strengthening  of  the  state.  Practically,  however, 
this  idea  only  led  him  to  accentuate  the  social  dif- 
ferences, the  abolition  of  which  was  demanded  by 
the  needs  of  the  time.  At  the  end  of  his  reign  the 
Prussian  State,  of  which  he  was  more  than  ever  the 
monarch,  ended  just  as  at  the  beginning  of  this  rule, 
with  the  president  of  each  district.  As  regards  his 
economic  policy,  he  held  on  to  the  worn-out  mercan- 
tile system. 

The  great  errors  of  this  policy,  e.  g.  the  neglect  of 
agriculture,  the  failure  to  abolish  serfdom,  the  reten- 
tion of  the  double  system  of  taxation  (direct  for  the 
country  and  indirect  for  the  cities),  a  system  that 
paralyzed  all  economic  development,  the  maintenance 
of  the  excessively  high  system  of  protection  with  its 
many  internal  duties,  were  due  to  this  cause.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  many  of  his  failures,  such  as  the 
mercantile  enterprises  which  he  founded,  or  his  partial 
failures,  such  as  the  transfer  of  several  industries,  in 
particular  the  porcelain  and  silk  industries,  to  the 
leading  provinces  of  the  state.  His  adherence  to  the 
mercantile  system  of  economics  was  necessitated  by 
his  adherence  to  the  one-sided  conception  of  national 
finances  which  led  the  Prussian  Government  to  pro- 
vide for  the  economic  prosperity  of  the  population, 
with  the  intention  of  bringing  as  much  money  as 
possible  into  the  country  in  order  to  have  it  for  gov- 
ernment purposes.  Frederick,  therefore,  made  no 
changes  in  the  financial  theories  of  Prussian  policy. 
These  theories  led  him,  for  instance,  in  imitation  of 
French  fiscal  methods,  to  introduce  the  Regie,  i.  e. 
to  farm  out  the  customs  and  indirect  taxes,  and  to 
make  the  sale  of  tobacco,  coffee,  and  salt  absolute 
monopolies.  The  Regie  made  him  very  unpopular. 
It  is  all  the  more  surprising  that,  notwithstanding  the 
reactionary  character  of  his  internal  policy,  he  made 
the  country  politically  capable  of  performing  all  the 
unusual  tasks  that  he  imposed  on  it,  that  he  changed 
his  possessions  into  a  well-regulated  state,  and  that  he 
succeeded,  by  political  measures,  in  repairing  the 
terrible  injuries  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  a  com- 
paratively short  time.  Large  extents  of  moor-land 
and  swamp  were  brought  under  cultivation,  a  hundred 
thousand  colonists  were  settled  in  deserted  districts, 
and  the  revenues  yielded  by  manufacture  and  indus- 
try were  decidedly  increased.  The  great  estates  were 
aided  to  pay  off  their  debts  by  encouraging  union 
credit  associations,  and  Frederick  sought  to  regulate 
and  give  independence  to  the  circulation  of  money  by 
founding  the  Prussian  Bank.  In  harmony  with  the 
spirit  of  the  times  he  also  undertook  a  comprehensive 
codification  and  revision  of  the  laws  of  the  state,  which 
was  completed  after  his  death  and  culminated  in  the 
publication  of  the  general  "Prussian  Statute  Book" 
of  1794;   Suarez  was  the  chief  compiler. 

Towards  the  end  of  his  reign  he  encouraged  the 
efforts  made  on  behalf  of  the  Catholic  public  schools 
by  the  provost  Felbiger,  and  those  for  the  Protestants 
by  Freiherr  von  Zedlitz  and  the  cathedral  canon 
Rochow,  but  he  never  at  any  time  gave  the  schools 
sufficient  money.  The  new  code  laid  down  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  public  schools  were  a  state  organization. 
Frederick's  government,  internal  and  foreign,  was 
marked  by  a  mixture  of  strong  and  weak  character- 
istics. It  was  the  policy  of  a  man  of  genius  who  was 
entirely  devoted  to  his  task;  too  intellectual  and  en- 
lightened to  be  a  reactionary,  but  one  who  showed 
himself  greater  in  carrjdng  out  and  in  utilizing  the 
policies  of  his  predecessors,  than  in  establishing  what 
was  necessary  to  ensure  the  future  development  of  the 
state.  Great  as  were  his  achievements,  he  ended  by 
paralyzing  Prussia's  vital  powers  and  engaged  the 
resources  of  the  country  in  a  direction  opposed  to  its 
development.  Frederick  gave  Prussia  the  position 
of  a  Great  Power.  But,  outside  of  his  personal  im- 
portance, this  position  of  the  state  rested  exclusively 


PRUSSIA 


625 


PRUSSIA 


on  its  military  power,  not  yet,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
other  Great  Powers,  upon  the  area  of  the  country  and 
the  economic  efficiency  of  the  population.  Conse- 
quently, the  position  of  Prussia  as  a  Great  Power 
needed  to  be  placed  on  a  stronger  basis.  Its  people 
had  to  make  marked  advances  culturally,  and  develop 
a  real  national  spirit.  Furthermore,  the  effort  must 
be  made  to  bring  the  future  development  of  Prussia 
into  close  connexion  with  the  leading  movements  of 
the  coming  generation,  so  that  the  roots  of  its  life 
should  receive  fresh  nourishment.  Both  problems 
could  best  be  solved  by  furthering  the  transfer  to- 
wards the  west  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  Prussian 
states  already  begun  under  Frederick's  predecessors. 
This  western  development  of  his  territory  was  also  a 
policy  furthered  by  Frederick,  but  he  pursued  it  un- 
willingly and  oared  little  for  it.  By  this  one-sidedness 
he  lessened  his  services  to  Prussia  when  he  enlarged 
his  territories  in  the  district  of  the  Oder  and  Vistula, 
where  the  foundations  of  the  state  had  been  laid  during 
the  Middle  Ages. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  in  1757-58  the  coalition 
formed  against  him  would  have  cruslied  him  had  not 
Hanover  fought  on  his  side  and  given  him  the  strate- 
gic control  of  north-western  Germany.  As  even  after 
1763  he  regarded  Austria  as  the  deadly  enemy  of 
Prussia,  he  could  not  fail  to  see  that  for  strategic 
reasons  it  was  absolutely  necessary  for  Prussia  to  have 
the  whole  of  north-western  Germany  within  its 
sphere  of  influence;  but  he  did  nothing  to  attain  this 
end.  JMoreover,  he  could  not  abstain  from  interfering 
in  imperial  politics  in  order  to  keep  Austria  from  mak- 
ing southern  Germany  dependent  on  itself.  He,  there- 
fore, urged  on  the  War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession 
against  Austria  in  177S-79,  and  in  1783  was  for  a  time 
the  leader  of  the  "League  of  Princes"  formed  among 
the  German  princes  of  the  empire  against  Joseph  II. 
However,  all  imperial,  that  is  to  say,  German  politics 
were  distasteful  to  him.  By  his  example  he,  more  than 
any  one  else,  contributed  to  smother  all  interest  in  the 
empire  on  the  part  of  the  German  statesmen.  He  pre- 
ferred rather  to  rest  Prussian  policy  on  that  of  Russia, 
and  to  lay  his  poUtical  schemes  in  the  east  of  Europe. 
In  like  manner  in  his  internal  administration  he  delib- 
erately neglected  his  western  provinces,  although  it 
was  just  this  part  of  his  kingdom  that  lay  in  the 
centre  of  the  rising  economic  life  of  Europe,  and  con- 
tained, along  with  Silesia,  the  mineral  treasures  that 
in  the  future  were  to  make  the  country  and  its  popula- 
tion rich.  It  was  also  the  population  of  this  section 
that  was  to  prove  itself  unusually  energetic  and  ca- 
pable in  economic  life.  Fortunately  for  the  realm 
Frederick's  excellent  minister  of  commerce,  Heynitz, 
did  not  neglect  the  western  provinces.  In  these 
provinces  the  young  Freiherr  von  Stein  passed  the 
first  years  of  his  career  in  the  service  of  the  Govern- 
ment. During  Frederick's  reign  the  eastern  provinces 
of  Prussia  were  also  brought  into  connexion  with  the 
cultural  development  of  the  civihzation  of  Western 
Europe.  In  order  to  meet  the  growing  demand  of 
England  for  grain,  their  great  estates  were  worked  on 
a  capitalistic  basis.  The  younger  civil  officials  and 
nobility  admired  England  as  a  model  country  and 
were  full  of  interest  in  all  the  liberal  ideas  of  the  pe- 
riod. Prominent  among  these  was  Theodore  von 
Schon.  But  a  number  of  other  young  jurists  called 
for  a  constitution.  The  University  of  Konigsberg  had 
a  large  share  in  producing  this  development.  One  of 
its  professors,  Kraus,  a  political  economist,  spread  the 
theories  of  Adam  Smith;  another  professor  was  Kant, 
who  also  started  with  the  English  philosophy. 

During  Frederick's  reign  a  novel  element  found  its 
way  into  the  Prussian  State.  By  the  conquest  of 
Silesia,  Prussia  for  the  first  time  acquired  a  province 
that  was  predominantly  CathoUc;  in  annexing  Pohsh 
Prussia  it  annexed  one  that  was  half  Catholic.  Up 
to  then  the  only  Cathohcs  in  Prussia  were  a  few  in 


Cleve.  During  the  reign  of  the  Great  Elector,  CathoUc 
Ermland  also  became  a  part  of  Prussia,  but  this 
province  never  was  considered  of  much  importance. 
The  church  privileges  of  the  Catholics  here  as  there 
rested  upon  national  treaties.  As  a  rule  they  were 
respected.  However,  a  strict  watch  was  kept  that 
the  position  of  the  Catholics  should  be  an  exceptional 
one.  Attempts  to  introduce  Protestantism  among 
them  were  encouraged.  In  ecclesiastical  matters 
Frederick  followed  in  the  path  of  his  predecessors. 
Being  a  free-thinker  the  tolerance  of  his  predecessors, 
based  on  treaty  obligations,  became  under  him  a  policy 
merely  of  religious  indifference.  "In  my  kingdom, 
each  may  go  to  Heaven  after  his  own  fashion".  He 
provided  for  the  religious  and  educational  needs  even 
of  the  Catholics,  and  showed  favour  to  the  .Jesuits, 
Still,  in  his  reign  Catholics  were  not  allowed  to  hold 
office  except  inferior  one's.  In  its  foreign  policy  the 
State  remained  the  champion  of  Protestant  interests. 
This  policy  could  be  continued,  notwithstanding  the 
great  increase  in  the  number  of  Catholics,  because  the 
population  of  Prussia  was  accustomed  to  obey  the 
Government  without  claiming  any  rights  for  itself. 
In  the  course  of  time  difficulties  would  naturally  arise 
from  this  policy. 

IV.  When  Frederick  II  died  the  area  of  Prussia 
was  about  78,100  square  miles  and  its  population 
5,500,000.  Since  1740  the  annual  revenues  of  the  State 
had  risen  from  7,500,000  to  22,000,000  thalers;  the 
national  treasury  contained  54,000,000  thalers.  Fred- 
erick's successor,  his  nephew  Frederick  William  II 
(1786-97),  was  a  man  of  some  ability,  but  was  soon 
led  astray  by  his  taste  for  loose  living,  and  fell  under 
the  influence  of  bad  counsellors,  such  as  the  theologian 
and  Rosicruoian  von  Wollner,  and  Colonel  von 
Bischoffswerder.  Frederick  William  III  (1797-1S40) 
was  a  man  without  much  ability,  somewhat  Uke  a 
subordinate  official  in  instinct,  of  good  intentions  but 
little  force.  In  consequence  of  the  Revolution  whose 
spirit  spread  throughout  Europe  the  demands  of  the 
new  era  made  themselves  heard  in  Prussia  also.  Both 
the  ministry  and  the  cabinet  were  constantly  occupied 
with  plans  for  reform,  but  there  was  a  lack  of  united 
and  harmonious  working  and  of  ability  to  come  to  a 
decision.  Dangerous  agitations  arose  among  the  civil 
officials.  Government  by  the  cabinet  became  intoler- 
able to  the  ministers,  as  the  administration  was  no 
longer  exercised  by  the  king  himself  but  by  the  secre- 
taries of  the  cabinet,  who  during  this  reign  were  von 
Beyme,  Lombard,  and  Mencken.  Thus  the  zeal  for 
reform  only  increased  the  dissatisfaction,  and  very 
little  was  accomplished.  In  foreign  politics  Frederick 
William  II  disavowed  the  opposition  to  Austria  when 
he  signed  the  Reiohenbach  Convention  of  27  July, 
1790,  with  the  Emperor  Leopold  II.  In  1792  he  even 
became  an  ally  of  Leopold's  in  the  war  with  France, 
in  order  to  combat  the  "principles"  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. His  army,  however,  accomplished  but  little  in 
this  war,  and  on  5  April,  1795,  he  signed  a  separate 
treaty  of  peace  with  France  at  Basle,  thus  deserting 
Austria.  For  a  number  of  years  following  this  treaty 
he  and  his  successor,  Frederick  William  III,  pursued  a 
policy  of  neutrality  in  the  great  events  of  Western 
Europe.  Still  they  sought  to  gain  advantages  out  of 
them.  According  to  the  Treaty  of  Basle,  Frederick 
William  II  agreed  with  France  upon  a  line  of  demarca- 
tion by  which  nearly  all  of  northern  Germany  was 
declared  neutral  under  the  protection  of  Prussia. 
Prussia  worked  energetically  for  the  secularization  of 
the  Catholic  ecclesiastical  principalities,  and  by  agree- 
ment with  France  in  1802  obtained  the  Dioceses  of 
Paderborn,  Pulda,  a  part  of  Miinster,  Eiohsfeld,  the 
domains  of  several  abbeys,  and  the  cities  of  Erfurt 
and  Dortmund;  the  decision  of  the  imperial  delega- 
tion of  1803  confirmed  it  in  the  possession  of  these 
territories. 

Prussia  kept  a  close  watch  upon  the  fate  of  Hanover 


PRUSSIA 


526 


PRUSSIA 


in  the  wars  between  Napoleon  and  England,  being 
desirous  to  annex  Hanover  it  possible.  For  a  consider- 
able length  of  time  Napoleon  tempted  Prussia  by 
holding  out  the  hope  of  this  acquisition,  and  in  1806 
by  the  plan  of  a  North  German  Confederation  of 
which  Prussia  was  to  be  the  leader,  Frederick  William 
II  even  sought  to  gain  territory  in  southern  Germany. 
By  an  agreement  made  with  the  HohenzoUern  Line 
of  southern  Ciermany  he  obtained  in  1791  the  Prin- 
cipalities of  Ansbach  and  Bayreuth;  in  1796  he  made 
an  unexpected  attack  upon  Nuremberg  but  soon 
vacated  it.  None  of  these  undertakings  were  con- 
ducted with  much  energy  or  with  any  clearly-defined 
end  in  view,  for  at  the  same  time  the  pohtical  plans 
of  Prussia  in  Eastern  Europe  exceeded  her  strength. 
Not  only  did  Prussia  obtain  Danzig  and  Thorn  in  the 
Second  Partition  of  Poland  (1792),  but  in  the  Third 
Partition  (1795)  she  acquired  the  central  basin  of  the 
Vistula,  with  Warsaw  as  its  capital.  Prussia  now  in- 
cluded the  entire  basins  of  the  Oder  and  Vistula.  But 
it  was  no  longer  possible  to  make  the  eastern  terri- 
tories the  preponderating  part  of  the  State.  Besides 
the  coimtry  was  now  half  Slavonic,  and  the  majority 
of  its  inhabitants  were  henceforward  to  be  Catholic. 
The  old  Prussian  territories  had  by  this  time  been 
brought  to  a  higher  state  of  culture  and  had  become 
in  some  measure  capable  of  meeting  the  demands 
made  upon  them.  The  State  now  undertook  another 
task:  this  was  to  bring  the  demorahzed  Polish  prov- 
inces into  order,  to  organize  them,  bring  them  to 
economic  prosperity,  and  give  them  civil  officials  and 
teachers.  In  1806  Prussia  became  involved  in  a  war 
with  Napoleon,  which  made  evident  the  confusion  of 
its  internal  affairs,  and  its  lack  of  strength.  Its  army, 
led  by  the  grey-haired  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  was 
cut  to  pieces  in  the  battles  of  Jena  and  Auerstadt, 
fought  on  the  same  day  (14  Oct.),  after  a  skirmish  at 
Saalfeld;  Prince  Louis  Ferdinand  died  18  October. 
Most  of  the  fortresses  capitulated  without  any  real 
resistance.  The  bureaucracy  of  government  officials 
lost  its  head  and  acted  in  a  cowardly  manner.  The 
people  were  apathetic.  The  king,  however,  made  some 
resistance,  with  the  aid  of  Russia.  Napoleon  wished 
to  make  an  end  of  Prussia  as  a  State,  and  only  the 
intercession  of  Russia  preserved  for  the  HohenzoUern 
dynasty  a  part  at  least  of  its  territories.  By  the  Peace 
of  Tilsit,  9  July,  1807,  Prussia  lost  the  Franconian 
provinces  and  all  those  west  of  the  Elbe,  as  well  as 
the  Polish  acquisitions  outside  of  Polish  Prussia. 
Moreover,  French  troops  were  garrisoned  in  the  dis- 
tricts still  remaining  to  it,  and  an  enormous  war  in- 
demnity was  demanded  (Convention  of  Konigsberg, 
12  July,  1807). 

However,  Prussia's  terrible  humiliation,  notwith- 
standing all  its  mournful  results,  first  opened  the  way 
for  the  exercise  of  those  energies  of  the  country  that 
had  been  until  now  suppressed.  The  king  showed 
great  endurance  in  his  misfortunes.  His  wife  Louise 
made  herself  the  intermediary  between  him  and  the 
men  from  whom  the  restoration  of  the  country  was  to 
come.  During  the  war  Scharnhorst  the  future  re- 
organizer  of  the  Prussian  army  had  had  his  first 
opportunity  to  distinguish  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Eylau,  7-8  February,  1807.  In  the  winter  of  1806-07 
the  philosopher  Fichte  delivered  his  celebrated  "ad- 
dresses to  the  German  nation"  at  Berlin.  In  the 
spring  of  1807  the  king  appointed  Count  Hardenburg, 
a  native  of  Hanover,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  but 
was  obliged  to  dismiss  him  in  July  at  Napoleon's 
bidding;  the  count,  however,  still  continued  to  advise 
the  king.  Shortly  after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  Scharn- 
horst was  given  charge  of  military  affairs.  From  this 
time  the  army  consisted  only  of  natives  of  the  king- 
dom, the  soldiers  were  better  treated,  a  thorough  edu- 
cation was  required  from  those  desiring  to  become 
officers,  and  the  people  were  gradually  accustomed  to 
the  idea  of  universal  military  service,  until  it  was  in- 


troduced by  the  law  of  3  Sept.,  1814.  On  5  October, 
1807,  Freiherr  von  Stoin,  a  native  of  Nassau,  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  all  the  internal  affairs  of  Prussia. 
With  his  appointment  the  real  reform  minister  came 
into  power.  He  was  able  to  retain  his  position  only  a 
year,  but  this  sufficed  to  impress  on  the  legislation  of 
the  time  a  character  of  grandeur,  although  he  could 
not  control  its  details.  Stein  found  the  kingdom  re- 
duced in  reaUty  to  the  present  province  of  East 
Prussia,  and  there  the  liberal  officials  were  already 
preparing  radical  changes.  The  law  of  9  Oct.,  1807, 
was  already  enacted,  according  to  which  the  peasant 
serfs  were  declared  free;  every  Prussian  was  authorized 
to  hold  landed  property  and  to  follow  any  occupation 
he  chose.  Stein  only  signed  the  decree.  The  law 
made  it  necessary  to  readjust  all  peasant  holdings  and 
tlie  taxes  upon  them.  This  readjustment  dragged 
on  during  a  number  of  years,  and  was  not  finally  com- 
pleted until  the  middle  of  the  century. 

After  Stein's  retirement  this  measure  frequently 
proved  the  economic  ruin  of  the  peasants.  Another 
consequence  of  this  law,  as  completed  by  the  law  on 
trade  taxation,  Oct.,  1810,  and  by  the  Edict  of  7  Sept., 
1811,  was  the  adoption  by  Prussia  of  liberty  of  occu- 
pation. Prussia  led  the  way  in  this  reform  in  Germany. 
Stein's  chief  personal  interest  was  in  the  reform  of  the 
constitution  and  of  the  administration.  His  desire 
was  to  create  a  union  between  the  Government  and  the 
people  that  was  then  lacking,  to  awaken  in  the  Gov- 
ernment officials  a  spirit  of  initiative  and  responsibil- 
ity, to  enkindle  in  Prussia  popular  sentiment  for 
Germany.  The  lesser  offices  in  Prussia  were  to  be 
divided  into  two  classes;  the  former  following  the 
historical  and  geographical  divisions  of  the  country 
(provinces,  circles,  communes) ;  the  second  deter- 
mined wholly  by  the  needs  of  the  Government  (Regie- 
rungsbezirke) .  The  duties  of  the  former  were  to  be 
performed  by  administrative  bodies,  who  were  to  act 
as  the  representatives  or  as  the  deputies  of  the  people; 
the  latter  by  government  officials.  With  the  admin- 
istrative body,  in  some  cases,  a  government  official 
was  associated  (provincial  president);  in  other  oases 
certain  government  duties  were  confided  to  their  heads 
(Landrdt,  Biirgermeister) .  On  the  other  hand  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people  were  to  have  a  share  in  the 
Government,  and  in  the  course  of  time,  as  a  counter- 
poise to  the  ministerial  bureaucracy,  the  members  of 
the  national  diet  were  to  be  elected  from  the  pro- 
vincial diets.  Stein  substantially  gave  the  franchise 
only  to  land  owners.  He  desired  that  the  people  in 
general  should  be  prepared  for  taking  part  in  the 
Government  by  the  schools  and  universities.  Freedom 
of  action  was  to  be  restored  to  the  state  officials  by 
putting  an  end  to  cabinet  government,  and  giving 
each  minister  the  independent  administration  of  his 
own  department.  Personally,  Stein  was  only  able  to 
initiate  these  reforms  by  the  municipal  legislation  of 
19  Nov.,  1808,  and  the  "laws  on  the  changed  constitu- 
tion of  the  highest  administration  of  the  realm"  of 
24  Nov.,  1808.  His  fiery  temperament  and  his  strong 
German  sympathies  made  him  too  impatient.  To- 
gether with  Scharnhorst  he  planned  measures  to  rouse 
the  German  people  for  a  war  against  Napoleon.  Con- 
sequently he  was  obliged  to  resign.  Moreover,  he  did 
not  sufficiently  gauge  the  peculiarities  of  Prussia,  par- 
ticularistic, dynastic,  and  bureaucratic.  His  work, 
however,  did  not  perish. 

In  1810  the  University  of  Berlin  was  founded  as  the 
great  national  centre  of  education;  in  1811  the  Uni- 
versity of  Breslau.  In  1810  Hardenberg  re-entered  the 
Government  and  a  chancellor  carried  on  the  work  of 
reform  systematically  until  his  death  in  1822.  He 
skilfully  managed  the  king  and  accommodated  him- 
self to  the  peculiarities  of  the  Prussian  character:  like 
Stein  he  thoroughly  believed  in  the  necessity  of  a  com- 
plete reconstruction  of  the  State.  He  made  special 
efforts  to  reform  the  system  of  taxation,  but  he  was 


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PRUSSIA 


not  able  to  do  this  at  once.  In  1810  and  1815  he  even 
promised  to  call  a  national  parliament.  After  his  own 
fashion  he  liberalized  or  bureaucratized  Stein's  plans, 
often  taking  the  Napoleonic  legislation  for  his  model. 
Only  the  opposition  of  the  Prussian  nobility  pre- 
vented him  from  sacrificing  the  very  corner-stone  of 
Stein's  reform  of  the  administration  (1812)  by  sub- 
stituting the  French  system  of  prefecture  and  munici- 
pality for  the  self-governing  institutions  of  district 
and  city.  These  reforms  led  to  the  awakening  of  a 
sense  of  nationality  both  in  the  educated  classes  and 
the  common  people;  and  when  in  1813  Napoleon  re- 
turned defeated  from  Russia  the  whole  population  of 
Prussia  rose  of  their  own  accord  for  king  and  country, 
and  also  for  the  liberation  of  Germany  about  which  the 
kings  had  not  concerned  themselves. 

During  the  War  of  Liberation  of  1813-14  and  1815 
the  Prussian  army  had  a  large  share  in  the  overthrow 
of  Napoleon.  At  the  Peace  of  Paris  (20  May,  1814) 
and  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  which  rearranged  the 
map  of  Europe,  Hardenberg  represented  Prussia.  He 
desired  to  form  a  permanent  agreement  in  policy 
between  Prussia  and  Austria,  while  the  king  preferred 
to  join  his  interests  with  those  of  Russia.  At  the 
important  moment  (Nov.,  1814)  the  king  decided 
against  his  minister,  whereby  a  fresh  European  war 
was  nearly  kindled.  The  question  was  whether  the 
greater  part  of  western  Poland  should  henceforth  be- 
long to  Russia,  and  what  compensation  Prussia  should 
receive  for  its  share  of  Poland.  Russia  was  successful, 
and  only  Polish  Prussia  and  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Posen  were  given  to  Prussia.  As  a  compensation  for 
the  loss  of  Warsaw,  Prussia  demanded  Saxony.  Owing 
to  Austria's  opposition  it  received  only  the  present 
Prussian  province  of  Saxony  and,  instead  of  the  re- 
mainder of  Saxony,  the  Westphalian  and  Rhenish 
provinces,  where  before  1802  it  had  possessed  only 
small  districts.  Austria  hoped  that  in  this  way 
Prussia  would  be  so  entangled  in  Western  Europe  that 
it  could  no  longer  pursue  a  policy  of  neutrality,  such 
as  it  had  adopted  after  the  Treaty  of  Basle.  By  this 
means,  however,  the  centre  of  gravity  of  Prussia  was 
completely  shifted  towards  Western  Europe.  Hence- 
forth Prussia  could  scarcely  give  up  the  mihtary  con- 
trol of  northern  Germany;  should  opposition  arise,  it 
must  endeavour  to  incorporate  into  its  own  territories 
the  districts  between  its  eastern  and  western  provinces. 
It  soon  felt  the  temptation  to  become  the  leader  of 
Germany,  especially  as  Austria  at  the  same  time  gave 
up  its  old  possessions  in  Swabia  and  on  the  Rhine,  and 
had  no  longer  any  territories  in  Germany.  In  1814-15 
the  area  of  Prussia  was  increased  to  108,000  square 
miles,  and  its  population  reached  10,500,000.  The 
geographical  and  political  changes  which  took  place 
in  1807  - 15,  years  of  suffering  and  war,  had  been 
too  rapid.  Much  remained  to  be  done.  Reactionary 
forces  asserted  themselves  once  more.  Until  1840 
old  and  new  ideas  struggled  against  each  other,  even 
among  the  ruling  statesmen.  The  reactionary  ten- 
dencies, especially  of  the  era  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
reappeared  with  the  king's  approval. 

However,  government  by  cabinet  order  was  not 
re-established.  The  higher  officials,  who  under 
Frederick  the  Great  had  been  the  king's  executive 
tools,  now  practically  carried  on  the  Government  in 
the  name  of  the  king.  The  minister  Nagler  spoke 
of  "the  Umited  inteUigence  of  the  subject"-  The 
promise  to  call  a  national  representative  assembly 
was  Umited  to  the  case  of  the  State  needing  a  national 
loan;  but  care  was  taken  that  no  such  necessity  oc- 
curred. The  Prussian  Government  not  only  took 
part  in  all  the  attempts  of  Austria  and  Russia  since 
1818  to  suppress  all  revolutionary  and  politically 
liberal  movements  among  the  people,  but  even  showed 
the  greatest  zeal  and  severity  in  doing  so;  e.  g.  the 
persecution  of  student  societies,  the  imprisonment  of 
Jahn,  the  order  forbidding  Arndt  to  lecture,  and  the 


expulsion  of  Gorres  from  Germany.  Partly  through 
attachment  to  the  king,  with  whom  they  had  been 
united  in  common  sufferings  and  partly  because  of  the 
generally  excellent  behaviour  of  the  officials,  the 
people  of  the  old  Prussian  provinces  maintained  an 
attitude  of  expectancy.  With  the  new  provinces, 
however,  serious  friction  arose.  Having  belonged  to 
France  during  the  years  1795-1814,  these  provinces 
had  grown  accustomed  to  democratic  forms  and  fre- 
quently had  a  racial  dislike  to  Prussians.  The  strug- 
gle began  with  the  question  whether  the  Prussian 
statute-book  should  replace  the  French  "Code 
civile"  in  the  province  of  the  Rhine.  The  conflict 
was  intensified  by  the  appointment  of  many  old 
Prussian  officials  to  positions  in  the  Rhineland  and 
was  greatly  augmented  by  quarrels  about  methods 
of  Church  government  and  the  claims  of  the  State  in 
matters  of  religion.  The  territories  annexed  in  1814- 
15  were  mostly  peopled  by  Catholics.  Hitherto  the 
State  had  controlled  the  Catholic  Church  authorities 
of  the  kingdom  in  the  same  way  as  the  Protestants. 
This  not  only  aroused  the  opposition  of  the  demo- 
cratically-inclined Rhenish  provinces,  but  also  excited 
the  resistance  of  the  new  western  Catholic  move- 
ment, which,  without  much  regard  to  diplomacy, 
strove  to  secure  complete  liberty  for  the  Church 
by  vigorous  defence  of  her  rights. 

The  question  in  what  cases  it  was  the  duty  of  the 
Catholic  priest  to  bless  mixed  marriages  was  the 
accidental  but  highly  opportune  occasion  of  bringing 
the  matter  to  an  issue.  The  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
von  Droste  zu  Vischering,  led  the  opposition.  The 
Prussian  Government  imprisoned  him  in  a  fortress 
as  a  "disobedient  servant  of  the  state".  A  powerful 
popular  commotion  throughout  the  Rhine  country 
was  the  result;  this  gained  its  echo  in  a  Polish  na- 
tional movement  in  Posen,  where  Archbishop  Dunin 
resisted  the  marriage  laws  and  was  arrested.  Suc- 
cess was  on  the  side  of  the  Catholics  and  the  new 
provinces.  But  alongside  of  these  after  effects  of  the 
spirit  of  Frederick  II  the  Stein-Hardenberg  policy 
continued  to  gain  ground,  especially  after  1815.  The 
reform  of  taxation  was  now  carried  through  under 
the  direction  of  the  statistician  J.  G.  Hoffmann. 
Organization  of  the  provinces  was  completed,  and  an 
edict  granting  provincial  diets  was  issued  in  1823. 
General  communal  legislation  was  postponed  because 
the  economic  and  social  conditions  of  the  eastern 
and  western  provinces  still  differed  widely.  Allen- 
stein  and  Johannes  Schulze  did  much  for  education. 
Under  the  lead  of  the  king,  the  Government  compelled 
the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  churches; 
in  order  to  give  the  union  a  firm  basis,  a  new  liturgy 
was  issued  in  1821.  The  old  Lutherans  who  opposed 
the  union  of  the  two  denominations  were  subjected  to 
severe  pohce  restraint.  By  the  Papal  Bull  "  De  salute 
animarum",  and  the  Brief  "Quod  de  fidelium", 
two  Catholic  church  provinces  were  erected  16  July, 
1821:  the  Archidocese  of  Gnesen-Posen,  with  the 
suffragan  Diocese  of  Culm;  and  the  Archdiocese  of 
Cologne,  with  Trier,  Miinster,  and  Paderborn  as 
suffragans.  In  addition  the  exempt  Bishoprics  of 
Breslau  and  Ermland  were  established.  The  bish- 
ops were  to  be  elected  by  the  cathedral  chapters, 
but  were  to  be  directed  by  the  pope  not  to  choose  any 
person  not  acceptable  to  the  king.  The  endowment 
of  the  bishoprics  with  landed  estates  proposed  in 
1803  was  not  carried  out;  hitherto  the  State  has  pro- 
vided yearly  subventions  in  accordance  with  the 
budget  of  the  ministry  of  worship.  Prussia's  great- 
est progress  at  this  time  was  in  the  field  of  political 
economy.  The  post  office  was  well  organized  by 
Postmaster-General  Nagler. 

By  the  law  of  26  May,  1818,  Prussia  changed  from 
a  prohibitive  high  tariff'  to  a  low  tariff  system,  almost 
completely  suppressed  the  taxes  on  exports,  and 
maintained  a  high  duty  only  on  goods  in  transit. 


PRUSSIA 


528 


PRUSSIA 


It  thereby  simplified  its  administration  of  the  cus- 
toms, and  made  business  easier  for  its  subjects,  but 
the  law  fell  heavily  on  the  provinces  belonging  to 
other  German  states  that  were  surrounded  by  Prus- 
sian territory,  and  gradually  effected  the  states  of 
middle  and  southern  Germany,  whose  traffic  with  the 
North  Sea  and  the  Baltic  had  to  be  carried  on  across 
Prussian  territory.  After  violent  disputes  a  Zoll- 
verein  (customs  union)  was  gradually  formed;  the 
first  to  join  with  Prussia  in  such  a  union  were  the 
smaller  states  of  Northern  Germany,  beginning  with 
Sondershausen  in  1819;  in  1828  Hesse-Darmstadt; 
in  1831  Electoral  Hesse;  from  1  Jan.,  1834,  the 
kingdoms  of  Southern  Germany,  Saxony,  and  the 
customs  and  commercial  union  of  the  Thuringian 
States.  By  the  beginning  of  1836  Baden,  Nassau, 
and  Frankfort  had  also  joined.  With  the  exception 
of  the  non-Prussian  north-western  districts,  besides 
Mecklenburg  and  the  Hanseatic  cities,  all  non-Aus- 
trian Germany  was  now  economically  under  Prussian 
hegemony.  The  different  states  joined  the  Zoll- 
verein  by  terminable  agreements.  Each  of  the 
larger  states  retained  its  own  customs  administra- 
tion ;  changes  in  the  Zollverein  could  only  be  made  by 
a  unanimous  vote.  These  states  simply  agreed  in 
their  economic  policy  and  in  the  administration  of 
the  customs.  They  did  not  form  a  unified  Germany 
from  an  economic  point  of  view.  The  men  who 
deserve  the  chief  credit  for  the  establishment  of  the 
Zollverein  are  Motz  (d.  1830)  and  his  successor 
Nassen.  From  the  first,  Prussia  was  determined  that 
Austria  should  not  be  admitted  as  a  member  of  the 
new  customs  union.  Politically  this  union  did  not 
bring  its  members  into  closer  alliance,  but  it  was  prob- 
ably the  cause  of  a  great  increase  of  their  economic 
prosperity.  The  greatest  benefit  from  it  was  gained 
by  the  Prussian  Rhenish  provinces.  Consequently 
the  trading  element  of  the  Rhineland,  generally 
Liberal  in  politics,  gradually  grew  friendly  to  the 
Prussian  Government ;  it  hoped  to  be  able  to  dictate 
Prussia's  economic  policy  in  the  course  of  time.  The 
result  was  that  political  conditions  within  the  country 
improved.  In  all  its  other  relations  to  the  newly- 
acquired  provinces  the  State  had  been  forced  to  give 
way  (e.  g.  the  continued  existence  of  the  "Code 
civile")  or  would  have  to  in  the  future  (e.  g.  in  its 
ecclesiastical  policy).  Now  the  Rhenish  provinces 
began  to  divide  politically.  The  State  was  further- 
more consolidated  by  gaining  the  sympathetic  sup- 
port of  the  teachers  and  professors  as  an  after  effect 
of  the  patriotic  movement  in  the  War  of  Liberation 
and  partly  owing  to  its  energy  in  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion. The  Prussian  political  system,  of  meddling 
with  everything,  perhaps  justified  by  necessity,  was 
at  this  time  philosophically  defended  and  glorified 
by  the  philosopher  Hegel. 

V.  Frederick  William  IV  (1840-61)  in  his  youth 
had  enthusiastically  taken  part  in  the  War  of  Libera- 
tion, and  afterwards  in  all  the  efforts  for  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  State.  His  character  was  inconsis- 
tent; while  a  man  of  ability,  he  was  subject  to  the 
influence  of  others.  Soon  after  his  accession  he 
conciliated  the  Catholics  (Johann  Geissel  as  coadjutor 
of  Cologne;  establishment  of  a  Catholic  department 
in  the  Ministry  of  Worship  and  Education).  Al- 
though personally  a  Conservative,  he  appointed  some 
moderate  Liberals  to  places  of  prominence.  He  first 
called  forth  opposition  among  the  doctrinaire  and 
radical  elements  of  the  eastern  provinces  by  con- 
demning their  ideas  of  popular  sovereignty  and  popu- 
lar representation  on  the  occasion  of  his  coronation 
at  Konigsberg.  In  accordance  with  Stein's  original 
plan  he  intended  to  give  to  Prussia  a  legislature  chosen 
by  the  several  provincial  diets.  Too  much  time  was 
spent  in  discussion  without  coming  to  any  decision. 
In  the  meantime  the  western  provinces  also  joined 
the  movement  for  more  liberal  institutions,  largely 


as  a  consequence  of  the  debates  in  the  provincial 
diet  of  the  Rhine,  in  1845.  The  restlessness  was 
increased  by  economic  distress,  especially  among 
the  weavers  of  Silesia,  by  contradictory  ordinances 
issued  by  the  Government,  and  by  the  discovery  of  a 
national  Polish  conspiracy  in  the  province  of  Posen. 
Finally  in  Feb.,  1847,  the  king  summoned  to  Beriin 
a  "first  united  diet",  composed  of  all  the  provincial 
diets.  The  authority  of  the  united  diets  was  to  be 
small,  its  future  sittings  were  to  depend  on  the 
pleasure  of  the  king.  The  more  liberal  element  of  the 
eastern  provinces  wished  to  reject  this  diet  as  in- 
sufficient. The  more  politic  liberals  of  the  western 
provinces,  however,  gained  the  victory  for  the  new 
diet,  for  they  hoped  in  this  way  to  attain  to  power 
in  the  State.  The  united  diet  was  opened  11  April, 
1847.  Passionate  differences  of  opinion  showed 
themselves  in  the  debates  over  the  wording  of  an 
address  to  the  king,  in  which,  although  moderately 
expressed,  the  demand  for  such  a  "national  parlia- 
ment" as  had  been  promised  in  1815  was  put  forth. 
Motions  made  in  favour  of  the  granting  of  a  national 
parliament,  and  finally  the  refusal  of  the  diet  to  take 
decisive  action  on  a  proposed  railroad  loan,  so  an- 
gered the  king  that  he  closed  the  sessions  of  the  diet 
towards  the  end  of  June.  Throughout  the  country 
the  movement  to  obtain  a  parliamentary  chamber 
directly  elected  by  the  people  was  kept  up. 

When  in  March,  1848,  there  was  danger  that  the 
revolution  would  break  out  in  Prussia,  on  7  March 
the  king  made  the  concession  that  the  united  diet 
should  meet  every  fourth  year.  On  14  March  he 
summoned  the  second  united  diet  to  meet  at  the  end 
of  April,  but  he  was  not  willing  to  concede  the  elec- 
tion by  the  people  and  a  written  constitution.  On 
15  March  barricades  were  built  in  the  streets  of 
Berlin.  On  the  evening  of  17  March  the  king  de- 
cided to  grant  a  constitution,  to  set  the  date  of  the 
assembling  of  the  second  united  diet  for  2  April, 
and  to  take  part  in  the  movement  for  forming  a 
German  national  state.  Notwithstanding  the  an- 
nouncement of  this  decision,  bloody  fighting  broke 
out  in  the  streets  of  Berlin  18  March.  The  next 
day  the  king  withdrew  the  troops  who  were  con- 
fronting those  in  revolt.  In  Posen  the  Poles  gained 
control  of  the  Government,  while  the  Rhine  province 
threatened  to  separate  from  Prussia  and  to  become 
the  first  province  of  the  future  united  Germany. 
On  20  March  Frederick  William  announced  that 
Prussia  would  devote  its  entire  strength  to  the  move- 
ment for  a  united  Germany,  and  to  maintaining  the 
rights  of  Germany  in  Schleswig  and  Holstein  by  war 
with  Denmark.  At  the  end  of  the  month  the  king 
entrusted  the  Government  to  the  Rhenish  Liberals. 
The  brief  session  of  the  second  united  diet  had  for  a 
time  a  quieting  effect,  the  Radical  element  predom- 
inated in  the  Prussian  National  Assembly  which 
opened  22  May,  and  the  king's  ministers,  chosen 
from  the  Rhenish  Liberals,  were  not  able  to  keep 
it  in  check.  During  the  summer  the  Conservative 
element,  especially  that  of  the  old  Prussian  provinces, 
bestirred  itself  and  held  the  "Junker  Parliament"; 
founded  the  "Kreuzzeitung",  and  won  influence  over 
the  masses  by  appealing  to  the  sentiments  of  Prussian 
particularism  and  loyalty  to  the  king.  When  the 
Radioalls  favoured  street  riots,  sought  to  place  the 
army  under  the  control  of  parliament,  and  resolved 
upon  the  abolition  of  the  nobility,  of  kingship  by  the 
grace  of  God,  and  demanded  that  the  Government 
should  support  the  revolutionary  party  in  Vienna, 
the  king  dismissed  his  Rhenish  ministers.  In  the 
German  movement  also  they  had,  in  his  opinion,  failed. 
The  war  in  Schleswig-Holstein  had  brought  Prussia 
into  a  dangerous  European  position  (Armistice  of 
Malmo,  26  Aug.,  1848). 

The  king  now  commissioned  Count  Brandenburg 
on  2  Nov.  to  form  a  Conservative  ministry.    The  most 


PRUSSIA 


529 


PRUSSIA 


important  places  in  it  were  given  to  men  from  the  old 
Prussian  provinces.  On  9  Nov.,  1848,  the  National 
Assembly  was  adjourned  and  removed  from  Berlin. 
Martial  law  was  proclaimed  in  the  city.  On  5  Dec. 
the  National  Assembly  was  dissolved,  and  a  constitu- 
tion was  pubUshed  on  the  king's  sole  authority. 
Nearly  all  the  Liberal  demands  of  the  National  Assem- 
bly were  granted  in  it,  and  the  upper  and  lower  houses 
of  parliament  provided  for.  Much  was  done  to  meet 
the  demand  of  the  Catholics  for  the  complete  liberty 
of  the  Church.  After  the  failure  of  the  Rhenish 
Liberal  Government,  the  king  hoped  for  support  from 
the  Catholics  of  the  western  provinces,  and  this  was 
at  first  given.  In  order  to  satisfy  public  opinion  a 
series  of  laws,  intended  to  meet  Liberal  wishes,  was 
promulgated  in  the  course  of  the  next  few  weeks.  In 
accordance  with  the  recently  imposed  constitution,  a 
new  chamber  of  deputies  was  immediately  elected  and 
opened  26  Feb.,  1849,  in  order  that  it  might  express 
its  opinion  on  the  Constitution.  However  it  came  to  no 
agreement  with  the  Government.  The  three-class 
system  of  election,  which  is  still  in  force,  was  now 
introduced  for  elections  to  the  second  chamber.  In 
each  election  district  all  voters  who  pay  taxes  are 
divided  into  three  classes,  so  that  one-third  of  the 
taxes  is  paid  by  each  class;  each  class  elects  the  same 
number  of  electors,  and  these  electors  elect  the  dep- 
uties. Upon  this  the  Radicals  abstained  from  voting. 
The  Conservatives  were  in  the  majority  in  the  new 
chamber.  The  revision  of  the  Constitution  could  now 
be  proceeded  with,  and  it  was  proclaimed  on  31  Jan., 
1850.  According  to  its  provisions  Prussia  was  to  be 
a  constitutional  kingdom  with  a  diet  of  two  chambers; 
great  power  was  left  to  the  Crown,  which  was  moreover 
favoured  by  obscurities  and  omissions  in  the  docu- 
ment .  After  the  convulsions  of  1848  Prussia  had  much 
need  of  rest.  During  this  year  the  course  of  the  Ger- 
man national  movement  had,  however,  excited  the 
hopes  of  the  king  that  Germany  would  acquire  the 
unity  which  even  he  desired  to  see,  and  that  Prussia 
would,  as  a  result  of  this  unity,  be  the  leader  of  the 
German  national  armies,  or  perhaps  control  the  new 
state. 

The  Liberals  were  estranged  from  the  king  in  the 
autumn  of  1S48,  and  the  wish  was  frankly  expressed, 
if  not  fulfilled,  that  the  future  constitution  of  Germany 
should  be  decided  in  agreement  with  Austria,  and  if 
possible  in  agreement  with  aE  other  German  princes. 
These  difficulties  led  the  king  to  decline  the  German 
imperial  crown  when  it  was  offered  to  him  by  the 
Frankfort  assembly  in  April,  1848.  He  would  not 
accept  it  from  a  parUament  claiming  its  power  from 
the  sovereignty  of  the  people.  Soon  after  this,  in- 
fluenced by  General  Radowitz,  he  himself  decided  to 
open  new  negotiations  on  the  question  of  German 
unity.  The  intention  was  that  Prussia  should  unite 
with  other  German  states  that  were  ready  to  join  in  a 
confederation  called  the  "union",  and  that  the  union 
should  adopt  a  constitution  and  have  a  diet.  This 
confederation  was  to  form  a  further  indissoluble  union 
with  Austria,  by  which  each  should  bind  itself  to 
assist  the  other  in  defending  its  territories.  As 
Prussia  had  aided  the  prinoipahties  of  central  Germany 
to  suppress  internal  revolts  in  the  spring  of  1849,  these 
countries  did  not  at  first  venture  to  disagree  with 
Prussia,  as  appears  from  the  agreement  of  26  May 
with  Saxony  and  Hanover,  called  the  "union  of  the 
three  kings"  Nearly  all  the  smaller  principalities 
joined  also.  Bavaria,  however,  refused  to  enter  the 
union,  and  Austria  worked  against  this  plan.  In  the 
summer  of  1849  Austria  proposed  to  the  Prussian 
Government  that  the  two  powers  should  revive  the 
old  German  Confederation  which  had  been  cast  aside 
the  year  before,  and  should  henceforth  lead  it  in  com- 
mon ("Interim",  30  Sept.,  1849).  Russia,  which  had 
generally  supported  Prussia,  now  upheld  Austria. 
Nevertheless  the  king,  although  much  opposed  by 
XII.— 34 


members  of  his  Government,  persisted  in  his  scheme 
of  a  union.  The  constitution  planned  for  the  union 
was  laid  before  a  diet  of  the  principalities  belonging 
to  the  union,  summoned  to  meet  at  Erfurt. 

The  Diet  in  session  from  20  March  to  29  April, 
1850,  accepted  the  Constitution.  Upon  this  Aus- 
tria encouraged  the  states  of  central  Germany  to 
form  a  confederation  among  themselves  to  which 
neither  Prussia  nor  Austria  should  belong.  This  con- 
federation was  to  act  as  a  counterbalance  to  Prussia, 
and  at  the  same  time  was  a  menace  to  the  Prussian 
supremacy  in  the  Zollverein.  In  the  autumn  of  1850 
war  between  the  two  parties  seemed  unavoidable. 
Russia,  however,  not  wishing  an  open  rupture, 
urged  both  sides  to  mutual  concessions.  Prussia  now 
finally  gave  up  its  scheme  of  the  "union",  and  prom- 
ised to  re-enter  the  federal  diet  (Agreement  of  Olmiitz, 
29  Nov.,  1850;  further  conferences,  Jan.  to  April, 
1851).  The  dispute  between  the  two  powers  as  to 
which  should  control  the  Zollverein  continued  for  two 
years  longer.  The  ability  of  Prussia  to  accomplish  the 
difficult  task  of  defeating  the  attacks  of  Austria  was 
probably  due  to  the  expert  knowledge  and  clearness 
of  the  chief  representative  of  its  economic  policy, 
Rudolf  von  Delbrilck,  and  to  the  fact  that  Hanover 
joined  the  Zollverein  in  Sept.,  1851.  Still,  concessions 
had  to  be  made  to  Austria  in  the  Treaty  of  19  Feb., 
1853,  which  crippled  the  Zollverein  until  1865.  In  all 
questions  of  foreign  politics  the  relations  between 
Prussia  and  Austria  remained  suspicious  and  cool. 
Prussia  felt  that  the  dispute  had  resulted  in  a  painful 
weakening  of  its  European  position.  The  damage  was 
further  increased  by  the  irresolute  policy  of  the  king 
during  the  Crimean  War,  which  caused  England  to 
try  to  exclude  Prussia  from  the  congress  at  Paris  in 
1856.  A  small  group  of  Prussian  politicians,  especially 
Bismarck,  began  to  urge  an  aggressive  policy  and  the 
seeking  of  support  from  Napoleon  III  for  such  a 
poUcy,  but  neither  Frederick  WiUiam  IV  nor  his 
brother  WiUiam  who  succeeded  him  would  listen  to 
the  suggestion. 

As  regards  the  internal  condition  of  the  country, 
after  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  movements  the 
Conservatives  obtained  a  large  majority  in  both 
houses  of  the  Prussian  Diet.  The  more  determined 
members  of  the  Conservative  party  in  the  diet  de- 
manded a  complete  restoration  of  conditions  existing 
before  the  revolution.  They  were  supported  in  these 
demands  by  the  camarilla  which  had  been  active  at 
the  court  since  30  March,  1848,  and  among  the  mem- 
bers of  which  were  the  brothers  Leopold  and  Ludwig 
von  Gerlaoh.  Among  the  measures  desired  by  the 
Conservatives  were:  abandonment  of  the  German 
national  policy;  limitations  of  Prussian  policy  to 
northern  Germany;  closer  connexion  with  England; 
the  adoption  of  free  trade  as  an  economic  policy; 
restoration  of  judicial  and  police  power  on  their 
estates  to  the  nobility;  alteration  of  the  Constitution 
of  1850;  and  restoration  of  the  Protestant  character 
of  the  country.  Otto  von  Manteuffel,  who  had  been 
minister-president  since  Nov.,  1850,  was  able  to  de- 
feat the  most  extreme  demands.  His  chief  effort  was 
to  suppress  all  parties  as  much  as  possible,  and  to 
make  the  Government  official  body  once  more  the 
great  power  in  the  State.  Up  to  1854  there  were  bitter 
disputes  as  to  the  constitution  of  the  upper  house  of 
the  diet.  At  last  it  was  agreed  that  it  should  be  com- 
posed partly  of  representatives  of  the  great  estates, 
partly  of  representatives  of  the  large  cities  and  univer- 
sities, and  partly  of  members  independently  appointed 
by  the  king.  The  bureaucratic  administration  estab- 
lished by  Manteuffel  led  to  many  arbitrary  acts  by  the 
police,  who  were  under  the  supervision  of  Minister  of 
the  Interior  von  Westphalen;  the  result  was  niuch 
bitterness  among  the  people.  Von  der  Heydt,  Minis- 
ter of  Commerce,  pursued  a  sensible  policy,  declining 
to  favour  concentration  of  capital,  and  protecting  the 


PRUSSIA 


530 


PRUSSIA 


small  mechanical  industries  that  were  threatened  with 
a  crisis.  From  1S54  the  influence  of  the  churches  over 
the  primary  schools  was  strengthened  by  the  regula- 
tions issued  by  Raumer,  Minister  of  Worship  and 
Education.  A  defection  from  the  Conservative  party, 
led  by  von  Bethmann-HoUweg  (grandfather  of  the 
present.  Chancellor  of  Germany),  was  of  little  parlia- 
mentary importance,  but  apparently  influenced  the 
heir  to  the  throne.  In  the  same  way  the  "Catholic 
Fraction"  (1852),  formed  to  oppose  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  Protestant  character  of  the  State,  proved 
to  be  only  temporary. 

In  1S,57  the  king  fell  ill,  and  on  23  Oct.,  1857,  he 
appointed  his  brother  William  to  act  for  him;  on 
26  Oct.,  1S5S,  \A'illiam  was  made  regent.  All  extremes 
of  policy  and  religion  were  distasteful  to  William,  and 
he  began  his  reign  with  many  misconceptions  of  the 
position  of  domestic  politics.  He  therefore  dismissed 
Manteuffel  and  formed  his  first  ministry,  the  ministry 
of  the  "new  era",  of  men  of  the  Bethmann-Hollweg 
party  and  of  moderate  Liberals,  the  premier  being 
Prince  Karl  of  HohenzoUem.  He  desired  by  this  selec- 
tion to  assure  the  public  of  an  evenly  balanced  non- 
partizan  administration.  The  Liberals,  however,  re- 
garded it  as  a  sign  that  the  moment  had  come  to 
repair  the  failure  in  1S4S  to  obtain  a  parliament  and 
a  Liberal  form  of  government  for  Prussia.  The  war 
between  Austria  and  France  in  1859  obliged  William 
to  give  his  entire  attention  to  the  reorganization  of  the 
Prussian  army,  which  was  still  dependent  on  the  law 
of  1814,  and  had  shown  many  deficiencies  when  mob- 
ilized on  account  of  the  war.  In  Dec,  1859,  the  regent 
appointed  von  Roon  minister  of  war.  A  bill  laid 
before  the  Diet  in  1860  called  for  the  reconstruction 
of  the  mihtary  forces,  which  since  the  War  of  Libera- 
tion had  been  disorganized;  the  army  was  once  more 
to  be  a  centralized  professional  force,  and  at  the  same 
time  be  enlarged  without  a  great  increase  of  expense. 
The  Diet  avoided  taking  any  positive  stand  on  the 
question.  William,  however,  went  on  with  the  reor- 
ganization. In  Jan.,  1861,  he  became  king  (1861^88). 
In  June,  1861,  most  of  the  Liberals  united  in  the  Rad- 
ical "German  party  of  progress".  The  elections  at 
the  end  of  the  year  placed  this  party  in  the  majority. 
Bills  upon  questions  of  internal  politics  that  were  in- 
tended to  meet  Liberal  wishes  were  laid  before  the 
Diet  in  vain,  nor  did  the  resumption  of  the  policy  of 
the  "union"  by  Count  Bernstorff,  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  nor  the  commercial  treaty  with  France  in  1862 
pacif>'  the  Liberals.  A  conflict  between  the  Crown  and 
the  Diet  began.  The  money  demanded  for  the  army 
was  refused  in  1862. 

In  Sept.,  1862,  the  king  called  Bismarck  to  the  head 
of  affairs.  He  was  ready  to  carry  on  the  administra- 
tion without  the  approval  of  the  budget.  In  1863 
Bismarck  dissolved  the  lower  house  of  the  Diet,  took 
arbitrary  measures  against  the  Press,  and  sought  to 
bring  the  Liberals  in  disfavour  with  the  people  by  a 
daring  and  successful  foreign  policy.  His  first  oppor- 
tunity for  this  came  when  strained  relations  developed 
between  the  German  Confederation  and  Denmark  in 
regard  to  the  Duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein.  The 
upper  house  of  the  Diet  now  refused  to  grant  the  money 
for  the  expenses  of  the  war  against  Denmark.  Bis- 
marck nevertheless  carried  on  the  war  jointly  with 
Austria;  among  its  events  were  the  successful  storm- 
ing of  the  Diippeler  entrenchments  on  18  April,  and 
the  crossing  to  the  Island  of  Alsen  in  the  night  of 
2S-29  June,  lS(i4.  Even  these  events  caused  public 
opinion  to  change.  At  the  next  election  the  Conserva- 
ti\'cs  were  in  the  majority,  and  signs  of  disruption  in 
the  "German  party  of  progress"  were  evident.  The 
disputes  which  arose  between  Austria  and  Prussia  as 
a  result  of  the  war  with  Denmark  caused  Bismarck  to 
go  to  war  with  Austria  in  the  early  summer  of  1866. 
The  "party  of  progress"  was  now  completely  divided. 
At  a  fresh  election  for  the  House  of  Deputies  on  3  July, 


accidentally  the  day  of  the  victory  of  Koniggratz 
(Sadowa),  the  Conservatives  gained  one-half  of  the 
seats.  The  enthusiasm  over  the  defeat  of  Austria  and 
over  the  definite  settlement  thereby  of  Prussia's  lead- 
ing position  in  non-Austrian  Germany  was  so  great 
that  the  difficulties  besetting  the  internal  pohcies 
could  be  regarded  as  removed.  Bismarck  made  re- 
treat easy  for  his  opponents  by  asking  indemnity  for 
the  period  in  which  he  had  carried  on  the  administra- 
tion without  a  budget .  The  greater  part  of  the  ' '  party 
of  progress  "  now  became  supporters  of  Bismarck  under 
the  name  of  the  "National  Liberal"  party;  the  lead- 
ers of  the  National  Liberals  were  Twesten,  Lasker 
and  Forckenbeck.  Only  a  small  section  of  the  former 
"party  of  progress",  under  the  leadership  of  Waldeck, 
and  Schultz-Delitzsch,  remained  in  the  opposition. 
As  time  went  on  Bismarck  found  it  more  convenient 
to  manage  parliamentary  business  through  the  Na- 
tional Liberals,  and  consequently  made  more  con- 
cessions to  Liberalism  both  in  Prussia  proper  and 
throughout  the  kingdom  than  were  in  harmony  with 
Prussian  Conservative  traditions. 

In  return  the  Liberals  gradually  abandoned  their 
opposition  to  the  military  form  of  government  in 
Prussia,  and  avoided  disputes  concerning  constitu- 
tional law.  Prussia  received  a  large  increase  of  terri- 
tory by  the  war  with  Austria.  After  it  had  gained 
in  1865  Lauenburg,  it  also  obtained  Schleswig  and 
Holstein,  and  with  them  a  good  maritime  position, 
with  Kiel  as  a  naval  station  on  the  Baltic.  Before 
this,  early  in  1863,  it  had  obtained  Wilhelmshafen 
from  Oldenburg  as  a  naval  station  on  the  North  At- 
lantic. The  war  also  gave  to  Prussia  the  Kingdom 
of  Hanover,  Electoral  Hesse,  the  Duchy  of  Nassau, 
and  the  city  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  Its  area  was 
increased  to  132,000  square  miles,  its  population  to 
20,000,000;  at  present  the  population  numbers  about 
40,000,000.  A  still  more  important  gain  was  that  its 
western  and  eastern  provinces  were  now  united,  and 
that  it  had  complete  military  control  of  northern  Ger- 
many. The  additions  of  territory  gave  Protestantism 
once  more  the  preponderance,  as  the  Protestants  now 
numbered  two-thirds  of  the  population.  The  Cath- 
olics of  the  new  districts  belonged  ecclesiastically 
partly  to  the  church  province  of  the  Upper  Rhine, 
partly  to  the  exempt  Bishoprics  of  Osnabrtick  and 
Hildesheim;  no  change  was  made  in  these  relations. 
An  Apostolic  prefecture  was  connected  with  Osna- 
brtick, to  which  the  Catholics  of  Schleswig-Holstein 
belonged. 

VI.  Prussia  had  now  reached  the  goal  which  for 
three  hundred  years  it  had  steadily  sought  to  attain. 
Its  ambitions  were  now  satisfied,  it  ceased  to  pursue 
an  independent  foreign  policy  and  directed  that  of  the 
new  German  Confederation  that  was  established  un- 
der its  headship  in  1867-71.  At  first,  both  in 
southern  Germany  and  in  the  small  countries  adjacent 
to  Germany,  it  was  feared  that  Prussia  would  con- 
tinue its  policy  of  conquest  in  order  to  create  a 
"Greater  Prussia".  This,  however,  was  a  mistaken 
opinion,  as  is  also  the  belief  that  the  German  Empire 
is  simply  the  heir  to  the  position  of  Prussia  as  a  great 
power.  It  is  true  that  Bismarck  after  1871  seems  to 
have  held  this  view,  and  to  have  regarded  it  as  the  sole 
task  of  his  foreign  policy  to  secure  what  had  been  at- 
tained by  large  military  forces,  by  a  peaceful  policy 
of  treaties,  and  by  directing  the  attention  of  the  other 
great  powers  to  questions  outside  of  central  Europe. 
Soon,  however,  the  empire  was  confronted  by  new  and 
far-extending  problems  and  combinations  with  which 
Prussia  had  never  had  to  reckon.  So  after  1866  only 
the  domestic  policy  of  Prussia  comes  under  consider- 
ation. After  the  war  with  Austria  its  first  task  was 
to  combine  the  new  provinces  with  the  old  in  its  state 
organization.  This  was  much  more  easily  accom- 
plished than  the  similar  task  in  1815,  both  because  the 
populations  were  more  easily  adapted  to  each  other, 


PRUSSIA 


531 


PRUSSIA 


and  because  the  Government  proceeded  more  cir- 
cumspectly. It  was  only  in  Hanover  that  a  strong 
party,  that  of  the  Guelphs,  maintained  a  persistent 
opposition.  The  war  had  also  made  it  possible  for 
Prussia  to  restore  the  efficiency  of  the  Zollverein.  The 
resulting  great  economic  development  of  Germany  was 
of  much  benefit  to  Prussia's  western  provinces,  for 
the  commerce  of  the  Rhine  and  the  manufacturing 
districts  of  the  lower  Rhine  and  Westphalia  rapidly 
grew  in  importance.  Berlin  also  shared  in  the  general 
increase  of  prosperity,  it  became  a  city  of  a  million 
inhabitants,  a  centre  of  wealth,  was  almost  entirely 
rebuilt,  and  covers  a  larger  area  each  year.  In  its 
active  mercantile  life  it  is  a  symbol  of  the  present 
character  of  Prussia  just  as  Potsdam,  near  by,  still 
preserves  the  character  of  the  Prussia  of  the  era  of 
Frederick  the  Great. 

The  result  of  the  great  economic  development  was  a 
renewed  growth  in  influence  of  the  Liberal  party, 
which,  however,  did  not  last  beyond  1877.  From  1870 
the  Liberals  were  opposed  by  the  new  and  strong 
Centre  party,  in  which  the  great  majority  of  the  non- 
Liberal,  Catholic  population  of  the  western  provinces 
were  combined.  The  opposition  between  the  Centre 
and  the  Liberals  made  it  possible  for  the  Conservatives 
to  gain  time  to  form  a  more  effective  political  organi- 
zation than  any  they  had  had  before,  and  to  regain 
for  the  elements  holding  to  old  Prussian  traditions  a 
marked  influence  upon  Prussia's  domestic  policy,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  since  1866  the  western 
provinces  included  the  greater  part  of  the  territory 
and  population  of  the  country.  From  1871  the  Gov- 
ernment took  part  in  the  struggle  in  which  Liberals 
and  Catholics  fought  out  their  opinions.  It  restricted 
the  share  of  the  churches  in  the  direction  of  primary 
schools,  and  passed  laws  that  destroyed  the  ruling 
position  of  orthodoxy  in  the  Protestant  church  sys- 
tem. It  sought  to  bring  the  clergy  once  more  under 
the  power  of  the  State.  During  the  eighties  Bismarck 
abandoned  the  Kulturkampf,  so  far  as  government 
interference  in  Catholic  church  life  extended.  There 
was  no  essential  change  in  the  policy  affecting  the 
Evangelical  Church.  The  Evangelical  Church  has  a 
supreme  church  council,  and  by  the  law  of  1873  it  re- 
ceived a  synodal  and  parish  organization;  in  1876  a 
general  synod  was  established  by  law.  Few  changes 
were  made  in  the  school  laws.  The  final  decision  con- 
cerning them  has  not  yet  been  reached,  as  in  the  Con- 
stitution of  1850  a  special  law  of  primary  schools  was 
promised,  and  this  promise  must  now  be  fulfilled.  A 
bitter  struggle  arose  over  this  question.  The  bill  of 
1891  was  dropped  as  too  liberal;  that  of  1892  was  with- 
drawn on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the  Liberals. 
After  this  the  matter  was  allowed  to  rest.  In  1906, 
owing  to  the  necessities  of  the  situation,  a  law  was 
passed  by  a  combination  of  the  Government  with  the 
Conservatives  and  National  Liberals,  with  the  tacit 
consent  of  the  Centre.  The  question  to  be  settled 
was  who  should  bear  the  expense  of  the  public  schools? 

It  was  laid  down  that  the  public  schools  were  in 
general  to  be  denominational  in  character;  but  that 
everywhere,  as  exceptions,  undenominational  public 
schools  were  permissible,  and  in  two  provinces,  Nassau 
and  Posen,  should  be  the  rule.  The  share  of  the 
Church  in  them  was  not  defined,  and  the  struggle  as 
to  its  rights  of  supervision  still  continues.  The  gen- 
eral level  of  national  education  is  satisfactory.  Only 
•04  per  cent  of  the  recruits  have  had  no  schooling. 
In  1901  there  were  36,756  public  primary  schools,  of 
which  10,749  were  Catholic.  These  schools  had  al- 
together 90,208  teachers,  and  5,670,870  pupils.  Only 
315  primary  schools  were  private  institutions.  For 
higher  education  Prussia  has  10  universities,  1  Cath- 
olic lyceum,  5  polytechnic  institutions,  and  2  com- 
mercial training  colleges.  Unfortunately  there  grew 
out  of  the  Kulturkampf  not  only  the  conflict  over  the 
schools,  but  also  the  conflict  against  the  Polish  popu- 


lation. The  Government  has  always  distrusted  the 
Poles.  This  distrust  has  been  increased  by  the  dem- 
ocratic propaganda  among  the  Poles,  by  their  progress 
in  economic  organization,  and  their  rapid  social  de- 
velopment. Moreover,  the  rapid  increase  of  the 
Pohsh  population  and  its  growing  prosperity  have 
enabled  the  Poles  to  outstrip  the  German  element, 
which  does  not  seem  capable  of  much  resistance,  in 
the  provinces  of  East  and  West  Prussia,  and  of  late 
in  Silesia.  In  1885  the  Government  began  a  land 
policy  on  a  large  scale.  The  scheme  was  to  purchase 
from  the  Poles  as  many  estates  as  possible  with  gov- 
ernment funds,  to  form  from  these  farms  to  be  sold 
by  the  Government  on  easy  terms,  and  by  establishing 
villages  to  settle  a  large  number  of  German  peasants 
in  these  provinces,  which,  on  account  of  the  many 
baronial  estates,  were  thinly  populated,  and  thus  to 
strengthen  the  German  element  in  them  (1890,  law 
for  the  forming  of  these  government-leased,  or  sold, 
farms;  1891,  law  for  a  bank  in  support  of  these  hold- 
ings). The  Government  began  by  banishing  large 
numbers  of  Poles,  then  set  systematically  to  work  to 
germanize  the  Poles  by  limiting  the  use  of  their 
language;  thus,  even  in  purely  Polish  districts,  Polish 
was  almost  entirely  excluded  from  the  public  schools 
as  the  language  of  instruction,  even  for  teaching  reli- 
gion. With  exception  of  a  break  in  the  early  part 
(1890-94)  of  the  reign  of  William  II,  this  anti-Polish 
policy  has  been  carried  on  with  steadily  increasing 
vigour^  At  last  in  1908  the  Government  by  law  ac- 
quired the  right  to  expropriate  Polish  lands  for  its 
colonizing  scheme,  as  voluntary  sale  of  such  lands  had 
almost  entirely  ceased.  So  far  no  use  has  been  made 
of  this  authority.  The  harsh  policy  of  the  Govern- 
ment greatly  promoted  the  growth  of  Radicalism 
among  the  Poles;  of  late,  however,  the  more  sober  ele- 
ments seem  to  have  regained  influence  over  them. 
Besides  the  increase  of  the  Polish  population  in  the 
eastern  provinces,  there  has  also  been  a  large  emigra- 
tion of  Poles  into  the  western  provinces,  factory 
hands,  so  that  in  some  of  the  western  election  dis- 
tricts the  Poles  hold  the  balance  of  power. 

Outside  of  its  Polish  policy  Prussia  since  1870  has 
done  much  for  agriculture.  Mention  should  be  made 
of  the  founding  of  the  central  credit  assooation  fund, 
the  first  director  of  which  was  Freiherr  von  Huene,  a 
member  of  the  Centre  party  of  the  Prussian  Diet. 
The  reform  of  the  system  of  taxation,  however,  was 
the  main  cause  of  the  improvement  and  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  entire  economic  life.  Indirect  taxes  were 
restored,  the  direct  taxes  of  the  country  were  based 
on  an  income-tax,  from  which  very  small  incomes  were 
exempted.  The  income-tax  was  supplanted  by  a 
moderate  property  tax.  The  taxes  on  profits  were 
left  to  the  communes  for  their  purposes.  Prepara- 
tions for  the  tax-reform  were  made  from  1881  by 
Bitter,  Minister  of  Finance,  and  the  reform  was  car- 
ried out  (1890-93)  by  Miquel,  Minister  of  Finance,  a 
former  leader  of  the  National  Liberal  party.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  reform  was  simplified  by  the  fact 
that  only  one-eleventh  of  the  direct  taxes  were  needed 
for  the  requirements  of  the  Government,  and  of  this 
eleventh  the  income-tax  yielded  80  per  cent.  Five- 
sixths  of  the  revenues  of  the  Government  come  from 
the  surplus  earnings  of  the  railways,  as  since  1879 
nearly  all  the  railways  within  its  territories  have  been 
purchased  by  the  State.  As  these  surpluses  vary  they 
effect  the  uniformity  of  the  budget,  especially  in 
periods  of  economic  depression.  Since  1909,  how- 
ever, provision  has  been  made  for  this  in  the  budget. 
The  purchase  of  the  railways  by  the  State  affected 
for  some  time  the  improvement  of  the  waterways,  on 
account  of  the  advantage  to  the  State  of  the  railway 
revenues.  In  1886  the  improvement  of  water  com- 
munication, which  is  still  urgent  in  the  eastern  prov- 
inces, was  taken  up  both  in  the  form  of  a  regulation  of 
the  rivers  and  in  the  form  of  a  canal  poUcy.     In  1897 


PRZEMYSL 


532 


PRZEMYSL 


a  bill  was  laid  before  the  Diet,  which  sought  to  relieve 
the  railways  from  overtaxing  with  freight,  by  a  com- 
prehensive construction  of  canals  from  the  Rhine  to 
the  Oder.  The  bill  was  rejected.  It  was  oiice  more 
brought  up,  and  this  time  the  provision  was  included 
that  the  Government  should  have  a  monopoly  of  the 
towing  on  the  canals  to  be  built.  The  bill  was  ac- 
cepted in  this  shape  in  1905. 

One  result  of  the  Government  improvements  of  the 
waterways  is  its  endeavour  to  limit  the  entire  free- 
dom of  river  navigation  which  has  grown  up  in  Ger- 
many on  the  basis  of  the  acts  of  the  Congress  of 
Vienna.  So  far  the  Government  has  not  been  able  to 
overcome  the  opposition  to  this  plan  in  the  empire 
and  the  neighbouring  states;  a  bill  to  this  end  is  be- 
fore the  Diet.  Since  1870  Prussia  has  also  considered 
large  schemes  for  improving  the  organization  of  the 
administration.  The  organization  of  the  district  and 
country  communes  had  not  been  settled  in  the  earlier 
period;  the  organization  of  the  provinces  had  also  to 
be  perfected.  The  law  regulating  the  administration 
of  the  districts  was  passed  in  1872  under  the  influence 
of  the  National  Liberal  party;  the  law  affecting  the 
provinces  in  1875.  At  the  same  time  a  law,  which 
met  with  general  approval,  in  regard  to  the  entire 
administrative  jurisdiction  was  carried.  In  1897  the 
difficulties  were  finally  removed  which  up  to  then  had 
prevented  the  Government  from  obtaining  a  law  to 
regulate  the  country  communes.  This  was  effected 
by  abandoning  the  effort  to  have  one  law  for  the  entire 
country,  and  by  passing  one  simply  for  the  eastern 
provinces,  where  the  need  was  most  pressing.  Since 
then  there  has  been  no  further  legislation  as  regards 
the  organization  of  the  administration.  In  the  future 
new  and  large  questions  as  to  administration  will  have 
to  be  settled,  which  in  the  meantime  are  being  dis- 
cussed by  a  commission  appointed  by  the  king  in  1908, 
who  are  to  report  directly  to  him.  Of  late,  public 
opinion  has  also  been  occupied  with  constitutional 
questions,  especially  of  the  Centre  and  the  parties  of 
the  Left  for  the  adoption  of  the  imperial  system  of 
electing  the  Reichstag  in  Prussia.  The  Government 
is  not  ready  for  this,  and  desires  only  to  modify  the 
three-class  sj'stem.  The  first  bill  for  this  did  not  meet 
with  the  approval  of  the  Prussian  Diet,  and  was  with- 
drawn in  May,  1910. 

Phutz,  Preussische  Gesch.  (4  vols.,  1899-1902).  Among  earlier 
histories  should  be  mentioned:  Stenzel,  Gesch.  des  Preussischen 
Staats  (5  vols.,  1830-5-1),  extends  to  1763;  Ranke,  Zwolf  Biicher 
Preussischer  Gesch.  (5  vols.,  1874) ;  Deoysen,  Gesch.  der  preuss. 
Pontile  (14  vols.,  1855-86),  extends  to  1756.  Reviews  of  histor- 
ical works  on  Prussia  appear  regularly  in  the  semi-annual 
Forschungen  zur  Brandenburgischen.  und  Preussischen  Gesch. 

Authorities:  Lehmann,  Preussen  und  die  katholische  Kirche 
seit  1640  (1807),  up  to  now  9  vols.;  Urkunden  und  AktensiUcke 
ZUT  Gesch.  des  Kurfursten  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von  Brandenburg 
(1864-),  up  to  now  about  20  vols.;  Protokolle  und  Relationen  des 
Brandenburgischen  Geheimen  Rates  aus  der  Zeit  des  Kurfursten 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  (5  vols.,  1889-) ;  Politische  Korres-pondem 
Friedrichs  des  Grossen  (32  vols.,  1879-);  Preussische  und  dster- 
reichische  ALten  zur  Vorgeschichte  des  7.  jdhrigen  Krieges,  ed.  voN 
VoLZ  ANn  KtjNTzEL  (iS99);  Acta  Borussica.  Denkmdler  der 
Preussischen  Staatsverwaltung  im  18.  Jahrhundert  (1892-),  in 
course  of  publication;  Bricfwcchsel  Konig  Friedrich  Wilhelm  III 
und  der  Konigin  Luise  mit  Kaiser  Alexander,  ed.  Bailleu  (1900); 
Preussen  und  Frankreich  von  1795-1807,  ed.  Idem  (2  vols., 
1881-87) ;  DenkwIXrdigkeiten  des  Staatskanzlers  Fiirsten  von  Hat- 
denberg,  ed.  Ranke  (5  vols.,  1877) ;  Aus  den  Papieren  des  Ministers 
Th.  von  SchOn  (1877-83);  von  Humboldt,  Politische  Denk- 
schriften,  ed.  Gebhardt  (3  vols.,  1903-04) ;  Wilhelm  des  Grossen 
Briefe,  Reden  und  Schriften,  ed.  I^erner  (2  vols.,  1906);  Pufen- 
DORF,  De  rebus  gestis  Friderici  Wilhelmi  Magni  electoris  Branden- 
burgici  commentariorum  libri  XIX  (Berlin,  1695);  Frederick 
the  Great,  Wurks;  Waddington,  Le  Grand  electeur  FrSderic 
Guillaume  de  Brandebourg.  Sa  politiijue  exterieure  (1905-); 
PAofes,  Le  Grand  Electeur  et  Louis  XIV,  1860-68  (1905); 
SciiMOLLEH,  Umrisse  und  Unlersuchungen  zur  Verfassungs-usw, 
Gesch.,  besonders  des  Preussischen  Staats  im  18.  und  19.  Jahrk. 
(IS'.IS);  KosEH,  Konig  Friedrich  der  Grosse  (2  vols.,  1893-1903); 
Carlyle,  History  of  Frederick  II  of  Prussia  (6  vols.,  1858-65); 
Die  Kriege  Friedrichs  des  Grossen,  ed.  by  the  Grosser  General- 
stab  (1890-),  in  course  of  publication;  Bhoglie,  FrMeric  II  et 
Marie-Thfrise,  lH0-i2  (2  vols.,  1883);  Idem,  Frederic  II  et 
Louis  XY.  17t,2-im  (2  vols.,  188.5);  HtJFFER,  Die  Kahinets- 
regieruiifj  in  Preussen  und  Johann  Wilhelm  Lombard  (1891); 
Idem,  Amastasius  Ludwig  Mcnclrn  (1891);  Ulmann,  Russisch- 
Preussische  Poliiik  unter  Alexander  I  und  Friedrich  Wilhelm  III 


bis  1806  (1899);  Lehmann,  Freiherr  von  Stein  (3  vols.,  1902-04). 
Cavaignac,  La  formation  de  la  Prusse  contemporaine,  1806-13 
(2  vols.,  1891t98) ;  Treitschke,  Deutsche  Geschichte  im  19.  Jahr- 
hundert (5  viSs.,  1848,  1879-94);  Knapp,  Die  Bauernbefreiung 
und  der  Ursp^ng  der  Landarbeiter  in  den  dlteren  Teilen  Preussens 
(2  vols.,  1887);  Zimmermann,  Gesch.  der  Preussisch-Deutachen 
Handelspolitik  (1892) ;  Pahiset,  L'Etat  et  I'Bglise  en  Prusae  sous 
FrSderic  Guillaume  I  (1897).. 

Martin  Spahn. 

Frzemysl,  Diocese  op  (Peemisliensis),  Latin  see 
in  Gahcia,  suffragan  of  Lemberg.  After  conquering 
Hahcz  and  Wladimir,  Casimir  the  Great  suggested  to 
the  pope  the  creation  of  seven  Latin  sees  in  places 
where,  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
schismatics  had  at  least  nominal  sees :  Halicz,  Prze- 
mysl,  Chelm,  Vladimir,  Lutzk,  Kieff,  and  Lemberg. 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans  immediately  began  to 
estabhsh  missions.  When  the  Bishop  of  Lebus  ap- 
pointed an  incumbent  for  Przemysl,  the  pope  refused 
to  recognize  his  jurisdiction  and  designated  (1353)  as 
successor  the  Dominican  prior  of  Sandomir,  Nicolaus 
Ruthenus.  The  latter  was  consecrated  at  the  papal 
Court  and  the  pope  declared  this  diocese  directly  sub- 
ject to  the  Holy  See.  As  the  see  was  insufficiently 
endowed,  the  bishop  did  not  reside  in  his  cathedral 
town.  After  the  death  of  Nicolaus  the  Bishop  of 
Lebus  again  endeavoured  to  assert  jurisdiction  over 
Przemysl,  but  Gregory  XI  appointed  Eric  de  Winsen 
(1377),  who  became  the  first  actual  bishop  of  Przemysl. 
Blessed  Jacob  Strepa  rendered  important  services  to 
the  Diocese  of  Przemysl.  In  1237  Boleslas  the 
Chaste  had  introduced  the  Franciscans  to  Cracow; 
about  one  hundred  years  later  they  came  to  Lemberg, 
where,  for  three  years,  Strepa  was  protector  of  the 
order.  During  that  time,  Archbishop  Bernard  laid 
Lemberg  under  an  interdict  and  excommunicated  the 
town  councillors.  Strepa  took  up  the  cause  of  the  city 
to  protect  it  from  the  influence  of  the  neighbouring 
schismatics.  In  addition,  he  had  to  defend  the  Fran- 
ciscans and  Dominicans  against  the  accusation  of  the 
secular  clergy,  who  maintained  that  their  administra- 
tion of  the  sacraments  was  invalid.  In  1391  Strepa 
became  Archbishop  of  Galicia.  In  that  capacity  he 
adjusted  the  ancient  quarrel  between  the  Dioceses  of 
Halicz  and  Przemysl.  In  1844  Bishop  Franz  Zacha^ 
riasiewicz  pubUshed  the  "Lives"  (mentioned  below), 
which  mention  fifty-seven  of  his  predecessors;  six 
bishops  have  succeeded  him  (1911).  To  the  "Lives" 
are  prefixed  important  data  concerning  the  early 
history  of  the  Latin  sees  in  Russia  (pp.  xxv-xxxix)  and 
concerning  the  Latin  dioceses  of  Galicia  (pp.  xl- 
Ixxxviii).  At  present  the  Latin  Diocese  of  Przemysl 
numbers  1,152,000  CathoKcs;  547  secular  priests;  369 
religious  men  in  27  convents,  and  698  reUgious  women 
in  97  (99)  convents. 

Monumenia  med,  ccvi  hist,  rea  gestas  Polonim  illustrantia 
(Cracow,  1872-);  Theiner,  Vet.  mon.  Polonim  hist,  illustrantia 
(3  vols.,  Rome,  1860-4);  Abraham,  Der  sel.  Jakob  von  Strepa 
(Lemberg,  1908) ;  Pawlowsky,  Premislia  sacra,  sive  series  et 
gesta  episcoporum  r.  I.  Premisliensium  (Cracow,  1870) ;  Reifen- 
KUGEL,  Die  Grundung  der  rbm.  kath.  Bistilmer  in  den  Territorien 
Halicz  u.  Wladimir  in  Arch,  fur  ost.  Gesch.,  XLII  (Vienna,  1875) ; 
Scrobisbevi,  VitcE  epp.  Haliciensium,  el  Leopolinesium  (Lemberg, 
1628);    Zachariabiewicz,   Vitm  epp.  Premislien  (Vienna,  1844). 

C.    WOLFSGRTTBER. 

Przemysl,  Sambor,  and  Sanok,  Diocese  of 
(Pre.misliensis,  Samboriensis,  et  Sanochiensis),  a 
Graeco-Ruthenian  Uniat  diocese  of  Western  Galicia, 
Austria.  It  is  really  theDiocese  of  Przemysl  (Ruthenian, 
Peremyshl)  of  the  Greek  Rite,  since  the  See  of  Sambor 
represents  only  a  former  contest  between  the  Catholic 
and  the  Orthodox  about  the  time  of  the  union  of  the 
churches,  and  there  never  was  at  any  time  a  Bishopric 
of  Sanok.  Przemysl  is  a  fortified  town  situated  on  the 
River  San,  in  the  Crownland  of  Galicia,  about  fifty- 
four  miles  west  of  Lemberg.  Its  population  in  1900 
was  46,350,  and  it  contains  the  Cathedral  Church  of  the 
Nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  and  the  diocesan 
seminary  of  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics.    Sambor 


PSALMS 


533 


PSALMS 


is  a  manufacturing  town  situated  about  ten  miles 
away  upon  the  River  Dniester;  it  had  in  1900  some 
17,350  inhabitants.  Sanok  is  a  still  smaller  town,  situ- 
ated on  the  River  San  about  twenty-five  miles  south- 
west of  Przemysl,  and  has  about  5000  inhabitants. 
The  original  cathedral  church  of  Przemysl  was  a 
church  connected  with  the  great  castle,  but  this  was 
given  to  the  Latins  by  King  Wladislaw  in  1412.  The 
Ruthenians  then  took  the  present  Church  of  the 
Nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  for  their  cathedral. 
The  cathedral  church  of  Sambor,  dedicated  to  the 
Transfiguration,  is  situated  near  the  town  of  Old 
Sambor.  All  this  part  of  the  country  was  the  King- 
dom of  Poland,  and  on  its  partition  the  Diocese  of 
Przemysl  fell  to  Austria.  The  present  Greek  Catholic 
diocese  is  divided  into  40  deaneries,  containing  688 
organized  parishes,  1334  churches  and  chapels,  6 
monasteries  of  Basilian  monks,  and  2  convents  of 
Greek  nuns.  The  clergy  consists  of  803  secular 
priests,  as  follows:  662  married,  129  widowers,  and  12 
celibates,  together  with  36  monastic  priests.  The 
Greek  Catholic  population  of  this  diocese  is  1,198,398. 

The  Diocese  of  Przemysl  stretched  over  a  large  part 
of  Red  Russia,  covering  some  900  square  miles,  west 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Lemberg.  It  is  perhaps  the 
oldest  of  the  Ruthenian  dioceses,  and  Sts.  Cyril  and 
Methodius  are  said  to  have  preached  Christianity 
there.  It  is  certain  that  this  part  of  south-west 
Russia  received  Christianity  nearly  one  hundred 
years  before  the  conversion  of  King  Vladimir  at  Kieff. 
The  names  of  its  early  missionary  bishops  are  lost, 
but  from  1218  the  succession  is  unbroken.  Antonius 
(1218-25)  is  the  first  bishop  whose  name  is  recorded. 
He  was  a  monk  and  Bishop  of  Novgorod,  but  was 
banished  from  there  and  then  became  Bishop  of 
Przemysl,  succeeding  a  former  bishop  who  had  just 
died.  King  Danilo  at  this  time  was  in  union  with  the 
Holy  See,  and  for  over  one  hundred  years  the  Greek 
bishops  of  Przemysl  were  likewise  united  with  Rome. 
Hilarion  (1254),  Abraham  (1271),  Jeremias  (1282), 
Memnon  (1288),  Hilarion  (1292),  George  (1315), 
Mark  (1330),  Cyril  (1353),  Hilarion  (1366),  Basil 
(1385),  Athanasius  (1392),  and  Gelasiua  (1412)  ruled 
this  see  during  its  peace  with  Rome.  In  1416  the 
Bishop  of  Przemysl  embraced  the  schism.  Ehas 
(1422)  was  the  first  bishop  who  took  the  title  Przemysl 
and  Sambor.  The  See  of  Sambor  was  founded  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  two 
dioceses  were  united,  although  the  double  name  was 
not  used  until  assumed  by  Elias.  Athanasius  (1440- 
49)  opposed  the  union  of  the  Council  of  Florence.  The 
succeeding  bishops  of  Przemysl  adhered  to  the  schism, 
and  remained  schismatic  for  over  a  century. 

In  1594  Bishop  Michael  Kopystynski  (1591-1610) 
took  up  the  idea  of  reunion  with  Rome  and  added  his 
name  to  the  declaration  of  union  at  the  Synod  of 
Brest .  Later  he  withdrew  it  and  was  excommunicated 
by  the  Greek  Catholic  Metropolitan  of  Kieff,  Michael 
Ragosa.  His  successor,  Athanasius  Krupetzki  (1610- 
62),  was  a  zealous  Catholic  bishop.  Meanwhile  the 
schismatics  elected  another  bishop  and  drove  out 
Athanasius;  and  for  nearly  a  century  there  was  a 
double  line  of  Greek  bishops,  the  Orthodox  holdmg 
the  see  at  Przemysl,  and  the  Cathohcs  holding  it  at 
Sambor.  In  1668  the  Orthodox  coadjutor  bishop, 
George  Hoshovski,  took  up  his  residence  at  Sanok, 
and  from  that  date  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Przemysl,  Sam- 
bor, and  Sanok  was  assumed,  although  no  see  was 
established  at  Sanok.  The  succeeding  Catholic 
bishops  were  Procopius  Chmelovski  (1652),  Anthony 
Terletzki  (1662),  and  John  Malachovski  (1669).  The 
next  Orthodox  bishop  was  Innocent  Vinnitzki  (1680- 
1700),  and  during  his  administration  the  Cathohc 
Bishop  Malachovski  left  his  see  and  went  to  Warsaw, 
where  he  died  in  1691 .  From  the  time  of  his  consecra- 
tion Bishop  Innocent  had  announced  his  intention  of 
uniting  with  the  Holy  See.    He  prepared  his  clergy 


for  the  union,  and  on  23  June,  1691,  he  renounced  the 
schism  and  signed  the  act  of  union.  Since  then  the 
Greek  Diocese  of  Przemysl  has  always  been  Catholic. 
In  1694  the  first  Catholic  diocesan  synod  of  the  Greek 
Rite  was  held  at  Sambor,  where  the  new  situation  of 
the  Greek  Catholic  clergy  was  canonically  established. 
The  bishops  succeeding  him  were  George  Vinnitzki 
(1700-13),  Jerome  Ustritzki  (1715-46),  Onuphriua 
Shumlanski  (1746-62),  Athanasius  Szepticki  (1762- 
79),  Maximilian  Ryllo  (1780-94),  and  Anton  Angelo- 
vich  (1795-1808) .  The  see  remained  vacant  froml808 
until  1813,  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  but  was  admin- 
istered by  the  Metropolitan  of  Lemberg,  the  well- 
known  historian  of  the  Greek  Uniats,  Michael 
Harasievich.  The  succeeding  bishops  were  Michael 
Levitzki  (1813-16),  John  Snigurski  (1818-47),  Gregor 
Jachimovich  (1848-59),  Thomas  Polanski  (1860-69), 
John  Stupnitzki  (1872-90),  and  Julian  Pelesz  (1891- 
96),  the  renowned  author  of  the  "History  of  the 
Union  of  the  Ruthenian  Church  with  Rome"  The 
present  bishop  (1911)  is  Constantine  Chekhovich. 

DoBRANSKl,  Istoria  Peremyshkoi  Eparkhii  (Lemberg,  1S93); 
Pelebz,  Gesch.  der  Union,  II  (Vienna,  1880) ;  Schematismus 
Eparkhii  Peremyshkoi,  Samborskoi  i  Sianotzkoi  (Golkiew,  1910) ; 
Battandier,  Annuaire  Pontificale  Catholique  (Paria,  1910). 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

Psalms. — The  Psalter,  or  Book  of  Psalms,  is  the 
first  book  of  the  "Writings"  (Kethubhim  or  Hagio- 
grapha) ,  i.  e.  of  the  third  section  of  the  printed  Hebrew 
Bible  of  to-day.  In  this  section  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
the  canonical  order  of  books  has  varied  greatly; 
whereas  in  the  first  and  second  sections,  that  is,  in  the 
Law  and  the  Prophets,  the  books  have  always  been 
in  pretty  much  the  same  order.  The  Talmudic  list 
(Baba  Bathra  14  b)  gives  Ruth  precedence  to  Psalms. 
St.  Jerome  heads  the  "Writings"  with  Psalms,  in  his 
"Epistola  ad  PauUnum"  (P.  L.,  XXII,  547);  with  Job 
in  his  "Prologus  Galeatus"  (P.  L.,  XXVIII,  555). 
Many  Massoretic  MSS.,  especially  Spanish,  begin  the 
"Writings"  with  Paralipomena  or  Chronicles.  Ger- 
man Massoretic  MSS.  have  led  to  the  order  of  books 
in  the  Kethubhim  of  the  modern  Hebrew  Bible.  The 
Septuagint  puts  Psalms  first  among  the  Sapiential 
Books.  These  latter  books,  in  "Cod.  Alexandrinus", 
belong  to  the  third  section  and  follow  the  Prophets. 
The  Clementine  Vulgate  has  Psalms  and  the  Sapien- 
tial Books  in  the  second  section,  and  after  Job.  This 
article  will  treat  the  name  of  the  Psalter,  its  contents, 
the  authors  of  the  Psalms,  their  canonicity,  text,  ver- 
sions, poetic  form,  poetic  beauty,  theological  value, 
and  liturgical  use. 

I.  Name. — The  Book  of  Psalms  has  various  names 
in  the  Hebrew,  Septuagint,  and  Vulgate  texts. 

A.  The  Hebrew  name  isD^^nn,  "praises"  (fromV^n, 
"to praise");  orD'^'PHn  15D,  "book  of  praises"  This 
latter  name  was  known  to  Hippolytus,  who  wrote 
'EPpaToi  irepi,i~/pa\pav  Ti)v  fil^Xov  24<ppa  ffeXci/i  (ed.  Lagarde, 
188).  There  is  some  doubt  in  regard  to  the  authen- 
ticity of  this  fragment.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, in  regard  to  the  transliteration  S0ap9eXXei/n  by 
Origen  (P.  G.,  XII,  1084);  and  " sephar tallim,  quodin- 
terpretatwr  volumen  hymnorum"  by  St.  Jerome  (P.  L., 
XXVIII,  1124).  The  name  "praises"  does  not  in- 
dicate the  contents  of  all  the  Psalms.  Only  Ps.  cxliv 
(cxlv)  is  entitled  "praise"  (n^nn).  A  synonymous 
name  hallel  was,  in  later  Jewish  ritual,  given  to  four 
groups  of  songs  of  praise,  Pss.  civ-ovii,  cxi-cxvii, 
cxxxv-cxxxvi,  cxlvi-cl  (Vulg.,  ciii-cvi,  ox-cxvi,  oxxxvi 
-cxxxvii,  cxlv-cl).  Not  only  these  songs  of  praise, 
but  the  entire  collection  of  psalms  made  up  a  manual 
for  temple  service — a  service  chiefly  of  praise;  hence 
the  name  "Praises"  was  given  to  the  manual  itself. 

B.  The  Septuagint  MSS.  of  the  Book  of  Psalms 
read  either  faX/ioi,  psalms,  or  yj/akT-fipiov,  psalter.  The 
word  'paXtibi  is  a  translation  of  'n)it)2,  which  occurs  in 
the  titles  of  fifty-seven  psalms.  *aX/x6s  in  classical 
Greek  meant  the  twang  of  the  strings  of  a  musical 


PSALMS 


534 


PSALMS 


instrument;  its  Hebrew  equivalent  (from  1?DT,  "to 
trim")  means  a  poem  of  "trimmed"  and  measured 
form.  The  two  words  show  us  that  a  psalm  was  a 
poem  of  set  structure  to  be  sung  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  stringed  instruments.  The  New  Testament 
text  uses  the  names  fa\fiol  (Luke,  xxiv,  44),  pi§\os 
ypoKixQiv  (Luke,  XX,  42;  Acts,  i,  20),  and  AavelS  (Heb., 
iv,  7). 

C.  The  Vulgate  follows  the  Greek  text  and  trans- 
lates psalmi,  liber  psalmorum.  The  Syriac  Bible  in 
like  manner  names  the  collection  Mazmore. 

II.  Contents. — The  Book  of  Psalms  contains  150 
psalms,  divided  into  five  books,  together  with  four 
doxologies  and  the  titles  of  most  of  the  psalms. 

A.  Number. — The  printed  Hebrew  Bible  lists  150 
psalms.  Fewer  are  given  by  some  Massoretic  MSS. 
The  older  Septuagint  MSS.  (Codd.  Sinaiticus,  Vati- 
canus,  and  Alexandrinus)  give  151,  but  expressly  state 
that  the  last  psalm  is  not  canonical:  "This  psalm  was 
written  by  Da\'id  with  his  own  hand  and  is  outside  the 
number",  €^oi6ev  toS  dpifffwO.  The  Vulgate  follows 
the  numeration  of  the  Septuagint  but  omits  Ps.  cli. 
The  differences  in  the  numerations  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Vulgate  texts  may  be  seen  in  the  following  scheme : 
Hebrew  Septuagint  and  Vulgate 


IX 

ix-x 

x-cxii 

xi-cxiii 

cxiii 

cxiv-cxv 

cxiv-cxv 
cxvi-cxlv 
cxlvi-cxlvii 
cxlviii-cl 

cxvi 

cxvii-cxlvi 
cxlvii 
cxlviii-cl 

In  the  course  of  this  article,  we  shall  follow  the 
Hebrew  numeration  and  bracket  that  of  the  Septua- 
gint and  Vulgate.  Each  numeration  has  its  defects; 
neither  is  preferable  to  the  other.  The  variance  be- 
tween Massorah  and  Septuagint  texts  in  this  numera- 
tion is  Ukely  enough  due  to  a  gradual  neglect  of  the 
original  poetic  form  of  the  Psalms;  such  neglect  was 
occasioned  by  liturgical  uses  and  carelessness  of  copy- 
ists. It  is  admitted  by  all  that  Pss.  ix  and  x  were 
originally  a  single  acrostic  poem;  they  have  been 
wrongly  separated  by  Massorah,  rightly  united  by  the 
Septuagint  and  Vulgate.  On  the  other  hand  Ps. 
cxliv  (cxlv)  is  made  up  of  two  songs — verses  1-11 
and  12-15.  Pss.  xlii  and  xliii  (xli  and  xlii)  are  shown 
by  identity  of  subject  (yearning  for  the  house  of 
Jahweh),  of  metrical  structure  and  of  refrain  (cf.  Heb. 
Ps.  xlii,  6,  12;  xliii,  5),  to  be  three  strophes  of  one  and 
the  same  poem.  The  Hebrew  text  is  correct  in  count- 
ing as  one  Ps.  cxvi  (cxiv+cxv)  and  Ps.  cxlvii  (cxlvi-|- 
cxlviii).  Later  hturgical  usage  would  seem  to  have 
split  up  these  and  not  a  few  other  psalms.  Zenner 
("Die  Chorgesange  im  Buche  der  Psalmen",  II,  Frei- 
burg im  Br.,  1896)  ingeniously  combines  into  what  he 
deems  were  the  original  choral  odes:  Pss.  i,  ii,  iii,  iv; 
vi-|-xiii  (vi-f  xii);  ix-|-x  (ix);  xix,  xx,  xxi  (xx,  xxi,  xxii); 
xlvi-f  xlvii  (xlvii+xlviii);  lxix-|-lxx  (lxx-|-lxxi);  cxiv-(- 
cxv  (cxiii) ;  cxlviii,  cxUx,  cl.  A  choral  ode  would  seem 
to  have  been  the  original  form  of  Pss.  xiv-flxx  (xiii  + 
Ixix).  The  two  strophes  and  the  epode  are  Ps.  xiv; 
the  two  antistrophes  are  Ps.  Ixx  (of.  Zenner-Wies- 
mann,  "Die  Psalmen  nach  dem  Urtext",  Miinster, 
1906,  305).  It  is  noteworthy  that,  on  the  breaking 
up  of  the  original  ode,  each  portion  crept  twice  into 
the  Psalter:  Ps.  xiv  =  liii,  Ps.  lxx  =  xl,  14-18.  Other 
such  duplicated  psalms  are  Ps.  cviii,  2-6  (cvii)=Ps. 
Ivii,  8-12  (Ivi);  Ps.  cviii,  7-14  (cvii)=Ps.  Ix,  7-14 
(lix);  Ps.  Ixxi,  1-3  (lxx)=Ps.  xxxi,  2-4  (xxx).  This 
loss  of  the  original  form  of  some  of  the  psalms  is  al- 
lowed by  the  Biblical  Commission  (1  May,  1910)  to 
have  been  due  to  Hturgical  uses,  neglect  of  copyists, 
or  other  causes. 

B.  Division. — The  Psalter  is  divided  into  five  books. 
Each  book,  save  the  last,  ends  with  a  doxology. 
These  liturgical  forms  differ  slightly.     AU  agree  that 


the  doxologies  at  the  end  of  the  first  three  books  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  original  songs  to  which  they 
have  been  appended.  Some  consider  that  the  fourth 
doxology  was  always  a  part  of  Ps.  cvi  (cv)  (cf.  Kirk- 
patrick,  "Psalms",  IV  and  V,  p.  634).  We  prefer, 
with  Zenner- Wiesmann  (op.  cit.,  76),  to  rate  it  as  a 
doxology  pure  and  simple.  The  fifth  book  has  no 
need  of  an  appended  doxology.  Ps.  cl,  whether  com- 
posed as  such  or  not,  serves  the  purpose  of  a  grand 
doxology  which  fittingly  brings  the  whole  Psalter  to 
its  close. 

The  five  books  of  the  Psalter  are  made  up  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Bk.  I:  Pss.  i-xli  (i-xl);  doxology,  Ps.  xli,  14. 

Bk.  II:  Pss.  xlii-lxxii  (xli-lxxi);  doxology,  Ps.  Ixxii, 
18-20. 

Bk.  Ill:  Pss.  Ixxiii-lxxxix  (Ixxii-lxxxviii) ;  doxology, 
Ps.  Ixxxix,  53. 

Bk.  IV:  Pss.  xc-cvi  (Ixxxix-cv);  doxology,  Ps.  cvi, 
48. 

Bk.  V:  Pss.  cvii-cl  (cvi-cl);  no  doxology. 

In  the  Massoretic  text,  the  doxology  is  immediately 
followed  by  an  ordinal  adjective  indicating  the  num- 
ber of  the  succeeding  book;  not  so  in  the  Septuagint 
and  Vulgate.  This  division  of  the  Psalter  into  five 
parts  belongs  to  early  Jewish  tradition.  The  Midrash 
on  Ps.  i  tells  us  that  David  gave  to  the  Jews  five  books 
of  psalms  to  correspond  to  the  five  books  of  the  Law 
given  them  by  Moses.  This  tradition  was  accepted 
by  the  early  Fathers.  Hippolytus,  in  the  doubtful 
fragment  already  referred  to,  calls  the  Psalter  and  its 
five  books  a  second  Pentateuch  (ed.  Lagarde,  193). 
St.  Jerome  defends  the  division  in  his  important 
"Prologus  Galeatus"  (P.  L.,  XXVIII,  553)  and  in 
Ep.  cxl  (P.  L.,  XXII,  11,  68).  Writing  to  Marcella 
(P.  L.,  XXIII,  431),  he  says:  "In  quinque  siquidem 
volumina  psalterium  apud  Hebrseos  divisum  est". 
He,  however,  contradicts  this  statement  in  his  letter 
to  Sophronius  (P.  L.,  XXVIII,  1123):  "Nos  Hebra- 
orum  aactoritatem  secuti  et  maxime  apostolorum, 
qui  semper  in  Novo  Testamento  psalmorum  librum 
nominant,  unum  volumen  asserimus" 

C.  Titles. — In  the  Hebrew  Psalter,  all  the  psalms, 
save  thirty-four,  have  either  simple  or  rather  complex 
titles.  The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  supply  titles  to 
most  of  the  thirty-four  psalms  that  lack  Hebrew  titles. 
These  latter,  called  "orphan  psalms"  by  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, are  thus  distributed  in  the  five  books  of  the 
Psalter: 

Bk.  I  has  4 — Pss.  i,  iii,  x,  xxxiii  [i,  iii,  ix  (b),  xxxii]. 
Of  these,  Ps.  x  is  broken  from  Ps.  ix;  Ps.  xxxiii  has  a 
title  in  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate. 

Bk.  II  has  2 — Pss.  xliii,  Ixxi  (xlii,  Ixx).  Of  these, 
Ps.  xliii  is  broken  from  Ps.  xlii. 

Bk.  Ill  has  none. 

Bk.  IV  has  10 — Pss.  xci,  xciii-xcvii,  xcix,  civ-cvi 
(xc,  xoii-xcvi,  xcviii,  ciii-cv).  Of  these,  all  have 
titles  in  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate. 

Bk.  V  has  18 — Pss.  cvii,  cxi-cxix,  cxxxv-cxxxvii, 
cxlvi-cl  (cvi,  cx-cxviii,  cxxxiv-cxxxvii,  cxlv-cl).  Of 
these,  Ps.  cxii  has  a  title  in  the  Vulgate,  Ps.  cxxxvii  in 
the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate;  the  quasi-title  hallelH  yah 
precedes  nine  (cxi-oxiii,  cxxxv,  cxlvi-cl);  the  Greek 
equivalent  '  AXKr/Xoila  precedes  seven  others  (cvii, 
cxiv,  cxvi-cxix,  cxxxvi).  Only  Ps.  cxv  [cxiii  (b)]  has 
no  title  either  in  the  Hebrew  or  the  Septuagint. 

(1)  Meaning  of  Titles: — These  titles  tell  us  one  or 
more  of  five  things  about  the  psalms:  (a)  the  author, 
or,  perhaps,  collection;  (b)  the  historical  occasion  of 
the  song;  (c)  its  poetic  characteristics;  (d)  its  musical 
setting;  (e)  its  liturgical  use. 

(a)  Titles  indicating  the  author: — Bk.  I  has  four 
anonymous  psalms  out  of  the  forty-one  (Pss.  i,  ii,  x, 
xxxiii).  The  other  thirty-seven  are  Davidic.  Ps.  x 
is  part  of  ix;  Ps.  xxxiii  is  Davidic  in  the  Septuagint; 
and  Pss.  i  and  ii  are  prefatory  to  the  entire  collection. — 
Bk.  II  has  three  anonymous  psalms  out  of  the  thirty- 


PSALMS 


535 


PSALMS 


one  (Pss.  xliii,  Ixvi,  Ixxi).  Of  these,  eight  Pss.,  xlii- 
xlix  (xli-xlviii)  are  "of  the  sons  of  Korah"  {libne 
qorah);  Ps.  1  is  "of  Asaph";  Pss.  li-lxxii  are  Davidic 
excepting  Ps.  Ixvii  "of  the  Director"  {IdmendgQedh) 
and  Ps.  Ixxii  "of  Solomon".  Ps.  xUii  (xlii)  is  part  of 
xlii  (xli) ;  Pss.  Ixvi  and  Ixvii  (Ixv  and  Ixvi)  are  Davidic 
in  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate. — Bk.  Ill  has  one 
Davidic  psalm,  Ixxxvi  (Ixxxv);  eleven  "of  Asaph", 
Ixxiii-lxxxiii  (Ixxii-lxxxii) ;  four  "of  the  sons  of 
Korah",  Ixxxiv,  Ixxxv,  Ixxxvii,  Ixxxviii  (Ixxxiii,  Ixxxiv 
Ixxxvi,  Ixxxvii) ;  and  one  "of  Ethan",  Ixxxix  (Ixxxviii). 
Ps.  Ixxxviii  is  likewise  assigned  to  Hcman  the  Ezra- 
hite. — Bk.  IV  has  two  Davidic  psalms,  ci  and  ciii  (c 
and  cii),  and  one  "of  Moses".  Moreover,  the  Sep- 
tuagint assigns  to  David  eight  others,  Pss.  xci,  xciii- 
xcvii,  xcix,  civ  (xc,  xcii-xcvi,  xoviii,  ciii).  The  re- 
mainder are  anonymous. — Bk.  V  has  twenty-seven 
anonymous  psalms  out  of  forty-four.  Pss.  cviii-cx, 
cxxii,  cxxiv,  cxxxi,  cxxxiii,  cxxxviii-cxlv  (cvii-cix, 
exxi,  cxxiii,  cxxx,  cxxxii,  cxxxvii-cxlv)  are  Davidic. 
Ps.  cxxvii  is  "of  Solomon".  The  Septuagint  and 
Vulgate  assign  Ps.  cxxxvii  (cxxxvi)  to  David,  Pss. 
cxlvi-cxlviii  (cxlv-cxlviii)  to  Aggeus  and  Zacharias. 

Besides  these  title-names  of  authors  and  collections 
which  are  clear,  there  are  several  such  names  which  are 
doubtful.  —  Ldmend(;Qedh  (^5iJ?:^;  Septuagint,  e/s  tA 
tAos;  Vulg.,  in  ^ncm;  Douai,  "unto  the  end"; 
Aquila,  rif  fiKowoup,  "for  the  victor";  St.  Jerome, 
victori;  Symmachus,  ^im-kios,  "a  song  of  victory"; 
Theodotion,  els  ri  vikos,  "for  the  victory")  now 
generally  interpreted  "of  the  Director".  The  Pi  'el 
of  the  root  means,  in  I  Par.,  xv,  22,  "to  be  leader" 
over  the  basses  in  liturgical  service  of  song  (cf .  Oxford 
Hebrew  Dictionary,  664).  The  title  "of  the  Director" 
is  probably  analogous  to  "of  David'",  "of  Asaph", 
etc.,  and  indicates  a  "Director's  Collection  of 
Psalms.  This  collection  would  seem  to  have  contained 
55  of  our  canonical  psalms,  whereof  39  were  Davidic, 
9  Korahite,  5  Asaphic,  and  2  anonymous. 

'Al-Yedilthi),n,  in  Pss.  Ixii  and  Ixxvii  (Ixi  and  Ixxvi), 
where  the  preposition  al  might  lead  one  to  interpret 
YediUhiXn  as  a  musical  instrument  or  a  tune.  In  the 
title  to  Ps.  xxxix  (xxxviii),  "of  the  Director,  of 
Yed'&tkO.n,  a  song  of  David",  YedMhUn  is  without  al 
and  seems  to  be  the  Director  {Mendggedh)  just  spoken 
of.  That  David  had  such  a  director  is  clear  from 
I  Par.,  xvi,  41. 

(b)  Titles  indicating  the  historical  occasion  of  the 
song: — Thirteen  Davidic  psalms  have  such  titles. 
Pss.  vii,  xviii,  xxxiv,  lii,  liv,  Ivi,  Ivii,  lix,  cxlii  (vii,  xvii, 
xxxiii,  li,  hii,  Iv,  Ivi,  Iviii,  cxli)  are  referred  to  the  time 
of  David's  persecution  by  Saul;  Ps.  Ix  (lix)  to  that  of 
the  victories  in  Mesopotamia  and  Syria;  Ps.  h  (1)  to 
his  sin;  Pss.  iii  and  Ixiii  (Ixii)  to  his  flight  from 
Absalom. 

(c)  Titles  indicating  poetic  characteristics  of  the 
psalm: — 

Mizmor  (■IIJ:?^;  Septuagint,  i^aX/mSs;  Vulg., 
psalmus;  a  psalm) ,  a  technical  word  not  used  outside 
the  titles  of  the  Psalter;  meaning  a  song  set  to  stringed 
accompaniment.  There  are  57  psalms,  most  of  them 
Davidic,  with  the  title  Mizmor. 

Shir  (n^r;  Septuagint,  <fS-^;  Vulg.,  Canticum;  a 
song),  a  generic  term  used  30  times  in  the  titles  (12 
times  together  with  Mizmor),  and  often  in  the  text 
of  the  Psalms  and  of  other  books.  In  the  Psalms 
(xhi,  9;  Ixix,  31;  xxviii,  7)  the  song  is  generally 
sacred;  elsewhere  it  is  a  lyric  lay  (Gen.,  xxxi,  27;  Is., 
XXX,  29),  a  love  poem  (Cant.,  i,  1.1),  or  a  bacchanaUan 
ballad  (Is.,  xxiv,  9;   Eccles.,  vii,  5). 

Mdskil  (b*3t'):;  Septuagint,  (Tvv4<retat,  or  els  aiivmi-v, 
Vulg.,  iniellectixs  or  ad  intellectum),  an  obscure  form 
found  in  the  titles  of  13  psalms  (xxxii,  xlii,  xliv,  xlv, 
lii,  Iv,  Ixxiv,  Ixxviii,  Ixxxviii,  Ixxxix,  cxliv).  (a) 
Gesenius  and  others  explain  "a  didactic  poem",  from 
Hiph'ilof  ^312?  (cf.  Ps.  xxxii,  8;  I  Par.,  xxviii,  19); 
but  only  Pss.  xxxii  and  Ixxviii  are  didactic  MdskUtm. 


(b)  Ewald,  Riehm  and  others  suggest  "a  skilful 
artistic  song",  from  other  uses  of  the  cognate  verb 
(cf.  II  Par.,  XXX,  22;  Ps.  xlvii,  7);  Kirkpatrick  thinks 
"a  cunning  psalm"  will  do.  It  is  difficult  to  see  that 
the  MdskU  is  either  more  artistic  or  more  cunning 
than  the  Mizmor.  (c)  Delitzsch  and  others  interpret 
"a  contemplative  poem";  Briggs,  "a  meditation" 
This  interpretation  is  warranted  by  the  usage  of  the 
cognate  verb  (cf .  Is.,  xli,  20;  Job,  xxxiv,  27),  and  is  the 
only  one  that  suits  all  Mdskiltm. 

Tephillah  (H^Cn;  Septuagint,  irpojevx'/i;  Vulg., 
oratio;  a  prayer),  the  title  to  five  psalms,  xvii,  Ixxxvi, 
xc,  cii,  cxlii  (xvi,  Ixxxv,  Ixxxix,  ci,  cxli).  The  same 
word  occurs  in  the  conclusion  to  Bk.  II  (cf.  Ps.  Ixxii, 
20),  "The  prayers  of  David  son  of  Yishai  have  been 
ended".  Here  the  Septuagint  tixvoi  (Vulg.,  laudes) 
points  to  a  better  reading,  ~Sn."i,  "praise". 

Tehillah  QlbiHt;  Septuagint,  atveffts;  Vulg., 
laudalio;  "a  song  of  praise"),  is  the  title  only  of  Ps. 
cxlv  (cxliv). 

Mikhtdm  (cn3^;  Septuagint,  (Trnjkoypaipla  or  ei's 
ffTriXoypatplav;  Vulg.,  tituli  inscriptio  or  in  tiluli  in- 
scriptionem) ,  an  obscure  term  in  the  title  of  six  psalms, 
xvi,  Ivi-lx  (xv,  Iv-lix),  always  joined  to  "of  David". 
Briggs  ("Psalms",  I,  Ix;  New  York,  1906)  with  the 
Rabbis  derives  this  title  from  2n3,  "gold"  The 
Mikhtdmim  are  golden  songs,  "artistic  in  form  and 
choice  in  contents" 

Shiggayon  {]'i^yC',  Septuagint  merely  ^aX/jiis;  Vulg., 
psalmus;  Aquila,  &yvl>7iixa\  Symmachus  and  Theodo- 
tion, inrip  dymlas;  St.  Jerome,  ignoraiio  or  pro  igno- 
ratione),  occurs  only  in  the  title  to  Ps.  vii.  The  root 
of  the  word  means  "to  wander",  "to  reel",  hence, 
according  to  Ewald,  Delitzsch,  and  others,  the  title 
means  a  wild  dithyrambic  ode  with  a  reeling,  wander- 
ing rhythm. 

(d)  Titles  indicating  the  musical  setting  of  a  psalm 
(a  specially  obscure  set) : — 

Eight  titles  may  indicate  the  melody  of  the  psalm 
by  citing  the  opening  words  of  some  well-known  song : 

NehUdth  (ni^^nin  bn;  Septuagint  and  Theodo- 
tion, vir^p  TTJs  KKrjpovofwOffTjs'j  Aquila,  dirb  KXijpoSocriwv'^ 
Symmachus,  iirip  /cXijpoi/xiui';  St.  Jerome,  super 
hcereditatihus;  Vulg.,  pro  ea  qv/E  hcereditatem  conse- 
quitur),  occurs  only  in  Ps.  v.  The  ancient  versions 
rightly  derive  the  title  from  bnl,  "to  inherit"; 
Baethgen  ("Die  Psalmen",  3rd  ed.,  1904,  p.  xxxv) 
thinks  NehUdth  was  the  first  word  of  some  ancient 
song;  most  critics  translate  "  with  wind  instruments" 
wrongly  assuming  that  NehUdth  means  flutes 
(a^V'^n,  cf.  Is.,  XXX,  29). 

'Al-tashheth  [."""liTrbX;  Septuagint,  Aquila,  Sym- 
machus, p-'h  duuftffetpips,  except  Ps.  Ixxv,  Symmachus, 
Trepl  dipdapfftas;  St.  Jerome,  ut  non  disperdas  {David 
humilem  et  simplicem);  Vulg.,  ne  disperdas  or  ne 
corrumpas],  in  Pss.  Ivii-lix,  Ixxv  (Ivi-lviii,  Ixxiv), 
meaning  "destroy  not",  may  be  the  beginning  of  a 
vintage  song  referred  to  in  Is.,  Ixv,  8.  Symmachus 
gives,  in  title  to  Ps.  Ivii,  irepl  toS  /mtj  5ia(peelpris\  and 
in  this  wise  suggests  that  bv  originally  preceded  bx. 

'Al-Muth-Labben  (pb  rO'O-bii;  Septuagint,  inrip 
Twv  KV(f>loiv  ToO  vlov]  Vulg.,  pro  occultis  filii,  "con- 
cerning the  secret  sins  of  the  son";  Aquila,  veavidrrp-os 
ToO  uioO,  "of  the  youth  of  the  son";  Theodotion, 
iirip  aKp,7js  toC  vlov,  "concerning  the  maturity  of  the 
son")  in  Ps.  ix,  probably  means  "set  to  the  tune 
'Death  Whitens'  ". 

' Al- ayyeleth  hasshahar  {'<,n<D'n  nV"'S-bi';  Septuagint, 
inrip  TTJs  dcTiXij^ews  ttjs  iojdivijSj  Vulg.,  pro  suscep- 
tione  matutina,  "for  the  morning  offering";  Aquila, 
Wkp  TTJs  i\<itf>ov  TTjt  dpdLvqs ;  Symmachus,  i^7r^/>  t^s  ^orjddas 
TTjs  dpBLvrjs,  "the  help  of  the  morning";  St.  Je- 
rome, pro  cervo  matutino),  in  Ps.  xxii  (xxi),  very 
hkely  means  "set  to  the  tune  'The  Hind  of  the 
Morning'  ". 

'Al  Shoshanntm  in  Pss.  xlv  and  Ixix  (xliv  and  Ixviii), 
Shushan-edvih  in  Ps.  he  (lix),  Shoshanntm-eduth  in 


PSALMS 


636 


PSALMS 


Ps.  Ixxx  (Ixxix)  seem  to  refer  to  the  opening  of  the 
same  song,  "Lilies"  or  "Lilies  of  testimony".  The 
preposition  is  'al  or  'el.  The  Septuagint  translates  the 
consonants  inrip  rdv  ' A\\oi<a8ri<rofi^vav;  Vulg.,  pro  iis 
qui  commutahuntur,  " for  those  who  shall  be  changed". 

'Al  Ydnath  'clim  rehdqim,  in  Ps.  Ivi  (Iv)  means 
"set  to  'The  dove  of  the  distant  terebinth'  ",  or, 
according  to  the  vowels  of  Massorah,  "set  to  'The 
silent  dove  of  them  that  are  afar'  "  The  Septuagint 
renders  it  iiTr^p  tov  XaoO  toO  dird  rdv  a/yliov  fji£/xaKpvfj.fi4pov'j 
Vulg.,  pro  populo  qui  a  Sanctis  longe  f actus  est,  "for  the 
folk  that  are  afar  from  the  sanctuary"  Baethgen 
(op.  cit.,  p.  xU)  explains  that  the  Septuagint  under- 
stands Israel  to  be  the  dove;  reads  elim  for  'elem,  and 
interprets  the  word  to  mean  gods  or  sanctuary. 

'Al  Mahalath  (Ps.  liii),  Mahalath  leannoth  (Ps. 
Ixxxviii)  is  transhterated  by  the  Septuagint  Mae\46; 
by  ^'ulg.,  pro  Mneleth.  Aquila  renders  ^t1  xop^^t, 
"for  the  dance";  the  same  idea  is  conveyed  by  Sym- 
machus,  Theodotion,  Quinta,  and  St.  Jerome  (pro 
choro).  The  word  'Al  is  proof  that  the  following  words 
indicate  some  well-known  song  to  the  melody  of  which 
Pss.  liii  and  Ixxxviii  (lii  and  Ixxxvii)  were  sung. 

' Al-Haggitlith,  in  titles  to  Pss.  viii,  Ixxxi,  Ixxxiv 
(vii,  Ixxx,  Ixxxiii).  The  Septuagint  and  Symmachus, 
iirkp  tQ>v  \-i\vSiVj  Vulg.,  and  St.  Jerome,  -pro  torcularibus, 
"for  the  wine-presses".  They  read  giitoth,  pi.  of  gath. 
The  title  may  mean  that  these  psalms  were  to  be  sung 
to  some  vintage-melody.  The  Massoretic  title  may 
mean  a  Gittite  instrument  (Targ.,  "the  harp  brought 
by  David  from  Gath"),  or  a  Gittite  melody.  Aquila 
and  Theodotion  follow  the  reading  of  Massorah  and, 
in  Ps.  viii,  translate  the  title  iirip  t^s  yereLTiSos;  yet 
this  same  reading  is  said  by  Bellarmine  ("Explanatio 
in  Psaknos",  Paris,  1889,  I,  43)  to  be  meaningless. 

One  title  probably  means  the  kind  of  musical  in- 
strument to  be  used.  Negindlh  (n"l3'JJ3;  Septuagint, 
iv  \pa\iJ.oU^  in  Ps.  iv,  iv  vfimis  elsewhere;  Vulg.,  in 
carminibus;  Symmachus,  Sia  faXrriplaVj  St.  Jerome, 
in  psalmis)  occurs  in  Pss.  iv,  vi,  liv,  Ixvii,  Ixxvi  (iv, 
vi,  hii,  liv,  Ixvi,  Ixxv).  The  root  of  the  word  means 
"to  play  on  stringed  instruments"  (I  Kings,  xvi, 
16-18,  23).  The  title  probably  means  that  these 
psalms  were  to  be  accompanied  in  cantilation  exclu- 
sively "with  stringed  instruments"  Ps.  Ixi  (Ix)  has 
'Al  Negindth  in  its  title,  and  was  perhaps  to  be  sung 
with  one  stringed  instrument  only. 

Two  titles  seem  to  refer  to  pitch.  'Al-'Alam6th 
(Ps.  xlvi),  "set  to  maidens",  i.  e.  to  be  sung  with  a 
soprano  or  falsetto  voice.  "The  Septuagint  renders 
vTrip  Toiv  Kpvcptuv;  Vulg.,  pro  occultis,  "for  the  hidden"; 
Symmachus,  virip  tuv  aluvtav,  "for  the  everlasting"; 
Aquila,  iirl  veavioT-^Twv;  St.  Jerome,  pro  juventutibu^, 
"for  youth". 

'Al-Hasshemtnith  (Pss.  vi  and  xii),  "set  to  the 
eighth";  Septuagint,  i^rip  riys  dydSris;  Vulg.,  pro  octava. 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  "the  eighth  means  an 
octave  lower,  the  lower  or  bass  register,  in  contrast 
with  the  upper  or  soprano  register.  In  I  Par.,  xv, 
20-21,  Levites  are  assigned  some  "with  psalteries 
set  to  'Alamoth"  (the  upper  register),  others  "with 
harps  set  to  Shemtntlh"  (the  lower  register). 

(e)  Titles  indicating  the  liturgical  use  of  a  psalm: 
— Hamma'aloih,  in  title  of  Pss.  cxx-cxxxiv  (cxix- 
cxxxiii);  Septuagint,  vH  tuv  dva^aBp^Qv;  St.  Jerome, 
canticum  graduum,  "the  song  of  the  steps".  The 
word  is  used  in  Ex.,  xx,  26  to  denote  the  steps  leading 
up  from  the  women's  to  the  men's  court  of  the  Temple 
plot.  There  were  fifteen  such  steps.  Some  Jewish 
commentators  and  Fathers  of  the  Church  have 
taken  it  that,  on  each  of  the  fifteen  steps,  one  of  these 
fifteen  Gradual  Psalms  was  chanted.  Such  a  theory 
does  not  fit  in  with  the  content  of  these  psalms; 
they  are  not  temple-psalms.  Another  theory,  pro- 
posed by  Gesenius,  Delitzsch,  and  others,  refers 
"the  steps"  to  the  stair-like  paralleUsm  of  the 
Gradual  Psalms.    This  stair-like  parallelism  is  not 


found  in  all  the  Gradual  Psalms;  nor  is  it  distinctive 
of  any  of  them.  A  third  theory  is  the  most  probable. 
Aquila  and  Symmachus  read  ck  ris  &vapd(reis,  "ioi 
the  goings  up";  Theodotion  has  g.<r/M  tu  vava^ajriuy. 
These  are  a  Pilgrim  Psalter,  a  collection  of  pilgrim- 
songs,  of  songs  of  those  "going  up  to  Jerusalem  for 
the  festivals''  (I  Kings,  i,  3).  Isaias  tells  us  the 
pilgrims  went  up  singing  (xxx,  29).  The  psalms  in 
question  would  be  well  suited  for  pilgrim-song. 
The  phrase  "to  go  up"  to  Jerusalem  (dvapalveiv) 
seems  to  refer  specially  to  the  pilgrim  goings-up 
(Mark,  x,  33;  Luke,  ii,  42,  etc.).  This  theory  is 
now  commonly  received.  A  less  likely  explanation 
is  that  the  Gradual  Psalms  were  sung  by  those 
"going  up"  from  the  Babylonian  exile  (I  Esd., 
vii,  9). 

Other  liturgical  titles  are:  "For  the  thank- 
offering",  in  Ps.  c  (xcix);  "To  bring  to  remem- 
brance", in  Pss.  xxxviii  and  Ixx  (xxxvii  and  Ixix); 
"To  teach",  in  Ps.  xl  (xxxix);  "For  the  last  day  or 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles",  in  the  Septuagint  of 
Ps.  xxix  (xxviii),  ilioSlov  (rKi]v^s;  Vulg.,  in  con- 
summaiione  tabernaculi.  Psalm  xxx  (xxix)  is  en- 
titled "A  Song  at  the  Dedication  of  the  House", 
The  psalm  may  have  been  used  at  the  Feast  of  the 
Dedication  of  the  Temple,  the  Encsenia  (John, 
x,  22).  This  feast  was  instituted  by  Judas  Macha^ 
beus  (I  Mach.,  iv,  59)  to  commemorate  the  rededica- 
tion  of  the  temple  after  its  desecration  by  Antiochus. 
Its  title  shows  us  that  Ps.  xcii  (xci)  was  to  be  sung 
on  the  Sabbath.  The  Septuagint  entitles  Ps.  xxiv 
(xxiii)  T^s  fuas  o-ap^dTiov,  "for  the  first  day  of  the 
week";  Ps.  xlviii  (xlvii)  divripif  o-a^/Sdrov,  "for 
the  second  day  of  the  week";  Ps.  xciv  (xciii), 
TfTpdSi  (Ta^pdrav^  "for  the  fourth  day  of  the  week"; 
Ps.  xciii  (xcii)  c's  rijv  ii/iipav  toC  wpoffafi^dTOVj 
"for  the  day  before  the  Sabbath"  The  Old  Latin 
entitles  Ps.  Ixxxi  (Ixxx)  quinta  sabbati,  "the  fifth 
day  of  the  week".  The  Mishna  (Tamid,  VII,  13) 
assigns  the  same  psalms  for  the  daily  Temple  service 
and  tells  us  that  Ps.  Ixxxii  (Ixxxi)  was  for  the  morning 
sacrifice  of  the  third  day  (cf.  James  Wm.  Thirtle, 
"The  Titles  of  the  Psalms,  Their  Nature  and  Mean- 
ing Explained",  New  York,  1905). 

(2)  Value  of  the  Titles: — Many  of  the  critics  have 
branded  these  titles  as  spurious  and  rejected  them 
as  not  pertaining  to  Holy  Writ;  such  critics  are 
de  Wette,  Cheyne,  Olshausen,  and  Vogel.  More 
recent  critical  Protestant  scholars,  such  as  Briggs, 
Baethgen,  Kirkpatrick,  and  FuUerton,  have  followed 
up  the  lines  of  Ewald,  Delitzsch,  Gesenius,  and 
Koster,  and  have  made  much  of  the  titles,  so  as  thereby 
to  learn  more  and  more  about  the  authors,  collections, 
occasions,  musical  settings,  and  liturgical  purposes 
of  the  Psalms. 

Catholic  scholars,  while  not  insisting  that  the 
author  of  the  Psalms  superscribed  the  titles  thereof, 
have  always  considered  these  titles  as  an  integral 
part  of  Holy  Writ.  St.  Thomas  (in  Ps.  vi)  assigns 
the  titles  to  Esdras:  "Sciendum  est  quod  tituU  ab 
Esdra  facti  sunt  partim  secundum  ea  quse  tunc 
agebantur,  et  partim  secundum  ea  quse  contigerunt. " 
So  comprehensive  a  statement  of  the  case  is  scarcely 
to  the  point;  most  modern  scholars  give  to  the  titles 
a  more  varied  history.  Almost  all,  however,  are 
at  one  in  considering  as  canonical  these  at  tiines 
obscured  directions.  In  this  unanimity  Cathohcs 
carry  out  Jewish  tradition.  Pre-Massoretic  tradi- 
tion preserved  the  titles  as  Scripture,  but  lost  much 
of  the  liturgical  and  musical  meaning,  very  likely 
because  of  changes  in  the  liturgical  cantilation  of  the 
Psalms.  Massoretic  tradition  has  kept  carefully 
whatsoever  of  the  titles  it  received.  It  makes  the 
titles  to  be  part  of  Sacred  Scripture,  preserving  their 
consonants,  vowel-points,  and  accents  with  the  very 
same  care  which  is  given  to  the  rest  of  the  Jewish 
Canon.     The  Fathers  give  to  the  titles  that  respect 


PSALMS 


537 


PSALMS 


and  authority  which  they  give  to  the  rest  of  Scripture. 
True,  the  obscurity  of  the  titles  often  leads  the 
Fathers  to  mystical  and  highly  fanciful  interpreta- 
tions. St.  John  Chrysostom  ("De  Compunctione", 
II,  4;  P.  G.,  XLVII,  415)  interprets  iirip  ttjs  6-yS6ris^ 
"for  the  eighth  day",  "the  day  of  rest",  "the  day 
of  eternity  -  St.  Ambrose  (In  Lucam,  V,  6)  sees 
in  this  title  the  same  mystical  number  which  he 
notes  in  the  Eight  Beatitudes  of  St.  Matthew,  in  the 
eighth  day  as  a  fulfilment  of  our  hope,  and  in  eight 
as  a  sum  of  all  virtues:  "pro  ootava  enim  multi 
inscribuntur  psalmi".  In  this  matter  of  mystical 
interpretations  of  the  titles,  St.  Augustine  is  in 
advance  of  the  generally  literal  and  matter-of-fact 
Sts.  Ambrose  and  John  Chrysostom.  Yet  when  treat- 
ing the  worth  and  the  genuineness  of  the  titles,  no 
Father  is  more  decided  and  pointed  than  is  the  great 
Bishop  of  Hippo.  To  him  the  titles  are  inspired 
Scripture.  Commenting  on  the  title  to  Ps.  li,  "of 
David,  when  Nathan  the  Prophet  came  to  him, 
what  time  he  had  gone  into  Bethsabee",  St.  Augus- 
tine (P.  L.,  XXXVI,  586)  says  it  is  as  inspired  as  is 
the  story  of  David's  fall,  told  in  the  Second  Book 
of  Kings  (xi,  1-6);  "Utraque  Scriptura  canonica 
est,  utrique  sine  ulla  dubitatione  a  Christianis  fides 
adhibenda  est".  Some  recent  Catholic  scholars  who 
are  of  St.  Augustine's  mind  in  this  matter  are: 
Cornely,  "Specialis  Introductio  in  Libros  V.  T.", 
II,  85;  Zsohokke,  "Hist.  Sacr.  V.  T.",  206;  Thal- 
hofer,  "Erklarung  der  Psalmen",  7th  ed.,  1904, 
8;  Patrizi,  "Cento  Salmi",  Rome,  1875,  32;  Danko, 
"Historia  V.  T.",  276;  Hoberg,  "Die  Psalmen  der  Vul- 
gata",  1892,  p.  xii.  Only  a  very  few  Catholic  scholars 
have  denied  that  the  titles  are  an  integral  part  of 
Holy  Writ.  Gigot,  in  "Special  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament"  (New  York,  1906),  II,  75,  cites  with  ap- 
proval this  denial  by  Lesfitre,  "  Le  Livre  des  Psaumes  " 
(Paris,  1883),  p.  1.  Barry,  in  "Tradition  of  Scrip- 
ture" (New  York,  1906),  102,  says:  "It  is  plausible 
to  maintain  that  inscriptions  to  which  the  Massorah, 
LXX,  and  Vulgate  bear  witness  cannot  be  rejected. 
But  to  look  on  them,  under  all  circumstances,  as 
portions  of  Scripture  would  be  to  strain  the  Tridentine 
Decrees  " .  Because  of  the  danger  that,  without  grave 
reason,  these  time-honoured  parts  of  the  Bible  may 
be  rated  as  extra-canonical,  the  Biblical  Commission 
has  recently  (1  May,  1910)  laid  special  stress  on  the 
value  of  the  titles.  From  the  agreement  we  have 
noted  between  the  titles  of  Massorah  and  those 
of  the  Septuagint,  Vulgate,  Aquila,  Symmachus, 
Theodotion,  St.  Jerome,  etc.,  the  Commission  has 
decided  that  the  titles  are  older  than  the  Septuagint 
and  have  come  down  to  us,  if  not  from  the  authors 
of  the  Psalms,  at  least  from  ancient  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, and  that,  on  this  account,  they  may  not  be 
called  into  doubt,  unless  there  be  some  serious  reason 
against  their  genuineness.  Indeed,  the  very  dis- 
agreements which  we  have  noted  lead  us  to  the  same 
conclusion.  By  the  time  the  Septuagint  was  written, 
the  titles  must  have  been  exceedingly  old;  for  the 
tradition  of  their  vocalization  was  already  very  much 
obscured. 

III.  Authors  of  the  Psalms. — A.  Witness  of 
Tradition. — (1)  Jewish  tradition  is  uncertain  as  to 
the  authors  of  the  Psalms.  Baba  Bathra  (14  f) 
mentions  ten;  Pesachim  (10)  attributes  all  the 
Psalms  to  David. 

(2)  Christian  tradition  is  alike  uncertain.  St. 
Ambrose,  "In  Ps.  xliii  and  xlvii"  (P.  L.,  XIV,  923), 
makes  David  to  be  the  sole  author.  St.  Augustine, 
in  "De  Civitate  Dei",  XVII,  14  (P.  L.,  XLI, 
547),  thinks  that  all  the  Psalms  are  Davidic  and  that 
the  names  of  Aggeus  and  Zacharias  were  superscribed 
by  the  poet  in  prophetic  spirit.  St.  Philastrius,  Haer. 
130  (P.  L.,  XII,  1259),  brands  the  opposite  opinion 
as  heretical.  On  the  other  hand,  plurality  of  author* 
ship  was  defended  by  Origen,  "In  Ps."  (P.  G.,  XII, 


1066);  St.  Hilary,  "In  Ps.  Prooem.  2"  (P.  L.,  IX, 
233);  Eusebius,  "In  Ps.  Proo<m.  in  Pss.  41,  72" 
(P.  G.,  XXIIL  74,  368);  and  many  others.  St. 
Jerome,  "Ad  Cyprianum",  Epist.  140,  4  (P.  L., 
XXII,  1169),  says  that  "they  err  who  deem  all  the 
psalms  are  IJavid's  and  not  the  work  of  those  whose 
names  are  superscribed  " - 

(3)  This  disagreement,  in  the  matter  of  authorship 
of  the  Psalms,  is  carried  from  the  Fathers  to  the 
theologians.  Davidic  authorship  is  defended  by  St. 
Thomas,  the  converted  Jew  Archbishop  Paul  of 
Burgos,  Bellarmine,  Salmeron,  Sa,  Mariana;  multiple 
authorship  is  defended  by  Nicholas  of  Lyra,  Cajetan, 
Sixtus  Senensis,  Bonfrcire,  and  Menochio. 

(4)  The  Church  has  come  to  no  decision  in  this 
matter.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Scss.  IV,  8  April, 
1546),  in  its  decrees  on  Sacred  Scripture,  includes 
"Psalterium  Davidicum  150  Psalmorum"  among 
the  Canonical  Books.  This  phrase  does  not  define 
Davidic  authorship  any  more  than  the  number 
150,  but  only  designates  the  book  which  is  defined 
to  be  canonical  (cf.  Pallavicino,  "Istoria  del  Con- 
cilio  di  Trento",  1.  VI,  §91,  Naples,  18,53,  I,  376). 
In  the  preliminary  vota,  fifteen  Fathers  were  for  the 
name  "Psalmi  David";  six  for  "Psalterium  Davidi- 
cum ";  nine  for  "  Libri  Psalmorum  " ;  two  for  "Libri  150 
Psalmorum";  sixteen  for  the  name  adopted,  "Psal- 
terium Davidicum  150  Psalmorum";  and  two  had 
no  concern  which  of  these  names  was  chosen  (cf. 
Theiner,  "Acta  Authentica  Concilii  Tridentini", 
I,  72  sq.).  From  the  various  vota  it  is  clear  that  the 
Council  had  no  intention  whatsoever  of  defining 
Davidic  authorship. 

(5)  The  recent  Decree  of  the  Biblical  Commission 
(1  May,  1910)  decides  the  following  points: 

(a)  Neither  the  wording  of  the  decrees  of  the  coun- 
cils nor  the  opinions  of  certain  Fathers  have  such 
weight  as  to  determine  that  David  is  sole  author  of  the 
whole  Psalter. 

(b)  It  cannot  be  prudently  denied  that  David  is  the 
chief  author  of  the  songs  of  the  Psalter. 

(c)  Especially  can  it  not  be  denied  that  David  is 
the  author  of  those  psalms  which,  either  in  the  Old 
or  in  the  New  Testament,  are  clearly  cited  under  the 
name  of  David,  for  instance  ii,  xvi,  xviii,  xxxii,  Ixix, 
ex  (ii,  XV,  xvii,  xxxi,  Ixviii,  cix). 

B.  Witness  of  Old  Testament. — In  the  above  deci- 
sion the  Biblical  Commission  has  followed  not  only 
Jewish  and  Christian  tradition,  but  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian Scripture  as  well.  The  Old  Testament  witness 
to  the  authorship  of  the  Psalms  is  chiefly  the  titles. 
These  seem  to  attribute  various  psalms,  especially  of 
Books  I-III,  to  David,  Asaph,  the  sons  of  Korah, 
Solomon,  Moses,  and  others. 

(1)  David: — "The  titles  of  seventy-three  psalms  in 
the  Massoretic  Text  and  of  many  more  in  the  Septua- 
gint seem  to  single  out  David  as  author:  cf.  Pss.  iii- 
xli  (iii-xl),  i.  e.  all  of  Bk.  I  save  only  x  and  xxxiii; 
Pss.  li-lxx  (1-lxix),  except  Ixvi  and  Ixvii,  in  Bk.  II; 
Ps.  Ixxxvi  (Ixxxv)  of  Bk.  Ill;  Ps.  ciii  (cii)  in  Bk.  IV; 
Pss.  cviii-cx,  cxxii,  cxxiv,  cxxxi,  cxxxiii,  cxxxv-cxlv 
(cvii-cix,  cxxi,  cxxiii,  cxxx,  cxxxiv-cxliv)  of  Bk.  V. 
The  Hebrew  title  is  l^n^.  It  is  now  generally  held 
that,  in  this  Hebrew  word,  the  preposition  le  has  the 
force  of  a  genitive,  and  that  the  Septuagint  toO  AavlS 
"of  David",  is  a  better  translation  than  the  Vulgate 
ipsi  David,  "unto  David  himself"  Does  this  prep- 
osition mean  authorship?  Not  in  every  title;  else 
both  David  and  the  Director  are  the  authors  of  Ps. 
xix  (xviii),  and  all  the  sons  of  Korah,  together  with  the 
Director,  are  joint  authors  of  the  psalms  attributed  to 
them.  In  the  case  of  such  composite  titles  as  "of  the 
Director,  a  psalm  of  David"  (Ps.  xix),  or  "of  the 
Director,  of  the  sons  of  Korah,  a  psalm"  (Ps.  xlviii), 
we  probably  have  indications  not  of  authorship  but 
of  various  collections  of  psalms — the  collections  en- 
titled "David",  "the  Director",  "the  sons  of  Korah". 


PSALMS 


538 


PSALMS 


Just  as  the  New  Testament,  the  Council  of  Trent,  and 
many  Fathers  of  the  Church  speak  of  "David",  "the 
Psalter  of  David",  "the  Psalms  of  David",  not  in 
truth  to  infer  that  all  the  psalms  are  David's,  but 
because  he  was  the  psalmist  par  excellence,  so  the 
titles  of  many  psalms  assign  them  not  so  much  to  their 
authors  as  to  their  collectors  or  to  the  chief  author  of 
the  collection  to  which  they  pertain.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  of  the  longer  titles  go  to  show  that  "of 
David"  may  mean  authorship.  Take  an  instance: 
' '  Of  the  Director,  to  the  tune  '  Destroy  not ' ,  of  David, 
a  chosen  piece  {Mikhtam),  when  he  fled  from  the  face 
of  Saul  into  the  cave"  (Ps.  Ivii).  The  historical  occa- 
sion of  the  Davidic  composition  of  the  song,  the  lyric 
quality  of  the  song,  its  inclusion  in  the  early  collec- 
tion "of  David"  and  later  in  the  Director's  hymn- 
book,  the  tune  to  which  the  psalm  was  either  written 
by  David  or  set  by  the  Director — all  these  things 
seem  to  be  indicated  by  the  very  composite  title  under 
consideration.  Of  a  sort  with  the  Davidic  titles  is  the 
ending  subscribed  to  the  first  two  books  of  the  Psalms: 
"Amen,  Amen;  ended  are  the  praises  of  David,  son  of 
Yishai'  (Ps.  Ixxii,  20).  This  subscription  is  more 
ancient  than  the  Septuagint;  it  would  be  altogether 
out  of  place  were  not  David  the  chief  author  of  the 
psalms  of  the  two  books  whereto  it  is  appended. 

Further  Old-Testament  evidence  of  Davidic  author- 
ship of  the  Psalms,  as  suggested  by  the  Bibhcal  Comi- 
mission's  recent  Decree,  are  David's  natural  poetic 
talent,  shown  in  his  songs  and  dirges  of  II  Kings  and 
I  Par.,  together  with  the  fact  that  it  was  he  who  insti- 
tuted the  solemn  levitical  cantilation  of  psalms  in  the 
presence  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  (I  Par.,  xvi, 
xxiii-xxv) .  The  songs  and  dirges  attributed  to  David 
are  significantly  alike  to  the  Davidic  psalms  in  spirit 
and  style  and  wording.  Let  us  examine  the  opening 
lines  of  II  Kings,  xxii: — 

"  And  David  spoke  to  Jahweh  the  words  of  this  song 
in  the  day  that  Jahweh  saved  him  from  the  grasp  of 
his  foes  and  out  of  the  hands  of  Saul,  and  he  said: 

2.  Jahweh  is  my  Cliff,  my  Fortress,  my  Way  of 

Escape, 

3.  My  God,  my  Rock  to  Whom  I  betake  me. 
My  Shield,  the  Horn  of  my  salvation,  my  Tower. 
My  Refuge,  my  Saviour,  from  wrong  dost  Thou 

save  me. 

4.  Shouting  praise,  I  cry  to  Jahweh, 
And  from  my  foe  I  get  salvation" 

This  undoubtedly  Davidic  song  it  were  well  to  com- 
pare, part  for  part,  with  Ps.  xviii  (xvii).  We  shall  cite 
only  the  title  and  opening  lines  of  this  Davidic  psalm: 
"Of  the  Director,  of  the  servant  of  Jahweh,  David, 
who  spake  to  Jahweh  the  words  of  this  song  in  the  day 
that  Jahweh  saved  him  from  the  grasp  of  his  foes  and 
out  of  the  hands  of  Saul,  and  he  said: 

2.  Heartily  I  love  Thee,  Jahweh,  my  Might, 

3.  Jahweh,   my  Cliff,   my  Fortress,   my  Way  of 

Escape, 
My  God,  my  Rock  to  whom  I  betake  me. 
My  Shield,  the  Horn  of  my  Salvation,  my  Tower! 

4.  Shouting  praise,  I  cry  to  Jahweh, 
And  from  my  foe  I  get  salvation"! 

The  two  songs  are  clearly  identical,  the  slight  differ- 
ences being  probably  due  in  the  main  to  different 
liturgical  redactions  of  the  Psalter.  In  the  end  the 
writer  of  II  Kings  gives  "the  last  words  of  David" 
(xxiii,  1) — to  wit,  a  short  psalm  in  the  Davidic  style 
wherein  David  speaks  of  himself  as  "Israel's  sweet 
singer  of  songs",  "egregius  psaltes  Israel"  (II  Kings, 
xxiii,  2).  In  like  manner  the  Chronicler  (I  Par.,  xvi, 
8-36)  quotes  as  Davidic  a  song  made  up  of  Ps.  cv, 
1-13,  Ps.  xcvi,  and  a  small  portion  of  Ps.  cvi.  Finally, 
the  Prophet  Amos  addresses  the  Samarians:  "Ye 
that  sing  to  the  sound  of  the  psaltery;  they  have 
thought  themselves  to  have  instruments  of  music  like 
David"  (vi,  5).  The  poetic  power  of  David  stands 
out  as  a  characteristic  of  the  Shepherd  King.     His 


elegiac  plaints  at  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (II 
Kings,  i,  19-27)  reveal  some  power,  but  not  that  of  the 
Davidic  psalms.  The  above  reasons  for  Davidic 
authorship  are  impugned  by  many  who  insist  on  the 
late  redaction  of  II  Kings,  21-24  and  upon  the  dis- 
crepancies between  the  passages  we  have  paralleled. 
The  question  of  late  redaction  of  the  Davidic  songs  in 
II  Kings  is  not  within  our  scope;  nor  does  such  late 
redaction  destroy  the  force  of  our  appeal  to  the  Old 
Testament,  since  that  appeal  is  to  the  Word  of  God. 
In  regard  to  the  discrepancies,  we  have  already  said 
that  they  are  explainable  by  the  admission  that  our 
Psalter  is  the  result  of  various  liturgical  redactions, 
and  does  not  present  all  the  psalms  in  the  precise  form 
in  which  they  proceeded  from  their  original  writers. 

(2)  Asaph:  Asaph  is  accredited,  by  the  titles,  with 
twelve  psalms,  1,  Ixxiii-lxxxiii  (xlix,  Ixxii-lxxxii) . 
These  psalms  are  all  national  in  character  and  pertain 
to  widely-separated  periods  of  Jewish  history.  Ps. 
Ixxxiii  (Ixxxii),  although  assigned  by  Briggs 
("Psalms",  New  York,  1906,  p.  Ixvii)  to  the  early 
Persian  period,  seems  to  have  been  written  at  the 
time  of  the  havoc  wrought  by  the  Assyrian  invasion 
of  Tiglath-pileser  III  in  737  b.  c.  Ps.  Ixxiv  (Ixxiii) 
was  probably  written,  as  Briggs  surmises,  during  the 
Babylonian  Exile,  after  586  b.  c.  Asaph  was  a  Levite, 
the  son  of  Barachias  (I  Par.,  vi,  39),  and  one  of  the 
three  chiefs  of  the  Levitical  choir  (I  Par.,  xv,  17). 
The  "sons  of  Asaph"  were  set  aside  "to  prophesy 
with  harps  and  with  psalteries  and  with  cymbals" 
(I  Par.,  XXV,  1).  It  is  probable  that  members  of  this 
family  composed  the  psalms  which  later  were  collected 
into  an  Asaph  psalter.  The  features  of  these  Asaph 
psalms  are  uniform:  frequent  allusions  to  the  history 
of  Israel  with  a  didactic  purpose;  sublimity  and  ve- 
hemence of  style;  vivid  description;  an  exalted  con- 
ception of  the  deity. 

(3)  The  Sons  of  Korah: — The  Sons  of  Korah  are 
named  in  the  titles  of  eleven  psalms — xlii-xlix,  Ixxxiv, 
Ixxxv,  Ixxxvii,  Ixxxviii  (xU-xlviii,  Ixxxiii,  Ixxxiv, 
Ixxxvi,  Ixxxvii).  The  Korahim  were  a  family  of  temple 
singers  (II  Par.,  xx,  19).  It  can  scarcely  be  that  each 
psalm  of  this  group  was  jointly  composed  by  all  the 
sons  of  Korah;  each  was  rather  composed  by  some 
member  of  the  guild  of  Korah;  or,  perhaps,  all  were 
gathered  from  the  various  sources  into  one  liturgical 
hymnal  by  the  guild  of  the  sons  of  Korah.  At  all 
events,  there  is  a  oneness  of  style  to  these  hymns 
which  is  indicative  of  oneness  of  Levitical  spirit.  The 
features  of  the  Korahite  psalms  are:  a  great  love  for 
the  Holy  City;  a  yearning  for  the  public  worship  of 
Israel;  a  supreme  trust  in  Jahweh;  and  a  poetic  form 
which  is  simple,  elegant,  artistic,  and  well-balanced. 
From  their  Messianic  ideas  and  historical  allusions, 
these  psalms  seem  to  have  been  composed  between 
the  days  of  Isaias  and  the  return  from  exile. 

(4)  Moses: — Moses  is  in  the  title  of  Ps.  xc  (Ixxxix). 
St.  Augustine  (P.  L.,  XXXVII,  1141)  does  not  admit 
Mosaic  authorship;  St.  Jerome  (P.  L.,  XXII,  1167) 
does.  The  author  imitates  the  songs  of  Moses  in 
Deut.,  xxxii  and  xxxiii;  this  imitation  may  be  the 
reason  of  the  title. 

(5)  Solomon : — Solomon  is  in  the  titles  to  Pss.  Ixxii 
and  cxxvii  (Ixxi  and  cxxvi),  probably  for  a  similar 
reason. 

(6)  Ethan: — Ethan,  in  the  title  of  Ps.  Ixxxix 
(Ixxxviii),  should  probably  be  Idithun.  The  Psalter 
of  Idithun,  or  YeMthUn,  contained  also  Pss.  xxxix, 
Ixii,  Ixxvii  (xxxviii,  Ixi,  Ixxvi). 

C.  Witness  of  the  New  Testament.  -To  Cathohcs, 
believing  as  they  do  fully  in  the  Divinity  of  Christ  and 
inerrancy  of  Holy  Writ,  New  Testament  citations 
render  Pss.  ii,  xvi,  xxxii,  xxxv,  Ixix,  cix,  ex  (ii,  xv,  xxxi, 
xxxiv,  Ixviii,  cviii,  cix)  Davidic  without  the  shadow  of 
a  doubt.  When  the  Pharisees  said  that  the  Christ 
was  the  Son  of  David,  Jesus  put  them  the  question: 
"  How  then  doth  David  in  spirit  call  him  Lord,  saying: 


PSALMS 


539 


PSALMS 


The  Lord  said  to  my  Lord"  (of.  Matt.,  xxii,  43-45; 
Mark,  xii,  36-37;  Luke,  xx,  42-44;  Ps.  ex,  1).  There 
can  be  here  no  question  of  the  name  of  a  collection 
"of  David".  Nor  is  there  question  of  a  collection 
when  St.  Peter,  on  the  first  Pentecost  in  Jerusalem, 
says:  "For  David  ascended  not  into  heaven;  but  he 
himseK  said:  The  Lord  said  to  my  Lord  etc."  (Acts, 
ii,  34).  Davidic  authorship  is  meant  by  Peter,  when 
he  cites  Pss.  Ixix  (Ixviii),  26,  cix  (cviii),  8,  and  ii,  1-2 
as  "from  the  mouth  of  David"  (Acts,  i,  16;  iv,  25). 
And  when  the  chief  Apostle  has  quoted  Ps.  xvi  (xv), 
8-11,  as  the  words  of  David,  he  explains  how  these 
words  were  intended  by  the  dead  patriarch  as  a 
prophecy  of  centuries  to  come  (Acts,  ii,  25-32).  St. 
Paul's  testimony  is  conclusive,  when  he  (Rom.,  iv,  6; 
xi,  9)  assigns  to  David  parts  of  Pss.  xxxii,  xxxv,  and 
Ixix  (xxxi,  xxxiv,  Ixviii).  A  non-Catholic  might  object 
that  St.  Paul  refers  to  a  collection  called  "David", 
especially  as  such  a  collection  seems  clearly  meant  by 
"in  David",  i"  AavelS  of  Heb.,  iv,  7.  We  answer, 
that  this  is  an  evasion:  had  St.  Paul  meant  a  collec- 
tion, he  would  have  dictated  i"  Aaveld  in  the  letter  to 
the  Romans. 

D.  The  Critics  incline  to  do  away  with  all  question 
of  Da\'idic  authorship.  Briggs  says:  "It  is  evident 
from  the  internal  character  of  these  psalms,  with  a 
few  possible  exceptions,  that  David  could  not  have 
written  them"  (Psalms,  p.  Ixi).  Ewald  allows  that 
this  internal  evidence  shows  David  to  have  written 
Pss.  iii,  iv,  vii,  xi,  xv,  xviii,  first  part  of  xix,  xxiv, 
xxix,  xxxii,  ci  (iii,  iv,  vii,  xi,  xiv,  xvii,  xxiii,  xxviii, 
xxxi,  c). 

IV.  Canonicity. — A.  The  Christian  Canon  of  the 
Psalms  presents  no  difficulty;  all  Christians  admit 
into  their  canon  the  150  psalms  of  the  Canon  of  Trent; 
all  reject  Ps.  cli  of  the  Septuagint,  probably  a  Maoha- 
bean  addition  to  the  canon. 

B.  The  Jemsh  Canon  presents  a  vexing  problem. 
How  has  the  Psalter  been  evolved?  The  traditional 
Jewish  opinion,  generally  defended  by  Catholic 
scholars,  is  that  not  only  the  Jewish  Canon  of  the 
Psalms  but  the  entire  Palestinian  Canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  practically  closed  during  the  time  of 
Esdras  (see  Canon).  This  traditional  opinion  is 
probable;  for  the  arguments  in  its  favour,  cf.  Cornely, 
"Introductio  Generahs  in  N.  T.  Libros",  I  (Paris, 
1894),  42. 

(1)  The  Critical  View: — ^These  arguments  are  not 
all  admitted  by  the  critics.  Says  Driver:  "For 
the  opinion  that  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
closed  by  Ezra,  or  his  associates,  there  is  no  foundation 
in  antiquity  whatever"  ("Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  the  Old  Testament",  New  York,  1892,  p. 
x).  In  regard  to  the  Psalms  Wellhausen  says: 
"Since  the  Psalter  is  the  hymn-book  of  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  Second  Temple,  the  question  is  not  whether 
it  contains  any  post-exilic  psalms,  but  whether  it 
contains  any  pre-exilic  psalms"  (Bleek's  "Intro- 
duction", ed.  1876,  507).  Hitzig  ("Begriff  der 
Kritik",  1831)  deems  that  Books  III-V  are  entirely 
Machabean  (168-135  b.  c).  Olshausen  ("Die 
Psalmen",  1853)  brings  some  of  these  psalms  down 
to  the  Hasmonaean  dynasty,  and  the  reign  of  John 
Hyrcanus  (135-105  B.  c).  Duhm  ("Die  Psalmen", 
1899,  p.  xxi)  allows  very  few  pre-Machabean  psalms, 
and  assigns  Pss.  ii,  xx,  xxi,  Ixi,  Ixiiii,  Ixxii,  Ixxxiv  (b), 
cxxxii  [ii,  xix,  Ix,  Ixii,  Ixxi,  Ixxxiii  (b),  cxxxi]  to  the 
reigns  of  Aristobulus  I  (105-104  b.  c.)  and  his 
brother  Alexander  Jannaus  (104-79  b.  c);  so  that 
the  Canon  of  the  Psalter  was  not  closed  till  70  b.  c. 
(p.  xxiii).  Such  extreme  views  are  not  due  to  argu- 
ments of  worth.  So  long  as  one  refuses  to  accept 
the  force  of  the  traditional  argument  in  favour  of  the 
Esdras  Canon,  one  must  at  all  events  admit  that  the 
Jewish  Canon  of  the  Psalms  was  undoubtedly  closed 
before  the  date  of  the  Septuagint  translation.  This 
date  is  285  b.  c,  if  we  accept  the  authority  of  the 


Letter  of  Aristeas  (see  Septuagint)  ;  or,  at  the  very 
latest  132  b.  c,  the  period  at  which  Ben  Sirach  wrote, 
in  the  prologue  to  Ecclesiasticus,  that  "the  law  itself 
and  the  prophets  and  the  rest  of  the  books  [i.  e. 
the  Hagiographa,  of  which  were  the  Psalms]  had  been 
translated  into  Greek".  This  is  the  opinion  of 
Briggs  (p.  xii),  who  sets  the  final  redaction  of  the 
Psalter  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  b.  c. 

The  gradual  evolution  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  is  now 
quite  generally  taken  by  the  critics  as  a  matter  of 
course.  Their  application  of  the  principles  of  higher 
criticism  does  not  result  in  any  uniformity  of  opinion 
in  regard  to  the  various  strata  of  the  Psalter.  We 
shall  present  these  strata  as  they  are  indicated  by 
Prof.  Briggs,  probably  the  least  rash  of  those  who 
have  lately  published  what  are  called  "critical  edi- 
tions" of  the  Psalms.  His  method  of  criticism  is  the 
usual  one;  by  a  rather  subjective  standard  of  in- 
ternal evidence,  he  carves  up  some  psalms,  patches 
up  others,  throws  out  portions  of  others,  and  "edits" 
all.  He  assigns  seven  psalms  to  the  early  Hebrew 
monarchy;  seven  to  the  middle  monarchy;  thirteen 
to  the  late  monarchy;  thirteen  to  the  time  of  exile; 
thirty-three  to  the  early  Persian  period;  sixteen  to  the 
middle  Persian  period  (the  times  of  Nehemias);  eleven 
to  the  late  Persian  period;  "the  great  royal  advent 
psalm"  (Pss.  xciii,  xcvi-c)  together  with  eight  others 
to  the  early  Greek  period  (beginning  with  Alexander's 
conquest);  forty-two  to  the  late  Greek  period,  and 
to  the  Machabean  period  Pss.  xxxiii,  cii  (b),  cix  (b), 
cxviii,  cxxxix  (c),  cxxix  of  the  Pilgrim  Psalter  and 
cxlvii,  cxlix  of  the  Hallels. 

Of  these  psalms  and  portions  of  psalms,  according 
to  Briggs,  thirty-one  are  "psalms  apart",  that  is, 
never  were  incorporated  into  a  Psalter  before  the  pres- 
ent canonical  redaction  was  issued.  The  rest  were 
edited  in  two  or  more  of  the  twelve  Psalters  which 
mark  the  evolution  of  the  Book  of  Psalms.  The 
earliest  collection  of  psalms  was  made  up  of  seven 
Mikhtamtm,  "golden  pieces",  of  the  middle  Persian 
period.  In  the  late  Persian  period  thirteen  Masktltm 
were  put  together  as  a  collection  of  meditations. 
At  the  same  time,  seventy-two  psalms  were  edited, 
as  a  prayer-book  for  use  in  the  synagogue,  under  the 
name  of  "David";  of  these  thirteen  have  in  their 
titles  references  to  David's  life,  and  are  thought  to 
have  formed  a  previous  collection  by  themselves. 
In  the  early  Greek  period  in  Palestine,  eleven  psalms 
were  gathered  into  the  minor  psalter  entitled  the 
"Sons  of  Korah" 

About  the  same  time  in  Babylonia,  twelve  psalms 
were  made  into  a  Psalter  entitled  "Asaph".  Not 
long  thereafter,  in  the  same  period,  the  exilic  Ps. 
Ixxxviii,  together  with  two  orphan  Pss.,  Ixvi  and 
Ixvii,  were  edited  along  with  selections  from  "David, " 
"Sons  of  Korah",  and  "Asaph",  for  public  worship 
of  song  in  the  synagogue;  the  name  of  this  psalter 
was  "Mizmorim".  A  major  psalter,  the  Elohist, 
Pss.  xlii-Ixxxiii  (xli-lxxxii),  is  supposed  to  have  been 
made  up,  in  Babylonia,  during  the  middle  Greek 
period,  of  selections  from  "David",  "Korah", 
"Asaph",  and  "Mizmorim";  the  name  is  due  to  the 
use  of  Elohim  and  avoidance  of  Jahweh  in  these 
psalms.  About  the  same  time,  in  Palestine,  a  prayer- 
book  was  made  up  of  54  from  "Mizmorim",  16 
psalms  from  "David",  4  from  "Korah",  and  1  from 
"Asaph";  this  major  psalter  bore  the  name  of  the 
"Director"  The  Hallels,  or  AUeluiatic  songs  of 
praise,  were  made  up  into  a  psalter  for  temple  service 
in  the  Greek  period.  These  psalms  have  halleluyah 
(Praise  ye  Yah)  either  at  the  beginning  (Pss.  cxi, 
cxii),  or  at  the  close  (Pss.  civ,  cv,  cxv,  cxvii),  or  at 
both  the  beginning  and  close  (Pss.  cvi,  cxiii,  cxxxv, 
cxlvi-cl).  The  Septuagint  gives  '  AWij'Koii'ia  also  at 
the  beginning  of  Pss.  cv,  cvii,  cxiv,  cxvi,  cxix,  cxxxvi. 
Briggs  includes  as  Hallels  all  these  except  cxviii  and 
cxix,  "the  former  being  a  triumphal  Machabean  song, 


PSALMS 


540 


PSALMS 


the  latter  the  great  alphabetic  praise  of  the  law" 
A  like  minor  psalter  of  the  Greek  period  was  the 
"Pilgrim  Psalter"  (Pss.  cxx-cxxxiv),  a  collection  of 
"Songs  of  Pilgrimage",  the  "Songs  of  Ascents",  or 
"Gradual  Psalms",  which  the  pilgrims  chanted  while 
going  up  to  Jerusalem  for  the  three  great  feasts. 

(2)  The  Catholic  View: — So  extensive  an  applica- 
tion of  divisive  criticism  to  the  Psalter  does  not  meet 
the  approval  of  Catholic  exegetes.  Successive  redac- 
tion of  the  Psalms  they  readily  admit,  provided  the 
doctrine  of  the  inspiration  of  Holy  Writ  be  not 
impugned.  The  doctrine  of  inspiration  has  regard 
to  the  Psalms  as  they  now  stand  in  the  canon,  and 
does  not  impede  a  Catholic  from  admitting  various 
redactions  of  the  Psalter  previous  to  our  present 
redaction;  in  fact,  even  uninspired  liturgical  redac- 
tion of  the  inspired  Psalms  would  not  be  contrary  to 
what  the  Church  teaches  in  the  matter  of  inspiration, 
so  long  as  the  redactor  had  preserved  intact  and  ab- 
solutely unaltered  the  inspired  meaning  of  the 
Sacred  Text.  The  Biblical  Commission  (1  May, 
1910)  will  not  allow  that  our  present  redaction  con- 
tains many  Machabean  psalms;  nor  will  Driver, 
Delitzsch,  Perowne,  Renan,  and  many  other  critical 
scholars.  "Had  so  many  psalms  dated  from  this 
age,  it  is  difficult  not  to  think  that  they  would  have 
borne  more  prominent  marks  of  it  in  their  diction  and 
style"  (Driver,  "Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the 
Old  Testament",  New  York,  1892,  365).  Pss.  xliv, 
Ixxiv,  Ixxix,  and  Ixxxiii,  which  Delitzsch  and  Perowne 
on  historical  grounds  admit  to  be  Machabean,  oc- 
casion to  Davison  (Hastings,  "Diet,  of  the  Bible", 
IV,  152)  "unquestionable  difficulties  arising  from 
their  place  in  the  second  and  third  books".  There 
are  no  certain  proofs  that  these  or  any  psalms  are 
Machabean.  The  Biblical  Commission  does  not, 
on  this  account,  deny  any  of  the  psalms  are 
Machabean;  it  leaves  that  question  still  open.  In 
the  matter  of  redaction,  it  allows  that  "for  liturgical 
or  musical  or  other  unlinown  reasons,  psalms  may 
have  been  split  up  or  joined  together"  in  course  of 
time;  and  that  "there  are  other  psalms,  like  the 
Miserere  mei,  Deiis  [Ps.  li],  which,  in  order  that  they 
might  be  better  fitted  to  the  historical  circumstances 
and  the  solemnities  of  the  Jewish  people,  were 
slightly  re-edited  and  changed  by  the  omission  or 
addition  of  a  verse  or  two,  so  long  as  the  inspiration 
of  the  entire  text  remains  intact".  That  is  the  im- 
portant thing;  the  doctrine  of  the  inspiration  of 
Holy  Writ  must  not  suffer  in  the  least.  How,  then, 
is  the  doctrine  of  the  inspiration  of  the  entire  text 
kept  intact?  Were  the  previous  redactors  inspired? 
Nothing  has  been  determined  by  any  authority  of 
the  Church  in  these  matters.  We  incline  to  the  opin- 
ion that  God  inspired  the  meanings  of  the  Psalms  as 
originally  written,  and  in  like  manner  inspired  every 
redactor  who  gathered  and  edited  these  songs  of 
Israel  until  the  last  inspired  redactor  set  them  to- 
gether in  their  present  form. 

V.  Text. — The  Psalms  were  originally  written  in 
Hebrew  letters,  such  as  we  see  only  on  coins  and  in  a 
few  lapidary  inscriptions;  the  text  has  come  down 
to  us  in  square  Aramaic  letters.  Only  the  versions 
give  us  any  idea  of  the  pre-Massoretic  text.  Thus 
far  no  pre-Massoretic  MS.  of  the  Psalms  has  been 
discovered.  The  Massoretic  text  has  been  preserved 
in  more  than  3400  MSS.,  of  which  none  is  earlier 
than  the  ninth  century  and  only  nine  or  ten  are  earlier 
than  the  twelfth  (see  Manuscripts  op  the  Bible). 
These  Massoretic  MSS.  represent  two  slightly  variant 
famihes  of  one  tradition — the  texts  of  Ben  Asher  and 
of  Ben  Naftali.  Their  variations  are  of  little  moment 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  Psalms.  The  study  of 
the  rh}rthmic  structure  of  the  Psalms,  together  with 
the  variations  between  Massorah  and  the  versions, 
have  made  it  clear  that  our  Hebrew  text  is  far  from 
perfect,  and  that  its  points  are  often  wrong.     The 


efforts  of  critics  to  perfect  the  text  are  at  times  due 
to  no  more  than  a  shrewd  surmise.  The  metrical 
mould  is  chosen ;  then  the  psalm  is  forcibly  adapted 
to  it.  It  were  better  to  leave  the  text  in  its  imperfect 
condition  than  to  render  it  worse  by  guess-work. 
The  decree  of  the  Biblical  Commission  is  aimed  at 
those  to  whom  the  imperfections  in  the  Massoretic 
Text  are  an  occasion,  though  no  excuse,  for  countless 
conjectural  emendations,  at  times  wild  and  fanciful 
which  nowadays  pass  current  as  critical  exegesis  of 
the  Psalms. 

VI.  Versions. — A.  Oreek. — The  chief  version  of 
the  Psalms  is  the  Septuagint.  It  is  preserved  to  us  in 
Cod.  U,  Brit.  Mus.  Pap.  37,  seventh  century,  con- 
taining Pss.  x-xxxiii;  Leipzig  Pap.,  fourth  century, 
containing  Pss.  xxix-liv;  X,  Cod.  Sinaiticus,  fourth 
century,  complete;  B,  Cod.  Vaticanus,  fourth  cen- 
tury, complete,  except  Pss.  cv,  27-cxxxvii,  6;  A, 
Cod.  Alexandrinus,  fifth  century,  complete  except 
Pss.  xlix,  19-lxxvi,  10;  I,  Cod.  Bodleianus,  ninth 
century,  complete;  and  in  many  other  later  MSS. 
The  Septuagint  Version  is  of  great  value  in  the 
exegesis  of  the  Psalms.  It  provides  pre-Massoretic 
readings  which  are  clearly  preferable  to  those  of  the 
Massoretes.  It  brings  us  back  to  a  text  at  least  of  the 
second  century  b.  c.  In  spite  of  a  seeming  servility 
to  words  and  to  Hebrew  constructions,  a  servility  that 
probably  existed  in  the  Alexandrian  Greek  of  the  Jews 
of  the  period,  the  Septuagint  translator  of  psalms 
shows  an  excellent  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  and  fears 
not  to  depart  from  the  letter  and  to  give  the  meaning 
of  his  original.  The  second-century  a.  d.  Greek  ver- 
sions of  Aquila,  Symmachus,and  Theodotion  are  extant 
in  only  a  few  fragments ;  these  fragments  are  witnesses 
to  a  text  pretty  much  the  same  as  our  Massoretic. 

B.  Latin. — About  the  middle  of  the  second  century 
the  Septuagint  Psalter  was  translated  into  Latin.  Of 
this  Old  Latin,  or  Itala,  Version  we  have  only  a  few 
MSS.  and  the  citations  by  the  early  Latin  Fathers. 
At  the  request  of  Pope  St.  Damasus  I,  a.  d.  383,  St. 
Jerome  revised  the  Itala  and  brought  it  back  closer 
to  the  Septuagint.  His  revision  was  soon  so  distorted 
that  he  complained,  "plus  antiquum  errorem  quam 
novam  emendationem  valere"  (P.  L.,  XXIX,  117). 
This  is  St.  Jerome's  "Roman  Psalter";  it  is  used  in 
the  recitation  of  the  Office  in  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  and 
in  the  Missal.  The  corruption  of  his  first  translation 
led  St.  Jerome  to  undertake  an  entirely  new  transla- 
tion of  the  Hexapla  edition  of  the  Septuagint.  He 
worked  with  great  care,  in  Bethlehem,  some  time  be- 
foreA.D.  392.  He  indicated  by  asterisks  the  parts  of  the 
Hebrew  text  which  had  been  omitted  by  the  Septua- 
gint and  were  borrowed  by  him  from  Theodotion;  he 
marked  with  the  obelus  (-^)  the  parts  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint which  were  not  in  the  Hebrew.  These  crit- 
ical marks  came  in  course  of  time  to  be  utterly  ne- 
glected. This  translation  is  the  "Galilean  Psalter"; 
it  is  part  of  the  Vulgate.  A  third  Latin  translation  of 
the  Psalms,  made  from  the  Hebrew  Text,  with 
Origen's  Hexapla  and  the  other  ancient  versions  in 
view,  was  completed  by  St.  Jerome  about  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century  at  Bethlehem.  This  version  is  of 
great  worth  in  the  study  of  the  Psalter.  Dr.  Briggs 
says:  "Where  it  differs  from  H.  and  G.,  its  evidence 
is  especially  valuable  as  giving  the  opinion  of  the  best 
Biblical  scholar  of  ancient  times  as  to  the  original  text, 
based  on  the  use  of  a  wealth  of  critical  material  vastly 
greater  than  that  in  the  possession  of  any  other  critic, 
earlier  or  later"  (p.  xxxii). 

C. — For  other  translations,  see  Versions  of  the 
Bible;  Rhymed  Bibles. 

VII.  Poetic  Form. — A.  Parallelism  (q.  v.)  is  the 
principle  of  balance  which  is  admitted  by  all  to  be 
the  most  characteristic  and  essential  feature  of  the 
poetic  form  of  the  Psalms.  By  synonymous,  synthetic; 
antithetic,  emblematic,  stair-like,  or  introverted. 
paralleUsm,  thought  is  balanced  with  thought,  line 


PSALMS 


641 


PSALMS 


with  line,  couplet  with  couplet,  strophe  with  antis- 
trophe,  in  the  lyric  upbuilding  of  the  poetic  picture 
or  imprecation  or  exhortation. 

B.  Metre. — Is  there  metre  in  the  Psalms?  The 
Jews  of  the  first  century  a.  d.  thought  so.  Flavins 
Josephus  speaks  of  the  hexameters  of  Moses  (Antiq., 
II,  xvi,  4;  IV,  yiii,  44)  and  the  trimeters  and  tetram- 
eters and  manifold  meters  of  the  odes  and  hymns 
of  David  (Antiq.,  VII,  xii,  3).  Philo  says  that  Moses 
had  learned  the  "theory  of  rhythm  and  harmony" 
(De  vita  Mosis,  I,  5).  Early  Christian  writers  voice 
the  same  opinion.  Origen  (d.  254)  says  the  Psalms  are 
in  trimeters  and  tetrameters  (In  Ps.  cxviii ;  cf .  Card.  Pi- 
tra,  "Analecta  Sacra",  II,  341) ; and  Eusebius  (d.  340), 
in  his  "De  prteparatione  evangelica",  XI,  5  (P.  G., 
XXI,  852),  speaks  of  the  same  metres  of  David.  St. 
Jerome  (420),  in  "Praef.  ad  Eusebii  chronicon"  (P.  L., 
.XXVII,  36),  finds  iambics,  Alcaics,  and  Sapphics  in 
the  Psalter;  and,  writing  to  Paula  (P.  L.,  XXII,  442), 
he  explains  that  the  acrostic  Pss.  cxi  and  cxii  (ex  and 
cxi)  are  made  up  of  iambic  trimeters,  whereas  the 
acrostic  Pss.  cxix  and  cxlv  (cx^-iii  and  cxliv)  are  iambic 
tetrameters.  Modern  cxegetes  do  not  agree  in  this 
matter.  For  a  time  many  would  admit  no  metre  at 
all  in  the  Psalms.  Davison' (Hast.,  "Diet,  of  the  Bi- 
ble", s.  V.)  writes:  "  though  metre  is  not  discernible  in 
the  Psalms,  it  does  not  follow  that  rhythm  is  excluded' ' 
This  rhythm,  however,  "defies  analysis  and  system- 
atization".  Driver  ("Introd.  to  Lit.  of  O.  T.",  New 
York,  1892,  339)  admits  in  Hebrew  poetry  "no  metre 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term".  Exegetes  who  find 
metre  in  the  Psalms  are  of  four  schools,according  as  they 
explain  Hebrew  metre  by  quantity,  by  the  number  of 
syllables,  by  accent,  or  by  both  quantity  and  accent. 

(1)  Defenders  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  metrical 
standard  of  quantity  as  applied  to  Hebrew  poetry  are 
Francis  Gomarus,  in  "  Davidis  lyra",  II  (Lyons,  1637), 
313;  Mark  Meibom,  in  "Davidis  psalmi  X"  (Am- 
sterdam, 1690)  and  in  two  other  works,  who 
claims  to  have  learned  his  system  of  Hebrew  metre  by 
Divine  revelation;  William  Jones,  "Poeseos  Asiaticae 
eommentariorum"  (Leipzig,  1777),  who  tried  to  force 
Hebrew  words  into  Arabic  metres. 

(2)  The  number  of  syllables  was  taken  as  the  stand- 
ard of  metre  by  Hare,  "Psalmorum  liber  in  versiculos 
metrice  divisus  "  (London,  1736) ;  he  made  all  feet  dis- 
syllabic, the  metre  trochaic  in  a  line  of  an  even  num- 
ber of  syllables,  iambic  in  a  line  of  an  odd  number  of 
syllables.  The  Massoretic  system  was  rejected,  the 
Syriac  put  in  its  stead.  This  opinion  found  chief  de- 
fence in  the  writings  of  the  learned  Innsbruck  Professor 
Gustav;  and  in  Bickell's  "Metrices  biblicae"  (Inns- 
bruck, 1879),  " Supplementum  ad  Metr.  bibl."  (Inns- 
bruck), "Carmina  veteris  testamenti  metrice" 
(1882),  "DichtungenderHebraer"  (1882-84).  Gerard 
Gietmann,  S.J.,  "De  re  metrica  Hebrseorum"  (Frei- 
burg im  Br.,  1880);  A.  Rohling,  "Das  Solomonische 
Spruchbuch"  (Mainz,  1879);  H.  Lestoe,  "Le  livre 
des  psaumes"  (Paris,  1883);  J.  Knabenbauer,  S.J.,  in 
"Job"  (Paris,  1885),  p.  18;  F.  Vigouroux,  "Manuel 
bibhque",  II,  203,  have  all  followed  in  Bickell's  foot- 
steps more  or  less  closely.  Against  this  system  stand 
some  patent  facts.  The  quantity  of  a  word  is  made  to 
vary  arbitrarily.  Hebrew  is  treated  as  Syriac,  a  late 
dialect  of  Aramaic — which  it  is  not;  in  fact,  even  early 
Syriac  poetry  did  not  measure  its  lines  by  the  number 
of  syllables.  Lastly  the  Massorah  noted  metrical 
structure  by  accents;  at  least  soph  pa^lXk  and  athnah 
indicate  complete  lines  or  two  hemistichs. 

(3)  Accent  is  the  determining  principle  of  Hebrew 
metre  according  to  C.  A.  Anton,  "Conjectura  de 
metro  Hebrseorum"  (Leipzig,  1770),  "Vindicise  dis- 
put.  de  metr.  Hebr."  (Leipzig,  1771),  "Specimen  edi- 
tionis  psalmorum"  (Vitebsk,  1780);  Leutwein, 
"Versuch  einer  richtigen  Theorie  von  der  biblischen 
Verkunst"  (1775);  Ernst  Meier,  "Die  Form  der 
hebraischen  Poesienachgewiesen"  (Tiibingen,  1853); 


Julius  Ley,  "  Die  Metrischen  Formen  der  hebraischen 
Poesie"  (Leipzig,  1886);  "Ueber  die  Alliteration  im 
Hebraischen"  in  "Zeitsch.  d.  Deutsch.  Morgen- 
landisch.  Ges.'',  XX,  180;  J.  K.  Zenner,  S.J.,  "Die 
Chorgesange  im  Buche  der  Psalmen"  (Freiburg  im 
Br.,  1896),  and  in  many  contributions  to  "Zeitsch.  fiir 
kathol.  Theol.",  1891,  690:  1895,  373;  1896,  168, 
369,  378,  571,  754;  Hontheim,  S.J.,  in  "Zeitsch.  ftir 
kathol.  Theol.",  1897,  338,  560,  738;  1898,  172,  404, 
749;  1899,  167;  Dr.  C.  A.  Briggs,  in  "The  Book  of 
Psalms",  in  "International  Critical  Commentary" 
(New  York,  1906), p.  xxxix,  and  in  many  other  pubhca- 
tions  therein  enumerated;  Francis  Brown,  "Measures 
of  Hebrew  Poetry"  in  "Journal  of  Biblical  Litera- 
ture", IX,  91;  C.  H.  Toy,  "Proverbs"  in  "Internat. 
Crit.  Comm."  (1899);  W.  R.  Harper,  "Amos  and 
Hosea"  in  "Internat.  Crit.  Comm.'  (1905);  Cheyne, 
"Psalms"  (New  York),  1892;  Duhm,  "Die  Psalmen" 
(Freiburg  im  Br.,  1899),  p.  xxx.  This  theory  is  the  best 
working  hypothesis  together  with  the  all-essential 
principle  of  parallelism;  it  does  far  less  violence  to  the 
Massoretic  Text  than  either  of  the  foregoing  theories. 
It  does  not  force  the  Massoretic  syllables  into  grooves 
that  are  Latin,  Greek,  Arabic,  or  Aramaic.  It  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  shifting  of  accent;  and  postulates  just 
one  thing,  a  fixed  and  harmonious  number  of  accents 
to  the  line,  regardless  of  the  number  of  syllables 
therein.  This  theory  of  a  tonic  and  not  a  syllabic 
metre  has  this,  too,  in  its  favour  that  accent  is  the 
determining  principle  in  ancient  Egyptian,  Babylo- 
nian, and  Assyrian  poetry. 

(4)  Of  recent  years  the  pendulum  of  Hebrew  met- 
rical theories  has  swung  back  upon  quantity;  the 
syllabic  must  not  be  utterly  neglected.  Hubert 
Grimme,  in  "Grundzuge  der  Hebraischen  Akzent- 
und  Vokallehre",  Freiburg,  1896,  and  "Psalmen- 
probleme'  '(1902),  builds  up  the  metre  chiefly  upon 
the  tonic  principle,  at  the  same  time  taking  into  ac- 
count the  morm  or  pauses  due  to  quantity.  SchlogI, 
"De  re  metrica  veterum  Hebrseorum"  (Vienna, 
1899),  defends  Grimme's  theory.  Sievers,  "Metrische 
Studien"  (1901),  also  takes  in  the  unaccented  syl- 
lables for  metrical  consideration;  so  does  Baethgen, 
"Die  Psalmen"  (Gottingen,  1904),  p.  xxvii. 

C.  Other  Characteristics, — Alliteration  and  asso- 
nance are  frequent.  Acrostic  or  alphabetic  psalms  are 
ix-x,  XXV,  xxxiv,  xxxvii,  cxi,  cxii,  cxix,  cxlv  (ix,  xxiv, 
xxxiii,  xxxvi,  ex,  cxi,  cxviii,  cxliv).  The  letters  of  the 
alphabet  begin  successive  lines,  couplets,  or  strophes. 
In  Ps.  cxix  (cxviii)  the  same  letter  begins  eight  suc- 
cessive lines  in  each  of  the  twenty-two  alphabetic 
strophes.  In  Pss.  xiii,  xxix,  Ixii,  cxlviii,  and  cl  (xii, 
xxviii,  Ixi,  cxlvii,  and  cxlix)  the  same  word  or  words 
are  repeated  many  times.  Rhymes,  by  repetition  of 
the  same  suffix,  are  in  Pss.  ii,  xiii,  xxvii,  xxx,  liv,  Iv, 
cxlii,  etc.  (ii,  xii,  xxvi,  xxix,  liii,  liv,  cxii,  etc.);  these 
rhymes  occur  at  the  ends  of  lines  and  in  caesural 
pauses.  Lines  were  grouped  into  strophes  and  antis- 
trophes,  commonly  in  pairs  and  triplets,  rarely  in 
greater  multiples;  at  times  an  independent  strophe, 
like  the  epode  of  the  Greek  chorus,  was  used  between 
one  or  more  strophes  and  the  corresponding  antis- 
trophes.  The  word  Selah  (~^5)  almost  invariably 
marks  the  end  of  a  strophe.  The  meaning  of  this  word 
and  its  purpose  is  still  a  moot  question.  We  think  it 
was  originally  ri.,S  (fromtibD,  "to  throw"),  and  meant 
"a  throwing  down'',  "a  prostration".  During  the 
antiphonal  cantilation  of  the  Psalms,  the  priests  blew 
their  trumpets  to  mark  the  end  of  a  strophe,  and  at  the 
signal  the  two  choirs  or  the  people  or  both  choirs  and 
people  prostrated  themselves  (cf.  Haupt,  "Expository 
Times",  May,  1911).  The  principle  of  parallelism 
determined  these  strophic  arrangements  of  the  lines. 
Koster,  in  "Die  Psalmen  nach  ihrer  strophisohen 
Anordnung"  (1837),  distinguishes  various  kinds  of 
strophic  parallelism,  corresponding  to  various  kinds  of 


PSALMS 


542 


PSALMS 


parallelism  in  lines  and  half-lines,  synonymous,  anti- 
thetical, synthetic,  identical,  introverted.  Zenner,  S.J., 
in  his  "Chorgesange  im  Buche  der  Psalmen"  (Frei- 
burg im  Br.,  1896),  has  very  cleverly  arranged  many 
of  the  psalms  as  choral  odes,  chanted  by  two  or  three 
choirs.  Hermann  Wiesmann,  S. J.,  in'  'Die  Psalmen  nach 
dem  Urtext"  (Munster,  1906),  has  applied  the  met- 
rical principles  of  Zenner,  and  revised  and  pubhshed 
the  latter's  translations  and  studies  of  the  Psalms. 
This  work  takes  too  great  liberty  with  the  Sacred 
Text,  and  has  lately  (1911)  been  put  on  the  Index. 

VIII.  Poetic  Beauty. — The  extravagant  words  of 
Lamartinein  "Voyage  en  Orient"  are  classic:  "Lisez 
de  I'Horace  ou  du  Pindare  aprSs  un  Psaume!  Pour 
moi,  je  ne  le  peux  plus"  One  wonders  whether 
Lamartine  ever  read  a  psalm  in  the  original.  To 
criticise  the  Psalms  as  literature  is  very  difBcult. 
Their  text  has  reached  us  with  many  losses  in  the  mat- 
ter of  poetic  form.  The  authors  varied  much  in  style. 
Their  literary  beauty  should  not  be  judged  by  com- 
parison with  the  poetry  of  Horace  and  Pindar.  It  is 
with  the  hymns  of  ancient  Egypt,  Babylon,  and 
Assyria  that  we  should  compare  the  songs  of  Israel. 
Those  ancient  hymns  are  crude  and  rude  by  the  side 
of  the  Psalms.  Even  the  imprecatory  Pss.  xviii, 
XXXV,  lii,  lix,  Ixix,  cix,  cxxxvii  (xvii,  xxxiv,  li,  Iviii, 
Ixviii,  oviii,  cxxxvi),  those  national  anthems  so  full  of 
love  of  Jahweh  and  of  Israel  and  almost  startling  in 
their  hatred  of  the  foes  of  Jahweh  and  of  Israel,  if 
read  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  writers,  are  sublime, 
vivid,  glowing,  enthusiastic,  though  exaggerated, 
poetic  outbursts,  instances  of  a  "higher  seriousness 
and  a  higher  truthfulness",  such  as  Aristotle  never 
would  have  found  in  a  song  of  Babylonia  or  of  Su- 
meria.  Whether  their  tones  are  those  of  praise  or 
blame,  of  sorrow  or  of  joy,  of  humiliation  or  of  exalta- 
tion, of  deep  meditation  or  of  didactic  dogmatism, 
ever  and  everywhere  the  writers  of  the  Psalms  are 
dignified  and  grand,  true  to  the  ideals  of  Jahweh's 
chosen  foUc,  spiritual  and  devotional.  The  range  of 
thought  is  immense.  It  takes  in  Jahweh,  His  temple, 
cult,  priests,  creation;  man,  friend  and  foe;  beasts, 
birds;  all  nature,  animate  and  inanimate.  The  range 
of  emotions  is  complete;  every  emotion  of  man  that  is 
pure  and  noble  has  been  set  to  words  in  the  Psalms. 
As  an  instance  of  poetic  beauty,  we  subjoin  the  famous 
Pa.  xxiii  (xxii),  translated  from  the  Hebrew.  The 
poet  first  speaks  in  his  own  person,  then  in  the  guise 
of  the  sheep.  The  repetition  of  the  first  couplet  as  an 
envoi  is  suggested  by  Zenner  and  many  commenta- 
tors, to  complete  the  envelope-form  of  the  poem,  or 
the  introverted  parallelism  of  the  strophic  structure: 
The  Poet :  1 .  Jahweh  is  my  Shepherd ; 
I  have  no  want. 

The  Sheep:  2.    In  pastures  of  tender  grass  he  set- 
teth  me; 
Unto  still  waters  he  leadeth  me; 

3.  He  turneth  me  back  again; 

He  guideth  me  along  right  paths  for 
his  own  name's  sake. 

4.  Yea,  though  I  walk  through  the  vale 

of  the  shadow  of  death, 
I  fear  no  harm ; 
For  thou  art  with  me ; 
Thy  bludgeon  and  thy  staff,  they 

stay  me. 

5.  Thou  settest  food  before  me. 
In  the  presence  of  my  foes; 

Thou  has  anointed  my  head  with  oil ; 
My  trough  runneth  over. 
The  Poet:  6.    Ah,  goodness  and  mercy  have  fol- 
lowed me 
All  the  days  of  my  life; 
I  will  go  back  to  the  house  of  Jahweh 
Even  for  the  length  of  my  days. 
Jahweh  is  my  Shepherd; 
I  have  no  want! 


IX.  Theological  Value. — The  theological  ideas 
of  the  Psalms  are  comprehensive;  the  existence  and 
attributes  of  God,  the  soul's  yearning  for  immortality, 
the  economy  of  grace  and  the  virtues,  death,  judg- 
ment, heaven,  hell,  hope  of  resurrection  and  of  glory, 
fear  of  punishment — all  the  main  dogmatic  truths  of 
Israel's  faith  appear  again  and  again  in  her  Psalter. 
These  truths  are  set  down  not  in  dogmatic  form,  but 
now  in  the  simple  and  childlike  lyric  yearning  of  the 
ingenuous  soul,  again  in  the  loftiest  and  most  vehe- 
ment outbursts  of  which  man's  nature  is  capable. 
The  Psalms  are  at  once  most  human  and  most  super- 
human; they  sink  to  the  lowest  depths  of  the  human 
heart  and  soar  to  the  topmost  heights  of  Divine  con- 
templation. So  very  human  are  the  imprecatory 
psalms  as  to  make  some  to  wonder  how  they  can  have 
been  inspired  of  God.  Surely  Jahweh  cannot  have 
inspired  the  singer  who  prayed : 

"As  for  them  that  plan  my  soul  to  destroy, 
Down  to  the  depths  of  the  earth  shall  they  go; 

To  the  grasp  of  the  sword  shall  they  be  delivered; 
A  prey  to  the  jackals  shall  they  become". 

[Ps.  Ixiii  (Ixii),  10-11.] 
Such  an  objection  is  based  upon  a  misunderstanding. 
The  perfection  of  the  counsels  of  Christ  is  one  thing, 
the  aim  of  the  good  Levite  is  quite  another  thing. 
The  ideals  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  are  of  higher 
spirituality  than  are  the  ideals  of  the  imprecatory 
psalm.  Yet  the  ideals  of  the  imprecatory  psalm  are 
not  bad — nay,  are  good,  are  Divine  in  their  origin  and 
authority.  The  imprecatory  psalms  are  national  an- 
thems; they  express  a  nation's  wrath,  not  an  individ- 
ual's. Humility  and  meekness  and  forgiveness  of  foe 
are  virtues  in  an  individual;  not  necessarily  so  of  a 
nation;  by  no  means  so  of  the  Chosen  Nation  of  Jah- 
weh, the  people  who  knew  by  revelation  that  Jahweh 
willed  they  should  be  a  great  nation  and  should  put 
out  their  enemies  from  the  land  which  He  gave  them. 
Their  great  national  love  for  their  own  people  postu- 
lated a  great  national  love  for  Jahweh.  The  love  for 
Jahweh  postulated  a  hatred  of  the  foes  of  Jahweh,  and, 
in  the  theocratic  economy  of  the  Jewish  folk,  the  foes 
of  Jahweh  were  the  foes  of  Israel.  If  we  bear  this 
national  purpose  in  mind,  and  forget  not  that  all 
poetry,  and  especially  Semitic  poetry,  is  highly  col- 
oured and  exaggerated,  we  shall  not  be  shocked  at  the 
lack  of  mercy  in  the  writers  of  the  imprecatory  psalms. 

The  chief  theological  ideas  of  the  Psalms  are  those 
that  have  regard  to  the  Incarnation.  Are  there  Mes- 
sianic psalms?  Unaided  by  the  authentic  interpret- 
ing power  of  the  Church  and  neglectful  of  the  con- 
sensus of  the  Fathers,  Protestants  have  quite  generally 
come  to  look  upon  the  Psalms  as  non-Messianic  either 
in  literal  or  in  typical  meaning;  the  older  Messianic 
interpretation  is  discarded  as  worn-out  and  thread- 
bare. Delitzsch  admits  only  Ps.  ex  (cix)  to  be  Mes- 
sianic in  its  literal  meaning.  Cheyne  denies  both 
literal  and  typical  Messianic  meaning  to  the  Psalms 
("Origin  of  Ps.",  339).  Davison  (Hast.,  loc.  cit.) 
says,  "it  may  well  be  that  the  Psalter  contains  hardly 
a  single  instance  of  direct  Messianic  prophecy". 
Catholics  have  ever  held  that  some  of  the  Psalms  are 
Messianic  in  meaning,  either  literal  or  typical.  (Cf . 
articles  Incarnation;  Jesus  Christ;  Messias.)  'The 
New  Testament  clearly  refers  certain  psalms  to  the 
Messias.  The  Fathers  are  unanimous  in  interpreting 
many  psalms  as  prophecies  of  the  coming,  kingdom, 
priesthood,  passion,  death,  and  resurrection  of  the 
Messias.  The  coming  of  the  Messias  is  predicted  in 
Pss.  xviii,  1,  Ixviii,  xcvi-xcviii  (xvii,  xlix,  Ixvii,  xcv- 
xcvii).  St.  Paul  (Eph.,  iv,  8)  interprets  of  Christ's 
ascent  into  heaven  the  words  of  Ps.  Ixviii,  18,  descrip- 
tive of  Jahweh's  ascent  after  conquering  the  world. 
The  kingdom  of  the  Messias  is  predicted  in  Pss.  ii, 
xviii,  XX,  xxi,  xlv,  Ixi,  Ixxii,  Ixxxix,  ex,  cxxxii  (ii,  xvii, 
xix,  XX,  xliv,  Ix,  Ixxi,  Ixxxviii,  cix,  cxxxi);  the  priest- 
hood in  Ps.  ex.    The  passion  and  death  of  the  Messias 


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REDUCED  FACSIMILE  PAGE  FROM  THE  PSALTER  PRESERVED  IN  THE 
UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY  OP  UTRECHT  (PROBABLY  IX  CENTURY) 

FORMERLY  COTTON  MS.  CLAUDIUS  C.  VII  IN  THE  BRITISH  MUSEUM 


PSALMS 


543 


PSALTERIUM 


are  clear  in  the  sufferings  of  the  Servant  of  Jahweh  of 
Pss.  xxii,  xl,  Ixix  (xxi,  xxxix,  Ixviii).  Ps.  xxii  was  used 
in  part,  perhaps  entirely,  by  Christ  on  the  Cross;  the 
Psalmist  describes  as  his  own  the  emotions  and  suffer- 
ings of  the  Messias.  Hence  it  is  that  the  Biblical 
Commission  (1  May,  1910)  rejects  the  opinion  of  those 
who  do  away  with  the  Messianic  and  prophetic  char- 
acter of  the  Psalms  and  refer  only  to  the  future  lot  of 
the  Chosen  People  those  words  which  are  prophecies 
concerning  Christ.  Cf.  Maas,  "Christ  in  Type  and 
Prophecy"  (New  York,  1893). 

X.  Liturgical  Use. — A. — The  use  of  the  Psalms 
in  Jewish  liturgy  has  been  spoken  of.  Cf .  also  articles 
Synagogue;  Temple. — B. — Christian  liturgical  use 
of  the  Psalter  dates  from  the  time  of  Christ  and  His 
Apostles.  He  recited  the  Hallcls  at  the  last  Passover, 
Pss.  exiii-oxiv  before  the  Last  Supper,  Pss.  cxv-cxviii 
thereafter;  Ps.  xxii  was  His  dying  words;  authorita- 
tive citations  of  other  psalms  appear  in  His  discourses 
and  those  of  His  Apostles  (of.  Luke,  xx,  42;  xxiv,  44; 
Acts,  i,  20) .  The  Apostles  used  the  Psalms  in  worship 
(cf.  Acts,  xvi,  25;  James,  v,  13;  I  Cor.,  xiv,  26).  The 
earliest  liturgical  service  was  taken  from  the  Psalter. 
St.  Paul  represents  the  Ephesian  Christians,  to  all 
seeming,  psalmodizing,  one  choir  answering  the  other; 
"Speaking  lo  one  another  in  psalms  and  hymns  and 
spiritual  songs,  singing  and  psalmodizing  [i/'dXXovrcs] 
in  your  hearts  to  the  Lord,  givingthanks  [fiix'»C"''ToCi'Tes] 
always  for  all  things"  (Eph.,  v,  19).  Probably  the 
Eucharistic  agape  is  referred  to.  A  like  reference  is  in 
Col.,  iii,  16.  St.  Basil  (P.  G.,  XXXII,  764)  speaks  of 
this  psalmodizing  in  two  choirs — i,vTixl/dWe(.v  dXXi)Xots. 
The  custom  of  psalmody,  or  antiphonal  singing,  is  said 
to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Church  of  Antioch 
lay  St.  Ignatius  (Socrates,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  VI,  viii). 
From  Syria,  this  custom  of  the  Synagogue  would  seem 
to  have  passed  over  to  Palestine  and  Egypt,  to  Asia 
Minor,  Constantinople,  and  the  West.  St.  Ambrose 
was  the  first  to  inaugurate  in  the  West  the  chanting  of 
the  Psalms  by  two  choirs  (cf.  Batiffol,  "Histoire  du 
br^viaire  romain",  1893).  In  the  Proprium  de  tem- 
pore of  the  Roman  Rite,  all  the  Psalms  are  chanted  at 
least  once  a  week,  some  twice  and  oftener.  In  Matins 
and  Lauds,  according  to  the  Vulgate's  numeration, 
are  Pss.  i-cx,  excepting  a  few  that  are  fixed  for  Prime 
and  other  hours;  in  Vespers  are  Pss.  cxi-cxlvii,  ex- 
cepting a  few  fixed  for  other  hours.  The  great 
alphabetic  praise  of  the  Law,  Ps.  cxviii,  is  distributed 
between  Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  and  None.  The  Bene- 
dictines, Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Dominicans, 
who  have  their  own  rite,  all  chant  the  Psalter  once  a 
week;  the  Jesuits  follow  the  Roman  ritual. 

In  the  Latin  Rite,  Pss.  vi,  xxxi,  xxxvii,  1,  ci,  cxxix, 
cxlii  (Douai)  have  long  been  recited,  in  the  above 
order,  as  prayers  of  sorrow  for  sin;  they  are  lyric 
cries  of  the  sorrowing  soul  and  have  hence  been  called 
the  "Penitential  Psalms".  Their  recitation  during 
Lent  was  ordered  by  Innocent  III  (1198-1216).  Pius 
V  (1566-72)  established  the  custom,  now  no  longer  of 
general  obhgation,  whereby  these  psalms  became  a 
part  of  the  Friday  ferial  Office  of  Lent. 

The  Ambrosian  Rite,  still  used  in  Milan  cathedral, 
distributes  the  Psalms  over  two  weeks.  The  Oriental 
Rites  in  union  with  Rome  (Melchite,  Maronite,  Syr- 
iac,  Chaldean,  Coptic,  ^Ethiopic,  etc.),  together  with 
the  heretical  Oriental  Churches,  all  keep  up  the  recita- 
tion of  the  Psalter  as  their  Divine  Office. 

The  bibliography  of  the  Psalms  is  naturally  enormous  and  can 
be  given  only  in  small  part. 

Greek  Fathers:  Origen,  Selecta  in  Psalmos  in  P.  G.,  XII,  1043; 
Idem,  Homilia:  in  Psalmos  in  P.  G.,  XII,  1319;  Idem,  Originis 
Hexaplorum  quce  supersunt,  ed.  Field;  EtraEBius,  Comm.  in 
Psalmos  in  P.  G.,  XXIII,  65;  XXIV,  9;  St.  Athanasics,  Epist. 
ad  Marcellinum  in  P.  G.,  XXVII,  11;  Idem,  Exegeses  in  Psalmos 
in  P.  G.,  XXVII,  55;  Idem,  De  Titulis  Psalmorum  in  P.  G., 
XXVII,  645;  St.  Basil,  Homilice  in  Pss.  in  P.  G..  XXIX,  209; 
St.  Didymus  of  Alexandria  in  P.  G.,  XXIX,  115S;  St.  Greo- 
ORT  OF  Nyssa  in  P.  G.,  XLIV,  431,  608;  St.  John  Chbysostom 
in  P,  G.y  LV,  35.  527;  St.  Cyril  op  Alexandria  in  P,  G.,  LXIX, 
699;  Theodoretub  in  P.  G„  LXXX,  857. 


Latin  Fathers:  St,  Ambrose,  Enarrationes  in  XII  Psalmos  in 
P.  L.,  XIV,  921;  St.  Jerome,  Liber  Psalmorum  juxta  hebraicam 
veritatem  in  P.  L.,  XXVIII,  il23;  Idem,  Excerpta  de  Psalterio 
(Maredsous,  1895);  Idem,  Epislolai  in  P.  L.,  XXII,  433,  441,  837; 
Idem,  Breviarium  in  Psalmos  in  P.  L.,  XXVI,  821;  St.  Augus- 
tine, Enarrationes  in  Pss.  in  P.  L.,  XXXVII,  67;  Idem,  Expositio 
in  Pss.  C-CL  in  P.  i.,  LI,  277;  Cassiodorids  in  P.  L.,  LXX,  9. 

Commentators  of  the  Middle  Ages:  Bedb,  Peter  Lombard,  St. 
Thomas,  St.  Bonaventure  and  others  of  the  Middle  Ages  depend 
chiefly  upon  the  Fathers  for  their  interpretations.  Nicholas  of 
Lyra,  in  his  Postilla,  and  the  converted  Jew,  Paul,  Archbishop 
OF  BuRQOS,  in  his  Additions  to  the  Postilla,  give  us  much  of  rab- 
binic interpretation. 

Moderns:  Bellarminb,  Explanatio  in  Psalmos  (1611),  was  by 
far  the  best  commentator  on  the  Psalms  till  recent  times,  as  he 
used  scientific  methods  in  textual  criticism;  Scuegg,  Die  Psalmen 
(Munich,  1846) ;  Rohunq  (1871) ;  Thalhofer  (Ratisbon,  1904) ; 
Wolter,  Psallite  Sapienter  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1904);  Bickell, 
Der  Psalter  (1884);  van  Steenkiste  (1870);  Patrizi,  Cento 
Salmi  tradotti  e  commentati  (1875) ;  Minochi,  /  Salmi  tradotti  del 
Testa  Ebreo  (1895) ;  Le  Hir,  Les  Psaumes  traduits  de  I'Mbreu  en 
latin  avec  la  Vulgate  en  regard  (Paris,  1876) ;  Les£:tre  (Paris, 
1883) ;  Fillion,  Les  Psaumes  commentes  selon  la  Vulgate  et 
VHibreu  (Paris,  1893);  Champon  (1889);  Pannier  (1908); 
Zenner-Wiesmann,  Die  Psalmen  nach  dem  Urtext  (Munster, 
1906);  NiGLUTSCH  (Trent,  1905);  Eaton,  Sing  ye  to  the  Lord 
(London,  1909) ;  Hoberg,  Die  Psalmen  nach  der  Vulgata  (Frei- 
burg, 1892);    M'Swiney,  Psalms  and  Canticles  (St.  Louis,  1901). 

Protestants;  the  commentaries  of  de  Wette  (1811-56); 
HiTziQ  (1863-65);  Olbhausen  (1853);  Hupfeld  (1855-88); 
EWALD  (1839-66) ;  Delitzsch  (1895) ;  Dohm  (Freiburg  im  Br., 
1899);  Baethgen  (Gottingen,  1904);  Cheyne  (New  York, 
1892) ;  International  Critical  Commentary,  ed.  Briggs  (New  York, 
1907),  the  best  of  non-Catholic  commentators  on  the  Psalms; 
KiRKPATRicK  in  Cambridge  Bible  (1893-95) . 

Walter  Drum. 

Psalms,  Alphabetic,  are  so  called  because  their 
successive  verses,  or  successive  parallel  series,  begin 
with  the  successive  letters  of  the  alphabet.  Some  of 
these  formations  are  perfectly  regular,  others  are  more 
or  less  defective.  Among  the  regular  Alphabetic 
Psalms  must  be  reckoned  Pss.  ex,  cxi,  cxviii  (Heb., 
Pss.  cxi,  cxii,  cxix).  The  praise  of  the  strong  woman 
ia  Prov.,  xxxi,  10-31,  and  the  first  four  chapters  of 
Lamentations  exhibit  a  similar  regular  formation. 
Pss.  ex  and  cxi  consist  of  twenty-two  verses  each,  and 
each  successive  verse  begins  with  the  corresponding 
successive  letter  of  the  alphabet.  Ps.  cxviii  consists 
of  twenty-two  strophes  containing  each  eight  dis- 
tichs;  the  successive  twenty-two  strophes  are  built 
on  the  twenty-two  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  such  a 
way  that  each  of  the  eight  distichs  of  the  first  strophe 
begins  with  the  first  letter,  each  of  the  eight  distichs 
of  the  second  strophe  begins  with  the  second  letter, 
etc.  Prov.,  xxxi,  10,  consists  of  twenty-two  distichs, 
each  successive  distich  beginning  with  the  successive 
corresponding  letter  of  the  alphabet.  Lam.,  i,  ii,  iv, 
consist  each  of  twenty-two  short  strophes  beginning 
with  the  successive  letters  of  the  alphabet.  In  Lam., 
iii,  each  successive  letter  of  the  alphabet  begins  three 
lines,  so  that  the  chapter  consists  of  sixty-six  lines  in 
which  each  letter  of  the  alphabet  occurs  three  times 
as  the  initial  of  the  line.  Defectively  Alphabetic 
Psalms  may  be  found  in  Pss.  ix,  xxiv,  xxxiv,  xxxvi, 
cxliv  (Heb.,  ix,  x,  xxv,  xxxvii,  cxlv).  But  the  device 
is  not  limited  to  the  Book  of  Psalms;  it  is  also  found 
in  other  poetical  portions  of  the  Old  Testament. 

ViGOUROux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Psalterium. — The  Psalterium,  or  Book  of  the 
Psalms,  only  concerns  us  here  in  so  far  as  it  was 
transcribed  and  used  for  liturgical  purposes.  As  a 
manual  of  private  devotion  it  has  already  been 
sufficiently  discussed  under  Prayer-Books.  In  its 
liturgical  use  the  Psalterium  contained  the  bulk  of 
the  Divine  Office.  The  other  books  associated  with 
it  were  the  Lectionary,  the  Antiphonary,  and  Re- 
sponsoriale,  and  the  Hymnary.  The  Psalterium 
contained  primarily  all  the  text  of  the  Psalms,  and 
it  may  be  noted  that  for  some  centuries  the  Western 
Church  used  two  different  Latin  versions,  both  due 
to  St.  Jerome.  The  earlier  of  these  was  a  mere  re- 
vision of  the  pre-existing  Latin  translation  which 
closely  followed  the  Septuagint.     St.  Jerome  under- 


PSAUME 


544 


PSAUME 


took  this  revision  in  383  at  the  request  of  Pope 
Damasus,  and  the  text  thus  corrected  was  retained 
in  use  at  Rome  for  many  centuries  afterwards.  In 
392,  however,  when  at  Bethlehem,  the  saint  set  about 
the  same  task  much  more  seriously  with  the  aid  of 
the  Hexapla.  He  produced  what  was  almost  a  new 
version,  and  this  being  circulated  in  Gaul,  through 
a  copy  sent  to  Tours  in  the  sixth  century,  became  com- 
monly known  as  the  "Psalterium  Gallicanum",  and 
in  the  end  entirely  supplanted  the  Roman.  A  pre- 
cious manuscript  at  the  Vatican  (Regin.  11),  of  the 
sixth  or  seventh  century,  contains  the  "Psalterium 
Gallicanum"  upon  the  left-hand  page,  and  a  version 
made  from  the  Hebrew  upon  each  page  facing  it. 


Initial  Letter  from  the  Psalter  of  St.  Louis  of  France 
Biblioth^que  Nationale,  Paris 

The  Psalter  proper  is  here  followed,  as  nearly  always 
in  these  liturgical  books,  by  the  principal  canticles, 
e.  g.  the  Canticle  of  the  Three  Children,  the  Canticle 
of  Moses  etc.  and,  what  is  not  so  general  a  feature, 
though  sometimes  found,  by  a  collection  of  hymns 
or  Hymnarium.  These  last  were  more  commonly 
written  in  a  book  apart.  The  oldest  Psalter  of  the 
British  Museum,  which  comes  from  St.  Augustine's, 
Canterbury,  and  which  was  long  supposed  to  have 
been  one  of  the  actual  books  brought  by  St.  Augus- 
tine to  England,  also  contained  the  Canticles  with 
two  or  three  hymns. 

In  other  similar  books  we  find  the  Gloria,  Credo, 
Quicunque  vult,  and  the  Litany  of  the  Saints;  at 
the  beginning  usually  stands  a  calendar.  Many  of 
the  more  ancient  psalterin  which  survive,  as  for  ex- 
ample the  "Psalterium  Aureum",  of  St.  Gall  and  the 
"Utrecht  Psalter",  both  of  them  probably  of  the 
ninth  century,  are  very  richly  Oluminated  or  illus- 
trated— a  fact  which  has  probably  had  much  to  do 
with  their  preservation.  A  certain  tradition  tended 
to  establish  itself  at  an  early  date  with  regard  to  the 
subjects  and  position  of  these  embellishments.  In 
particular  the  custom  spread  widely  of  dividing  the 
whole  Psalter  into  three  parts  containing  fifty  psalms 
each.  Hence  the  first  psalm,  the  fifty-first  psalm, 
and  the  hundred  and  first  psalm  are  usually  intro- 
duced by  a  full-page  miniature  or  by  a  richly-illumi- 
nated initial  letter.  Thus  also  in  penitential  codes  and 
monastic  documents  of  both  England  and  Ireland 
during  the  early  Middle  Ages,  it  is  common  to  find 
allusions  to  the  recitation  of  "two  fifties"  or  "three 
fifties",  meaning  two  or  three  of  the  divisions  of  the 
Psalter.  With  regard  to  the  Divine  Office  the  recita- 
tion of  the  Psalms  was  in  primitive  times  so  arranged 
that  the  whole  Psalter  was  gone  through  in  the  course 
of  the  Sunday  and  ferial  Office  each  week.     In  many 


psalteria  marginal  notes  indicated  which  psalms  be- 
longed to  each  day  and  hour.  Less  commonly  the 
psalms  were  not  arranged  in  their  numerical  order, 
but,  as  in  a  modern  Breviary,  according  to  the  order 
of  their  occurrence  in  the  ferial  Office.  Both  these 
classes  of  books  were  called  psalteria  feriala.  In 
medieval  cathedral  chapters  it  was  common  to  assign 
two  or  three  psalms  to  each  prebend  for  daily  recita- 
tion, the  psalms  being  so  distributed  that  the  bishop 
and  canons  got  through  the  whole  Psalterium  be- 
tween them.  The  repetition  of  the  entire  Psalter 
was,  as  irany  necrologies  and  monastic  custumals 
show,  a  favourite  form  of  suffrage  for  the  dead. 

Brambach,  Psalterium,  Bibliographischer  Versuch  iiber  die 
liturgischen  Bucher  des  Christ.  Abendlander  (Berlin,  1887) ; 
Rahn,  Das  "Psalterium  Aureum"  von  Sanct  Gallen  (St.  Gall, 
1878) ;  Wordsworth  and  Littlehales,  The  Old  Service  Books 
of  the  English  Church  (London,  1905) ;  Swainson  in  Diet.  Christ. 
Aniig.,  s.  v.  Psalter;  Beissel  in  Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach 
(July,  1909),  28^1;  Gasquet  and  Bishop,  The  Bosworth 
Psalter  (London,  1908);  Birch,  The  Utrecht  Psalter  (London, 
1876);  Hardy,    Utrecht  Psalter  Reports  (London,  1872-74). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Psaume  (also  Psaulme,  Prbatjme,  Lat.  Psalm^tjs), 
Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Verdun,  b.  at  Chaumont-sur- 
Aire  in  1518;  d.  10  August,  1575.  Having  studied 
classics  at  the  Norbertine  Abbey  of  St.  Paul  at 
Verdun,  of  which  his  uncle  Frangois  Psaume  was  com- 
mendatory abbot,  he  completed  a  higher  course  of 
studies  at  the  Universities  of  Paris,  Orleans,  and 
Poitiers;  and  then  entered  the  Norbertine  Abbey  of 
St.  Paul  at  Verdun.  Ordained  priest  in  1540,  he 
was  sent  to  the  University  of  Paris,  where,  after  a 
brilliant  defence  of  numerous  theses,  he  won  his 
doctorate  of  theology.  But  for  the  intrigues  of 
FrauQois,  Cardinal  of  Pisa,  Psaume,  who  had  already 
been  made  Abbot  of  St.  Paul,  Verdun,  would  have 
been  elected  Abbot  General  of  Premontr^,  for  his 
nomination  had  already  been  confirmed  by  Francis 
I,  King  of  France.  In  1546  he  was  chosen  to  rep- 
resent the  Norbertine  Order  at  the  Council  of  Trent, 
but  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  retained  him  and,  with 
the  pope's  consent,  resigned  the  Bishopric  of  Verdun 
in  favour  of  Psaume,  who  was  consecrated  bishop, 
26  August,  1548.  In  the  following  year  he  attended 
the  Provincial  Council  of  Trier,  and  in  the  same  year 
he  published  its  canons  and  decrees  in  his  own  dio- 
cese. He  was  also  present  at  the  General  Council  of 
Trent  from  May,  1551,  until  its  prorogation  on  28 
April,  1552,  distinguishing  himself  by  his  eloquence 
and  learning  and  by  his  zeal  in  defence  of  the  doc- 
trine and  the  prerogatives  of  the  Church.  He  was 
active  in  condemning  certain  abuses,  especially  those 
of  the  commenda  (see  Commendatory  Abbot). 
On  2  January,  1552,  he  was  charged  by  the  papal 
legate  with  the  editing  of  the  canons  of  the  council. 
In  1562  he  returned  to  Trent,  where  the  sessions  of 
the  council  had  been  resumed.  On  both  occasions 
Psaume  kept  a  diary  of  all  that  passed  at  the  various 
sessions;  it  was  printed  at  Paris  (1564-80),  at 
Reims  and  at  Verdun  in  the  same  year.  Hugo,  the 
annalist  of  the  order,  also  edited  it  in  two  parts,  but 
much  was  left  out  in  the  second  part.  Hugo's 
"Collectio"  was  edited  by  Le  Plat  in  the  fifth  volume 
of  his  "Monumenta  Cone.  Tridentin."  The  parts 
omitted  are  supplied  by  DoUinger,  "Ungedruckte 
Berichte  u.  Tagebiicher  z.  Geschichte  d.  Konzils  v. 
Trient",  II  (Nordlingen,  1876),  p.  172.  Psaume 
was  also  requested  by  the  Archbishops  of  Reims  a,nd 
Trier  to  co-ordinate  French  ecclesiastical  legislation 
and  make  it  agree  with  the  canons  and  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  He  wrote  much  in  defence  of  the 
Catholic  doctrine  against  the  Calvinistic  and  Lu- 
theran heresies.  To  provide  a  sound  education  for 
youth  he  gave  financial  assistance  to  the  Jesuits  in 
founding  a  college  at  Verdun.  He  is  buried  near  the 
altar  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  the  cathedral  of 
Verdun. 


FSELLUS 


545 


PSYCHOLOGY 


Hugo,  Annates,  I,  preface,  §xvi:  II,  523;  Calmet,  Bihlioth. 
lorraine,  II;  Spilbeeck,  in  Fricis  Historiijue  (Brussels,  188S-89); 
GoovAERT,  Die.  Bio-bibliog .,  II,  6G  sqq.  (Brussels,  1902), 

F.  M.  Geudbns. 

Psellus,  Michael  (Mixa';X  l>  *eXX6s),  Byzantine 
statesman,  scholar,  and  author,  b.  apparently  at 
Constantinople,  1018;  d.  probably  1078.  He  at- 
tended the  schools,  afterwards  learning  jurisprudence 
from  John  Xiphilinos,  later  patriarch  (John  VIII, 
1064-75).  Psellus  practised  law,  was  appointed 
judge  at  Philadelphia,  and  undor  the  Emperor 
Michael  V  (1041-2)  became  imperial  secretary. 
Under  Constantine  IX  (Monomachos,  1042-54) 
he  became  influential  in  the  state.  At  this  time  he 
taught  philosophy  at  the  new  Academy  at  Con- 
stantinople, :irousing  opposition  among  ecclesiastical 
persons  by  preferring  Plato  to  Aristotle.  Psellus 
attained  a  great  reputation  as  a  philosopher.  His 
pedagogical  career  was  cut  short  by  his  appointment  as 
Secretary  of  State  {trpwroa-riKpTjTis)  to  Constantine 
IX.  In  1054  he  followed  Xiphilinos  to  the  monas- 
tery of  Olj'mpos,  in  Bithynia,  where  he  took  the 
name  Michael.  He  soon  quarrelled  with  the  monks, 
however,  and  returned  to  the  capital.  He  was  one 
of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  treat  with  the  rebel  Isaac 
Komnenos  after  the  defeat  of  the  imperial  army  near 
Nicsea  in  1057.  \Mien  Isaac  I  (1057-9)  entered  Con- 
stantinople in  triumph  Psellus  had  no  scruple  against 
transferring  allegiance  to  him.  Psellus  drew  up  the 
indictment  against  the  Patriarch  Michael  Ccerularius 
in  1059,  and  preached  the  enthusiastic  panegyric 
that  the  government  thought  advisable  after  Caerula- 
rius's  death.  Psellus  maintained  his  influence  under 
Constantine  X  (Dukas,  1059-67);  under  Michael 
VII  (1071-8)  he  became  chief  Minister  of  State. 
Famous  for  oratory  as  well  as  for  philosophy  and 
statecraft,  he  preached  the  panegyric  of  the  Patriarch 
John  Xiphilinos  in  1075.  A  work  written  in  1096-7 
after  Psellus's  death  has  a  commendatory  preface 
by  him.  Krumbacher  (Byzant.  Litteratur.,  434) 
suggests  that  the  preface  may  have  been  written  be- 
fore the  work  was  begun.  That  Psellus  was  able 
to  retain  his  influence  under  succeeding  governments, 
through  revolutions  and  usurpations,  shows  his  un- 
scrupulous servility  to  those  in  power.  Krumbacher 
characterizes  him  as  "grovelling  servility,  unscrupu- 
lousness,  insatiable  ambition,  and  unmeasured  vanity" 
(op.  cit.,  435).  Nevertheless  his  many-sided  literary 
work  and  the  elegance  of  his  style  give  him  a  chief 
place  among  contemporary  scholars.  Compared  with 
Albertus  Magnus  and  Roger  Bacon,  he  is  to  Krum- 
bacher "the  first  man  of  his  time".  His  important 
works  are:  commentary  on  Aristotle  Trepl  ipfoivilai; 
treatises  on  psychology;  works  on  anatomy  and 
medicine,  including  a  poem  on  medicine  and  a  list 
of  sicknesses;  a  fragmentary  encyclopedia,  called 
"Manifold  Teaching"  (AiSatr/caXia  iraLVToSa-wri) -^  a 
paraphrase  of  the  Iliad;  a  poem  on  Greek  dialects; 
a  treatise  on  the  topography  of  Athens;  a  poetic 
compendium  of  law  and  an  explanation  of  legal 
terms.  His  speeches  are  famous  as  examples  of 
style,  and  contain  much  historical  information. 
His  best  known  panegyrics  are  on  Caerularius, 
Xiphilinos,  and  his  own  mother.  About  five  hundred 
letters,  and  a  number  of  rhetorical  exercises,  poems, 
epitaphs,  and  occasional  writings  are  extant.  His 
most  valuable  work  is  his  history  {xpov<yypa(t>U)  from 
976  to  1077,  forming  a  continuation  to  Leo  Diaconus. 
Works  (incomplete)  in  P.  O.,  CXXII,  477-1186,  also  in 
Sathab,  Meo-atwKiK^  fii^XiodriKif],  IV  and  V:  the  history  edited 
by  Sathas  is  published  in  Methuen,  Byzantine  Texts  (London, 
1899);  Leo  Allatius,  De  PtseUis  et  eorum  scriptis  (Rome,  1634), 
republished  in  Fabricitjs-Harles,  Bibtiotheca  grmca,  X  (Ham- 
burg, 1790),  41-97,  and  in  P.  (?.,  CXXII,  477-538;  Krum- 
bacher, Byzantinische  Litteraturgesck.  (2nd  ed.,  Munich,  1897), 
433-44;    DiEHL,  Figures  Byzantines,  I  (Paris,  1906),  x,  xi. 

Adrian  Fohtescub. 


Pseudo-Ambrosius. 

XIL— 3.-) 


See  Ambrosiastbr. 


Pseudo-Clementines.    See  Clementines. 

Pseudo-Dionysius.  See  Dionysius  the  Psbudo- 
Areopagite. 

Pseudo-Isidore.     See  False  Decretals. 
Pseudo-Zacharias     (Histokia     Miscellanea). 
See  MoNOPHYSiTBS  and  Monophysitism. 

Psychology  (Cr.  ^vx'^.  Wtos;  Lat.  psychologia;  Fr. 
psychologie;  Ger.  Seelenkunde),  in  the  most  general 
.sense  the  sci(^nce  which  treats  of  the  soul  and  its  opera- 
tions. During  the  past  century,  however,  the  term 
has  come  to  be  frequently  employed  to  denote  the  lat- 
ter branch  of  knowledge — the  science  of  the  phenom- 
ena of  the  mind,  of  the  processes  or  states  of  human 
consciousness.  Moreover,  the  increasing  differentia- 
tion, characteristic  of  the  advance  of  all  departments 
of  knowledge  in  recent  years,  has  manifested  itself  in 
so  marked  a  manner  in  psychological  investigation 
that  there  are  already  several  distinct  fields  of  pyscho- 
logieal  work,  each  putting  forward  claims  to  be  recog- 
nized as  a  separate  science.  The  term  psychologia 
seems  to  have  first  come  into  use  about  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century  (Goclenius,  1590,  Casmann's  "Psy- 
chologia Anthropologica",  1594).  But  the  populari- 
zation of  the  name  dates  from  Ch.  Wolff  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century. 

History. — Aristotle  may  well  be  deemed  the  founder 
of  this  as  of  so  many  other  sciences,  though  by  him  it 
is  not  distinguished  from  general  biology,  which  is 
itself  part  of  physics,  or  the  study  of  nature.  His 
treatise  nepl^pvxv^  ("De  Anima")  was  during  two 
thousand  years  virtually  the  universal  textbook  of 
psychology,  and  it  still  well  repays  study.  In  the 
investigation  of  vital  phenomena  Aristotle  employed 
to  some  extent  all  the  methods  of  modern  science: 
observation,  internal  and  external;  comparison;  ex- 
periment; hypothesis;  and  induction;  as  well  as  de- 
duction and  speculative  reasoning.  He  defines  the 
soul  as  the  "Entelechy  or  form  of  a  natural  body 
potentially  possessing  life".  He  distinguishes  three 
kinds  of  souls,  or  grades  of  life,  the  vegetative,  the 
sensitive,  and  the  intellectual  or  rational.  In  man 
the  higher  virtually  includes  the  lower.  He  investi- 
gates the  several  functions  of  nutrition,  appetency, 
locomotion,  sensuous  perception,  and  intellect  or 
reason.  The  last  is  confined  to  man.  The  working 
of  the  senses  is  discussed  by  him  in  detail;  and  diligent 
anatomical  and  physiological  study,  as  well  as  careful 
introspective  observation  of  our  conscious  processes, 
is  manifested.  Knowledge  starts  from  sensation,  but 
sense  only  apprehends  the  concrete  and  singular 
thing.  It  is  the  function  of  the  intellect  to  abstract 
the  universal  essence.  There  is  a  radical  distinction 
between  thought  and  sentiency.  The  intellect  or 
reason  (vovs)  is  separate  from  sense  and  immortal, 
though  how  precisely  we  are  to  conceive  this  wCs 
and  its  "  separateness "  is  one  of  the  most  puzzling 
problems  in  Aristotle's  psychology.  Indeed,  the  doc- 
trines of  free  will  and  personal  immortality  are  not 
easily  reconciled  with  parts  of  Aristotle's  teaching. 

Scholastic  Period. — There  is  little  effort  at  syste- 
matic treatment  of  psychology  from  Aristotle  to  the 
medieval  philosophers.  For  Epicurus,  psychology 
was  a  branch  of  physics  in  subordination  to  a  theory 
of  hedonistic  ethics.  With  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity certain  psychological  problems  such  as  the 
immortality  and  the  origin  of  the  soul,  free  will  and 
moral  habits  at  once  assumed  a  vastly  increased  im- 
portance and  raised  the  treatise  "De  Anima",  to  one 
of  the  most  important  branches  of  philosophy.  More- 
over, the  angels  being  assumed  to  be  spirits  in  many 
ways  resembling  the  human  soul  conceived  as  separate 
from  the  human  body,  a  speculative  theory  of  the 
nature,  attributes,  and  operations  of  the  angelic 
beings,  partly  based  on  Scriptural  texts,  partly  de- 
duced  by   analogical   reasoning   from   human   psy- 


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chology,  gradually  grew  up  and  received  its  final 
elaboration  in  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  metaphysical 
theology  of  the  Schoolmen.  The  Christian  mystics 
were  naturally  led  to  consider  the  character  of  the 
soul's  knowledge  of  God.  But  their  treatment  of 
psychological  questions  is  generally  vague  and  obscure, 
whilst  their  language  indulges  much  in  allegory  and 
symbolism.-  Indeed,  the  greatest  of  the  mystics  were 
not  sympathetic  with  the  employment  of  Scholastic 
or  scientific  methods  in  the  handUng  of  mystic  experi- 
ence. The  great  controversy  between  Realism  and 
Nominalism  from  the  early  Middle  Ages  directed 
much  attention  to  the  theory  of  knowledge  and  the 
problem  of  the  origin  of  ideas.  However,  although 
psychological  observation  was  appealed  to,  the  epis- 
tomological  discussions  were  largely  metaphysical  in 
character  during  this  period.  To  Albertus  Magnus 
and  St.  Thomas  the  popularization  of  the  psychology 
of  Aristotle  throughout  Europe  during  the  thirteenth 
century  was  mainly  due.  In  Questions  Ixxv  to  xc  of 
part  I  of  the  "Summa  Theologica",  St.  Thomas  gives 
a  very  fairly  complete  and  systematic  account  of  the 
leading  topics  connected  with  the  soul.  However, 
questions  of  biology,  general  metaphysics,  and  theol- 
ogy were  constantly  interwoven  with  psychology  for 
many  centuries  afterwards.  Indeed,  the  liberal  use 
made  of  physiological  evidence  in  psychological  dis- 
cussions is  a  marked  feature  in  the  treatment  of  this 
branch  of  philosophy  throughout  the  entire  history 
of  scholastic  philosophy.  But  although  there  is  plenty 
of  proof  of  acute  observation  of  mental  activities,  the 
usual  appeal  in  discussion  is  rather  to  metaphysical 
analysis  and  deductive  argument  than  to  systematic 
introspective  observation  and  induction,  so  character- 
istic of  modern  psychology.  The  treatise  "De 
Anima"  of  Suarez  is  a  very  good  example  of  scholastic 
psychology  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
treatise,  containing  six  books,  starts  in  book  I  with  an 
inquiry  into  the  essence  of  the  soul.  Recalling  Aris- 
totle's definition  of  the  soul  as  the  form  of  the  body, 
the  author  proceeds  to  examine  the  relations  of  the 
vegetative,  sensitive,  and  rational  soul.  Next,  in 
book  II  he  treats  of  the  faculties  of  the  soul  in  general 
and  their  relation  to  the  soul  as  an  essence.  In  book 
III  he  investigates  the  nature  and  working  of  the 
cognitive  faculties,  and  especially  of  the  senses.  In 
book  IV  he  inquires  into  the  character  of  the  activity 
of  the  intellect.  In  book  V  he  deals  with  faculties  of 
appetency  and  free  will.  Book  VI  is  devoted  to  a 
speculative  consideration  of  the  condition  and  mode  of 
operation  of  the  soul  in  a  future  life.  In  each  question 
he  begins  with  a  summary  of  previous  opinions  and 
then  puts  forward  his  own  solution.  The  order  of 
treatment  starting  from  the  essence  and  passing  thence 
to  the  faculties  and  their  operations  is  characteristic 
of  the  scholastic  treatises  generally.  The  method  is 
mainly  deductive  and  the  argument  metaphysical, 
though  in  dealing  with  the  senses  there  is  constant 
appeal  to  recognized  physiological  authorities  from 
Aristotle  to  Vesalius. 

In  psychology  as  well  as  in  other  branches  of  philos- 
ophy the  influence  of  Descartes  was  considerable 
though  indirect.  His  subjective  starting-point,  cogilo, 
ergo  sum,  his  insistence  on  methodic  doubt,  his  ad- 
vocacy of  reflection  on  thought  and  close  scrutiny  of 
our  fundamental  ideas,  all  tended  to  encourage  the 
method  of  internal  observation,  whilst  the  mechanical 
explanation  of  the  "Traits  des  Passions"  favoured 
the  advent  of  physiological  psychology.  It  was  prob- 
ably, however,  John  Locke's  "Essay  on  the  Human 
Understanding"  (1690)  which  did  most  to  foster  the 
method  of  analytic  introspection  which  constitutes 
the  principal  feature  of  modern  psychological  method. 
Notwithstanding  the  confused  and  inconsistent  meta- 
physics and  the  many  grave  psychological  blunders 
with  which  that  work  abounds,  yet  his  frequent  appeal 
to  inner  experience,   his  honest    efforts  to  describe 


mental  processes,  and  the  quantity  of  acute  observa- 
tions scattered  throughout  the  work,  coming  also  at 
an  age  when  the  inductive  method  was  rapidly  rising 
in  popularity,  achieved  a  speedy  and  wide  success  for 
his  book,  and  gave  a  marked  empirical  bent  to  all 
future  English  psychology. 

Psychological  observation  and  analysis  were  still 
more  skilfully  used  by  Bishop  Berkeley  as  a  principle 
of  explanation  in  his  "Theory  of  Vision",  and  then 
employed  by  him  to  establish  his  psychological  creed 
of  Idealism.  Finally,  David  Hume,  the  true  founder 
of  the  Associationist  school  of  psychology,  still  further 
increased  the  importance  of  the  method  of  introspec- 
tive analysis  by  the  daring  sceptical  conclusions  he 
claimed  to  establish  by  its  means.  The  subsequent 
British  adherents  of  the  Associationist  school.  Hart- 
ley, the  two  Mills,  Bain,  and  Herbert  Spencer,  con- 
tinued this  method  and  tradition  along  the  same  lines. 
There  is  constant  direct  appeal  to  inner  experience 
combined  with  systematic  effort  to  trace  the  genesis 
of  the  highest,  most  spiritual,  and  most  complex 
mental  conceptions  back  to  elementary  atomic  states 
of  sensuous  consciousness.  Universal  ideas,  necessary 
truths,  the  ideas  of  self,  time,  space,  causality  as  well 
as  the  conviction  of  an  external  material  world  were 
all  explained  as  the  outcome  of  sensations  and  asso- 
ciation. The  reality  of  any  higher  activities  or  fac- 
ulties essentially  different  from  the  lower  sensuous 
powers  was  denied,  and  all  the  chief  data  formerly 
employed  in  establishing  the  simplicity,  spirituality, 
and  substantiality  of  the  soul  were  rejected.  Rational 
or  metaphysical  psychology  was  thus  virtually  ex- 
tinguished and  erased  from  English  philosophical 
literature  during  the  nineteenth  century.  Even  the 
more  orthodox  representatives  of  the  Scotch  school, 
Reid  and  Dugald  Stewart,  who  avoided  all  meta- 
physical argument  and  endeavoured  to  controvert 
Hume  with  his  own  weapons  of  appeal  exclusively  to 
experience  and  observation,  had  only  further  con- 
firmed the  tendency  in  the  direction  of  a  purely  em- 
pirical psychology.  The  great  need  in  English  psy- 
chological literature  throughout  most  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  on  the  side  of  those  defending  a 
spiritual  doctrine  of  the  human  mind,  was  a  systematic 
and  thorough  treatment  of  empirical  psychology. 
Excellent  pieces  of  work  on  particular  questions  were 
done  by  Martineau,  W.  G.  Ward,  and  other  writers, 
but  nearly  all  the  systematic  treatises  on  psychology 
were  produced  by  the  disciples  of  the  Sensationist  or 
Materialistic  schools.  Yet,  if  philosophy  is  to  be 
based  on  experience,  then  assuredly  it  is  on  the  care- 
fully-scrutinized and  well-established  results  of  em- 
pirical psychology  that  any  satisfactory  rational 
metaphysical  doctrine  respecting  the  nature  of  the 
soul,  its  origin,  and  its  destiny  must  be  built.  It  was 
in  their  faulty  though  often  plausible  analysis  and 
interpretation  of  our  states  of  consciousness  that  the 
greatest  errors  in  philosophy  and  psychology  of  Bain, 
the  two  Mills,  Spencer,  and  their  disciples  had  their 
source;  it  is  only  by  more  careful  introspective  ob- 
servation and  a  more  searching  analysis  of  the  same 
mental  facts  that  these  errors  can  be  exposed  and 
solid  foundations  laid  for  a  true  metaphysical  psy- 
chology of  the  soul. 

In  France,  Condillac,  La  Mettrie,  Holbach,  and 
Bonnet  developed  the  Sensationalism  of  Locke's 
psychology  into  an  increasingly  crude  Materialism. 
To  oppose  this  school  later  on,  Royer-CoUard,  Cousin, 
Jouffroy,  and  Maine  de  Biran  turned  to  the  work  of 
Reid  and  the  "common  sense"  Scotch  school,  appro- 
priating their  method  and  results  in  empirical  psy- 
chology. Some  of  these  writers,  moreover,  sought  to 
carry  their  reasoning  beyond  the  mere  inductions  of 
empirical  psychology,  in  order  to  construct  on  this 
enlarged  experience  a  genuine  philosophy  of  the  soul, 
as  "principle"  and  subject  of  the  states  and  activities 
immediately  revealed  to  introspective  observation. 


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In  Germany  the  purely  empirical  tendency  which 
had  reduced  psychology  in  England  to  a  mere  positi- 
vistic  science  of  mental  facts  did  not  meet  with  quite 
the  same  success.  Metaphysics  and  philosophy  proper 
never  fell  there  into  the  degradation  which  they 
experienced  in  England  in  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  And  although  the  old  conception  of 
a  philosophical  science  of  the  nature  and  attributes  of 
the  soul  was  rejected  by  Kant,  and  abandoned  in  the 
systems  of  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel,  yet  mere 
Phenomenalism  was  never  completely  triumphant  in 
Germany.  Herbart,  whilst  denying  the  reality  of 
faculties,  postulates  a  simple  soul  as  the  underlying 
subject  of  the  presentations  or  ideas  which  form  our 
conscious  life.  Hermann  Lotze,  laying  similar  stress 
on  the  importance  of  scientific  observation  of  our 
mental  states,  insists  even  more  strongly  that  our 
introspective  experience  correctly  interpreted  affords 
abundant  metaphysical  justification  for  the  doctrine 
of  an  immaterial  soul.  Meanwhile  the  earlier  at- 
tempts of  Herbart  to  express  mental  activities  in 
mathematical  formulae  led  to  a  more  successful  line 
of  experimental  research  in  the  hands  of  Weber, 
Fechner,  Wundt,  and  others.  The  aim  of  this  school 
is  to  attain  the  possible  quantitative  measurement 
of  conscious  states.  As  this  is  ordinarily  not  directly 
possible,  much  industry  and  ingenuity  have  been  de- 
voted to  measuring  quantitatively,  by  the  aid  of  skil- 
fully devised  instruments,  the  immediate  physical 
antecedents  and  effects  of  sundry  mental  activities, 
by  which  it  is  hoped  to  secure  accurate  quantitative 
descriptions  of  the  mental  states  themselves.  Psy- 
chological laboratories  devoted  to  research  of  this 
kind  have  been  set  up  in  several  countries,  especially 
in  Germany  and  America.  One  of  the  most  successful 
so  far  is  that  at  the  Catholic  University  of  Louvain, 
and  another  has  lately  been  established  at  that  of 
Washington.  In  Great  Britain,  however,  the  special 
home  of  empirical  psychology  since  Locke,  the  new 
movement  in  favour  of  experimental  psychology  has 
not,  at  all  events  down  to  the  present  time,  met  with 
much  success.  The  advance  of  physiological  science, 
and  especially  of  that  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system, 
has  also  reacted  on  psychology,  stimulating  closer 
inquiry  into  the  relations  between  mental  and  bodily 
processes.  It  cannot,  however,  be  maintained  that 
the  progress  of  physiological  knowledge,  considerable 
though  it  is,  has  brought  us  appreciably  nearer  to  the 
solution  of  the  great  problem,  how  body  and  mind  act 
on  each  other.  The  study  of  nervous  pathology,  of 
mental  disease  and  of  abnormal  mental  states,  such 
as  those  of  hypnotism  and  double-consciousness,  has 
also  opened  up  new  fields  of  psychological  research, 
constantly  widening  with  the  last  thirty  years. 

(Scope  of  Psychology. — As  we  have  already  observed, 
recent  writers  commonly  confine  the  term  psychology 
to  the  science  of  the  phenomena  of  the  mind.  Thus 
William  James,  probably  the  psychologist  of  widest 
influence  during  the  past  twenty  years,  defines  psy- 
chology as  "The  Science  of  Mental  Life,  both  of  its 
phenomena  and  their  conditions".  ("Principles", 
I,  1).  Wundt's  definition  is:  "the  science  which  in- 
vestigates the  whole  content  of  Experience  in  its 
relations  to  the  Subject".  ("Outlines",  3rd  ed.,  3). 
Other  writers  describe  it  as,  "the  science  of  the  facts 
apprehended  by  our  internal  sense",  or  again,  "the 
science  of  our  states  of  consciousness,  their  laws  of 
succession  and  concomitancy"  The  common  fea- 
ture of  all  these  definitions  is  the  limitation  of  the 
scope  of  psychology  to  the  phenomena  of  the  mind 
directly  observable  by  introspection.  In  this  view 
it  is  a  purely  positivist  science  from  which  all  philo- 
sophical problems  are  to  be  excluded,  as  rigorously  as 
from  chemistry  or  geology.  It  is,  in  fact,  la  psycho- 
logie  sans  dme.  If  such  questions  as  the  nature, 
origin,  or  destiny  of  the  soul  are  to  be  discussed  at  all, 
it  must  be,  according  to  these  writers,  not  in  psychol- 


ogy, but  in  some  branch  of  speculation  to  be  styled 
the  metaphysics  or  ontology  of  the  human  mind, 
and  to  be  completely  isolated  from  science. 

In  direct  contrast  with  this  view  is  that  ordinarily 
adopted  by  Catholic  writers  hitherto.  By  them, 
psychology  has  usually  been  conceived  as  one  of  the 
most  important  branches  of  philosophy.  In  their 
view  it  may  be  best  described  as  the  philosophical 
science,  which  investigates  the  nature,  attributes, 
and  activities  of  the  soul  or  mind  of  man.  By  soul, 
or  mind,  is  understood  the  ultimate  principle  within 
me  by  which  I  think,  feel,  will,  and  by  which  my  body 
is  animated.  Whilst  the  soul  and  the  mind  are  con- 
ceived as  fundamentally  one,  the  latter  term  is  usually 
employed  to  designate  the  animating  principle  viewed 
as  subject  of  my  conscious  or  mental  operations: 
the  former  denotes  it  as  the  root  of  all  vital  activities. 
By  terming  their  branch  of  knowledge  a  philosophical 
science,  it  is  implied  that  psychology  ought  to  include 
not  only  a  doctrine  of  the  laws  of  succession  and 
concomitance  of  our  conscious  states,  but  an 
inquiry  into  their  ultimate  cause.  Any  adequate 
study  of  the  human  mind,  it  is  contended,  naturally 
presents  itself  in  two  stages,  empirical  or  phenomenal 
psychology,  and  rational  or  metaphysical  psychology. 
Though  conveniently  separated  for  didactic  treat- 
ment the  two  are  organically  connected.  Our  meta- 
physical conclusions  as  to  the  nature  of  the  soul 
must  rest  on  the  evidence  supplied  by  our  experience 
of  the  character  of  its  activities.  On  the  other  hand, 
any  effort  at  thorough  treatment  of  oiu-  mental 
operations,  and  especially  any  attempt  at  explana- 
tion of  the  higher  forms  or  products  of  consciousness, 
it  is  urged,  is  quite  impossible  without  the  adoption 
of  some  metaphysical  theory  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
underlying  subject  or  agents  of  these  states.  Pro- 
fessor Dewey  has  justly  observed:  "The  philosophic 
implications  embedded  in  the  very  heart  of  psychol- 
ogy are  not  got  rid  of  when  they  are  kept  out  of 
sight.  Some  opinion  regarding  the  nature  of  the 
mind  and  its  relations  to  reality  will  show  itself  on 
almost  every  page,  and  the  fact  that  this  opinion  is 
introduced  without  the  conscious  intention  of  the 
writer,  may  serve  to  confuse  both  the  author  and  his 
reader"  ("Psychology",  IV).  Ladd,  and  others  also, 
recognize  the  evil  of  "clandestine"  metaphysics  when 
smuggled  into  what  claims  to  be  purely  "scientific" 
non-philosophical  treatments  of  psychology. 

Psychology  is  not  in  the  same  position  as  the 
physical  sciences  here.  Whilst  investigating  a  ques- 
tion in  geology,  chemistry,  or  mechanics,  we  may,  at 
least  temporarily,  prescind  from  our  metaphysical 
creed,  but  not  so — judging  from  the  past  history^ 
when  giving  our  psychological  accounts  and  ex- 
planations of  mental  products,  such  as  universal 
concepts,  the  notions  of  moral  obligation,  respon- 
sibility, personal  identity,  time,  or  the  perception 
of  an  external  material  world,  or  the  simple  judg- 
ment, two  and  two  must  make  four.  The  view,  there- 
fore, of  those  philosophers  who  maintain  that  the  in- 
trinsic connexions  between  many  of  the  questions  of 
empirical  and  rational  psychology  are  so  indissoluble 
that  they  cannot  be  divorced,  seems  to  have  solid 
justification.  Of  course  we  can  call  the  study  of  the 
phenomena  of  the  mind,  "Psychology",  and  that  of  its 
inner  nature,  the  "Philosophy  of  the  Mind";  and  we 
may  treat  each  in  a  separate  volume.  _  That  is  merely 
a  matter  of  terminology  and  convenience.  But  the 
important  point  is  that  in  the  explanatory  treatment 
of  the  higher  intellectual  and  rational  processes,  it 
will  practically  be  impossible  for  the  psychologist 
to  preserve  a  philosophically  neutral  attitude.  _  A 
truly  scientific  psychology,  therefore,  should  comprise: 
(1)  a  thorough  investigation  by  introspective  obser- 
vation and  analysis  of  our  various  mental  activities 
— cognitive  and  appetitive,  sensuous  and  rational 
— seeking  to  resolve  all  products  of  the  mind  back 


PSYCHOLOGY 


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PSYCHOLOGY 


to  their  original  elements,  determining  as  far  as 
possible  their  organic  conditions,  and  tracing  the  laws 
of  their  growth;  (2)  based  on  the  results  of  this  study, 
a  rational  theory  or  explanatory  account  of  the  nature 
of  the  agent  or  subject  of  these  activities,  with  its 
chief  properties. 

Method  of  Psychology. — The  primary  method  of 
investigation  in  empirical  or  phenomenal  psychology 
is  introspection  or  reflective  observation  of  our  own 
mental  states.  This  is  the  ultimate  source  of  all 
knowledge  of  mental  facts;  even  the  information 
gathered  immediately  f  om  other  quarters  has  finally 
to  be  interpreted  in  terms  of  our  own  subjective  ex- 
perience. Introspection  is,  however,  liable  to  error; 
consequently,  it  has  to  be  employed  with  care  and 
helped  and  corrected  by  all  the  supplementary  sources 
of  psychological  knowledge  available.  Among  the 
chief  of  these  are:  the  internal  experience  of  other 
observers  communicated  tlirough  language;  the  study 
of  the  human  mind  as  exhibited  in  different  periods 
of  life  from  infancy  to  old  age,  and  in  different 
races  and  grades  of  civilization;  as  embodied  in 
various]  languages  and  literatures;  and  as  revealed 
in  the  absenc^  of  particular  senses,  and  in  abnormal 
or  pathological  conditions  such  as  dreams,  hypnotism, 
and  forms  of  insanity.  Moreover,  the  anatomy, 
physiology,  and  pathology  of  the  brain  and  nervous 
system  supply  valuable  data  as  to  the  organic  con- 
ditions of  conscious  states.  Experimental  psychology, 
psychophysics,  and  psychometry  help  towards  ac- 
curacy and  precision  in  the  description  of  certain 
forms  of  mental  activity.  And  the  comparative  study 
of  the  lower  animals  may  also  afford  useful  assistance 
in  regard  to  some  questions  of  human  psychology. 
By  the  utilization  of  these  several  sources  of  informa- 
tion, the  data  furnished  to  the  psychologist  by  the 
introspective  observation  of  his  own  individual  mind 
may  be  enlarged,  tested  and  corrected,  and  may  thus 
acquire  in  a  certain  degree  the  objective  and  uni- 
versal character  of  the  observations  on  which  the 
physical  sciences  are  built.  Introspection  is  fre- 
quently spoken  of  as  the  subject i^-e  method,  these 
other  sources  of  information  as  supplementary  ob- 
jective methods  of  psychological  study. 

Branches  of  Psychology. — Indeed  some  of  them  have 
rapidly  grown  to  be  such  large  and  important  fields 
of  research  that  they  now  claim  to  be  recognized  as 
special  departments  of  psychology,  or  even  sciences 
in  their  own  right.  Thus  we  have  comparative 
psychology  including  animal  psychology,  child  psy- 
chology, and  race  psychology.  Again  psychiatry  or 
psychopathology,  the  science  of  mental  disease,  also 
physiological  psychology,  which,  in  a  broad  sense, 
includes  all  systematic  study  of  the  organic  conditions 
of  mental  life,  or,  as  Ladd  defines  it,  "psychology  ap- 
proached and  studied  from  the  physiological  side". 
Experimental  Psychology. — A  special  department 
of  physiological  psychology  which  has  recently  risen 
rapidly  into  favour  in  some  countries  is  experimental 
psychology,  alluded  to  above  in  our  historical  sketch. 
It  is  at  times  styled  the  "New  Psychology"  by  its 
more  enthusiastic  supporters.  It  seeks  to  secure 
precision  and  an  objective  standard  in  the  description 
of  mental  states  by  controlling  their  conditions  by 
skilful  devices  and  ingenious  apparatus.  Its  chief 
success  so  far  has  been  in  its  efforts  to  measure  the 
varying  intensity  of  sensations,  the  delicacy  of  sense- 
organs  and  "reaction-time"  or  the  rapidity  of  a  facul- 
ty's response  to  stimulation.  Certain  properties 
of  memory  have  also  been  made  the  subject  of  measur- 
ing experiments  and  more  recently  considerable  in- 
dustry has  been  devoted,  especially  by  Kiilpe  and  the 
Wiirzburg  school,  to  bring  some  aspects  of  the  higher 
activities  of  intellect  and  will  within  the  range  of  the 
laboratory  apparatus.  Opinions  still  differ  much  as  to 
both  the  present  value  and  future  prospects  of  ex- 
perimental psychology.     Wliilst  Wundt,   the  leader 


of  the  new  movement  for  the  past  fifty  years,  places 
the  only  hope  of  psychological  progress  in  the  ex- 
perimental method,  William  James's  judgment  on  the 
entire  literature  of  the  subject  since  Feohner  (1840) 
was  that  "its  proper  psychological  outcome  is  just 
nothing  at  all"  ("Principles",  I,  534).  Apart,  how- 
ever, from  the  very  modest  positive  results,  especially 
in  the  higher  forms  of  mental  life,  which  the  experi- 
mental method  has  achieved  or  may  achieve  in  the 
future,  its  exercise  may  nevertheless  prove  a  valuatjle 
agency  in  the  training  of  the  psychological  specialist, 
both  in  increasing  his  appreciation  of  the  value  of  the 
most  minute  accuracy  in  descriptions  of  mental 
states,  and  also  by  fostering  in  him  habits  of  precision 
and  skill  in  systematic  introspection. 

Classification.  The  Faculties. — In  empirical  psy- 
chology, with  modern  writers,  the  next  step  after 
determining  the  method  of  the  science  is  to  attempt 
a  classification  of  the  phenomena  of  mental  life.  In 
the  scholastic  philosophy  the  equivalent  operation 
was  the  systematic  division  of  the  faculties  of  the 
soul.  Apart  from  vegetative  and  locomotive  powers 
the  Schoolmen,  following  Aristotle,  adopted  a  bi- 
partite division  of  faculties  into  those  of  cognition  and 
appetency.  The  former  they  subdivided  into  sen- 
suous, and  intellectual  or  rational.  The  sensuous 
faculties  they  again  subdivided  into  the  five  external 
senses  and  the  internal  activities  of  imagination, 
sensuous  memory,  sensus  communis,  and  vis  cogila- 
tiva.  But  there  was  much  disagreement  as  to  the 
number,  character,  and  boundary  lines  of  these  in- 
ternal forms  of  sensuous  cognition.  There  were  also 
divergences  of  opinion  as  to  the  nature  of  the  faculties 
in  general  in  themselves  and  to  what  extent  there  was 
a  dislinctio  realis  between  faculties  and  the  essence 
of  the  soul.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  was  general 
agreement  as  to  an  essential  difference  between  all 
sensuous  and  intellectual  or  spiritual  powers  of  the 
mind.  The  possession  of  the  latter  constitutes  the 
differentia  which  separates  man  from  the  irrational 
animals. 

Content  of  Empirical  Psychology. — The  psycholo- 
gist naturally  begins  with  the  treatment  of  the 
phenomena  of  sentiency.  The  several  senses,  their 
organic  structure  and  functions,  the  various  forms 
of  sentient  activity  with  their  cognitive,  hedonic  and 
appetitive  properties  and  their  special  character- 
istics have  to  be  carefully  analyzed,  compared,  and 
described.  Next,  imagination  and  memory  are 
similarly  studied,  and  the  laws  of  their  operation, 
growth,  and  development  diligently  traced.  The 
discussion  of  the  organic  appetites  springing  from 
sensations,  and  the  investigation  of  the  nature  and 
conditions  of  the  most  elementary  forms  of  pleasure 
and  pain  may  also  appropriately  come  here.  In- 
tellect follows.  The  consideration  of  this  faculty 
includes  the  study  of  the  processes  of  conception, 
judgment,  reasoning,  rational  attention,  and  self- 
conscious  reflection.  These,  however,  are  all  merely 
different  functions  of  the  same  spiritual  cognitive 
power — the  intellect.  Psychology  inquires  into  their 
modes  of  operation,  their  special  features,  and  the 
general  conditions  of  their  growth  and  development. 
From  the  higher  power  of  cognition  it  proceeds  to  the 
study  of  spiritual  appetency,  rational  desire,  and  free 
volition.  The  relations  of  will  to  knowledge,  the 
qualities  of  oonative  activity,  and  the  effects  of  re- 
peated volitions  in  the  production  of  habit,  con- 
stitute the  chief  subjects  of  investigation  here. 
In  connexion  with  these  higher  forms  of  cognition  and 
desire,  there  will  naturally  be  undertaken  the  study 
of  conscience  and  the  phenomena  of  the  emotions. 

Genetic  Treatment  a  marked  characteristic  of  Modern 
Empirical  Psychology. — The  constant  aim  of  modern 
psychology  is  to  analyse  all  complex  mental  opera- 
tions into  their  simplest  elements  and  to  trace  back 
to  their  first  beginning  all  acquired  or  composite  habits 


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549 


PSYCHOTHERAPY 


and  faculties,  and  to  show  how  they  have  been  gener- 
ated or  could  have  been  generated  from  the  fewest 
original  aptitudes  or  fundamental  activities  of  the 
mind.  This  is  sound  scientific  procedure — recognized 
in  the  Scholastic  aphorism,  Enlia  non  sunt  muUi- 
plicanda  proeter  necessilatem.  We  may  not  postulate 
a  special  faculty  for  any  mental  state  which  can  be 
accounted  for  by  the  co-operation  of  already  recog- 
nized activities  of  the  soul.  But  the  labour  and 
skill  devoted  during  the  past  century  and  a  half  to 
this  combined  analytic  and  synthetic  procedure  has 
developed  one  feature  of  modern  psychology  by  which 
it  is  differentiated  in  a  most  marked  manner  from 
that  of  the  Middle  An;cs  and  of  Aristotle.  The  pres- 
ent-day treatment  is  pronouncedly  genetic.  Thus, 
whilst  the  Schoolmen  in  their  account  of  mental 
operations,  such  as  perception,  conception,  or  desire, 
considered  these  processes  almost  solely  as  elicited  by 
the  normal  adult  human  being  already  in  full 
possession  and  control  of  matured  mental  powers,  the 
chief  interest  of  the  modern  psychologist  is  to  trace 
the  growth  of  these  powers  from  their  first  and 
simplest  manifestations  in  infancy,  and  to  dis- 
criminate what  is  the  product  of  experience  and  ac- 
quired habits  from  that  which  is  the  immediate  out- 
come of  the  innate  capabilities  of  the  soul.  This 
is  particularly  noticeable  if  we  compare  the  treat- 
ment of  the  mental  operation  of  perception  as  given 
in  most  Scholastic  textbooks  with  that  to  be  found  in 
any  modern  handbook  of  psychology.  The  point 
of  view  is  usually  quite  different.  Since  much  of  the 
most  plausible  modern  attacks  on  Scholastic  psycho- 
logical doctrine  has  been  made  in  this  manner,  the 
genetic  treatment  from  the  Thomist  standpoint  of 
many  psychological  questions  seems  to  us  to  be  among 
the  most  urgent  tasks  imposed  nowadays  on  the  neo- 
Scholastic  psychologist.  The  value  of  such  work 
from  a  philosophical  standpoint  would  seem  to  be 
distinctly  greater  than  that  of  any  results  likely 
to  be  achieved  in  quantitative  experimental  psychol- 
ogy. Obviously  there  is  nothing  in  the  Thomistio 
conception  of  the  soul  and  its  operations  incompatible 
with  a  diligent  investigation  into  the  unfolding  of  its 
various  aptitudes  and  powers. 

Rational  Psychology. — From  the  study  of  the 
character  of  the  activities  of  the  mind  in  experi- 
mental psychology,  the  student  now  passes  on  to 
inquire  into  the  nature  of  the  principle  from  which 
they  proceed.  This  constitutes  the  more  philo- 
sophical or  metaphysical  division  of  the  science. 
For,  as  we  have  indicated,  the  analysis  and  explana- 
tory accounts  of  the  higher  forms  and  products  of 
mental  activity,  which  the  scientific  psychologist 
is  compelled  to  undertake  even  in  phenomenal  psy- 
chology, involve  metaphysical  assumption  and  con- 
clusions which  he  cannot  escape — -certainly  not  by 
merely  ignoring  them.  Still,  it  is  in  this  second  stage 
that  he  will  formally  evolve  the  logical  consequences 
to  which  his  previous  study  of  the  several  forms  of 
mental  activity  lead  up.  His  method  here  will  be 
both  inductive  and  deductive;  both  analytic  and 
synthetic.  He  argues  from  effect  to  cause.  From 
the  character  of  the  mental  activities  already  scruti- 
nized with  so  much  care,  he  now  concludes  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  subject  to  which  they  belong.  From 
what  the  mind  does,  he  seeks  to  learn  what  it  is. 
In  particular,  from  the  simple  spiritual  nature  of  the 
higher  activities  of  intellect  and  will,  he  infers  that 
the  being,  the  ultimate  principle  from  which  they 
proceed,  must  be  of  a  simple  and  spiritual  nature. 
Consequently,  it  cannot  be  the  brain  or  any  corporeal 
substance.  Having  established  the  simplicity  and 
spirituality  of  the  soul,  he  then  goes  on  to  deduce 
further  conclusions  as  to  its  origin,  the  nature  of  its 
union  with  the  body,  and  its  future  destiny.  In  this 
way  by  rational  arguments  the  Scholastic  thinkers 
claim  to  prove  that  the  human  soul  can  only  have 


arisen  by  creation,  that  it  is  naturally  incorruptible, 
and  that  the  boundless  aspirations  of  the  intellect, 
the  insatiable  yearnings  of  the  will,  and  the  deepest 
convictions  of  the  moral  reason  all  combine  to  es- 
tablish a  future  life  of  the  soul  after  death. 

Important  special  questions  of  psyciiology  are  treated  under 
the  articles  Animism;  Association  of  Ideas;  Consciousness; 
Energy;  Faculties  of  the  Soul;  Form;  Free  Will;  Idea; 
Imagination;  Immortality;  Individual,  Individuality;  In- 
tellect;   Life;    FERSONALiTr. 

General  Psychology:  among  the  Scholastic  Latin  manuals 
there  is  much  uniformity  of  treatment.  UrrAbura,  Psychologia, 
I,  II  (Rome  and  Paris,  1894),  is  exhaustive.  Hickey,  Psychologm 
C2nd  ed.,  Dublin  and  New  York,  1910)  is  an  easy  useful  intro- 
duction; Boeddbr,  Psychologia  RrUionalis  C4th  ed.,  Freiburg  and 
New  York,  1903).  English:  Maiier,  Paychology,  Empirical  and 
Rational  (7th  ed..  New  York  and  London,  1911).  French: 
Mercier,  Psychologie  (4th  ed.,  Louvain,  1903);  Gardair,  Phi- 
losophie  de  St  Thomas  (Paris,  1892-95) ;  Faeges,  Etudes  Phi- 
losophiques,  I-VI  (Paris,  1890-95).  German:  Gutbeblet,  Die 
Psychologie  (Munster,  1896).  English  works  of  various  schools: 
Ladd,  Psychology,  Descriptive  and  Explanatory  (New  York  and 
London,  1895);  Idem,  Philosophy  of  Mind  (New  York  and 
London,  1895) ;  James,  Principles  of  Psychology  (New  York  and 
London,  1890) ;  Stout,  Analytical  Psychology  (London  and  New 
York,  1902) ;  Spencer,  Principles  of  Psychology  (New  York  and 
London,  1904);  Bain,  Senses  and  Intellect;  Idem,  Emotions  and 
Will  (London,  1894).  Physiological:  Ladd,  Elements  of  Physio- 
logical Psychology  (New  York  and  London,  1894);  Wundt, 
Principles  of  Physiological  Psychology  (tr..  New  York  and  Lon- 
don, 1904).  Experimental:  Titchenes,  Experimental  Psychol- 
ogy, parts  I,  II  (4  vols..  New  York  and  London,  1901-05) ; 
KiJLPE,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (tr.  New  York  and  London,  1894) ; 
Meuman,  Vorlesungen,  Exq^errimentelle  Pddagogik  (Leipzig,  1907). 
Comparative:  Wabmann,  Instinct  and  Intelligence  (tr.  New  York 
and  London,  1903);  Idem,  Psychology  of  Ants  and  Animals 
(1905);  MiVABT,  Origin  of  Human  Reason  (London,  1889). 
Child  Psychology:  Tracy,  Psychology  of  Childhood  (Boston, 
1907) ;  Pbeyer,  The  Mind  of  the  Child,  vol.  I-II  (tr.  New  York 
and  London,  1901) ;  Perez,  First  Three  Years  of  Childhood  (tr. 
New  York  and  London,  1892) ;  Marenholz-Bulon,  Child  and 
Child  Nature  (tr.  London,  1904);  Sully,  Children's  Ways  (Lon- 
don, 1898);  BUBKE,  Child  Study  (Dublin,  1908).  History: 
general  histories  of  philosophy,  such  as  Turner,  History  of 
Philosophy  (Boston  and  London,  1903);  de  Wulf,  History  of 
Philosophy  (tr.  London  and  New  York,  1909) ;  StOckl,  History 
of  Philosophy  (tr.  New  York  and  Dublin,  1887);  Perrier, 
Revival  of  Scholastic  Philosophy  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (New 
York,  1909) ,  contains  also  a  useful  bibliography  of  neo-Scholastio 
philosophy;  Siebeck,  Gesch.  der  Psychol.  (1904).  See  also: 
Baldwin,  Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology;  and  Eisler, 
Wdrterbuch  (Berlin,  1904). 

Michael  Maher. 

Psychophysics.  See  CoNsciotrsNESS,  Quantita- 
tive Science  of  Consciousness. 

Psychotherapy  (from  the  Greek  fvxv,  "mind", 
and  Se/saTreiiw,  "I  cure"),  that  branch  of  therapeutics 
which  uses  the  mind  to  influence  the  body;  first,  for 
the  prevention  of  disease  by  keeping  worry  from 
lowering  resistive  vitaUty;  secondly,  for  reaction 
against  disease  during  progress  by  freeing  the  mind 
from  solicitude  and  tapping  latent  energies;  thirdly, 
after  the  ailment  retrogrades,  to  help  convalescence 
through  the  removal  of  discouragement  during  weak- 
ness by  inspiring  suggestion.  Psychotherapy  is  some- 
times regarded  as  a  comparatively  new  development 
consequent  upon  our  recent  advance  in  psychology 
and  especially  in  physiological  psychology;  it  is,  how- 
ever, as  old  as  the  history  of  humanity,  and  the  priests 
in  ancient  Egypt  used  it  effectively.  Wherever  men 
have  had  confidence  in  other  men  for  their  physical 
good  there  has  always  been  a  large  element  of  psychic 
influence  over  disease.  The  first  physician  of  whom 
we  have  any  record  in  history  was  I-Em-Hetep,  The 
Bringer  of  Peace";  we  know  that  it  was  much  more 
the  confidence  that  men  had  in  him  than  anything 
which  he  did  by  physical  means  that  brought  him 
this  complimentary  title  and  enabled  him  to  do  so 
much  good.  He  was  so  highly  esteemed  that  the 
famous  step  pyramid  at  Sakkara,  near  Memphis,  is 
called  by  his  name,  and  after  his  death  he  was  wor- 
shipped as  a  god.  The  Eastern  nations  always  em- 
ployed mental  influences  in  medicine,  and  we  have 
abundant  evidence  of  its  effectiveness  among  them. 

Among  the  Greeks  the  influence  of  the  mmd  on  the 
body  was  recognized  very  clearly.  Plato  says  m  the 
"Charmides":  "Neither  ought  you  to  attempt    to 


PSYCHOTHERAPY 


550 


PSYCHOTHERAPY 


cure  the  body  without  the  soul.  You  begin 

by  curing  the  soul  [or  mind]."  These  expressions 
occur  in  a  well-known  passage  in  which  Socrates 
tells  of  curing  a  young  man  of  headache  by  sug- 
gestion. He  pretended  to  have  a  remedy  that  had 
been  used  at  the  court  of  an  Eastern  king  to  cure 
headache;  though  it  was  really  indifferent  in  its 
effect,  the  employment  of  it  produced  the  desired 
result.  In  this  story  we  have  the  essence  of  psycho- 
therapy at  all  times.  The  patient  must  trust  the 
suggestor  and  must  be  persuaded  that  the  suggestion 
has  already  been  efficient  on  others,  and  then  the  cure 
results.  There  are  many  passages  of  Plato  in  which  he 
di  scusse-s  the  influence  of  the  mind  in  lessening  physical 
ills  and  also  in  increasing  them,  and  even  creating  them, 
so  that  he  says  in  the  "Republic  "  that  in  his  generation 
men  were  educating  themselves  in  disease  instead  of 
in  health,  and  this  was  making  many  very  miserable. 
A  special  form  of  psychotherapy  is  by  hypnotism. 
This  consists  in  suggestion  made  to  the  patient  while 
he  is  in  a  state  of  concentration  of  attention  that  may 
be  so  deep  as  to  resemble  sleep.  We  find  traces  of 
this  from  the  early  days  in  Egypt,  and  especially  in 
the  temple  hospitals.  The  Eastern  nations  paid  much 
attention  to  it  and  succeeded  in  producing  many 
manifestations  that  we  are  likely  to  think  of  as  quite 
modern.  As  the  result  of  more  careful  investigation 
in  modern  times  we  have  come  to  realize  that  what- 
ever there  is  in  hypnotism  is  due  entirely  to  the  sub- 
ject and  not  to  the  operator.  It  is  not  the  power  of 
the  operator's  will,  but  the  influence  of  the  subject  on 
himself  that  produces  the  condition.  (See  Hyp- 
notism.) Hypnotism  may  be  useful  at  the  beginning 
of  certain  neurotic  cases,  but  it  depends  for  its  effi- 
ciency on  the  patient's  will.  If  repeated  frequently  it 
always  does  harm.  The  recurrence  of  attention  to  it 
in  each  succeeding  generation  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting phenomena  in  the  history  of  the  use  of  the 
mind  to  influence  the  body. 

Unconscious  Psychotherapy. — Besides  deliber- 
ate psychotherapy,  there  is  not  a  little  unconscious 
psychotherapeutics  in  the  history  of  medicine.  Many 
remedies  have  been  introduced,  have  seemed  to  bene- 
fit patients,  have  then  had  considerable  vogue,  and 
subsequently  proved  to  be  quite  without  effect.  The 
patients  were  helped  by  the  confldence  aroused  by  the 
new  remedy.  Such  therapeutic  incidents  make  it 
difficult  to  determine  the  real  value  of  new  remedies. 
Remedies  of  comparatively  slight  efficiency  acquire  a 
reputation  because  of  their  recommendation  by  some- 
one who  commands  confidence;  only  after  this  loses 
its  effect  can  the  true  value  of  the  remedy  be  esti- 
mated. 

Nearly  every  branch  of  science  has  furnished  medi- 
cine with  supposed  remedies  which  have  been  of  bene- 
fit for  a  time  and  have  subsequently  proved  to  be  of 
little  or  no  avail.  In  the  later  Middle  Ages  magnets 
were  supposed  to  draw  diseases  out  of  people  and 
actually  affected  many  patients  favourably.  As 
electricity  developed,  each  new  phase  of  it  found  ap- 
plications in  medicine  that  were  very  promising  at 
first,  but  afterwards  proved  to  be  of  Httle  therapeutic 
value.  The  supposed  effect  of  the  Leyden  jar  shortly 
after  its  discovery  is  ludicrous  reading.  Galvani's 
work  gave  new  impetus  to  electrical  therapy.  A 
wandering  quack  from  America,  Perkins,  made  a 
fortune  in  Europe  by  means  of  two  metal  instruments 
about  the  size  of  lead  pencils  with  which  he  stroked 
patients.  They  were  supposed  somehow  to  make  an 
application  of  Galvani's  discovery  of  animal  electricity 
to  the  human  body.  After  a  time,  of  course,  "Per- 
kins tractors"  failed  to  produce  any  such  results.  In 
spite  of  disappointments,  each  new  development  has 
had  the  same  results.  When  the  stronger  electrical 
machines,  and  then  the  methods  of  producing  high- 
frequency  currents,  were  invented,  these  were  an- 
nounced as  having  wonderful  curative  powers  and 


actually  cured  many  patients,  until  the  suggestive 
value  of  the  new  discovery  failed  to  act  favourably  on 
the  mind.  When  the  Rontgen  rays  attracted  atten- 
tion, they  too  were  used  with  the  most  promising 
results  in  nearly  every  disease,  though  now  their  range 
of  therapeutic  value  is  known  to  be  very  limited. 

Faith  Cures. — Faith  has  always  been  a  strong 
therapeutic  agent.  Science,  or  the  supposed  apphca^ 
tion  of  scientific  principles,  has  probably  been  the 
responsible  cause  of  more  faith  cures  than  anything 
else.  The  reason  why  astrology  maintained  its  in- 
fluence in  medicine  was  because  of  faith  in  scientific 
knowledge  transferred  to  the  realm  of  human  affairs. 
When  Ught  was  studied,  it  too  came  into  therapeutics. 
With  the  discovery  of  the  ultra-violet  rays  and  their 
actinic  value,  blue-glass  therapy  became  a  fad,  thou- 
sands of  tons  of  blue  glass  were  sold,  and  people 
sat  beneath  it  and  were  cured  of  all  kinds  of  pains 
and  aches.  Each  new  development  of  chemistry  and 
of  physics  led  to  new  appfications  to  therapeutics, 
though  after  a  time  most  of  them  have  proved  to  be 
nugatory.  The  faith  in  the  scientific  discovery  had 
acted  through  the  mind  of  the  patient  so  as  to  bring 
about  an  amelioration  of  symptoms,  if  not  a  cure  of 
the  disease.  The  patients  who  are  cured  are  usually 
sufferers  from  chronic  diseases,  who  either  have  only  a 
persuasion  that  they  are  ill  or,  having  some  physical 
ailment,  inhibit  through  solicitude  and  worry  the 
natural  forces  that  would  bring  about  a  cure.  This 
inhibition  cannot  be  lifted  until  the  mind  is  relieved 
by  confidence  in  some  wonderful  remedy  or  scientific 
discovery  that  gives  them  a  conviction  of  cure. 

Quackery  and  Mind  Cures. — The  history  of 
quackery  is  really  a  chapter  of  psychotherapy.  The 
quack's  best  remedy  is  always  his  promise  to  cure. 
This  he  does  for  all  diseases.  As  a  consequence  he 
benefits  people  very  much  through  their  minds.  Such 
patients  have  never  before  fully  trusted  that  they  could 
be  cured,  and,  without  having  much  the  matter  with 
them,  they  have  suffered,  or  at  least  complained. 
When  they  lift  the  burden  of  solicitude  from  them- 
selves, nature  cures  them  by  very  simple  means,  but 
the  cure  is  attributed  to  the  last  remedy  employed. 
We  have  no  remedies  in  medicine  that  have  come  to  us 
from  quacks:  their  wonderful  cures  have  been  ob- 
tained from  simple  well-known  remedies  plus  mental 
influence.  The  same  power  over  the  mind  helps 
nostrums,  or  special  medicines,  sold  with  the  promise 
of  cure.  At  times  such  remedies  have  worked  so 
many  cures  that  governments  have  purchased  the 
special  secret  from  its  inventor  and  published  it  to 
the  world.  The  secret  has  always  proved  to  be  some 
ordinary  remedy  known  before,  and  just  as  soon  as  its 
secrecy  was  lost  it  failed  to  cure.  The  spread  of 
popular  education,  instead  of  making  such  faith  cures 
by  nostrums  less  common,  has  rather  served  to  give 
them  wider  diffusion.  The  ability  to  read  leaves 
people  open  to  the  suggestive  influence  of  print,  though 
it  does  not  necessarily  supply  the  judgment  requisite 
for  a  proper  appreciation  of  what  is  thus  presented. 
As  a  consequence  our  generation  is  nostrum-ridden 
and  spends  millions  of  money  for  remedies  which  are 
quite  indifferent  or,  at  most,  trivially  helpful,  and 
sometimes  are  absolutely  noxious.  Government  analy- 
sis of  a  score  of  the  most  popular  remedies  widely 
consumed  throughout  the  country  five  years  ago 
showed  that  the  only  active  ingredient  was  alcohol  and 
that  a  dose  of  the  medicine  was  about  equivalent  to  a 
drink  of  whisky.  This  lessened  the  sale  of  these 
remedies,  however,  only  for  the  time  being,  and  most 
of  them  have  regained  their  old  popularity.  The 
most  popular  present  source  of  scientiflc  superstition 
concerns  electricity.  All  sorts  of  rings,  medals,  and 
electrodes  are  bought  at  high  prices  with  the  con- 
fidence that  they  will  produce  wonderful  results. 
Rheumatic  rings  and  wristlets,  foot  electrodes,  one  of 
copper  and  the  other  of  zinc,  electric  belts,  shields 


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worn  in  the  front  and  back  of  the  chest — these  are 
modern  examples  of  superstitious  practices. 

Special  Psychotherapeutics. — Ordinarily,  it  is 
presumed  that  psychotherapy  is  only  efficient  in  affec- 
tions that  are  due  to  mental  persuasions,  so-called  imag- 
inary diseases,  and  that  it  cannot  benefit  organic  affec- 
tions. In  recent  years,  however,  abundant  proof  has 
been  forthcoming  that  favourable  infiuence  upon  the 
mind  can  modify  even  very  serious  physical  conditions. 
It  is  not  unusual  for  a  cancer  patient  who  has  lost  some 
twenty  or  thirty  pounds  in  weight  to  regain  this  and 
more  after  an  exploratory  incision  which  has  shown 
the  condition  to  be  inoperable.  The  patient,  to  save 
sohcitude,  is  given  to  understand  that  now  he  ought  to 
get  better  and  he  proceeds  to  do  so.  In  one  such  case 
a  gain  of  seventy  pounds  was  recorded.  The  patient 
eventually  died  of  cancer,  but  there  had  been  months 
of  strength  and  efficiency  that  would  not  otherwise 
have  been  secured.  There  are  affections,  too,  in 
which  unfavourable  mental  persuasion  produces 
serious  physical  changes  that  may  even  prove  fatal 
if  any  other  cause  intervenes.  It  is  now  very  well 
known  that  a  great  many  cases  of  so-called  dyspep- 
sia are  really  due  to  over-solicitude  about  food  and 
the  elimination  from  the  diet  of  so  many  articles 
supposed  to  be  indigestible  that  the  patient's  nutri- 
tion is  seriously  interfered  with.  Occupation  of  mind 
with  the  stomach  is  particularly  likely  to  interfere  with 
its  activity.  Certain  thoughts  bring  a  sense  of  nausea. 
Delicate  people  may  reject  a  meal  if  they  are  reminded 
of  something  nauseating,  or  if  a  particular  smell  or 
some  untoward  incident  disturbs  them.  Food  eaten 
with  relish  and  in  process  of  satisfactory  digestion  may 
be  rejected  if  something  deterrent  is  heard  in  reference 
to  its  origin  or  mode  of  preparation,  and  rejection 
occurs  whether  the  disgusting  statement  be  true  or 
false.  A  conviction  that  certain  articles  of  food  will 
disagree  with  us  is  almost  sure  to  make  them  difficult 
of  digestion:  a  great  many  people  are  quite  sure  that 
they  cannot  digest  milk  or  eggs,  but  prove  thoroughly 
capable  of  digesting  those  articles  of  diet  without 
difficulty  when,  as  in  tuberculosis  sanatoria,  they  are 
required  to  take  them  regularly. 

Heart  and  Mental  Influence. — The  heart  might 
be  presumed  free  from  the  influence  of  the  mind,  be- 
cause of  its  great  importance.  It  is  probably  through 
this  organ,  however,  that  most  of  the  favourable  and 
unfavourable  influence  of  the  mind  on  the  body  is 
exerted.  The  heart  begins  to  beat  in  the  embryo  long 
before  the  nervous  system  is  formed,  but  it  very  soon 
comes  to  have  the  most  intimate  relations  with  the 
nervous  system.  In  excitement  and  joy  the  heart 
beats  fast;  in  fright  and  depression  it  beats  slowly;  and 
any  vehement  emotion  seriously  affects  its  action. 
This  is  true  in  health,  but  is  particularly  true  in  disease 
of  the  heart  itself.  Sufferers  from  heart-disease  die 
from  joy  as  well  as  from  fright.  The  state  of  mind 
may  influence  the  heart  favourably  or  unfavourably 
in  the  course  of  disease,  and  the  physician  must  recog- 
nize this  and  use  his  understanding  of  it  to  good  pur- 
pose. Many  of  our  heart  remedies  are  rather  slow  to 
act,  taking  twelve  hours  or  more  for  their  effect.  An 
hour  or  two  after  the  visit  of  a  physician,  however, 
most  heart  patients  will  be  ever  so  much  better  than 
they  were  before,  and  their  improvement  may  be  at- 
tributed to  the  physician's  remedies,  though  it  is  only 
due  to  confidence  aroused  by  his  presence  and  the 
feeling  of  relief  afforded  by  his  careful  examination 
and  assurance  that  there  is  no  danger.  By  the  time 
this  feeling  would  begin  to  lose  its  effect,  his  remedies 
take  hold  and  the  patient  continues  to  improve. 

Great  physicians  have  at  all  times  recognized  the 
strong  influence  that  the  mind  has  over  the  heart. 
Lancisi  [De  subit.  morte,  I  (Geneva,  1718),  xix,  §3] 
tells  of  cases  in  which  over-soUcitude  about  the  heart 
was  the  cause  of  the  symptoms.  Morgagni,  in  "  The 
Seats  and  Causes  of  Diseases",  I  (London,  1769),  Let- 


ter xxiv,  tells  of  a  physician  who,  from  worrying  aboui 
his  heart,  caused  it  to  miss  beats.  Sydenham  and  Boer- 
haave  both  note  the  unfavourable  effect  which  the  mind 
may  have  on  the  heart  [Brown,  "Academical  Lectures", 
VI  (London,  1757)].  In  our  own  times  Oppenheim 
("Letters  to  Nervous  Patients",  tr.  Edinburgh,  1907) 
tells  one  patient  that  whenever  he  feels  the  pulse,  the 
patient  being  conscious  of  it,  beats  are  missed;  when- 
ever he  feels  it  without  advertence  on  the  part  of  the 
patient,  it  is  quite  regular  in  its  actions.  He  insists 
that  the  heart  resents  surveillance,  "which  not  only 
accelerates,  but  may  even  inhibit  its  action  and  render 
it  irregular".  He  adds:  "And  so  it  is  with  all  the 
organs  of  the  body  which  act  spontaneously;  they  get 
out  of  order  and  become  functionally  defective,  if, 
as  the  result  of  the  attention  and  self-observation 
directed  towards  them,  impulses  flow  to  them  from 
the  centres  of  consciousness  and  will  in  the  same  way 
as  they  flow  to  the  organs  [e.  g.  the  muscles]  which 
are  normally  under  the  control  of  the  will."  Prof. 
Broadbent,  whose  experience  with  heart  disease  was 
perhaps  the  greatest  in  our  generation,  frequently 
dwells,  in  "The  Action  of  the  Heart"  ("'The  Writings 
of  Sir  Wm.  Broadbent",  Oxford,  1910),  on  the  neces- 
sity for  setting  the  mind  at  rest.  MacKenzie,  whose 
work  on  the  mechanics  of  the  heart  was  in  a  contrary 
direction,  has  been  quite  as  emphatic  in  recognizing 
mental  influence  ("Diseases  of  the  Heart",  Oxford, 
1910).  Psychotherapy  means  more  in  heart  disease 
than  anywhere  else,  and  in  other  diseases  its  effect  upon 
the  circulation  through  the  heart  is  very  important. 

The  absolutely  automatic  action  of  the  lungs  might 
seem  to  indicate  that  these  were  free  from  any  emo- 
tional or  mental  influence.  Most  of  the  asthmatic 
conditions  characterized  by  difficulty  of  breathing 
have  large  mental  elements  in  them.  Neurotic  asthma 
is  more  dependent  on  the  mental  state  than  anything 
else.  Most  of  the  remedies  that  affect  it  have  a  dis- 
tinct action  on  the  mind  as  well  as  the  lungs.  Even 
tuberculosis  is  very  largely  influenced  by  the  state  of 
the  patient's  mind.  A  patient  who  gives  up  the 
struggle  will  succumb.  "Consumption  takes  the 
quitters"  is  an  axiom.  Patients  who  bravely  face 
the  danger  and  the  difficulties  usually  live  on  much 
longer  and  sometimes  live  their  lives  out,  and  in  spite 
of  serious  invasion  of  the  lungs  die  from  other  inter- 
current disease.  In  all  the  functional  nervous  dis- 
eases— that  is,  those  nervous  affections  not  dependent 
on  some  organic  change  in  the  nervous  system,  yet 
often  accompanied  by  pains  and  palsies — the  con- 
ditions known  as  hysterical — treatment  through  the 
mind  is  most  essential.  Even  when  other  remedies 
are  used  it  is  only  if  they  affect  the  patient's  mind 
that  they  do  good.  The  ill-smelling  remedies,  the 
bread  pills,  the  stronger  cathartics  and  emetics  for- 
merly used  in  these  cases  produced  their  effect  through 
the  mind. 

Even  in  organic  nervous  disease,  however,  there  is  a 
distinct  place  for  mental  healing.  Patients  become 
depressed  when  they  learn  that  they  are  sufferers 
from  some  incurable  nervous  disease,  the  appetite  is 
disturbed,  the  digestion  impaired,  constipation  sets  in, 
they  go  out  less  in  the  air  and  take  insufficient  exer- 
cise, and  then  many  adventitious  symptoms  develop. 
The  patient  attributes  these  to  the  underlying  nervous 
disease,  though  they  are  really  due  to  the  mental  state 
and  to  confinement.  The  promise  of  a  cure  lifts  up 
the  despondent  mind,  tempts  the  patient  to  go  out; 
the  appetite  will  be  improved,  many  symptoms  will 
disappear,  and  the  patient  thinks  that  the  under- 
lying disease  is  being  helped.  Hence  the  many  ad- 
vertised remedies  for  even  such  absolutely  incurable 
diseases  as  locomotor  ataxia,  multiple  sclerosis, 
epilepsy,  and  the  like. 

Dreads. — Psychotherapy  is  of  course  most  impor- 
tant in  the  treatment  of  such  affections  as  depend  on 
mental  influence.    We  have  a  whole  series  of  dreads, 


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of  anxiotios,  of  exaggerations  and  sensations,  and  then 
of  habits  and  of  lack  of  will  power,  that  can  only  be 
properly  treated  through  the  mind.  The  dreads,  or 
phobias,  constitute  a  rather  large  class  of  nervous 
affections;  perhaps  the  most  common  is  mysophobia, 
or  dread  of  dirt,  sometimes  under  the  form  of  bac- 
teriophobia;  acrophobia,  the  dread  of  heights,  which 
may  become  so  poignant  as  to  make  it  impossible  for 
a  person  to  ait  in  the  front  row  of  a  gallery  or  even 
to  say  Mass  on  a  high  altar;  alurophobia,  or  the  dread 
of  cats,  which  may  make  life  miserable.  Then  there 
is  dread  of  the  dark,  the  dread  of  wide  open  places, 
the  dread  of  narrow  spaces,  the  dread  of  walking  be- 
neath an\'thing  overhanging,  and  numbers  of  others. 
There  is  always  a  certain  mental  element  in  these,  yet 
they  occur  in  persons  of  intellect  and  character.  Only 
suggestion  and  training  will  cure  them.  Usually  they 
are  worse  when  the  patient  is  run  down. 

Tremors  and  Tics. — After  the  dreads  come  the 
tremors,  the  tics  or  habits,  and  then  the  conscious 
surveillance  of  actions  usually  automatic,  such  as 
talking,  writing,  even  walking,  which  interfere  with 
the  accomplishment  of  them.  Under  emotional  stress, 
as  after  a  panic,  men  sometimes  find  themselves  un- 
able to  sign  their  names  when  anyone  is  watching 
them.  Some  men  cannot  drink  a  glass  of  water  at  a 
strange  table  without  spilling  it.  These  are  psychic 
rather  than  nervous  conditions,  and  must  be  treated 
as  such.  There  are  a  number  of  tremors  that  occur 
aa  a  consequence  of  friglit  which  can  only  be  bettered 
in  the  same  way.  Many  of  the  tics — as  winking, 
head-nodding,  slight  convulsive  movements  of  the 
arms,  movements  of  the  lips,  and  nose — must  be 
looked  on  in  this  same  way.  Children  must  be 
watched  and  prevented  from  contracting  them.  They 
have  a  tendency  to  run  in  families  by  imitation.  If 
noted  early,  they  can  be  removed  by  the  formation 
of  a  contrary  habit.  Some  habits  of  children,  espe- 
cially certain  sucking  habits  and  tongue  movements, 
lead  to  ugly  deformities  of  the  mouth  when  the  jaws 
are  in  the  plastic  stage.  Thumb-sucking  is  a  habit 
that  must  be  taken  seriously,  or  the  results  on  the 
mouth  will  be  very  marked.  Biting  the  nails  in  older 
people  is  a  corresponding  affection.  Such  habits  de- 
velop, as  a  rule,  only  in  those  with  some  psychasthenic 
condition,  but  the  individuals  may  be  very  useful 
members  of  society. 

Alcoholism  and  Drug  Habits. — The  greatest  use- 
fulness of  psychotherapy  is  in  alcoholism  and  in  the 
drug  habits.  There  is  no  remedy  that  will  cure  alco- 
holism. We  have  had,  during  the  past  half  century, 
hundreds  of  advertised  cures:  we  know  now  that  all 
of  them  owed  their  success  to  infiuenn<>  on  the  patient's 
mind.  When  a  new  cure  is  first  announced  many  are 
benefited  by  it.  Afterwards  it  sinks  to  the  ordinary 
level  and  comes  to  be  recognized  as  only  a  helpful 
physical  treatment  with  a  strong  mental  factor  at- 
tached. When  the  patients  are  in  the  midst  of  the 
attacks  of  alcoholism,  their  physical  state  makes  them 
crave  some  stimulation.  At  this  time  they  must 
be  given  other  than  alcoholic  stimulants,  and  must  be 
under  such  .surveillance  as  shall  help  them  to  keep 
away  from  liquor.  After  a  variable  time — from  a  week 
to  two  or  three  weeks — they  are  quite  capable  of  re- 
sisting the  craving  by  themselves,  if  they  really  want 
to.  The  cure  of  alcoholism  is  easy,  but  relapses  are 
easier  still,  because  the  patients  think  that  they  can 
take  a  glass  and  go  no  further.  When  they  are  tired 
or  chilled,  or  fear  that  they  are  going  to  catch  a  cold, 
or  when  friends  suggest  it  to  them,  they  indulge  in  a 
glass  and  then  in  the  second  and  third,  and  the  old 
habit  has  to  be  broken  again.  We  ha-\-e  any  number 
of  examples,  however,  of  men  who  have  not  drawn 
a  sober  breath  for  ten,  twenty,  or  thirty  years  who 
have  resolved  to  drink  no  more  and  have  kept  their 
resolutions.  If  a  man  inclined  to  alcoholism  is  put 
in  the  way  of  temptation,  he  will  almost  surely  fall; 


he  is  more  susceptible  than  others;  he  must  be  kept 
from  contact  with  it  in  e^'ery  way,  and  then  it  is  com- 
paratively easy  for  him  not  to  relapse  into  the  habit. 

Probably  the  most  helpful  factor  in  the  treatment  of 
alcoholism  is  for  tne  patient  to  have  some  friend,  phy- 
sician or  clergyman,  whom  he  thoroughly  respects,  to 
whom  he  turns  with  confidence  in  moments  of  trial. 
There  is  no  reason,  except  in  case  of  distinct  deteriora- 
tion, why  he  should  not  be  completely  cured;  but 
not  drugs,  but  mental  influence  and  will  power  is  the 
important  remedy.  The  same  is  true  of  drug  addic- 
tions, now  grown  so  common  in  the  United  States. 
That  country  uses  more  than  ten  times  as  much  opium 
and  cocaine  as  is  required  in  medicine.  The  special 
victims  of  the  habits  are  those  who  can  easily  procure 
the  drugs — druggists,  physicians,  and  nurses.  It  is 
quite  easy  to  cure  a  drug  habit.  It  is  even  easier  to 
resume  it.  Relapses  take  place  because  the  patients 
persuade  themselves  that  for  this  once  they  need  a 
dose  of  their  favourite  remedy.  One  dose  leads  to 
another,  and  so  the  habit  is  resumed.  After  a  time  a 
habit  of  relapse  into  the  habit  develops  and  is  most 
difficult  to  break.  If  the  patients  themselves  want  to, 
however,  it  is  not  hard  as  a  rule  to  correct  these 
habits.  Moral  factors  mean  much  more  than  physical. 
Patients  must  have  someone  whom  they  take  into 
their  confidence,  they  must  live  normal,  regular  lives, 
with  long  hours  in  the  open  air  and  good  hours  of 
sleep,  and  must  not  be  subjected  to  emotional  strains. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  break  up  the  habit  in  an 
actor  or  a  broker,  or  a  gambler,  because  every  now 
and  then  he  feels  the  need  of  the  stimulant  to  enable 
him  to  accomplish  some  sudden  call  in  his  work.  The 
same  thing  is  true  of  a  doctor  or  a  nurse  with  many 
emergency  calls  to  answer.  Often  the  change  of  life 
necessary  may  be  difficult,  but  as  the  wages  of  the 
drug  habit  is  premature  death,  it  should  not  be  diffi- 
cult to  make  patients  understand  the  necessity. 

Other  habits — dietary,  sexual,  and  the  like — must 
be  met  in  just  the  same  way.  The  patient  can  be 
helped  in  the  beginning  by  means  of  drugs.  After  that 
it  depends  on  his  will.  His  will  may  be  helped  very 
much,  however,  by  having  a  confidant,  a  confessor, 
or  a  physician  to  whom  he  goes  in  relapses,  and  who 
advises  him  so  that  his  surroundings  may  be  made 
more  favourable. 

Faith  Cures  and  Miracles. — It  is  often  said  that 
the  cures  at  shrines  and  during  pilgrimages  are  mainly 
due  to  psychotherapy — partly  to  confident  trust  in 
Providence,  and  partly  to  the  strong  expectancy  of 
cure  that  comes  over  suggestible  persons  at  these  times 
and  places.  Undoubtedly  many  of  the  cures  reported 
at  shrines  and  during  pilgrimages  are  of  this  character. 
An  analysis  of  the  records  of  cures  carefully  kept — 
as,  for  instance,  at  Lourdes — shows,  however,  that 
the  majority  of  accepted  cures  have  been  in  patients 
suffering  not  from  mental  persuasions  of  disease,  nor 
from  neurosis,  nor  from  symptoms  exaggerated  by  anxi- 
ety, but  from  such  very  concrete  affections  as  tuber- 
culosis, diagnosed  by  one  or  more  physicians  of  stand- 
ing, ulcers  of  various  kinds,  broken  bones  that  have 
long  failed  to  heal,  and  other  readily  demonstrable 
organic  affections.  When  cures  are  worked  in  such 
cases,  some  force  beyond  that  of  nature  as  we  know 
it  must  be  at  work.  The  physicians  who  have  been 
most  closely  in  touch  with  the  patients  at  such  shrines 
are  those  most  confident  in  their  expression  that  they 
have  seen  miracles  take  place.  A  visit  to  a  shrine 
like  Lourdes  is  sufficient  to  convince  any  physician 
that  there  is  something  more  than  psychotherapy, 
though  he  can  see  also  abundant  evidence  of  psycho- 
therapy at  work. 

Cycles  of  Psychotherapy. — Our  time  has  seen  a 
revival  of  psychotherapy  in  many  forms.  Interest 
in  it  runs  in  cycles.  It  is  always  most  intense  just 
after  a  period  of  such  devotion  to  physical  science  as 
produces  a  general  impression  that  at  last  the  mys- 


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tery  of  life  has  been  discovered.  In  the  reaction  that 
follows  disillusionment  mental  healing  becomes  a 
centre  of  attention.  Our  phase  will  lose  significanoe 
as  preceding  phases  have  done,  and  a  juster  estimation 
of  the  place  of  bodily  and  mental  factors  as  co-ordi- 
nate influences  for  health  will  recur. 

CuTTEN,  Three  Thousand  Wars  of  Mtmtal  Healing  (New  York, 
1911);  Lawrence,  Primitive  P.^i/cliollierapy  and  Quackery  (Bos- 
ton, 1910)  (both  of  these  lack  sympathy  for  prect'ding  genera- 
tions); TuKE,  Influence  of  the  Mind  on  the  Body  (London,  1872) 
(subsequent  editions  enlarged);  Dercum,  Rest,  Hypnotism, 
Mental  Therapeutics  (Philadelphia,  1907);  Duboih,  Mental  In- 
fluence in  Nervous  Disorders  (tr.  New  York,  1907) ;  M1)nsterbehq, 
Psychotherapy  (Boston,  1909);  Psychotherapeutics,  a  Symposium 
(Boston,  1910);   Walsh,  Psychotherapy  (New  York,  lull). 

James  J.  Walsh. 
Ptolemseus,    Claudius.      See  Geography  and 
THE  Church. 

Ptolemais,  a  titular  see  in  Egypt,  metropolis  of  The- 
bais  Secunda.  Ptolemaia  owes  its  name  to  Ptolemy 
Soter  who  built  it  on  the  site  of  a  village  named  Si 
(with  the  article,  Psi,  whence  the  Coptic  Psoi,  or  Psoi; 
Arabic  Absay;  Greek  Sois  and  Syis).  The  capital  of 
the  nome  of  Thinite,  it  supplanted  Thebes  as  capital  of 
Thebais;  as  important  as  Memphis,  its  administration 
was  copied  from  the  Greek  system.  A  special  cult  in 
honour  of  the  Ptolemys,  particularly  of  its  founder, 
was  established.  In  the  sixth  century  it  was  the 
civil  metropolis  of  Thebais  Secunda.  Le  Quien  (Oricns 
christianus,  II,  605)  mentions  three  bishops:  the 
Mclitian  Ammonius;  Heraclides,  present  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ephesus  (431);  Isaac,  who  signed  the  letter  of 
the  bishops  of  Thebais  to  the  Emperor  Leo  (457)  and 
was  present  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  under 
the  Patriarch  Gennadius.  A  Greek  "Notitia  epis- 
copatuum"  refers  to  the  see  about  820.  It  had  also 
some  Coptic  bishops  (Zoega,  "Catalogus  codicum 
copticorum",  329).  The  Coptic  "Notitise  episcopa- 
tuum"  do  not  mention  the  see,  but  other  Coptic  docu- 
ments cite  it  frequently,  and  allusion  is  made  to  its 
medical  school.  To-day  it  is  known  as  Menshtyeh  or 
Mensh&h,  contains  8000  inhabitants,  belongs  to  the 
district  of  Girgeh,  Province  of  Sohag,  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Nile,  and  is  a  railway  station  between 
Cairo  and  Thebes. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  RomanGeogr,  (London,  1878),  s.  v.; 
MiJLLER,  Notes  d  Ptolemy,  ed.  DiDOT,  I,  720;  Am^lineau,  GSo- 
graphie  de  I'Egypte  a  Vepoque  copte  (Paris,  1893),  381. 

S.   P^TRIofcs. 

Ptolemais  (Saint-Jeax  d'  Acre),  a  titular  metroj>- 
olis  in  Phoenicia  Prima,  or  Maritima.  The  city  of 
Acre,  now  Saint-Jean  d'jVcre,  was  called  Ptolemais  in 
281  or  267  b.  c,  by  Ptolemy  II,  surnamed  Philadel- 
phus,  and  since  then  this  name  has  subsisted  con- 
jointly with  the  primitive  one,  at  least  as  the  official 
name.  Quite  early  it  possessed  a  Christian  community 
visited  by  St.  Paul  (Acts,  xxi,  7).  The  first  bishops 
known  are:  Clarus,  present  about  190  at  a  council 
held  concerning  the  observance  of  Easter;  JEneas,  at 
NicEea,  325,  and  at  Antioch,  341;  Nectabus  at  Con- 
stantinople, 381;  Antiochus,  friend  and  later  advei^ 
sary  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  author  of  some  lost 
works;  Helladius  at  Ephesus,  431;  Paul  at  Antioch, 
445,  and  at  Chalcedon,  451;  John  in  518;  George  at 
Constantinople,  553  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christianus", 
II,  813).  The  see  was  a  suffragan  of  Tyre,  which  then 
depended  on  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch.  With  the 
Latin  conquest  the  province  of  Tyre  was  attached  to 
the  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem.  Latin  bishops  resided 
there,  and  a  list  of  them  from  1133  to  1263  may  be 
found  in  Eubel  (Hier.  Cath.  med.  aevi,  I,  66).  From 
this  date  to  the  taking  of  the  city  by  the  Arabs  in  1291 
the  bishopric  was  governed  by  the  Patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem. Concerning  the  titular  bishops  up  to  1592  see 
Eubel,  op.  cit.,  I,  also  II,  88;  III,  105,  The  official 
list  of  the  Roman  Curia  (Rome,  1884)  does  not  men- 
tion Ptolemais  as  a  bishopric,  but  it  may  have  been 
known  as  an  archbishopric.  The  Greeks  elevated  the 
see  to  the  rank  of  metropolitan  depending  on  the 


Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem.  This  occurred  before  1672, 
when  Joasaph,  present  at  the  Council  of  Jerusalem, 
was  qualified  as  metropolitan;  the  same  conditions 
now  exist.  The  Melkite,  or  Greek,  metropolis  num- 
bers 10,000  faithful,  36  priests,  30  churches  or  chapels, 
17  schools,  3  orphanages,  and  a  monastery  of  23  monks. 
There  is  a  Latin  parish  directed  by  the  Franciscans, 
a  hospital,  school  for  boys,  the  Ladies  of  Nazareth 
with  a  school,  and  a  Protestant  school  and  hospital 
of  the  Church  Missionary  Society. 

Vailh^  in  Diet,  d'hist.  et  de  giog.  eccl.  (Paris,  |910),  a.  v.  Acre, 
Saint- Jean  d\  with  an  important  bibliography. 

S.    P^TRIDfes. 

Ptolemy  of  Lucca.    See  Bartholomew  op  Lucca. 

Ptolemy  the  Gnostic,  a  heretic  of  the  second 
century  and  personal  disciple  of  Valentinus.  He  was 
probably  still  living  about  180.  No  other  certain 
details  are  known  of  his  life;  Harnack's  suggestion 
that  he  was  identical  with  the  Ptolemy  spoken  of 
by  St.  Justin  is  as  yet  unproved  (Text.  u.  Unter- 
such.  New.  Ser.  XIII,  Anal.  z.  iilt.  Gesch.  d.  Chr.). 
He  was,  with  Heracleon,  the  principal  writer  of  the 
Italian  or  Western  school  of  Valentinian  Gnosticism. 
His  works  have  reached  us  in  an  incomplete  form  as 
follows:  (1)  a  fragment  of  an  exegetical  writing 
preserved  by  Irenseus  (Adv.  Hser.,  I,  viii,  5);  (2)  a 
letter  to  Flora,  a  Christian  lady,  not  otherwise  known 
to  us.  This  letter  is  found  in  the  works  of  Epiphanius 
(Hffir.  XXXIII,  3-7).  It  was  written  in  response 
to  Flora's  inquiry  concerning  the  origin  of  the  Law 
of  the  Old  Testament.  This  law,  Ptolemy  states, 
cannot  be  attributed  to  the  supreme  God,  nor  to  the 
devil;  nor  does  it  proceed  from  one  law-giver.  A 
part  of  it  is  the  work  of  an  inferior  god;  the  second 
part  is  due  to  Moses,  and  the  third  to  the  elders  of 
the  Jewish  people.  Three  different  sections  are  to 
be  distinguished  even  in  the  part  ascribed  to  the  in- 
ferior god:  (1)  The  absolutely  pure  legislation  of 
the  Decalogue  which  was  not  destroyed,  but  fulfilled 
by  the  Saviour;  (2)  the  laws  mixed  with  evil,  like 
the  right  of  retaliation,  which  were  abolished  by  the 
Saviour  because  they  were  incompatible  with  His 
nature;  (3)  the  section  which  is  typical  and  sym- 
bolical of  the  higher  world.  It  includes  such  pre- 
cepts as  circumcision,  fasting,  and  was  raised  by  the 
Saviour  from  a  sensible  to  a  spiritual  plane.  The  god 
who  is  the  author  of  the  law,  in  so  far  as  it  is  not  the 
product  of  human  effort,  is  the  demiurge  who  occupies 
a  middle  position  between  the  Supreme  God  and  the 
devil.  He  is  the  creator  of  the  universe,  is  neither 
perfect,  nor  the  author  of  evil,  but  ought  to  be  called 
just.  In  his  interpretation  of  the  universe,  Ptolemy 
resorted  to  a  fantastic  system  of  eons.  Thirty  of 
these,  as  he  believes,  rule  the  higher  world,  the  pleroma. 
This  system  becomes  the  basis  of  a  wild  exegesis 
which  discovers  in  the  prologue  of  St.  John's  Gospel 
the  first  Ogdoad.     (See  Gnosticism.) 

Irenjeus,  Adv.  HcET.,  I,  cc.  i-viii;  Lipsitjs  in  Diet.  Christ. 
Biog.,  s.  V.  PtolemcBus,  I. 

N.  A.  Weber. 
Publican,  in  the  Gospels,  is  derived  from  the 
publicanus  of  the  Vulgate,  and  signifies  a  member  or 
employee  of  the  Roman  financial  companies  who 
farmed  the  taxes.  From  the  time  of  the  Republic 
the  Roman  State  relieved  itself  of  the  trouble  of 
collecting  the  taxes  in  the  provinces  by  putting  up 
the  taxes  of  each  in  a  lump  sum  to  auction.  The 
highest  bidder  received  the  authorization  to  extort  the 
sum  from  the  province  in  question.  Such  a  system 
afforded  ample  opportunity  for  rapacious  exactions 
on  the  part  of  the  company  and  its  officials,  and 
the  abuses  were  often  intolerable.  On  account  of 
these,  and  more,  perhaps,  because  of  the  natural  though 
impotent  Jewish  hatred  of  the  Roman  supremacy, 
those  of  the  .lews  who  found  it  profitable  thus  to 
serve  the  foreign  rulers  were  objects  of  execration  to 
their  countrymen.     In  the  Gospel  narrative  we  find 


PUBLIC 


554 


PUEBLO 


them  as  a  class  habitually  coupled  with  "sinners" 
and  the  "heathen".  The  attitude  of  Christ  towards 
this,  as  well  as  other  despised  classes,  was  that  of  an 
uplifting  sympathy.  One  great  reproach  cast  upon 
Him  by  His  enemies,  the  self-righteous  Scribes  and 
Pharisees,  was  His  friendship  for,  and  association  with 
publicans  and  sinners;  and  consistently  with  this 
conduct  it  pleased  Him  to  choose  as  one  of  the  twelve 
Apostles  Levi  or  Matthew  the  PubUcan  (Matt., 
ix,  9). 

M.\.\s,  Comment,  of  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  (New  York,  1898) ; 
Dietrich,  Die  rechtliche  Natur  der  Socii'tn.^  publicanorum  (Meis- 
sen, 1889) ;  Thibault,  Les  douanes  chez  /t:s  Romains  (Paris,  1888) . 

Jambs  F.  Dbiscoll. 

Public  Honesty  (Decency),  a  diriment  matri- 
monial impediment  consisting  in  a  relationship,  which 
arises  from  a  valid  betrothal,  or  from  a  marriage  ap- 
proved by  the  Church  but  not  consummated.  Mar- 
riage between  the  persons  affected  by  this  impediment, 
as  described  below,  is  null;  were  it  possible  for  them 
to  marry  they  might  be  exposed  to  incontinency, 
owing  particularly  to  their  intimacy  and  familiar 
intercourse. 

Traces  of  this  impediment  are  found  under  another 
name  in  Roman  law,  since  according  to  Modestinus 
(D.  XXIII,  ii,  42,  De  ritu  nuptiarum)  not  only  what 
is  lawful,  but  likewise  what  is  eminently  fitting,  is  to 
be  observed  in  entering  into  wedlock.  Hence  in 
Roman  law  affinity  arising  from  a  valid  marriage, 
whether  consummated  or  not,  constituted  a  diriment 
impediment  between  the  affined  in  all  degrees  through- 
out the  direct  line,  and  to  the  second  degree  (civil 
method  of  computing)  in  the  indirect  or  oblique  fine. 
Moreover,  there  was  a  quasi-affinity,  which,  for  the 
safeguarding  of  public  morals,  rendered  matrimony 
null  and  void :  (1)  between  a  man  and  his  stepdaughter 
or  between  a  woman  and  her  stepson;  (2)  between  a 
woman  and  the  son  or  father  of  her  betrothed,  and 
conversely  between  a  man  and  the  daughter  or  mother 
of  his  affianced  (D.  XXIII,  ii,  12  and  14);  (3)  lastly, 
between  persons  affined  through  concubinage  (loc. 
cit.,    14;   and  D.  XXXVIII,  X,  7). 

The  Church,  imitating  this  legislation,  admits  an 
impediment,  which,  in  her  estimation,  is  required  by 
public  decency  or  good  morals.  In  canon  law  carnal 
intercourse,  licit  or  otherwise,  is  the  principle  of 
affinity;  in  Roman  law,  it  is  valid  marriage,  whether 
consummated  or  not.  Public  honesty  then  coin- 
cides at  times  with  the  affinity  of  the  Romans,  at 
times  with  their  quasi-affinity.  The  institution  of  this 
impediment  is  sometimes  attributed,  but  wrongly,  to 
Boniface  VIII.  It  doubtless  owes  its  existence  not  to 
a  positive  law,  but  to  custom,  and  probably  dates 
back  to  the  twelfth  century  (Berardi,  III,  diss.  II, 
cap.  iii).  Canons  xi,  xiv,  xv  (Cans.  II,  Q.  ii)  in 
Gratian's  Decretum,  indicating  an  earlier  existence  of 
this  impediment,  are  apocryphal  (Gasparri,  "De 
Matrimonio",  n.  801). 

According  to  our  present  legislation  (Trent,  Sess. 
XXIV,  cap.  iii,  De  Ref.  Matr.)  the  impediment  of 
public  honesty  arises  from  a  valid  betrothal  be- 
tween the  male  party  to  the  contract  and  the  blood 
relatives  of  the  woman  in  the  first  degree  (mother, 
daughter,  sister),  and  conversely  between  the  woman 
and  the  blood  relatives  of  the  man  in  the  same  degree 
(father,  son,  brother).  Once  existing,  the  impediment 
always  remains,  even  though  the  betrothal  is  lawfully 
broken  (see  Betrothal).  It  is  to  be  noted  that  be- 
trothal, to  be  valid,  must  now  ("Ne  temere"  of  Pius 
X)  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  contracting  parties 
and  by  the  ordinary,  or  a  parish  priest  within  his  own 
territory,  or  two  witnesses.  If  one  or  the  other  of  the 
contracting  parties  is  unable  to  write,  an  additional 
witness  is  required.  If  the  betrothal  is  conditional, 
the  impediment  does  not  arise  till  the  condition  is 
verified. 

Second,  this  impediment,  for  a  stronger  reason,  is 


begotten  by  a  marriage  contract,  not  perfected  by 
carnal  relations — and  this,  too,  though  the  marriage 
be  invahd,  unless  the  invalidity  be  due  to  lack  of 
lawful  consent.  By  carnal  intercourse  public  decency 
gives  way  to  affinity,  and,  though  some  deny  this,  all 
admit  that  in  a  petition  for  a  dispensation  it  is  suflS- 
cient  to  express  the  impediment  of  affinity,  while  pub- 
he  decency,  if  it  stiU  exist,  is  understood. 

A  civU  marriage  does  not  give  rise  to  this  impedi- 
ment (S.  C.  C,  17  March,  1879),  nor  does  pubhc  de- 
cency beget  a  second  impediment  prejudicial  to  a 
former  betrothal;  namely,  a  betrothal  or  marriage 
(unless  consummated)  with  the  mother,  sister,  or 
daughter  of  an  affianced  person  does  not  prohibit  the 
keeping  of  one's  troth  to  the  said  person.  Since  the 
impediment  of  public  decency  is  of  ecclesiastical 
origin,  it  follows  that  the  Church  may  dispense  from 
it,  and  that  it  does  not  affect  unbaptized  persons,  even 
though  later  they  become  Christians.  A  dispensa- 
tion from  "Disparity  of  Worship"  includes  one  in 
pubhc  decency,  where  the  baptized  party  requires 
such.  Finally  it  is  apparent  that  thus  impediment 
may  be  multiplied  in  the  same  person,  as,  for  instance, 
if  one  were  to  enter  into  betrothal  with  several  women 
related  by  blood  in  the  first  degree. 

Gasparri,  De  Matrimonio  (Paris,  1904) ;  Slatee,  A  Manual  of 
Moral  Theology,  II  (New  York,  1908),  306;  and  all  manuals  of 
canon  law. 

A.  B.  Meehan. 
Public  Schools.     See  Schools. 
Puebla,  Archdiocese  of.    See  Tlaxcala. 

Pueblo  Indians.  — Name  :  From  the  Spanish  word 
meaning  "village"  or  "town".  A  term  used  collec- 
tively to  designate  those  Indians  of  central  New 
Mexico  and  north-east  Arizona,  of  sedentary  and  agri- 
cultural habits  and  dwelling  in  permanent  communal 
stone-built  or  adobe  houses,  as  distinguished  from  the 
surrounding  tribes  of  ruder  culture  and  roving  habit. 
The  name  is  strictly  a  cultural  designation,  without 
linguistic  or  proper  tribal  significance,  although  in 
former  times  each  group  of  pueblos  speaking  the  same 
language  or  dialect  appears  to  have  constituted  a 
loose  confederacy,  or  "province"  as  termed  by  the 
Spaniards. 

Divisions  and  Languages:  The  ancient  area  of 
Pueblo  culture,  as  indicated  by  the  numerous  prehis- 
toric ruins,  extended  from  about  the  Arkansas  and 
Grand  rivers,  in  Colorado  and  Utah,  southward  in- 
definitely into  Mexico,  and  from  about  central  Ari- 
zona eastward  almost  across  the  Texas  Panhandle. 
This  area  seems  to  have  been  gradually  narrowed 
down  by  pressure  of  the  invading  wild  tribes  from  the 
north  and  east:  Apache,  Navaho,  Ute,  and  Comanche 
— and  by  the  slow  drying  up  of  the  country,  until 
at  the  beginning  of  the  historic  period  in  1540  the 
Pueblo  population  centred  chiefly  on  the  upper  Pecos 
and  Rio  Grande  and  about  Zuni  in  New  Mexico,  and 
upon  the  Hopi  mesas  in  north-east  Arizona.  The  in- 
habited pueblos  at  that  date  probably  numbered  close 
to  one  hundred,  with  an  approximate  population  not 
far  from  50,000,  as  against  25  now  occupied,  with  a 
total  population  in  1910  of  11,153.  This  does  not  in- 
clude the  two  small  Americanized  pueblos  of  Isleta 
del  Sur  (Texas)  and  Senecii  (Mexico),  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  El  Paso,  which  might  bring  the 
total  up  to  a  few  more  than  11,200  souls.  With  the 
exception  of  these  two,  all  but  the  seven  Hopi  pueblos 
(including  Hano)  are  in  New  Mexico.  In  all,  there 
were  represented  seven  languages  of  four  distinct 
linguistic  stocks,  classified  as  follows : 
Tanoan  Stock: 

la.     Tewa  group  ("Teguas  province")     1910a. d. 

1  Hano  (with  Hopi,  Arizona) ,  about  125 

2  Nambe about    95 

3  Pojoaque  (recently  extinct) 

4  San  Ildefonso 110 


PUEBLO 


555 


PUEBLO 


5  San  Juan 404 

6  Santa  Clara 277 

7  Tesuque about     75 

lb.    Tano  group  ("Tanos  province")  practi- 
cally extinct. 

2.  Tiqua  group  ("Tiguex  province") 

1  Isleta about  980 

2  Isleta  del  Sur   (Texas,   Mexican- 

ized) about     40 

3  Picurio about     75 

4  Sandia 78 

5  Taos 515 

3.  Piro  group  ("Piros  province",  "Tomjiras 

province"),  practically  extinct; 
Senecu,  Mex,  Mexicanized. 
Tanoan  stock,  continued: 

4.  Jemez  group  ("  Jcmes  or  Emer  province ", 

"Pecos  province") 1910  a.  d. 

1  Jemez about  430 

2  Pecos  (extinct,  1838) 
Keresan  stock  ("Quirix  or  Quires  province"): 

la.     Eastern  group: 

1  Cochiti about  280 

2  San  Felipe 514 

3  Santa  Ana 211 

4  Santo  Domingo 819 

5  Sia 119 

lb.     Western  group: 

1  Acoma,  etc about  745 

2  Laquna,  etc about  1350 

Zunian  stock  ("Cibola  province"): 

1     Zufti,  etc 1640 

Shoshonean  stock: 

Hopi  group  ("Tusayan  province"): 

1  Mishongnovi about  175 

2  Oraibi "      780 

3  Shijanlovi "      140 

4  Shongopovi "      250 

5  Sichomovi "      130 

6  Walpi "      200 

7  Hano  (of  Tewa  group) "      125 

History:  The  history  of  the  Pueblo  tribes  begins 

in  1539  with  the  expedition  of  the  Franciscan  monk, 
Marcos  di  Niza,  who,  lured  by  rumours  of  great  cities 
in  the  North,  set  out  from  Mexico,  accompanied  by 
some  Indian  guides  and  by  a  negro  survivor  of  the 
ill-fated  Nawaez  expedition,  and  after  crossing  the 
great  deserts  that  intervened,  arrived  within  sight  of 
Zuni,  planted  a  cross  and  dedicated  the  country  to 
St.  Francis,  and  returned  with  the  news  of  his  dis- 
covery. A  powerful  expedition  was  at  once  organized 
under  Francisco  Vasquez  de  Coronado,  for  the  con- 
quest of  the  new  country.  In  July,  1540,  after  nearly 
five  months'  march,  the  advance  guard  reached  the 
principal  Zuni  town,  which  was  taken  by  storm. 
Exploring  parties  were  sent  out  in  every  direction, 
over  to  the  Hopi,  the  Colorado,  and  the  buffalo  plains, 
and  the  expedition  finally  went  into  winter  quarters 
at  Puaray,  among  the  Tigua  (Tiguex  province)  about 
the  present  Bernalillo,  North  Mexico,  on  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  province  was  rich  and  populous,  having 
twelve  pueblos  with  perhaps  8000  souls.  The  Indians 
were  at  first  friendly,  but  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  the 
Spaniards  soon  provoked  hostility  and  resistance, 
which  was  put  down  with  terrible  atrocity,  one 
hundred  surrendered  prisoners  being  burnt  at  the 
stake,  or  shot  down  as  they  attempted  to  escape,  and 
hundreds  or  thousands  of  others  being  butchered  in  a 
determined  struggle.  Coronado  penetrated  as  far  as 
Quivora  (the  Wichita  country),  in  central  Kansas, 
where  Fr.  Juan  de  Padilla  remained  to  evangelize  the 
natives  (see  Wichita).  After  another  winter  in 
Tiguex,  which  remained  hostile,  with  explorations 
among  the  Jemez,  Piros  and  other  tribes,  the  expedi- 
tion returned  to  Mexico  in  the  spring  of  1542.  Besides 
Fr.  Padilla  with  the  Wichita,  Fr.  Lius  de  Escalona 
remained  behind  at  Pecos  ("Cicuye")  and  Brother 


Juan  de  la  Cruz  at  Puaray.  The  first,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved, all  three,  were  killed  by  the  Indians,  being  the 
first  missionary  martyrs  within  the  United  States. 
Unless  otherwise  noted,  all  the  Catholic  mission  work- 
ers in  the  Pueblo  region  are  Franciscans. 

No  other  entry  of  the  Pueblo  country  was  made 
until  1581,  when  Fr.  Augustin  Rodriguez  asked  and 
received  permission  for  the  undertaking.  Accom- 
panied by  two  other  priests,  Frs.  Santa  Maria  and 
Lopez,  with  an  escort  of  about  twenty  Indians  and 
soldiers  under  Francisco  Chamuscado,  he  reached 
Tiguex  late  in  the  year.  The  escort  was  apparently 
frightened  by  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  natives,  but 
the  priests  remained,  and  all  three  soon  afterward  met 
the  fate  of  their  predecessors,  being  killed  by  the  Tigua. 
In  an  attempt  to  ascertain  the  details  of  their  death, 
and  possibly  recover  their  remains,  a  volunteer  ex- 
plorer, Don  Antonio  Espejo,  accompanied  by  Fr. 
Bernardino  Beltran,  in  the  next  year  led  a  small 
expedition  over  the  same  route  up  the  Rio  Grande. 
Having  accomplished  this  purpose  he  went  on,  visiting 
almost  every  Pueblo  tribe  from  the  Pecos  to  the  Hopi, 
finally  reaching  Mexico  in  the  fall  of  1583.  Late  in 
1590  a  strong  expedition  under  Castano  de  Sosa 
ascended  the  Rio  Grande,  stormed  Pecos  and  visited 
a  large  number  of  pueblos,  whose  inhabitants  either 
fled  or  made  submission.  One  or  two  later  contraband 
expeditions  seem  to  have  reached  the  buffalo  plains. 
The  real  conquest  of  the  country  was  accomplished 
in  1598-9  by  Juan  de  Onate  of  Zacatecas,  with  400 
men,  including  commissary  Fr.  Alonso  Martinez  and 
nine  other  Franciscans,  who  traversed  the  whole 
region  to  beyond  the  Hopi,  generally  establishing 
friendly  relations  with  the  natives,  and  organizing 
regular  forms  of  government,  with  a  priest  in  each 
district.  A  massacre  of  a  Spanish  detachment  at  the 
almost  inaccessible  cliff  town  of  Acoma  resulted  in 
the  storming  of  the  pueblo  and  the  slaughter  of  most 
of  the  inhabitants,  24  January,  1599.  In  1605  Santa 
¥6  was  founded  as  the  capital  of  New  Mexico. 

In  1617  eleven  Franciscan  churches  had  been  built 
and  14,000  natives  baptized.  In  1621  Fr.  Alonso  de 
Benavides  arrived  as  first  custodian  with  27  more 
Franciscans.  In  1627  over  34,000  Indians  had  been 
baptized  and  43  churches  built,  and  46  fathers  and  a 
number  of  laymen  were  at  work.  To  Fr.  Benavides 
we  owe  the  "Memorial",  the  standard  authority  on 
early  New  Mexico  and  its  missions,  published  at 
Madrid  in  1630.  Fr.  Geronimo  Salmeron,  of  the  same 
period,  is  the  author  of  a  "Doctrina"  in  the  Jemez 
language  and  of  a'  valuable  "Relaciones  de  Nuevo 
Mexico".  In  1630  there  were  about  50  friars  serving 
over  60,000  Indians  in  over  90  pueblos  grouped  into 
25  mission  jurisdictions,  the  work  including  even  a 
part  of  the  wild  Apache  and  the  unidentified  Jumana 
in  the  eastern  plains. 

Shortly  afterward  began  the  difRculties  between  the 
administration  and  the  missionaries,  which  led  up  to 
the  great  disaster  of  1680.  Revolts  at  various  times 
of  the  Jemez,  Tewa,  Piros,  and  others  were  harshly 
repressed  by  the  governors.  Taos  planned  a  general 
rising  and  several  missionaries  were  killed.  From 
about  1670  the  Apache  and  Navaho  raids  became  a 
constant  check  to  Pueblo  prosperity.  The  trouble 
culminated  in  August  of  1680  in  a  general  rising  of  all 
the  Pueblos,  with  a  few  exceptions,  under  Pop6,  a 
Tewa  chief  of  San  Juan.  Nearly  four  hundred  Span- 
iards were  killed,  including  twenty-one  of  the  thirty- 
three  missionaries  then  in  the  country;  every  mission 
was  destroyed,  with  furnishings  and  records ;  Governor 
Otermin  was  besieged  in  Santa  F^,  and  finally  compelled 
to  withdraw  with  every  Spaniard  in  the  country  into 
Mexico.  Many  of  the  Indians  abandoned  their 
pueblos  and  built  new  towns  in  inaccessible  regions. 
For  twelve  years  the  Pueblos  retained  their  independ- 
ence until  the  reconquest  of  the  country  by  Diego  de 
Varzas  in  1692-4.    In  Zuni  alone  was  found  any  in- 


PUEBLO 


556 


PUEBLO 


dication  of  former  Christian  teaching.  The  sacred 
vessels  of  the  slain  priests  had  been  carefully  preserved 
and  candles  were  still  burning  upon  the  altar.  The 
reconquest  was  assured  by  the  retaking  of  Santa  Fe 
from  the  hostile  Tano,  and  the  slaughter  or  enslave- 
ment of  all  the  defenders,  29  December,  1693,  but  a 
spirited  resistance  was  kept  up  by  the  various  tribes, 
even  at  hea\y  loss,  for  nearly  a  year  longer.  The  de- 
feated hostiles  were  compelled  to  return  to  their 
abandoned  towns  or  to  gather  into  new  ones,  as  their 
conquerors  dictated.  A  part  of  the  Yewa,  who  had 
fled  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  far  distant  Hopi, 
remained  with  their  protectors  and  now  constitute 
the  pueblo  of  Hano,  still  retaining  their  distinct  cus- 
toms and  language.  In  June,  1696,  haU  the  pueblos 
rose  again,  killing  five  missionaries  and  a  number  of 
other  Spaniards,  but  were  finally  reduced  to  sub- 
mission. The  missions  were  re-established  among  all 
but  the  Hopi,  who  showed  such  determined  hostility 
to  Christianity  as  to  destroy  one  of  their  own  towns, 
Awatobi,  and  massacre  or  enslave  the  entire  popula- 
tion for  having  consented  to  receive  missionaries 
(1700).  Sporadic  outbreaks  and  alarms  continued 
for  many  years,  together  with  increasingly  bold  in- 
roads by  the  wild  tribes.  In  a  special  junta  held  in 
1714  the  missionaries,  against  the  civil  and  military 
authorities,  defended  the  right  of  the  Christian  Indians 
to  carry  arms  and  paint  their  bodies.  From  1719  to 
174.5  the  Jesuits  of  Arizona  made  efforts  to  secure 
official  charge  of  the  Hopi,  but  without  success.  In 
1747  an  expedition  against  the  wild  Comanohes,  who 
had  raided  Pecos  and  other  eastern  pueblos,  killed  107, 
captured  206  and  took  nearly  1000  horses. 

In  1750  the  hostility  of  the  civil  administration  to 
the  missionaries  resulted  in  two  counter  reports,  in 
one  of  which  the  Franciscans  were  accused  of  neglect- 
ing their  duties,  and  it  was  recommended  that  the 
number  of  missions  be  reduced,  while  in  the  other  the 
missionaries  accused  the  governor  and  civil  officers  of 
all  sorts  of  crimes  and  oppressions  against  the  Indians. 
In  1748  Villasenor  reported  18  principal  missions, 
besides  visiting  stations  representing  a  total  of  nearly 
9400  Indians.  Only  a  part  of  these,  however,  could 
be  considered  as  actual  Christians.  Pecos  and  Zuni 
were  the  most  important,  the  one  with  1000  and  the 
other  with  2000  Indians,  and  each  with  two  resident 
missionaries.  In  1776  the  Franciscan  Fr.  Francisco 
Garces  ascended  the  Colorado  to  the  obdurate  Hopi, 
but.  was  refused  even  a  shelter.  In  1780  Governor 
Anza  took  advantage  of  a  terrible  famine  in  the  tribe 
to  induce  a  few  of  them  to  remove  to  the  mission 
pueblos  (see  Hopi).  In  this  same  year,  1780-1,  besides 
the  famine  and  pestilence  which  nearly  exterminated 
the  Hopi,  the  smallpox  carried  off  over  5000  Indians 
of  the  mission  pueblos,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
governor  in  17S2  officially  reduced  the  number  of 
missions  by  eight,  despite  the  protests  of  the  friars. 
Says  Bancroft:  "It  should  be  noted  that  the  New 
Mexican  missions  were  radically  different  from  the 
Californian  establishments  of  later  years.  Practi- 
cally, except  in  being  subject  to  their  provincial  and 
paid  by  the  king,  instead  of  being  under  the  bishop 
and  supported  by  parochial  fees,  these  friars  were  mere 
parish  priests  in  charge  of  Indian  pueblos.  There 
were  no  mission  estates,  no  temporaUties  managed  by 
the  padres,  and  except  in  petty  matters  of  religious 
observance  the  latter  had  no  authority  over  the 
neophytes.  At  each  pueblo  the  padre  had  a  church, 
where  he  preached  and  taught  and  said  Mass.  With 
the  performance  of  these  routine  duties,  and  of  those 
connected  with  baptism,  marriage  and  burials,  he  was 
generally  content.  The  Indians,  for  the  most  part 
wiUingly,  tilled  a  fittle  piece  of  land  for  him,  furnishing 
also  a  few  servants  from  week  to  week  for  his  house- 
hold scr\dce  and  that  of  the  church.  He  was  in  most 
instances  a  kind-hearted  man,  a  friend  of  his  Indians, 
spending  much  of  his  salary  on  them  or  on  the  church. 


The  Indians  were  in  no  sense  Christians,  but  they 
liked  the  padre  in  comparison  with  other  Spaniards, 
and  were  willing  to  comply  with  certain  harmless 
church  formalities  (sic),  which  they  neither  understood 
nor  oared  to  understand."  Of  the  frequent  charges 
brought  against  them  he  says,  "with  all  their  short- 
comings, the  padres  were  better  men  than  their 
enemies."  Official  reports  of  this  later  period  repre- 
sent the  Indians  as  constantly  victimized  by  the 
traders  and  the  Spaniards  generally. 

About  the  year  1800  the  missions  still  existing  were 
eleven,  viz:  at  Sia  (Asuncion),  Isleta  (San  Agustin), 
Laguna  (San  Jos6),  Picures  (San  Lorenzo),  San  Felipe, 
San  Juan,  Dandia  (Asumpcion  or  Dolores),  Poynaque 
(Guadalupe),  Santa  Clara,  Santo  Domingo,  Toros 
(San  Geronimo),  Zuni  (Guadalupe).  "Visitas"  were 
Aooma,  Cochiti  (San  Buenaventura),  Galisteo,  Jemes 
San  Diego),  Namb6  (San  Francisco),  Pecos  (Los 
Angeles),  San  Felipe,  San  Ildefonso,  Santa  Ana, 
Tesuque.  With  the  increase  of  the  Spanish  popula- 
tion and  the  steady  decrease  of  the  Indians  in  im- 
portance as  well  as  in  number,  the  missions  also  de- 
clined, and  in  1811  there  were  but  five  missionaries  in 
nineteen  pueblos  of  New  Mexico.  The  establishment 
of  the  Republic  of  Mexico  in  1821  tended  further  to 
weaken  the  mission  support.  In  1832  there  were  still 
five  resident  missionaries.  There  was  no  "seculariza- 
tion", as  in  California,  because  there  was  nothing  to 
confiscate.  In  1837  a  part  of  the  Pueblos  attempted 
a  revolution,  and  elected  Jos6  Gonzalez  of  Taos  as 
governor,  but  were  defeated  in  the  following  January 
and  the  Indian  leader  taken  and  shot.  In  January, 
1847,  the  same  Indians  of  Taos  resisted  the  newly 
established  American  government,  killing  Governor 
Charles  Bent  and  about  twenty  other  Americans,  but 
were  finally  defeated,  their  pueblo  being  stormed,  about 
150  of  their  men  killed,  and  several  others  executed. 
With  some  unimportant  exceptions  the  Pueblos  have 
since  remained  quietly  under  American  rule,  the  treaty 
of  Cession  having  conferred  upon  them  the  theoretic 
right  of  citizenship,  with  which  however  they  seldom 
concern  themselves,  their  affairs  being  administered 
through  the  Indian  Office,  and  their  pueblo  lands  being 
secured  under  old  Spanish  grants  confirmed  by  act  of 
Congress  in  1858.  Other  legislation  left  them  prac- 
tically disfranchised.  "They  never  cost  the  govern- 
ment a  dollar  of  warlike  expenditure,  and  they  re- 
ceived much  less  aid  from  the  civil  department  than 
any  of  the  hostile  tribes."  In  1853  they  suffered  again 
from  smallpox.  With  the  changing  conditions  the 
pueblos  lost  their  mission  character,  the  old  Francis- 
cans being  replaced  by  secular  priests. 

Excepting  the  Hopi  of  Arizona  and  about  one-half 
of  the  people  of  Laguna,  most  of  the  Pueblo  Indians 
are  still  under  Catholic  influence  and  at  least  nomi- 
nally Catholic,  although  a  majority  undoubtedly  still 
adhere  to  their  ancient  rites.  Every  pueblo  is  served 
either  by  a  resident  or  visiting  priest,  including  several 
Franciscans,  with  frequent  instruction  by  sisters  from 
Santa  Fe  or  Bernalillo.  Some  of  the  old  churches, 
however,  are  in  ruinous  condition  and  visits  from  the 
priest  are  at  long  intervals.  Besides  a  number  of 
Government  schools  there  is  a  Catholic  day  school  at 
Jemes,  conducted  by  Franciscan  Sisters  and  the  two 
flourishing  boarding-schools  of  Saint  Catherine's  at 
Santa  F6,  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, and  Loretto  at  Bernalillo,  under  the  Sisters  of 
Loretto.  Of  Protestant  work,  past  and  present,  the 
most  important  is  that  of  the  Presbyterians,  at 
Laguna,  begun  about  1876  by  Rev.  John  Menaul,  who 
is  the  author  of  several  booklets  in  the  language. 
Although  very  few  of  the  adult  Pueblos  speak  any 
English,  a  large  number  speak  Spanish  fluently. 

Home  Life  and  Industries  :  The  primitive  Pueblo 
culture  stood  alone.  It  centred  about  the  house,  an 
immense  communal  structure,  sometimes  in  part 
several  stories  high,  of  many  rectangular  rooms  and 


PUEBLO   DANCE  AND   GROUP  OF   PUEBLO   INDIANS,    ZUNI,   NEW   MEXICO 


PUERTO 


557 


PUGET 


narrow  passage  ways,  of  varying  sizes  and  directions, 
with  flat  roofs  which  served  as  working  or  resting 
places,  or  as  observation  points  for  ceremonial  occa- 
sions. The  houses  of  the  pueblo  were  usually  built 
around  a  central  open  space  or  plaza  in  the  middle  of 
which  was  the  "kiva"  (Spanish  "estufa")  or  sunken 
rook-hewn  chamber  dedicated  to  the  sacred  secret 
rites  of  the  various  priesthoods.  For  better  defence 
against  the  wild  tribes  the  outer  walls  were  frequently 
solid,  without  door  or  window  opening,  entrance  being 
effected  by  means  of  ladders — one  on  the  outside  for 
ascending  to  the  flat  roof,  and  another  descending 
into  the  interior  through  a  doorway  in  the  roof  itself. 
The  material  was  either  cut  sandstone  or  volcanic  tufa, 
faced  with  adobe,  or  adobe  blocks  of  sun-baked  clay. 
The  roofs  were  of  timbers  reinforced  with  cornstalks 
laid  in  clay.  The  fire-place  was  in  the  centre  or  in 
the  corner,  and  the  smoke  escaped  through  the  door- 
way in  the  roof.  At  one  end  of  the  principal  living- 
room  was  a  low  stone  enclosure  fitted  with  stone  slabs 
of  various  smoothness  and  set  slanting,  on  which  the 
corn  was  ground  into  meal  by  means  of  stone  metaies. 
The  "cliff  dwelling"  and  the  "cave  dwelling"  of  the 
same  region  were  simply  variant  forms  of  the  same 
structure,  from  which  the  modern  Pueblo  house  dif- 
fers but  very  little.  The  prehistoric  "cliff-dwellers" 
were  in  many  cases  the  ancestors  of  the  Pueblos  of 
to-day.  The  Hopi,  in  fact,  are  stiU  true  cliff-dwellers, 
their  villages  being  set,  for  defensive  purposes,  upon 
the  summits  of  mesas  several  hundred  feet  above  the 
surrounding  desert. 

Their  main  dependence  was  agriculture  assisted  by 
irrigation,  corn  and  beans  being  the  principal  crops, 
with  "chile",  pumpkins,  native  cotton  and  tobacco, 
and,  later,  peaches  introduced  by  the  old  missionaries. 
In  spite  of  their  arid  surroundings  they  were  indus- 
trious and  successful  farmers.  They  also  hunted  to 
some  extent,  particularly  jackrabbits,  which  were 
taken  by  circle  "drives"  in  which  whole  communities 
participated.  Fish  was  never  eaten.  The  dog  was 
the  only  domestic  animal,  with  the  exception  of  the 
turkey  and  eagle  occasionally  kept  for  feathers.  As 
weavers  and  potters  they  excelled  all  other  tribes 
north  of  Mexico,  their  pottery  being  particularly 
beautiful  in  ornamentation,  finish,  and  general  work- 
manship. Their  native  cotton  is  now  superseded  by 
wool.  They  also  made  a  great  variety  of  baskets,  the 
basket  plaques  of  the  Hopi  being  especially  artistic. 
The  men  were  expert  carvers  in  wood.  Their  ordinary 
dress  was  of  deerskin,  with  elaborate  fabrics  of  woven 
cotton  for  ceremonial  occasions;  fabrics  of  woven 
yucca  fibre  were  also  used  in  ancient  times.  Blankets 
of  woven  strips  of  rabbit  skin  were  worn  in  winter. 
In  summer  the  men  went  practically  naked  except  for 
the  breechcloth  and  children  under  ten  years  were 
seldom  clothed.  Necklaces,  earrings,  and  other  orna- 
ments of  shell,  turquoise,  and  more  recently  of  worked 
coin  silver,  were  worn  by  both  sexes.  The  hair  was 
cut  off  above  the  eyes  in  front,  and  either  bunched  up 
behind  by  the  men,  or  at  the  side  by  the  women,  the 
unmarried  girls  being  distinguished  by  a  special  hair 
arrangement.  The  women  alone  were  the  potters  and 
breadmakers,  but  both  sexes  shared  in  farming, 
house-building,  weaving  and  basket  making.  Weapons 
were  the  bow  and  arrow,  lance,  club,  and  knife,  with 
a  boomerang  club  for  killing  jackrabbits  and  shields 
for  ceremonial  occasions. 

Organization  and  Religion. — All  the  Pueblo 
tribe.s  had  the  clan  system,  some  having  as  many  as 
twenty  or  more  clans,  with  descent  generally,  but  not 
always,  in  the  mother.  Monogamy  was  the  rule,  un- 
like the  condition  in  most  tribes  in  the  United  States 
and  northward,  and  the  woman  was  the  virtual  owner 
of  both  the  house  and  the  garden,  with  correspond- 
ingly higher  status  than  in  other  tribes.  Each  pueblo 
was  an  independent  and  separate  community,  the 
only  larger  bond  being  similarity  of  language  or  cus- 


tom, the  chief  being  simply  the  executive  of  the  priest- 
hoods. In  some  pueblos  there  is  said  to  have  been  a 
summer  and  a  winter  chief.  Since  Spanish  times  the 
town  government  is  vested  in  an  elective  chief  or 
governor,  a  vice-chief  and  a  council.  Practically  all 
affairs  of  importance — war,  medicine,  hunting,  agri- 
cultun^,  etc. — were  controlled  by  the  numerous 
priesthoods  or  .sec^ret  societies,  whose  public  cere- 
monies made  up  a  large  and  picturesque  part  of 
Pueblo  life.  Among  these  ceremonies  the  Snake 
Dance  of  the  Hopi  is  probably  most  widely  known. 
Their  religion  was  an  animism,  with  special  appeal  to 
the  powers  supposed  to  control  the  rain,  the  growing 
crops,  hunting,  and  war.  Some  of  their  ritual  myths 
were  of  great  length  and  full  of  poetic  imagery,  while 
some  of  their  ceremonials  were  of  high  dramatic  char- 
acter, often  interwoven  with  features  of  the  grossest 
obscenity.  Special  regard  was  paid  also  to  the  cardi- 
nal points,  to  which  were  ascribed  both  sex  and  colour. 
Belief  in  witchcraft  was  universal  and  witch  execu- 
tions were  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  dead  were 
buried  in  the  ground.  In  temperament  the  Pueblos 
were,  and  still  are,  peaceable,  kindly,  industrious,  and 
of  rather  jovial  disposition.  Their  outward  life  has 
been  but  little  changed  by  the  white  man's  civilization 
beyond  the  addition  of  a  few  conveniences  in  house- 
keeping and  working  methods,  and  the  majority  still 
hold  tenaciously  to  their  old  beliefs  and  ceremonials 
(see  also  Hopi  Indians). 

The  literature  upon  the  Pueblo  Indians  and  region 
is  so  voluminous  that  it  is  only  possible  to  note  a  few 
of  the  works  most  readily  available. 

Bancroft,  Native  Races  (of  the  Pacific  States) — Wild  Tribes 
(San  Francisco,  i886) ;  Idem,  ArizoTia  and  New  Mexico  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1889) ;  Bandelibr,  numerous  papers  in  publications  of 
ArchEcoIogical  Institute  of  America  (Cambridge  and  Boston, 
1881-92) ;  BoDRKE,  Snake  Dance  of  the  Moquis  (New  York,  1889) ; 
Bureau  of  Cath.  Ind.  Missions,  annual  Repts.  of  Director,  Wasli- 
ington;  Commissioner  of  Ind.  Affairs,  annual  Repts.  (Wash- 
ington) ;  CusHiNG,  ZuUi  Fetiches  in  second  Rept.  Bureau  Am. 
Ethnology  (Washington,  1883);  Idem,  Zuiii  Creation  Myths, 
13th  do.  (Washington,  1896) ;  Fewkes,  Tusayan  Snake  Cere- 
monies in  I6th  Rept.  Bur.  Am.  Ethn.  (Washington,  1897); 
Idem,  Tusayan  Flute  and  Snake  Ceremonies,  19th  do.,  II  (Washing- 
ton, 1900);  Idem,  Hopi  Katcinas,  21st  do.  (Washington,  1903); 
Idem,  Two  Summers'  Work  in  Pueblo  Ruins,  22d  do.  (Washington, 
1904),  I;  Idem,  in  Journal  Am.  Ethn.  and  Arch.,  I-IV  (Boston  and 
New  York,  1891-4) ;  Hodge,  in  Handbook  of  Am.  Inds.  etc.,  I-II, 
Bur.  Am.  Ethn.  (Washington,  1908-10) ;  Holmes,  Pottery  of  the 
Ancient  Pueblos  in  4th  Rept.  Bur.  Am.  Ethn.  (Washington,  1886) ; 
Lummis,  The  Man  Who  Married  the  Moon,  Pueblo  folk  stories 
(New  York,  1894);  Mindeleff,  A  Study  of  Pueblo  Architecture 
in  8th  Rept.  Bur.  Am.  Ethn.  (Washington,  1891);  Stevenson, 
The  Sia  in  11th  do.  (Washington,  1893) ;  Idem,  The  Zufii  Indians 
in  23d  do.  (Washington,  1904) ;  Voth,  various  Hopi  papers  in 
publications  Field  Columbian  Museum  (Chicago,  1901-5); 
WiNSHiP,  The  Coronado  Expedition  in  14th  Rept.  Bur.  Am.  Ethn., 
I  (Washington,  1896). 

James  M coney. 
Puerto  Viejo,  Diocese  of.    See  Portoviego. 

Puget,  Pierre,  painter,  sculptor,  architect,  and 
naval  constructor,  b.  at  Marseilles,  31  Oct.,  1(522;  d. 
there  2  Dec,  1694.  At  fourteen  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  shipbuilder  and  showed  much  talent.  In  1637 
he  set  out  on  foot  for  Italy,  and  found  work  with  the 
duke's  cabinet-maker  in  Florence.  Later  at  Rome  he 
studied  painting  under  Pietro  da  Cortona.  In  1643 
he  returned  to  France,  and  was  summoned  to  Toulon 
to  build  a  man-of-war.  In  1646  he  was  again  in  Italy 
as  assistant  to  a  religious  of  the  Feuillants,  whom 
Anne  of  Austria  had  commissioned  to  make  drawings 
of  all  the  principal  monuments  of  antiquity.  Puget's 
attention  was  thus  directed  to  architecture.  In  1653 
he  was  back  in  France,  painting  altar-pieces  for  differ- 
ent churches,  the  "Annunciation  and  Visitation 
(Aix);  the  "Salvator  Mundi",  the  "Baptism  of  Con- 
stantine  and  of  Clovis"  (Marseilles).  Some  pictures 
believed  to  be  his  are  probably  the  work  of  his  son 
Francois.  In  1660  Fouquet  sent  him  to  Carrara  to 
buy  marble  for  his  palace.  After  the  fall  of  Fouquet, 
Puget  lingered  in  Genoa  long  enough  to  execute  many 
works:    "St.  Sebastian";    "B.  Alexander  Sauh";   a 


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Pierre  Puget 


"Madonna''  for  the  Balbi;   another  for  the  Carrega; 

"8t.  PhiHp  Neri";    the  "Rape  of  Helen",  Palazzo 

Spinola;   a  relief  of  the  "Assumption"  for  the  Duke 

of  Mantua.  His 
sculptures  in  the 
Louvre  are  "Her- 
cules", "Janus 
and  the  Earth", 
"Perseus  deliver- 
ing Andromeda", 
"Milo  of  Cro- 
tona",  "Alex- 
ander and  Di- 
ogenes". At  the 
Consigne,  Mar- 
seilles, is  his 
"Plague  of  Mi- 
lan" Architec- 
tural works  are 
the  door  and  bal- 
cony of  the  Hotel 
de  Ville,  Toulon; 
the  fish  market, 
Marseilles;  he  al- 
so commenced  the 
Church  and  Hos- 
pice   of    Charity 

in  that  city,  but  left    it  unfinished  at    his  death. 

Lagrange,  Pierre  Puget,  peintre,  sculpteur,  architecte  (Paris, 
1868);  CicoGNARA,  Storia  della  ScuUura  (Venice,  1813);  Henry, 
Sur  la  vie  et  les  ceuvres  de  P.  Puget  (Toulon,  1853). 

M.  L.  Handley. 

Pugh,  George  Ellis,  jurist  and  statesman,  b. 
at  Cincinnati,  O.,  28  November,  1822;  d.  there,  19 
July,  1876.  He  was  the  son  of  Lot  Pugh  and  Rachel 
Anthony.  Educated  at  Miami  University,  Oxford,  O., 
graduating  A.M.  in  1843,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Ohio  in  1844,  and  won 
high  repute  as  a  lawyer  in  Cincinnati,  where  he  prac- 
tised. He  served  in  the  Mexican